See discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: https://www.researchgate.

net/publication/299564526

Introduction to Botany

Research · April 2016

CITATIONS READS
0 70,102

1 author:

Sameh Abdelghany
Suez Environnement
19 PUBLICATIONS 3 CITATIONS

SEE PROFILE

All content following this page was uploaded by Sameh Abdelghany on 09 December 2019.

The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file.

 AN INTRODUCTION TO
BOTANY

Abstract
Botany is the science of plant. Studying plant classification principals and how they
related to the evolutionary process of the plant is the first step in order to establish
strategies for plant conservation. The molecular properties of plant life play a vital role
in plant survival and evolution. They help plant to resist the threats and challenges such
as human population and activities, climate change, and pollution. Some treaties and
organizations have established strategies to overcome threat effects on plants. The
methods that plant species are preserved and recorded for the future is important to
understand how these processes relevance to biodiversity. It’s also important for
scientists to know the past, present and future of the botanical life.

DOI: 10.13140/RG.2.1.4880.8081

SAMEH ABDELGHANY
1 AN INTRODUCTION TO BOTANY

Introduction to Botany

Botany is the science of plants. Studying plant classification principals and how they related
to the evolutionary process of the plant is the first step in order to establish strategies for plant
conservation. The molecular properties of plant life play a vital role in plant survival and evolution.
They help the plant to resist the threats and challenges such as human population and activities,
climate change, and pollution. Some treaties and organizations have established strategies to
overcome threat effects on plants. The methods that plant species are preserved and recorded for
the future are vital to understand how these processes relevance to biodiversity. It’s also essential
for scientists to know the past, present, and future of the botanical life.

Botanical Classification Principles

Plant classification is significant in order to identify , preserve, and manage plant species.
During the history of botanical science, botanists tried to classify plants and record their
classifications. Botanical classification is divided into 5 principals. Artificial System is a non-
evolutionary system as it based on the few characters and the morphology of the species. This
principle became undesirable as more plants have been discovered. The natural system is based on
the natural relationship between organisms. Some features are considered such as morphology and
anatomy. It used to combine the classification with the natural features of organisms. The
phylogenetic system is a classification of plants according to evolutionary history. Plants are
descended from the same ancestor. Phenetics system or numerical taxonomy which does not reflect
the revolutionary relationship. It can be considered as an early step to eliminate the subjectivity by
using measured and described characters. The cladistic system is designed to provide a less
subjective way of classification. It shows the evolutionary relationships between traits.

The plant classification depends on the evolutionary process of the plant. In the old methods
of classification, some classification processes are based on the distinctive characters of the plant and
their nature. It based on plant parts as well. The plant evolved from freshwater algae called Charales
from the Charophytes group. So the classification of the plant has been changed from kingdom algae
into two major groups; Vascular and non-vascular plants, which is based on the vascular tissue. The
vascular plants are divided into two groups; seed and seedless plants. Each sub-group is divided into
5 classes according to the evolutionary process. Seed plants are divided into one class of angiosperms
and 4 classes of gymnosperms.

SAMEH ABDELGHANY 1
2 AN INTRODUCTION TO BOTANY

Bioweb.uwlax.edu, (2015). UWL Website. [online],http://bioweb.uwlax.edu/bio203/s2012/disrud_sama/classification.htm,[Accessed 9 Nov.

2015].

Plants, as well as other organisms, have been affected by several threats, such as global
warming, illegal trade, and other human activities. The Global Strategy for Plant Conservation
(GSPC) is one of the most effective strategies in order to conserve plants. It sets 5 objectives: the
recognizing of plant diversity , understanding, and documenting plant diversity. This object is
significant as the number one to solve any issue is to identify the problem. The second objective is
very crucial as it pushes Parties to conserve plant diversity effectively. The third objective is talking
about the sustainable of plant diversity, which is achieved by applying the conservation of the plant.
The fourth and the fifth objective, I believe, are the key point of this strategy.

Education, awareness, and public engagement are essential in any conservational strategies.
The International Union for Conservation and Nature (IUCN), is another most important strategy
as it provides a framework that helps environmentalists to plan, implement, monitor, and evaluate
the conservation of plant. It sets a Red List, which is considered a source of information regarding
the status of animal and plant species. It is succeeded to add 44 threatened with extinction Indian
species of medicinal plant to Red List (IUCN.org, 2015). Aconitum chasmanthum, two species of crab,
karstama balicum, and karstama emdi have been listed as critically endangered. The illegal trading of
the endangered species is one of the most critical reasons that threat plant species. The
Conservation on International Trade in Endangered Species, CITES, is established to prevent
and manage the trade of endangered plant species. In my opinion, I do not think that this strategy is
effective in conserving plant species. It failed to protect Afrormosia trees. It can’t control the illegal
trading in non-State Members countries. Also, it requires strong laws and regulations which might
not be in the countries’ priorities. Moreover, in critical areas such as in the war area, CITES will not
be able to control illegal trading of the endangered species.

