Applied Energy 62 (1999) 253±266

http://www.elsevier.com/locate/apenergy

Evaluation of dichroic material for enhancing

light pipe/natural ventilation and daylighting
in an integrated system
A.A. Elmualim*, S. Smith, S.B. Ri€at, L. Shao
Institute of Building Technology, University of Nottingham, School of the Built Environment,
Nottingham NG7 2RD, UK

Accepted 28 February 1999

Abstract
Integration of natural ventilation and daylighting in a single installation would make both
technologies more attractive. One method for the integration is the use of concentric light pipe
and ventilation stack. By constructing the light pipe using dichroic materials, the infrared part
of the solar radiation is allowed to be transmitted to the stack but the visible light is guided by
the light pipe into a room. The heat gain to the interior can be reduced and the thermal stack
e€ect strengthened. Work presented here involved the experimental and computational eva-
luation of dichroic materials for enhancing both natural stack ventilation and daylighting.
The transmittance of a dichroic light pipe was found to be similar to that of a light pipe with a
95% specular re¯ectance. The infra-red radiation transmitted through the dichroic material
into a passive stack was found to enhance the natural ventilation ¯ow by up to 14%. The
e€ect is greater in summer than in winter, which is highly desirable as there is often a lack of
driving force for natural stack ventilation in summer. # 1999 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights
reserved.

1. Introduction

Natural ventilation and daylighting are increasingly employed in modern build-

ings, underground spaces and tunnels to minimise energy consumption and release
of harmful emissions to the environment. Innovative daylighting techniques includ-
ing lightshelves, prismatic glazing, holographic ®lms and light pipes have facilitated

* Corresponding author. Tel.: +44-(0)115-951-3180; fax: +44-(0)115-951-3159.

E-mail address: laxaame@1an1.arch.nottingham.ac.uk (A.A. Elmualim)

0306-2619/99/$ - see front matter # 1999 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.
PII: S0306-2619(99)00014-8
254 A.A. Elmualim et al. / Applied Energy 62 (1999) 253±266

the e€ective use of daylighting in a wide range of buildings [1±8]. In addition to

bringing energy savings, these daylighting technologies also help to create healthier
interiors for occupants. Natural daylight has also been found to relieve seasonal
a€ective disorder, cholesterol problems, chronic fatigue, jet lag as well as bene®ting
people in shift work and computer VDU work [9±11]. Natural ventilation techni-
ques have also been widely used and include passive stack systems in a wide variety
of buildings across Europe. Until now, daylighting and natural ventilation techni-
ques have been developed independently and form separate systems. Integration of
these technologies would reduce system costs and payback periods as well as make
natural ventilation and daylighting more attractive to owners and users of buildings.
One method for the integration is the use of concentric channels for both day-
lighting and natural ventilation. As shown in Fig. 1, the central channel, or the light
pipe, will guide sunlight and daylight into occupied spaces while the outer channel,
or the ventilation stack, enables passive stack ventilation. By constructing the light
pipe using dichroic materials, the infrared part of the solar radiation is allowed to be
transmitted to the stack but the visible light is re¯ected downwards within the light
pipe towards the room interior. The heat gain to the interior can be reduced and the
thermal stack e€ect strengthened.
A dichroic material is usually manufactured on a glass or plastic base in which
alternate layers of transparent materials are laid. The amounts and values of the
wavelength transmitted or re¯ected depend on the thickness and refractive index of

Fig. 1. Schematic diagram of integrated natural ventilation and daylighting system.

 A.A. Elmualim et al. / Applied Energy 62 (1999) 253±266 255

each layer [12]. Examples of dichroic materials include magnesium ¯uoride/zinc

sulphide and tantala/silica oxides. The dichroic material used in the tests re¯ects the
visible light while transmitting the infra-red radiation, at very high eciencies. Thus,
it is referred to as a ``Cold Mirror''.
Experiments were set up to determine the infra-red and visible-light transmission/
re¯ection characteristics of the material. This information then formed the basis of a
detailed analytical study of the e€ect of dichroic material on light transmission in
the light pipe and enhancement of air ¯ow in the passive ventilation stack.

