ENGINEERING DATA ANALYSIS (ENMA 311)
SATISTICS is the science dealing with:
1. Collection of data
2. Organization/ presentation of data in tables
3. Summarization/ reduction of data via graphs
and calculations
4. Analysis of data
5. Interpretation of results
- may also refer to a set of numerical data/ information
(statistics on enrollees, graduates, drop-outs,
employees)
DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS-is primarily steps 1 to 3
• Numerical descriptors
• Graphical devices
• Tabular displays
INFERENTIAL STATISTICS- is primarily steps 4 and 5
• Hypothesis testing
• Confidence intervals
• Model building/ selection
• values (age, heights, air temperatures, weight,
DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS are methods for organizing
(tables or graphs) and summarizing data (descriptive
values: average score).
• Parameter- a descriptive value for population
• Statistic- descriptive value for sample
INFERENTIAL STATISTICS- methods for using sample
data to make general conclusions (inferences) about
populations.
• Sample is typically only part of the whole population.
Sample data provide only limited information about
the population.
• Sample statistics are generally imperfect
representatives of the corresponding population
parameters.
POPULATION- the largest group of subjects under
consideration; the entire group of individuals.
• Parameter- is a numerical measure of the
population. (Average age)
SAMPLE- selected to represent the population in a
research study.
• The goal is to use the result obtained from the
sample to help answer questions about the
population.
SAMPLE- is some part of the population.
• Statistic- is a numerical measure of the sample.
(Average age of those 10 students)
SAMPLING ERROR- the discrepancy between a sample
statistic and its population parameter.
• Defining and measuring sampling error is a large
part of inferential statistics.
Why sample?
• Measuring all units (universities, students,
graduates etc.) is impractical, if not possible.
• Sampling just a few units saves money.
• Sampling just a few units saves time.
• Some measurements are destructive:
Cutting down trees to inspect ring
patterns or stem or rooting depth
analysis, capturing wildlife to examine
their morphology, etc.
Sampling makes statistical methods attractive and
powerful.
VARIABLE- is a characteristic or attribute or condition
that can change or assume different values. (GPA of
students)
DATA- are the specific values of the variable. (a
student’s GPA is 1.75)
CLASSIFYING DATA- data can be classified in 2 major
categories:
1. Qualitative- the data consists of non-numeric
values (college majors, hairs, gender, eye color)
2. Quantitative- the data consists of numeric
income)
TYPES OF VARIABLES- variables can be classified as
discrete or continuous.
• Discrete variables- categories (class size)
consist of indivisible. (Number of pages, shoe
size, number of people)
• Continuous variables- (time or weight) are
infinitely divisible into whatever units a
researcher may choose. (Amount, height)
DISCRETE DATA- are obtained by counting process.
(Number of students in a class, money)
CONTINUOUS DATA- are obtained by a measuring
process. (Car speed, height, temperature)
MEASURING VARIABLES
• Researchers must observe the variables and
record their observations. This requires that the
variables be measured.
• The process of measuring a variable requires a
set of categories called scale of measurement
and a process that classifies each individual into
one category.
TYPES OF MEASUREMENTS SCALES
1. Nominal scale- is an unordered set of categories
identified only by name.
• Nominal measurements only permit you
to determine whether two individuals
are the same or different. (Numbers
assigned to runners)
Nominal data- consist just of names or labels;
purely categorial values
Defined Operations: counts and percentages
Examples: college majors, town you live in,
religion, university you graduated from
2. Ordinal scale- is an ordered set of categories.
• Ordinal measurements tell you the
direction of the difference between two
individuals. (Rank order of winners)
 Ordinal data- there is an implied ranking or
ordering of the categorial possible values or data.
Defined Operations: counts and percentages;
ordinal operations like =,>, and <
Examples: ratings of your professor (excellent,
good, fair, poor), sizes of cars (full size,
intermediate, compact)
3. Interval scale- is an ordered series of equal
sized categories. (Performance rating on a 0 to
10 scale)
• Interval measurements identify the
direction and magnitude of a difference.
The zero point is located arbitrarily on
an interval scale.
Interval data- these quantitative data can have
the values subtracted, but division is not
meaningful.
Defined Operations: counts and percentages;
ordinal operations like =, >, and <; +, -
Examples: temperature (we can say that 80° is
40° more than 80°, but we can not say that 80°
is twice as hot as 40°.