Molecular Properties

The plant cell is made of 4 types of macromolecules; carbohydrates, protein, nucleic acids,
and lipids. Carbohydrates consist of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen atoms. It is considered as a
primary source of energy that most organisms need. It also supports the cell wall and may act as
markers on some cell membranes. There are several types of carbohydrates; monosaccharides, such
as glucose, can be used as a source of energy. Disaccharide is a chain of many monosaccharides. Some
SAMEH ABDELGHANY 2
3 AN INTRODUCTION TO BOTANY

sugars can form polymers or polysaccharides by linking together. Protein, a large and complex
molecule, is vital for the cell as it can’t function without it. It has an essential role in the cell as it
moves materials around, supporting the cell wall, sending signals, and supporting chemical reactions.
The cytoskeletal protein role is to help the cell wall from inside. Nucleic Acids are polymers of
nucleotides. There are two nucleotides in the cell; Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and Rinonucleic Acid
(RNA). DNA is significant for cell genetic. It is responsible for the information of the cell, which can
be stored, copied and transferred. It acts as a hard drive on your laptop, where you can keep data and
information. RNA has the same structure of DNA, but it is more flexible in its function. Some RNA
hold cell information, some of them help build protein and some of the control protein formation.
Lipids are molecules that can’t mix with water, such as oil, fats, and wax. It also can be used as a
storage of energy and as a support to the cell wall.

Botanical Hierarchy

There are different ways to classify and to distinguish plant species. One of the plant
classifications is Eitcher Model. He divided the plant kingdom into two main groups; Cryptogams –
seedless plants and Phanerogams – seed plants. Cryptogams are divided into 3 divisions, Thallophyta,
Bryophyta, for example; Riccia, and Pteridophyta, for instance; Nephrolepis. Thallophyta is divided
into 4 phylums; Schizophyta, Algae, Fungi, and Lichen. Phanerogams are divided into 2 classes;
Gymnosperm, such as pinus, and Angrosperms. Angrosperms is divided into two subclasses, Dicot
and Monocot.

Anon, (2015). [pdf],http://gujarat-education.gov.in/textbook/Images/std11_Bilogy_sem_1_eng/chap-3.pdf,[Accessed 9 Nov. 2015].

The molecular properties are significant for the plant to survive and evolve. The plant which
has higher levels of carbohydrates can survive in extreme environments where lack of water and
rain. They are critical properties that can carbohydrate provide for the plant. Also, carbohydrates can
support and protect the plant cell. Plants with low levels of carbohydrates are damaged more than
that of high levels. Proteins play another vital role in plant growth and development. HRGP-
Hydroxyproline-rich glycoprotein, is an example. This protein is essential in plant survival; as it
accumulates under stress conditions, which provides primary protection to the plant.
SAMEH ABDELGHANY 3
4 AN INTRODUCTION TO BOTANY

Lipids can act as defense barriers as wax layers on leaves, fruits, and flowers may protect the
plant. By adjusting the membrane lipids, the plant can survive extremely cold temperatures. I can
argue that these properties are fundamental to plant in order to survive. You can imagine that we are
in the polar region without a proper coat. Lipids can be considered as the plant coat. Nucleic acid as
the hard drive of the plant, it can be used in genetic engineering. It is imperative in the conservation
of the plant. On the one hand, We can use these techniques to modify any plant gene to help it to
survive. On the other hand, it would be maintained that genetic engineering might be harmful to the
plant. It should be well studied to ensure that the train of the specific plant is not damaged or
changing its characteristics that might affect his survival in the ecosystem.

Threats

Plant species are exposed to many dangers. These might be man-made or, by the
environment, bad conditions such as climate change and pollution. Identifying risks and strategies to
overcome them is a must to protect plant species.

Human Population and Activities

Human population and activities impact plant biodiversity. Overpopulation requires more
space for settlement and more food consumption. Deforestation can be one of the impacts that human
causes. According to the United Nations’ Food and Agriculture Organization (UNFAO), around 18
million acres of forests are lost annually (LiveScience.com, 2015). Clearing lands for urban
development and agriculture is also considered one of the threats.