2. Experimental set-up and computation procedures

2.1. Experimental set-up

Tests were carried out in a specially constructed room with black internal surfaces
to obtain the characteristics of the dichroic material in terms of infra-red and visible
light transmittances and specular re¯ectances for visible light, as detailed below.
The dichroic material for testing was obtained from Sycamore Glass Components,
USA. The material has a nominal re¯ectance of 90% between the wavelengths of
420 and 630 nm and a nominal transmittance of 85% on average between the
wavelengths of 750 and 1200 nm. The 750±1200 nm band carries most infra-red
energy in the solar radiation [13]. The substrate is Boro¯oat, a borosilicate glass that
can handle heat. The high cost of the dichroic material currently purchased from
Sycamore precludes the construction and testing of actual light pipes lined with the
material. However, recent advances in material and manufacturing technologies
indicated that dichroic materials' cost would soon be dramatically reduced to allow
large-scale applications in buildings.
The light source used for the tests was manufactured by General Electric (GE)
lighting. The lamp is Halogen TAL 100 mm with an integrated metal re¯ector and
constant colour coatings providing consistent light quality and high intensity. The
power of the lamp was 50 W and the beam had a peak intensity of 55,000 cd and
beam spread of 4 . The colour temperature of the lamp is 3000 K and with a rated
average life of 3500 h. The environmental chamber within which the optical experi-
ments were carried out is a wooden structure measuring 333 m, with a single
door and no other openings. The walls, door, ¯oor and ceiling were covered in a
black matt paper to reduce the amount of secondary re¯ection, which may a€ect
readings, but only to a negligible amount. The test rig was on a platform inside
the chamber and the equipment was operated from outside the chamber without
the presence of the researcher inside the chamber. This also reduced the amount
of unwanted secondary re¯ection. All experiments on the dichroic material were
carried out under these strict conditions to ensure that accurate results were
obtained.
The tests for the dichroic study were performed on a platform situated at the
centre of the environmental chamber. Fig. 2 shows the schematic layout of the
typical arrangement for the measurement of transmitted infra-red and visible light
256 A.A. Elmualim et al. / Applied Energy 62 (1999) 253±266

Fig. 2. Experimental set-up for the measurement of transmitted infra-red and visible light of a dichroic
material disk.

through a dichroic-coated glass disk. Steel rods and clamps were used to ®x a 0.5 m
long black tube horizontally on a table covered with matt black paper. The position
and the horizontal levelling of the tube were checked regularly with a spirit level.
The light source was placed at one end of the narrow black tube and the dichroic
disk positioned on a spectrometer at the other end of the tube. The spectrometer
allowed accurate adjustment and measurement of the angle between the dichroic
disk and the light beam. The irradiance of infra-red and illuminance of visible light
were measured both before and after the dichroic disk is positioned in place [Fig.
3(a) and (b) respectively]. These data were then used to calculate transmittance
values.
The tube was coated on the inside and the outside with a matt black paint to
ensure that the light rays meeting the dichroic disk are very close to being parallel.
This allowed the accurate determination and adjustment of the incidence angle used
in the tests. It was anticipated that, as the experiment continues, the tube would get
hot due to the radiated heat from the lamp which may cause errors in the infra-red
measurements. The lamp operating time and the corresponding extent of this e€ect
were monitored and the information was then used to plan the test procedures.
Measurements were taken during a short period of a few seconds between cooling
intervals of about 15 min to control the temperature of the tube and to prevent the
tube from heating up. This eliminated the error due to the radiated energy from the

Fig. 3. Measurement procedures.

