Journal of Building Engineering 57 (2022) 104933

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Journal of Building Engineering

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jobe

The effect of using phase change materials in solar panel cooling

to provide green and sustainable energy of a building
Minglong Zhang a, b, c, Ying Liu c, d, Sattam Fahad Almojil e, Ali A. Rajhi f,
Sagr Alamri f, Abdulaziz Ibrahim Almohana e, Abdulrhman Fahmi Alali e,
Ali E. Anqi f, *, Zhenzhong Tang c, d, **, Teeba Ismail Kh g
a
School of Materials Science and Engineering, Central South University of Forestry and Technology, Changsha, 410004, China
b
Anhui Hongsen Hi-tech Forestry Co., Ltd, Bozhou, 233600, China
c
Hunan Hongsen Novel Material Technology Co., Ltd, Yiyang, 413407, China
d
China Timber&wood Products Distribution Association, Beijing, 100040, China
e
Department of Civil Engineering, College of Engineering, King Saud University, P.O. Box 800, Riyadh, 11421, Saudi Arabia
f
Department of Mechanical Engineering, College of Engineering, King Khalid University, Abha, 61421, Saudi Arabia
g
Department of Computer Engineering, College of Engineering and Computer Science, Lebanese French University, Kurdistan Region, Iraq

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: The present study numerically investigates the use of solar energy for heating in a building using
Sustainable EnergyPlus and COMSOL. A solar panel with a size of 0.5 × 1 m was simulated. A rectangular
PCM chamber containing CaCl26H2O as a phase change material (PCM) was positioned below the solar
Solar energy panel. A pipe with an Al2O3-water nanofluid flow and fins was placed in the middle of the PCM
Building chamber. The hot water outflow of the solar panel was employed to supply the hot water demand
Environment
of a small residential building. Also, the amount of carbon dioxide production for this house in
different months of the year for the house with and without solar thermal panel was compared.
Furthermore, the panel temperature and melted PCM fraction below the panel were studied at
different nanofluid flow velocities. It was found that a higher flow velocity (20 mm/s) led to a
lower panel temperature than a lower velocity (5 mm/s). Thus, a higher nanofluid flow velocity
would increase the fraction of energy demand supplied through the solar system during the day
(up to 19.1%); however, a rise in the velocity at night diminished the energy fraction. In July,
using a solar heating panel to supply hot water to the house reduced carbon dioxide emissions by
43%.

1. Introduction
Solar radiation is the main energy resource of the earth. This massive resource sends a large quantity of energy to earth, and such
energy can be exploited to supply the entire demand for energy on earth [1–3]. Humans have long utilized solar energy through
numerous methods. However, solar energy has a high potential for further advances. Numerous studies have been conducted on energy
supply [4–7]. Researchers particularly focused on energy exchange [8–11]. Energy has been increasingly considered by researchers
due to the increased demand for energy resources [12–16]. Today, solar panels are employed almost throughout the world. These

* Corresponding author.
** Corresponding author. Hunan Hongsen Novel Material Technology Co., Ltd, Yiyang, 413407, China.
E-mail addresses: aanqi@kku.edu.sa (A.E. Anqi), 28305484@qq.com (Z. Tang).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jobe.2022.104933
Received 7 April 2022; Received in revised form 3 July 2022; Accepted 7 July 2022
Available online 14 July 2022
2352-7102/© 2022 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
M. Zhang et al. Journal of Building Engineering 57 (2022) 104933

Fig. 1. Schematic of the solar panel.