Climate Change

Changing climate temperature may impact plant growth. Extreme temperature causes a
decrease in water availability and change in soil conditions. These conditions will affect plant growth
and even plant diversity. For example, in Kuwait in 2013, I have seen that most of the plants in some
areas are dead and unable to survive, while in 2014, during the heavy rain in winter, some plants are
started to grow up again. In early November 2015, too much precipitation still affect plant growth
and cause some plat to die again.

Pollution

Different types of pollution may affect plant diversity. Air pollution and acid rain can kill
plants and destroy their leaves. It can penetrate the soil and make it unsuitable for the purpose of
habitation. Excessive Ultraviolet radiation entered the earth from the Ozone layer hole in the upper
atmosphere. This radiation may damage both plants’ morphology and genes. Water Pollution is the
most crucial cause that impact plant. Pollutants from water can pass to the aquatic and terrestrial
plants. Those pollutants can be transferred to upper chain food. The increase of sodium chloride in
water kills a plant. Soil pollution may have a severe impact on the plant. Artificial and chemical
pesticides and fertilizers can’t be broken. As a result, they discharge into the soil and mix with water.
It affects the fertility of the soil.

SAMEH ABDELGHANY 4
5 AN INTRODUCTION TO BOTANY

Some strategies are put in place to overcome the impact of threats. In the UK, the Wildlife
and Countryside Act, 1981, is established. It prevents any removal of any wild plant without
obtaining permission from the landowner or occupiers. This is an essential piece of legislation. It
protects the wild plants and wild biodiversity. Protected areas and National Parks are also one of
the most critical and crucial strategies in order to conserve plant species. In the UK, Sites of Special
Scientific Interest (SSSIs) and Areas of Special Scientific Interest (ASSIs) in Northern Ireland are
a perfect strategy. An example of the effectiveness of the National park is The Tijuca National Park. It
is a home of 67 threatened plant species in Brazil, and it represents 16% of all threatened species in
the state of Rio de Janeiro (Pougy et al., 2014).

The Kyoto Protocol is another effective strategy to control climate change by reducing
emissions of Greenhouse Gases (GHGs). It includes replanting and afforestation of plants to control
carbon emissions. Although this strategy is not related directly to plant conversation, the
encouragement of replantation can be considered a method or plant conservation. In Article 3.3,
industrial countries can invest in land use and forestry activities. I believe it might be useful.
Nevertheless, the US Clean Air Act and Clean Water Act have been established to control pollution.
The clean air act succeeded in reducing air pollution resulting improvement in crops and timber
yields. Clean Water Act is the most successful environmental law. As a result, two-third of the US
waters are now safe for fishing. The amount of soil loss to agriculture is reduced by a million tons
annually, and the phosphate and nitrate levels are reduced (Martins, 2015).

From the previous strategies, I can say that there is not a specific strategy that is designed to
conserve the botanical life. Most of the plans are established to preserve both animals and plant
biodiversity. I think we need to consider botanical life as it is the base of life on earth.

Species Preservation and their relevance to biodiversity

There are many methods to preserve and record plant species for future use. Seed banks, In
situ conservation, and fossils are some examples of plant preservation and records. Seed banks are
places used to store seeds. Seeds may be food crops and some of the rare species to protect
biodiversity. Global Seed Banking protects genetic diversity and saves seeds from diseases. There
are more than 1400 seedbanks work as a backup in case of any environmental catastrophe (Penn
State Ag Science Magazine, 2015). Seed banks protect seeds from animal and extreme conditions.
Liquid nitrogen is used to preserve seeds by freezing. Seed banks are sometimes significant to
biodiversity. The re-introduction of some seeds in biodiversity can help to restore biodiversity.
However, the seeds that have passed through the regeneration process may be affected, and they will
be unable to grow and reproduce if they have introduced to natural habits.

In situ conservation is established to preserve natural habitats. The primary role of it is to

protect, manage, and monitor natural habitats. It will help species to adapt to changes in
environmental conditions gradually. It is used to recover threatened and/ or rare wild species. In-
Situ conservation has a comprehensive range of coverage all over the world. It helps to protect a wide
range of indigenous species and taking care of the unknown species. It helps biodiversity to heal by
natural selection, and community evolution continues. It also has some risks to biodiversity. It might
cause environmental uncertainty due to unpredictable weather conditions or disturbance in food

SAMEH ABDELGHANY 5
6 AN INTRODUCTION TO BOTANY

supply and the population of competitors. The environmental catastrophe might be a massive risk to
In-situ conservation. Random changes in genes that impact the reproduction of species.