 A.A. Elmualim et al. / Applied Energy 62 (1999) 253±266 257

tube. The instrumentation was controlled and measurements undertaken from outside
the chamber. The photometer used was a Hanger Universal Photometer/Radiometer
model S3 ®tted with sensors for the measurements of visible light illuminance and a
special detector for the measurement of infra-red irradiance. It incorporated silicon-
diode photocells with approximately the spectral sensitivity of the human eye (CIE).
It was capable of measuring illuminance in the range 0.01±200,000 lux. It has an
accuracy of ‹3% and a virtually perfect cosine correction curve. The photometer
was connected to a remote photocell via a ¯exible lead, making it easier to obtain
readings without blocking incident radiation reaching the photocell. The infra-red
remote sensor (SD7) had a spectral response to wavelength in the range of 700±1150
nm. It had an absolute sensitivity of 2 nA/W/m2, with an accuracy of ‹3%.
Tests to determine the visible-light specular re¯ectance of the dichroic disk were
carried out in overcast-sky conditions. Prior to each test, a luminance range check
was carried out to ensure that the overcast-sky condition was present at the time of
the test. The overcast condition is assumed to occur when the average horizon
luminance does not exceed half the luminance of the zenith. The tests were carried
out in a large room, with large windows open to the outside, using the technique of
Fontoynont and Berrutto [14]. A piece of matt white paper (0.20.3 m) is attached
to the window glass. The dichroic disk is positioned on the ¯oor at a distance from
the sheet of paper to allow light from the paper to strike the disk surface at a
required angle of incidence on the disk to be established. The specular re¯ectance at
a speci®c incidence-angle was determined by measuring the luminance ``Lr'' of the
image of the paper re¯ected o€ the dichroic disk and the luminance from the paper,
``Ls''. The ratio (Lr/Ls) of the two values is the specular re¯ectance of the dichroic
disk at the speci®c angle-of-incidence. The test was repeated for a range of incidence
angles of 10 to 80 at 10 intervals.

2.2. Calculation procedures

The e€ect of dichroic material on the enhancement of the stack ¯ow was analysed
using a computer program, which was based on an MS Excel spreadsheet. Compu-
tational experimentation was carried out on a room, which had a light pipe with a
diameter of 0.3 m located in the centre of the ceiling. The basic room used in the
analysis was a cubic enclosure 333 m, although rooms of other dimensions were
also included in the analysis. The light pipe was placed inside another pipe, with a
diameter of 0.36 m. A natural-ventilation stack was formed between the two con-
centric pipes. The wall of the light pipe was constructed from a dichroic material,
which re¯ected the visible light down the pipe to the occupied spaces, while allowing
the infra-red component of the solar radiation to be transmitted through to the
natural-ventilation stack. An inlet area of 0.09 m2 was assumed along with typical
discharge coecients of 0.6 for the air inlet and 0.5 for the stack outlet. Throughout
this analysis, external and internal temperatures were assumed to be 18 and 22 C
respectively for summer, and 0 and 16 C respectively for winter. The solar infra-red
irradiance (I) transmitted through the light pipe into the stack can be calculated
using:
258 A.A. Elmualim et al. / Applied Energy 62 (1999) 253±266

I ˆ PT% Sin

Where T% is the transmittance of infra-red radiation at a solar altitude angle-of-

incidence through a dichroic material. The solar altitude was assumed to be 50 in
summer and 20 in winter. P is the rate of infra-red radiation transmitted through
the atmosphere, and which is typically 500 W/m2 on a surface perpendicular to the
Sun's rays. The actual amount of heat due to solar radiation that is transmitted
through to the stack can now be calculated using:

Q ˆ ID2pipe =4

where Dpipe is the diameter of the light pipe. The temperature of the stack, based on
the heat input and the room temperature, can be calculated using:

Td ˆ Q=Vf Cp † ‡ Ti

where  is air density, Cp is the speci®c heat of air, Ti is the temperature of the room
and Vf is the volume ¯ow rate of the air through the stack. Vf was obtained using:

Vf ˆ VI=3600

where V is the volume of the room and I is the air exchange rate of the room. I was
obtained using I ˆ 3600 Qo =V, where Qo is the ventilation ¯ow rate when there is no
infra-red heat input into the stack, i.e. the temperature of the stack is the tempera-
ture of the room. The ventilation ¯ow rate of the air can now be calculated [15]:
v
u2g
T H ‡
T h†
u D d
Q1 ˆ CD1 A1 u
t 1
Te 1 ‡ 2
k

where CD1 is the discharge coecient of the air inlet, A1 is the cross-sectional area of
the air inlet, g is the gravitational acceleration, H is the distance from the air inlet to
the base of the light pipe, h is the pipe length, Te is the external temperature,
TD is
the di€erence between the internal and external temperatures and
Td is the di€er-
ence between the temperature in the stack and that in the room. The loss coecient
k, is given as:

k ˆ CD2 A2 †= CD1 =A1 †

where A2 is the cross-section area of the stack, and CD2 is the discharge coecient of
the stack. The ventilation ¯ow rate in the dichroic stack was calculated and com-
pared with that in a stack which had identical dimensions but was without dichroic
walls. The relative increase in air-¯ow rate was then calculated.
 A.A. Elmualim et al. / Applied Energy 62 (1999) 253±266 259

3. Results and discussion

3.1. Transmittance for infra-red and visible light

The results of transmittance of the dichroic material for infra-red are shown in
Table 1 and Fig. 4. The transmittance was about 76% for incidence angles ranging
from zero to 50 , peaking at 30 to reach 76.4%. It then decreased with increasing
incidence angle giving a value of 66.2% at an incidence angle of 60 , 23.2% at 70 ,
1.3% at 80 and reaching zero at 90 . The transmittance of the visible light on the
other hand is minimal at all incidence angles. The maximum level was 5% at the
incidence angle of 70 and its value did not exceed 4.4% in the range of zero to 60 .
These results demonstrate the characteristics of the dichroic material to transmit a
large portion of the infra-red radiation, but relatively little visible light. The infra-
red transmittance of the dichroic material was best within the range of incidence
angles of zero to 60 , which is almost exactly the range of solar altitudes experienced
in most European countries. So the dichroic material tested is most suitable for appli-
cation in Europe and other parts of the world with similar latitudes. Compared with a
conventional light pipe, a dichroic light pipe would remove virtually all infra-red

Table 1
Transmittance of dichroic glass for both visible light and infra-red

Incidence angle Infrared transmittance (%) Visible light transmittance (%)

0 75.20 0.50
10 75.00 0.60
20 74.70 0.70
30 76.40 1.00
40 76.10 1.90
50 74.80 4.40
60 66.20 4.00
70 23.20 5.00
80 1.30 1.60
90 0 0

Fig. 4. Transmittances of dichroic material for infra-red and visible light.

260 A.A. Elmualim et al. / Applied Energy 62 (1999) 253±266

radiation in daylight transmitted through light pipes. The cooling load would be
reduced and thermal comfort in occupied spaces would be greatly improved in
summer months. This e€ect is negligible in winter due to the limited overall solar
radiation available.
Fig. 5 shows the e€ect on stack ¯ow enhancement of varying the length of the
stack/light pipe and keeping all other variables constant. The summer values were
based on a solar altitude of 50 and winter values on 20 . It can be seen from the
graph, that as the pipe length increases from 0.5 to 3.5 m the ventilation ¯ow rate
increases for both summer and winter conditions and the rate of increase follows a
logarithmic trend. The increases are also much higher in summer than in winter due
to the greater amount of infra-red radiation.
Fig. 6 shows the e€ect on stack ¯ow enhancement of varying the diameter of the
light pipe and keeping all other variables constant except the diameter of the stack,

Fig. 5. E€ect of dichroic material on ventilation rate for various stack/light pipe lengths.