Fig. 2. Schematic of the building and solar panel.

panels have become a common system to convert solar radiation into electricity. Climates with higher solar radiation are greater
candidates for the use of solar panels. Solar energy is a sustainable and accessible energy resource and can play a key role in the supply
of electricity in the future [17–20]. However, solar systems have poor efficiency and require further research to enhance efficiency
[21–23]. The efficiency of solar panels declines as their temperature rises. Hence, many researchers have sought to find solutions to
further reduce the solar panel temperature and improve efficiency.
Gupta et al. [24] experimentally analyzed direct absorption solar collectors. They carried out tests using four volume fractions of
Al2O3 with a size of 20 nm. It was found that the use of the nanofluid as the operating fluid improved radiation and thermophysical
properties, enhancing the efficiency of the collector. Gupta et al. [25] explored the effects of the flow rate on the efficiency of direct
absorption solar collectors using an Al2O3–H2O nanofluid. It was found that collector efficiency enhanced by 4.2% and 8.1% for a flow
rate of 1.5 and 2 LPM, respectively.
Phase change materials (PCMs) have been used for the thermal management of different devices in recent years [26–28]. They can
store energy and enable the thermal management of devices. Researchers have employed PCMs for a variety of applications.
Nano-technology has also been an important approach in various research fields [29–32]. Nanofluids have been proposed for heat
exchange devices to enhance their thermal efficiency. Buildings are an essential sector in energy consumption. They account for an
important portion of human energy consumption. Humans consume a major quantity of energy to provide thermal comfort in buildings
[33–35]. Buildings of different applications, e.g., educational, commercial, and residential, should be designed such that energy
consumption is minimized. The use of solar energy is an effective solution to decrease the energy consumption of buildings. Solar
energy has long been exploited for lighting and heating in buildings. Researchers have recently studied the utilization of solar energy to
supply electricity to buildings. Zhou et al. [36] employed a PCM floor with a constant shape in buildings subjected to solar radiation.
They investigated the impact of many parameters on thermal performance, including PCM layer thickness, melting point, bond heat,
and PCM thermal conductivity. Pasoupat and Velraj [37] investigated the effects of PCM plates on the roof in terms of position and
thickness. They suggested that two PCM layers next to each other be used to reduce the indoor temperature difference and have
suitable roofs for all the seasons.

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Fig. 3. Properties of the PCM [39].

Unavailability at night is a major disadvantage of solar energy in buildings; the demand for electrical and thermal energy is much
higher at night than during the day. The use of solar panels has become widespread for power generation. Therefore, the present study
used a solar panel to supply the electrical energy demand of a building. A nanofluid-containing pipe was employed below the solar
panel to heat the building at the same time as cooling the solar panel during the day. The pipe was placed within a PCM-filled chamber.
The tests were carried out for different nanofluid velocities in the pipe at different times of the day. Furthermore, the heating fraction
during the day and night at different nanofluid velocities was evaluated. The amount of carbon dioxide production in the house was
also measured for heating and hot water production in different months of the year.

2. Problem statement
This study investigated the cooling of a solar panel with a size of 0.5 × 1 m using CaCl26H2O as a PCM and a nanofluid flow. A PCM-
filled chamber with a height of 10 cm and the same size as the panel was positioned below the panel. A pipe with a diameter of 5 cm
and a laminar nanofluid flow was placed in the middle of the chamber. The Al2O3-water nanofluid flowed through the pipe in the PCM
chamber. A number of fins were applied to the pipe surface to improve heat transfer. Fig. 1 illustrates a schematic of the solar panel. A
constant heat flux of 700 W/m2 was applied, and the nanofluid flow velocity varied from 5 to 20 mm/s.
The solar panel was placed on the roof of a small residential building with an area of 58 m2. The building consisted of two rooms
and a kitchen. It was located in Riyadh, Saudi Arabia. The building was designed based on local standards, with two 1.5 × 2.5 m south-
facing windows. The test was performed for a sunny day in March. Fig. 2 shows a schematic of the building along with the solar panel.
Fig. 3 represents the PCM and nanofluid properties [38].

3. Governing equations
The equations for the PVT are given below [40]:
( ) ( 2 )
∂u ∂u ∂u ∂P ∂ ui ∂2 ui ∂2 ui
ρ u i +v i +w i = − +μ + + (1)
∂x ∂y ∂z ∂xj ∂x2 ∂y2 ∂z2
( ) ( 2 )
∂T ∂T ∂T ∂ T ∂2 T ∂2 T
(ρCP ) u + v + w =k + + (2)
∂x ∂y ∂z ∂x2 ∂y2 ∂z2

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Table 1
Output flow temperature of the panel at different numbers of elements.