Fossils

Fossils can be one of the methods to preserve plant species for future use and study. There
are two types of fossilization; Macro-fossilization and Microfossilization. Macrofossilization
preserves the plant leaves. Fossilization happens in low lands where there was a precipitation of the
products of erosion and weathering of rocks, silt, sand, and some chemicals. Micofossilization is the
preservation of spores of ferns, bryophyte, and pollen grains of conifers and flowering plants. Some
plants, especially lowlands, are more commonly preserved as fossils. Fossils are not directly relevant
to the biodiversity, but it can be recordkeeping of changes that happened during geological time. It
might help scientists, especially botanists, to study the future of given biodiversity by studying the
fossils of the plant (flora). As a geologist, I believe that fossils are significant in studying biodiversity
and also for future studies.

Botanical Science

There are many botanists who have studied plants using several strategies. Theophrastus
has named by Father of Botany as he was the first real botanist. He concerned about studying plant
morphology, classification, and the natural history of the plant. After Theophrastus, Pedanius
Dioscorides was described around 600 kinds of plants as Theophrastus focused on their habit of
growth (Gledhill, 2008). He started to mention the medicinal properties of some plants. He was the first
one who illustrates the treatment by using medicinal plants. Pliny the Elder prepared an
encyclopedia of around 37 volumes and gathering around 2000 works of 146 Roman and 327 Greek
authors all about plants (Encyclopedia Britannica, 2014). This work is an excellent reference for
researchers and students. In the 15th and the 16th centuries, the printing press revolution made all
types of literature available. It has been used to publish descriptive publishing regarding plants and
their benefits as medicine.

Plant recognition and classification were based on morphological aspects of the plant until
the invention of a simple lens and compound microscopes in the 16th century. They helped botanists
to explore more characters of plants. It enriched the botany science and made some new features of
plants available for study. It helped botanists to begin to describe all plants including the newly
introduced plants that are coming from Asia, Africa, and America and away from its medical benefits.
Robert Hooke published Micrographia, in 1665, (Ucmp.berkeley.edu, 2015), as he used microscopic
observation to discover plant tissues. Plant anatomy is first founded by Nehemiah Grew and
Marcello Malpighi in 1671 (Canguilhem, Marrati, and Meyers, 2008). Stephan Hales has recorded
his observation on the water path in plants. It is the first discussion in the plant physiology. Botanists
are still studying his notes about the mechanism of water transpiration in the plant.

Linnaeus has developed botany science as he introduced a “sexual system” of the plant. He
also published “Species Plantarum” which contains a description of a massive number of species of
plants. New concepts have been introduced by Charles Darwin on evolution, and Gregor Mendel
on genetics helped a new branch of botany to raise plant taxonomy. Paleontologists, the ecologists,

SAMEH ABDELGHANY 6
7 AN INTRODUCTION TO BOTANY

and the archaeologists used radioactive-carbon dating of plant materials to provide insight studies
about the plant.

Botanists tried to study plants and their benefits in order to record, preserve, and protect plant
species. All the above-mentioned botanists have recorded their observation to be used by other
botanists and students as references. Nowadays, some strategies of plant conservation are used to
preserve and record plant species. This strategy is fundamental and also very useful in plant
conservation.

SAMEH ABDELGHANY 7
8 AN INTRODUCTION TO BOTANY

References:

Anon, (2015). [online] Available at: http://gujarat-

education.gov.in/textbook/Images/std11_Bilogy_sem_1_eng/chap-3.pdf [Accessed 9
Nov. 2015].

BGCI, (2015). Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES). [online]

Available at: https://www.bgci.org/policy/cites/ [Accessed 8 Nov. 2015].

UWLAX, (2015). UWL Website. [online] Available at:

http://bioweb.uwlax.edu/bio203/s2012/disrud_sama/classification.htm [Accessed 9
Nov. 2015].

Canguilhem, G., Marrati, P. and Meyers, T. (2008). Knowledge of life. New York: Fordham
University Press.

Conserve-Energy-Future, (2013). Causes and Effects of Soil Pollution - Conserve Energy Future.
[online] Available at: http://www.conserve-energy-future.com/causes-and-effects-of-
soil-pollution.php [Accessed 9 Nov. 2015].

Encyclopedia Britannica, (2014). botany. [online] Available at:

http://www.britannica.com/science/botany [Accessed 15 Nov. 2015].