Fig. 6. E€ect of dichroic material on ventilation rate for various light pipe diameters.
 A.A. Elmualim et al. / Applied Energy 62 (1999) 253±266 261

which was adjusted to maintain a constant stack width of 3 cm. The summer values
were based on a solar altitude of 50 and winter values on 20 . It can be seen from
the graph that, as the diameter of the light pipe increases from 0.1 to 0.8 m, the
increase of ventilation ¯ow rate also increases at a linear rate for both summer and
winter conditions due to the greater amounts of infra-red radiation received by lar-
ger pipes. Again, this e€ect is much higher in summer than in winter.
Fig. 7 shows the e€ect on stack ¯ow enhancement of varying the diameter of the
light pipe and keeping all other variables constant except the diameter of the stack,
which was adjusted to maintain a constant stack cross-sectional area of 0.275 m2.
The summer values were based on a solar altitude of 50 and winter values on 20 . It
can be seen from the graph that, as the diameter of the light pipe increases from 0.1
to 0.8 m, the increase of ventilation ¯ow rate also increases at a linear rate for both
summer and winter conditions due to the greater infra-red radiations received by
larger pipes. The e€ect on the enhancement of ventilation ¯ow rate is much higher in
summer than in winter.
The e€ect of passive stack width can be seen in Fig. 8. The summer values were
based on a solar altitude of 50 and winter values on 20 . It can be seen from the
graph that, as the stack diameter is increased from 0.32 to 0.46 m (hence the passive
stack width is increased from 1 to 8 cm), the enhancement to ventilation ¯ow rate
reduced, following an exponential trend for both summer and winter conditions.
Variation of the room ¯oor area does not have any e€ect on ventilation ¯ow rate,
as the stack pressure, infra-red radiation received and other parameters related to
stack ¯ow are independent of the room ¯oor area. The e€ect of varying the room
height can be seen in Fig. 9. The summer values were based on a solar altitude of 50
and winter values on 20 . It can be seen from the graph that, as the height of the
room is increased, the rate of increase in ventilation ¯ow rate reduced, following
exponential trends for both summer and winter conditions.
The e€ect of various solar altitude angles during the summer and winter seasons is
shown in Fig. 10. The e€ect on stack ¯ow enhancement increases considerably with

Fig. 7. E€ect of dichroic material on ventilation rate for various light pipe diameters while maintaining
constant stack cross-sectional area.
262 A.A. Elmualim et al. / Applied Energy 62 (1999) 253±266

Fig. 8. E€ect of dichroic material on ventilation rate for various stack diameters.

Fig. 9. E€ect of dichroic material on ventilation rate for various room heights.

Fig. 10. E€ect of dichroic material on ventilation rate for various solar altitude angles in summer and
winter.
 A.A. Elmualim et al. / Applied Energy 62 (1999) 253±266 263

the increase of the solar altitude angle in the range of zero to 60 , which is the range
of solar altitude angles prevailing in most European countries. The rate of increase
in ventilation ¯ow rate reaches its highest value at an altitude angle of 60 . However,
the rate of increase in ventilation ¯ow rate drops as the solar altitude angle increases
from 60 to 90% reaching zero at 90 . The e€ect of various solar altitude angles on
the enhancement of ¯ow rate in the winter season follows a similar pattern as in
summer. However, the e€ect in winter is negligible.

3.2. Specular re¯ectance of dichroic material for visible light

Fig. 11 shows the measured specular re¯ectance of visible light of the dichroic
material. The highest re¯ectance of 98% occurred at an incidence angle of 30 and
its value was 92% at 20, 50, 60 and 70 . The specular re¯ectance was 93% at 80 ,
89% at 40 and 78% at an incidence angle of 10 . The results for the visible-light
transmittance and specular re¯ectance obtained from experiments were used to
obtain the amount absorbed, noting that the sum of the ratios for re¯ection,
absorption and transmission is unity. The results are shown in Table 2. The data

Fig. 11. Dichroic-glass's specular re¯ectance.