Elements number (Thousand) 765 917 10,758 1297 1485 1689 1857

T-out 23.89 23.41 23.11 22.91 22.86 22.85 22.85

Table 2
Comparison of the panel temperature in different scenarios to Kazemian et al. [51].

PV PV/PCM PVT/PCM

Kazemian et al. [51] 61.70 54.88 41.28

This work 60.16 54.13 40.88
Err 2.4% 1.3% 0.9

The equations for the PVT + PCM are given below [40]:
( 2 )
∂ Tpcm.s ∂2 Tpcm.s ∂2 Tpcm.s ( )
kpcm.s + + = Uch Tch − Tpcm.s (3)
∂x 2 ∂y2 ∂z 2

( )
∂2 Tpcm.l ∂2 Tpcm.l ∂2 Tpcm.l ( )
kpcm.l + + = Upcm Tpcm.l − Tch (4)
∂x2 ∂y2 ∂z2
In its original condition, the PCM is solid. In the presence of solid irradiation, PCM attempts to acquire heat from the flow channel,
and the melting process starts as Eq (1). Using the liquid fraction values, θ , for melting PCM, the following equation (Eq. (3)) is derived
in order to simulate the property changes between the two phases of PCM.
1 [ ]
ρpcm.s = θρl + (1 − θ)ρs ; Cp.pcm.s = θρl Cp.l + (1 − θ)ρs Cp.s = θkl + (1 − θ)ks (5)
ρpcm.s
In the preceding equations, the thermal conductivity, density, and specific heat capacity of PCM in solid and liquid phases are ks , kl
ρs , ρl , Cp.s and Cp.l respectively. The mass of the liquid and solid fractions relative to the total mass of PCM, with the solid fractions
ranging from 0 to 1, is what is referred to as a liquid.
When PCM is fully liquid, the liquid fraction is set to 1, and when it is fully solid, it is set to 0. By providing a step function that
ranges between 0 and 1, the solid fraction φ and liquid fraction θ in this model are defined in COMSOL. Temperature fluctuations near
the PCM phase transition temperature have an impact on this step function. A phase change zone boundary is defined as a 1 K increase
or decrease in the material’s phase change temperature. Phase shifts may occur, therefore values should be adjusted by adding both the
latent heat of fusion and the latent heat of solidification. Since latent heat for solidification for both solid and liquid phases is described
in COMSOL, an analytical function is provided for adding a normalized pulse parameter, D (k (-1)), as a coefficient multiplied by latent
heat of fusion for both solid and liquid phases.
Over the whole temperature range between the liquid and solid phases, the integral of D(T) must equal unity.
Cp.l = Cp.l.phase + DLfu ; Cp.s = Cp.s.phase + DLfu (6)

Cp.s = Cp.s.phase + DLso ; Cp.l = Cp.l.phase + DLso (7)

Lfu , Lso , Cp.l.phase and Cp.s.phase are the latent heats of fusion, solidification, and specific heat capacities of liquid and solid phases,
respectively.
The relationships used for carbon dioxide produced in this building are given below [41]:
gEmb ρδA
SEmb = (8)
L
Based on this relationship, the amount of carbon dioxide produced for home heating is calculated. The constant amount of carbon
dioxide production for natural gas was 56.1 kg/M [42].

3.1. Numerical method and meshing

Numerical methods are useful and more affordable than experimental approaches [43–46]. These methods have a wide range of
applications [47–50]. The governing equations are converted into algebraic equations in many numerical methods so that they could
be solved numerically. Numerous studies have been conducted in mathematics in this respect. The present study employed the
EnergyPlus software pack to design the building in Riyadh and estimate the energy demand. The mechanical solving of the solar panel
and PCM melt front was carried out in the COMSOL software pack. The system was geometrically designed and meshed. A total of 1,
485,000 elements were applied, based on the convergence of the temperature estimates. Table 1 reports the output flow temperature at
different meshes.