Gledhill, D. (2008). The names of plants. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Greenpeace International, (2015). CITES failing to adequately protect endangered Afrormosia

tree. [online] Available at:
http://www.greenpeace.org/international/en/press/releases/CITES-failing-to-
adequately-protect-endangered-Afrormosia-tree/ [Accessed 8 Nov. 2015].

Gundersen, A. (2015). A SKETCH OF PLANT CLASSIFICATION FROM THEOPHRASTUS TO THE

PRESENT. TORREYA, [online] 18(11), pp.213 -219. Available at:
https://ia801604.us.archive.org/12/items/jstor-40595853/40595853.pdf [Accessed 7
Nov. 2015].

Heywood, V. and Dulloo, M. (2005). In situ conservation of wild plant species. Rome:
International Plant Genetic Resources Inst.

IUCN, (2015). IUCN - Conservation successes overshadowed by more species declines – IUCN Red

SAMEH ABDELGHANY 8
9 AN INTRODUCTION TO BOTANY

List update. [online] Available at: http://www.iucn.org/?21561/Conservation-

successes-overshadowed-by-more-species-declines--IUCN-Red-List-update [Accessed 8
Nov. 2015].

DEFRA, (2015). Wildlife and Countryside Act 1981. [online] Available at:
http://jncc.defra.gov.uk/page-3614 [Accessed 9 Nov. 2015].

Kratz, R. (2011). Botany for dummies. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.

Landrum, V. (2007). Systematic botany. [Topeka, Kan.]: [V. Landrum].

LiveScience.com, (2015). Deforestation: Facts, Causes & Effects. [online] Available at:
http://www.livescience.com/27692-deforestation.html [Accessed 8 Nov. 2015].

Martins, T. (2015). Clean Water Act. [online] Grc.nasa.gov. Available at:

http://www.grc.nasa.gov/WWW/k-12/fenlewis/cwa.htm [Accessed 10 Nov. 2015].

Mifsud, J. (2015). Basic plant evolution and classification. [video] Available at:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=yL1o49YGhtM [Accessed 7 Nov. 2015].

Nzetc.victoria.ac.nz, (2015). How Do Plants Become Fossils? | NZETC. [online] Available at:
http://nzetc.victoria.ac.nz/tm/scholarly/tei-DawFore-t1-body-d12-d2.html [Accessed
14 Nov. 2015].

Plant Cells, Molecular Level. (2011). [Blog] Plant Life. Available at:
http://lifeofplant.blogspot.hu/2011/02/plant-cells-molecular-level.html [Accessed 9
Nov. 2015].

Pougy, N., Martins, E., Verdi, M., de Oliveira, J., Maurenza, D., Amaro, R. and Martinelli, G. (2014).
Urban forests and the conservation of threatened plant species: the case of the Tijuca
National Park, Brazil. Natureza & Conservação, 12(2), pp.170-173.

Saphores, J. and Bakshi, B. (2001). Forests, Biodiversity Conservation, and the Kyoto Protocol:
Challenges and Opportunities. 1st ed. [ebook] Available at: http://www.creden.univ-
montp1.fr/Reseau/DOCS%20COLLOQUE/Baski_Saphores.pdf [Accessed 10 Nov. 2015].

Schoen, D. and Brown, A. (2001). The Conservation of Wild Plant Species in Seed Banks.
BioScience, 51(11), p.960.

SAMEH ABDELGHANY 9
 10 AN INTRODUCTION TO BOTANY

Sharma, O. (2009). Plant taxonomy. New Delhi: Tata McGraw-Hill.

Simpson, M. (2010). Plant systematics. Burlington, MA: Academic Press.

Singh, G. (2004). Plant systematics. Enfield, NH: Science Publishers.

The Importance of Seed Banking (Penn State Ag Science Magazine), (2015). The Importance of
Seed Banking (Penn State Ag Science Magazine). [online] Available at:
http://agsci.psu.edu/magazine/articles/2010/summer-fall/the-importance-of-seed-
banking [Accessed 14 Nov. 2015].

Berkeley, (2015). Robert Hooke. [online] Available at:

http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/history/hooke.html [Accessed 11 Nov. 2015].

EPA, (2015). Overview of the Clean Air Act and Air Pollution | US EPA. [online] Available at:
http://www2.epa.gov/clean-air-act-overview [Accessed 10 Nov. 2015].

EPA, (2015). Summary of the Clean Water Act | Laws & Regulations | US EPA. [online] Available
at: http://www2.epa.gov/laws-regulations/summary-clean-water-act [Accessed 10
Nov. 2015].

SAMEH ABDELGHANY 10

View publication stats