Table 2
The visible light characteristics of the dichroic glass

Incidence angle Specular re¯ectance Transmittance Calculated absorptance

10 0.78 0.01 0.21

20 0.92 0.01 0.07
30 0.98 0.01 0.01
40 0.89 0.02 0.09
50 0.92 0.04 0.04
60 0.92 0.04 0.04
70 0.92 0.05 0.03
80 0.93 0.02 0.05
264 A.A. Elmualim et al. / Applied Energy 62 (1999) 253±266

demonstrate the minimal amount of visible light transmitted through the dichroic
disk and the high eciency of the material to re¯ect visible light.

3.3. Light transmission characteristics of the dichroic light pipe

Based on the information obtained on visible-light specular re¯ection of dichroic

material, the transmittance of a light pipe lined with an such material and with
aspect ratio of 6 was calculated. The transmittance value increases upon increasing
the elevation angle from zero to 30 giving a value of 0.20 at 30 . It dips slightly at
40 giving a transmittance value of 0.19. Then it increases steadily from 50 to 80
giving the highest value of 0.84 at an incidence angle of 80 .
The transmittance is expected to increase to 100% at 90 , but this is not tested due to
the limitations of the set-up and the fact that such a solar altitude never occurs in Eur-
ope. The results on the transmittance of a dichroic light pipe were compared with
transmittance values obtained by Edmonds et al. [4] for a conventional silver-coated
light pipe with identical dimensions, an aspect ratio of 6 and constant specular re¯ec-
tance for all incidence angles. Fig. 12 shows the transmittances for conventional light
pipes with specular re¯ectance of 85, 90 and 95%, respectively. The dichroic light pipe
gives greater transmittances over silver-coated light pipes with respective re¯ectances of
85 and 90%. It also produced better performance over the 95% light pipe at the eleva-
tion angle of 30 , but gave marginally lower transmittance at other elevation angles.

4. Conclusions

Tests of the dichroic material have been carried out to investigate its suitability
for application in integrated light pipes/natural ventilation stacks. The infra-red

Fig. 12. Transmittance of dichroic light pipe compared to conventional light pipes with identical dimen-
sions; an aspect ratio of 6 and various re¯ectances.
 A.A. Elmualim et al. / Applied Energy 62 (1999) 253±266 265

transmittance of the dichroic material was found to be higher at lower incidence

angles. In the range between zero and 50 , the transmittance was about 76%. The
amount of transmitted infra-red through a dichroic light pipe will enhance the air
¯ow in natural ventilation stacks. This e€ect increases with increasing the light pipes
length and diameter. But reduces with increasing stack thickness. Varying the room
¯oor area had no e€ect on the ¯ow increase, but solar altitudes had a signi®cant
in¯uence and the maximum increase in ¯ow rate occurred at about 60 . The increase
in ventilation rate is much higher in summer than in winter. The much greater e€ect
in summer of the dichroic material on the increase in ventilation rate is highly
desirable as there is often a lack of driving force for natural stack ventilation in
summer, which causes stagnation of room air and poor indoor-air quality. The
dichroic material would also remove approximately half of the solar heat in day-
light, thus providing natural daylight to buildings while preventing overheating and
reducing cooling load in summer. The dichroic light pipe/stack system is, thus, most
suitable for the summer season. Its e€ect in winter is negligible, which is also desir-
able as there is normally sucient driving force for stack ¯ow during this season.
With regard to the specular re¯ectance for visible light, a maximum value of 98%
was obtained at an incidence angle of 30 . Values of 90% were obtained for most
other angles within the range of 10±80 . The transmittance of the dichroic light pipe
was higher than those for conventional light pipes with specular re¯ectances of 85
and 90% and similar to that of a 95% light pipe. The results showed that the
application of dichroic material would enhance natural ventilation, greatly reduce
solar heat transmitted to occupied spaces in summer, while maintaining relatively
high daylight transmittances.

Acknowledgements

The authors would like to acknowledge the ®nancial support of the EU under its
JOULE programme.

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