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Fig. 4. Temperature contour of the middle PCM section at velocities of 5 and 20 mm/s for t = 1–10 h.

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Fig. 4. (continued).

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Fig. 4. (continued).

3.2. Validation
The numerical findings were compared to experimental data given by Kazemian et al. to validate the simulations [51]. They studied
a solar panel in the presence of PCM and for the PCM-water flow. Table 2 compares the average panel temperature in three scenarios.
As can be seen, the numerical and experimental results were in good agreement.

4. Results and discussion

Fig. 4 depicts the center PCM section’s temperature curve at velocities of 5 and 20 mm/s for t = 1–10 h. The nanofluid flowed into
the pipe in the middle of the solar panel at two velocities. The nanofluid was responsible for absorbing heat from the pipe and its fins to
reduce the panel temperature and provide hot water. The reduced panel temperature would improve panel efficiency and lengthen its
service life. Therefore, the use of a nanofluid to cool the panel not only helps produce hot water (which is very useful) but also enhances
the electrical efficiency and service life of the panel. This section was in the middle of the PCM chamber and split the pipe into two
halves. In this section, the lowest temperature was identified in the nanofluid, while the highest temperatures occurred in the lateral
areas of the panel and areas distant from the pipe. The panel temperature in this section continuously rose after solar radiation began.
Fig. 5. Shows melted PCM volume fraction contour in the middle section of the PCM chamber from the beginning of melting for 2 h
at flow velocities 5 and 20 mm/s. The panel temperature increased once solar radiation began. Once the temperature of the panel and
panel-attached PCM reached the PCM melting point, it began melting. The panel temperature rose to higher levels over time as further
solar energy was absorbed by the panel. As a result, melting was accelerated, and a larger fraction of the PCM melted in the chamber.
The melting rate was higher at lower nanofluid velocities, with the PCM melt front propagating more rapidly from the top of the
chamber to the bottom. At higher flow velocities, however, the nanofluid absorbed larger quantities of solar heat, and lower heat was
available to change the phase of the PCM. As a result, melting occurred at a lower rate. However, the melted PCM fraction continued to
increase until the entire PCM melted in the chamber at both nanofluid velocities.
Fig. 6 shows the three-dimensional PCM temperature contour. As can be seen, the lowest PCM temperatures occurred around the
pipe and fins. On the other hand, the highest temperatures occurred at the chamber corners, particularly on top of the chamber where it
was attached to the panel. The nanofluid flowed into the system at 20 ◦ C; therefore, the temperature was nearly 20 ◦ C around the pipe.
In particular, the PCM temperature was lower around the pipe at a velocity of 20 mm/s. At a velocity of 5 mm/s, the temperature was
high around the pipe since the nanofluid temperature rose at the beginning of the pipe, and the flow could not thermally influence a
large portion of the PCM. Furthermore, the maximum chamber temperature was higher at 5 mm/s than at 20 mm/s.
Fig. 7 Shows three-dimensional contour of the melted PCM volume fraction from the beginning of melting for 10 h at velocities of 5
and 20 mm/s. This fig shows the areas where PCM began melting and propagated to other areas. It also depicts the areas where PCM

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Fig. 5. Melted PCM volume fraction contour in the middle section of the PCM chamber from the beginning of melting for 2 h at flow velocities 5 and 20 mm/s.

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Fig. 5. (continued).

did not melt even at final times. The melting of the PCM began at the corners of the PCM chamber with higher temperatures and
propagated inside the chamber. Finally, the bottom areas of the chamber and areas around the pipe and fins melted. At a flow velocity
of 5 mm/s, the melting rate was faster, and a greater percentage of the PCM melted surrounding the pipe. However, at a speed of 20
mm/s, the PCM melted at a slower rate, and the portions surrounding the pipe (especially on the intake side) remained unmelted.
Fig. 8. Shows maximum PCM chamber temperature at t = 0–10 h at four nanofluid flow velocities. The temperatures of the PCM
chamber and PCM continuously increased. Solar radiation continuously heated the panel. A fraction of such heat was absorbed in the
form of the latent heat of melting in the PCM, and another fraction was released from the panel by the nanofluid. The melted PCM
could rise in temperature. The heat from the solar panel is absorbed by the melted PCM, boosting its temperature and steadily
increasing the PCM chamber’s average temperature. The nanofluid flow absorbed a portion of the panel heat. A larger flow velocity
would increase a larger fraction of heat absorbed from the panel. As a consequence, at greater nanofluid flow velocities, the PCM
chamber temperature was lower.
Fig. 9. Shows maximum temperature of the bottom of the PCM chamber at t = 0–10 h for four flow velocities. The maximum
temperature of the panel is an important parameter in the control of the temperature in solar panels. The panel areas with higher
temperatures decline in not only efficiency but also service life, and their efficiency further decreases over the years. In the proposed
panel geometry, the highest temperature occurred on the flow outlet side. In this area, particularly at the panel corners, the panel has a
larger distance from the flow, and its temperature increases. These areas continue to be heated over time. A rise in the flow velocity
within the panel reduced the maximum panel temperature, particularly at longer panel operation times. The maximum panel tem­
perature was found to be lower at 20 mm/s than at 5 mm/s.
Fig. 10. Shows average PCM chamber temperature at t = 0–10 for four flow velocities. The PCM chamber areas closer to the panel
had higher temperatures, while those with a larger distance from the panel (heat source) had lower temperatures. Also, the areas closer
to the nanofluid pipe within the PCM chamber had lower temperatures. The PCM had poor thermal conductivity; therefore, heat
transfer was low in the PCM. Hence, the distance from the panel and pipe determined the PCM temperature. Poor convective heat
transmission took place because the melted PCM moved at a very low speed; it was not the primary heat transfer mechanism in the
PCM. As a result, the flow velocity was a major factor in determining the average temperature of the PCM chamber. For example, a

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Fig. 6. Three-dimensional temperature contour in the PCM chamber at t = 1, 5, and 10 h for nanofluid velocities 5 and 20 mm/s.

jump in flow velocity from 5 to 20 mm/s decreased the average PCM chamber temperature by more than 3 ◦ C at t = 10 h.
Fig. 11. Shows average temperature of the top plate of the PCM chamber (connected to the panel) at t = 0–10 h for four nanofluid
velocities. The top plate of the chamber was connected to the solar panel, and a lower temperature of this plate is desirable as it
represents a lower temperature of the solar panel. The panel temperature continuously rose since the panel continuously received solar
radiation. A portion of the heat was absorbed and stored by the melted PCM through a phase change. Another portion heated the panel

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Fig. 7. Three-dimensional contour of the melted PCM volume fraction from the beginning of melting for 10 h at velocities of 5 and 20 mm/s.

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Fig. 7. (continued).

and the melted PCM. A fraction of the heat was absorbed by the flow under the panel and released. The flow velocity below the panel
influenced the heat absorption of the nanofluid; a rise in the flow velocity lowered the temperatures of the panel and its bottom plate.
Enhanced heat transfer from the panel to the flow reduced the portion of the heat that raised the panel temperature and diminished the
melted fraction of the PCM. It should be noted that the top plate of the PCM chamber connected to the bottom of the panel had the
highest temperature across the chamber.
Fig. 12 displays the average temperature of the PCM chamber’s bottom plate for four flow velocities between t = 0 and 10 h. The
temperature of the bottom plate in the PCM chamber was lower than that of the top plate. Due to the PCM’s weak thermal conductivity,
the heat that was transmitted from the panel to it slowly spread throughout the PCM. Convective heat transport was likewise subpar
within the PCM. As a result, the bottom plate’s temperature was lower than the top plate, which was attached to the solar panel. The
bottom plate’s temperature, however, continued to rise. A change in flow velocity had a bigger impact on the temperature of the
bottom plate since it was further away from the panel (the heat source). The average PCM temperature on the bottom plate was
significantly influenced by the flow velocity below the panel, especially after t = 2 h.

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Fig. 8. Maximum PCM chamber temperature at t = 0–10 h at four nanofluid flow velocities.

Fig. 9. Maximum temperature of the bottom of the PCM chamber at t = 0–10 h for four flow velocities.

Fig. 13. Shows melted PCM volume fraction at t = 0–10 h for four flow velocities. No melt front appeared in the PCM chamber until
t = 3.3 min, regardless of the flow velocity. At the beginning, the solar heat absorbed by the panel heated the panel and PCM. A part of
the heat also contributed to the temperature of the flow under the panel rising at the same time. When the PCM reached its melting
point (t = 3.3 min at the slowest velocity), it started to melt. The PCM’s phase transition mechanism then used some of the solar energy,
which was later stored as latent heat of melting. Over time, the PCM’s heat storage increased, increasing the volume proportion of
melted PCM. The PCM’s melting was both delayed and slowed down by the increase in flow velocity.
Fig. 14. Shows melted PCM volume fraction of the top plate of the PCM chamber (connected to the solar panel) at t = 0–10 h for four
flow velocities. The top plate of the PCM had the highest temperature in the PCM chamber. As a result, the top plate experienced PCM
melting before the other areas of the chamber. Because of this, the volume fraction of the melted PCM grew quickly and dramatically.
The top plate’s melted PCM was significantly impacted by a change in flow velocity, which resulted in a volume fraction change of
more than 50%. The top plate’s temperature dropped more as a result of the higher flow velocity, which reduced the amount of melted
PCM. Additionally, it would take longer for the PCM to melt completely (100%).
Fig. 15. Shows melted PCM volume fraction on the bottom plate of the PCM chamber at t = 0–10 h for four flow velocities. The
bottom plate of the PCM chamber absorbed a smaller fraction of the solar heat as it had a larger distance from the solar panel. As a
consequence, it would take longer for the PCM to start melting; in the bottom plate, it did so at t = 4.5–6 h. At higher flow velocities,
the melting of PCM began in up to 6 h as a portion of the solar heat was absorbed by the nanofluid. At a velocity of 20 mm/s, the

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Fig. 10. Average PCM chamber temperature at t = 0–10 for four flow velocities.

Fig. 11. Average temperature of the top plate of the PCM chamber (connected to the panel) at t = 0–10 h for four nanofluid velocities.

melting rate of the PCM was smaller, and the melted PCM volume fraction could not reach even 10% at t = 10 h. The melted PCM
volume fraction rose to 88% only at a flow velocity of 5 mm. Due to poor thermal conductivity, a lower portion of the solar heat was
transferred to the bottom plate.
Table 3 reports the supplied fractions of the total energy demand in the building during the day and night for four flow velocities.
Considering the small sizes of the panel and building, the maximum fraction of the heating demand supplied by the solar system was
below 20%. However, power generation and heating could be enhanced using several panels. During the day, a larger portion of the
energy demand was supplied by the solar system at higher flow velocities. At night, on the other hand, the solar system supplied higher
energy to the building at lower flow velocities. This is explained by the melted PCM fraction at the end of the day. The melted PCM
fraction was larger at lower flow velocities, and a greater quantity of energy would be available (stored in the PCM) at night. During the
day, on the other hand, higher solar heat was supplied to the building at higher flow velocities, and a smaller fraction of the melted
PCM remained at the end of the day for use at night.
In Table 4, the amount of carbon dioxide production in terms of kilograms in different months of the year if the solar panel is used to
heat the house and hot water and in the absence of the panel is compared. Based on these comparisons, it can be seen that if a solar
panel is used to supply heat to a part of the building, the amount of carbon dioxide production has been significantly reduced. It is also
observed that in the cold months of the year, when the need for fossil fuels for home heating has been higher, the amount of carbon
dioxide gas produced depends on energy consumption, and in the cold months of the year is higher than the hot months.

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Fig. 12. Average temperature of the bottom plate of the PCM chamber at t = 0–10 h for four flow velocities.

Fig. 13. Melted PCM volume fraction at t = 0–10 h for four flow velocities.

Also, in the warmer months of the year, due to stronger solar radiation, a higher percentage of the energy required by the house is
provided by the solar panel, which causes a further reduction in carbon dioxide production. In July, if the solar panel is used to supply
hot water, the amount of carbon dioxide production has decreased by more than 43%.

5. Conclusion
The present study numerically simulated a solar panel with an underlying PCM chamber in the middle of which a pipe containing a
nanofluid flow was placed. The simulations were carried out for a transient state at four nanofluid flow velocities from 5 to 20 mm/s. A
study has also been conducted on the energy secured from solar energy for hot water and its effect on carbon dioxide production. The
building’s capacity to receive energy both during the day and at night was assessed as the last step. Summarizing the findings:

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Fig. 14. Melted PCM volume fraction of the top plate of the PCM chamber (connected to the solar panel) at t = 0–10 h for four flow velocities.

Fig. 15. Melted PCM volume fraction on the bottom plate of the PCM chamber at t = 0–10 h for four flow velocities.

Table 3
The supplied fractions of the total energy demand in the building during the day and night for four flow velocities.

u mm/s 5 10 15 20
Day 13.5% 15.3% 17.8% 19.1%
Night 7.4% 6.2% 5.8% 4.5%

i. In the PCM chamber, the bottom plate had the lowest temperature and the top plate, which is linked to the bottom of the solar
panel, had the greatest temperature. As a result, the PCM started to melt in the top plate and spread all the way to the bottom of
the PCM chamber. Furthermore, the melted PCM fraction was larger in the top plate of the chamber (connected to the solar
panel) than in the bottom plate.

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Table 4
Investigating the amount of carbon dioxide production (in terms of kilograms) in different months of the year in the presence of a panel and its absence in order to supply
hot water to the house.

Mounth With PVT Classic

Jan 311 350

Feb 293 336
Mar 264 283
Apr 181 212
May 155 186
Jun 83 118
Jul 56 81
Aug 61 83
Sep 83 98
Oct 109 135
Nov 158 187
Dec 222 246

ii. The temperature of the panel increased over time due to continuous solar radiation. This continuously raised the melted PCM in
the PCM, regardless of the nanofluid flow velocity.
iii. The temperature difference between the panel and PCM chamber was smaller at a higher flow velocity.
iv. The melted PCM volume fraction was lower at higher flow velocities.
v. The system could supply up to 19.1% of the heating demand of the building during the day at a flow velocity of 20 mm/s,
whereas it supplied a maximum of 7.4% of the heating demand at night at a flow velocity of 5 mm/s.
vi. Using a solar panel at home in July can reduce carbon dioxide emissions by more than 43%.

Author statement
Minglong Zhang & Ying Liu: Conceptualization, Methodology, Software Sattam Fahad Almojil & Ali A. Rajhi: Data curation,
Writing- Original draft preparation. Sagr Alamri & Ali E. Anqi & Zhenzhong Tang: Visualization, Investigation, and Supervision.
Abdulaziz Ibrahim Almohana: Software, Validation. Abdulrhman Fahmi Alali & Teeba Ismail Kh.: Writing- Reviewing and Editing.

Declaration of competing interest

The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to
influence the work reported in this paper.

Data availability

Data will be made available on request.

Acknowledgment
Researchers Supporting Project number (RSP-2021/303), King Saud University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia, and:
1. Hunan Province High-Tech Industry Science and Technology Innovation Leading Plan, 2021GK4058.
2. Extension Project of Forestry Scientific and Technological Achievements of the State Forestry and Grassland Administration
([2019]25).
3. Hunan Provincial Engineering Technology Research Center, 2022TP2033.

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