4. Ratio scale- is an interval scale where a value of
zero indicates none of the variable.
• Ratio measurements identify the
direction and magnitude of differences
and allow ratio comparisons of
measurements. They have fixed zero
point.
Ratio data- these quantitative data can be both
subtracted and divided meaningfully.
Defined Operations: counts and percentages;
ordinal operations like =, >, and <; +, -, x, /
Examples: salaries (we can say that a salary of
150, 000 is 100, 000 more than a salary of 50,000.
It is also 3 times as much)
Primary data: data originated by a researcher for the
specific purpose of addressing the problem at hand;
data directly gathered by the user
Secondary data: data collected for some purpose other
than the problem at hand; data not directly gathered by
the user
A comparison of primary and secondary data
Primary data Secondary data
Collection Problem at Other problems
purpose hand
Collection Very involved Rapid and easy
process
Collection cost High Relatively low
Collection time Long short
DATA SAMPLING COLLECTION
Recall…
Statistics is a tool for converting data into information:
Statistcs
Data Information
METHODS OF COLLECTING DATA
There are many methods used to collect or obtain data
for statistical analysis.
Objective Method- involves getting actual
measurements and observations
• Direct observations
• Experiments
Subjective Method- involves the respondent providing
the data.
• Surveys
Use of Existing Records- involves the use of data
collected previously by the other persons or
organizations
SURVEYS- solicits information from people; e.g. pre-
election polls; marketing surveys.
Response Rate (i.e the proportion of all people selected
who complete the survey) is a key survey parameter.
Surveys may be administered in a variety of ways, e.g.
▪ Personal interview,
▪ Telephone interview,
▪ Self-Administered Questionnaire, and
▪ Internet
QUESTIONNAIRE DESIGN…
Over the years, a lot of thought has been put
into science of the design of survey questions. Key design
principles:
1. Keep the questionnaire as short as possible.
2. Aske short, simple, and clearly worded
questions.
3. Start with demographic questions to help
respondents get started comfortably.
4. Use dichotomous and multiple-choice
questions.
5. Use open-ended questions cautiously.
6. Avoid using leading-questions.
7. Pretest a questionnaire on a small number
of people.
8. Think about the way you intend to use the
collected data when preparing the
questionnaire.
SAMPLING
Recall the statistical inference permits us to
draw conclusions about a population based on a sample.
▪ Sampling (i.e selecting a sub-set of a whole
population) is often done for reasons of cost (it
is less expensive to sample 100 students than 10,
000 students) and practicality (e.g. performing
a rainfall measurement procedure in all
barangays in the Philippines is impractical.
Sampling Plans…
Sampling plan- a method or process or procedure for
specifying how a sample will be taken from a population.
SAMPLING PLAN/PROCESS
Advantages
▪ Saves time
▪ Saves financial and human resources
Disadvantages Independent: the choice of one element is not
▪ Unable to find out the information about the dependent upon the choice of another element in the
population’s characteristics of interest to you sampling
but you only estimate or predict them ▪ That is, the selection or rejection of one element
▪ The possibility of an error in your estimation does not affect the inclusion or exclusion of another.
exists A sample can only be considered a random/probability
sample and representative of the population under
SAMPLING TERMINOLOGY
study if these conditions are met. If not, bias can be
TERM DEFINITION
introduced into the study.
Population/study Large general group of many
population cases and usually denoted by
letter (N) Advantages of random/ Probability Samples
Sample Smaller set of cases from a larger ▪ As they represent the total sampling population, the
group inferences drawn from such samples can be
Sample size Number of selected cases from generalized to the total sampling population.
larger population ▪ Some statistical tests based upon the theory of
Sampling design/ Method you use to select sample probability can be applied only to data collected
strategy from random samples. Some of these tests are
Sampling unit/ Name for a case or single unit to important for establishing conclusive correlations.
sampling be selected
element SIMPLE RANDOM SAMPLING
Sampling frame List of units composing a - A sample selected in such a way that every possible
population from which a sample is sample of the same size is equally likely to be chosen.
selected
Sample statistics Information obtained from your
STRATIFIED RANDOM SAMPLING
respondents
- Obtained by separating the population into mutually
Population A characteristic of the entire
parameters/ population that is estimated from exclusive sets, or strata, and then drawing simple
population mean a sample random samples from each stratum.

FACTORS AFFECTING THE INFERENCES OF SAMPLE CLUSTER SAMPLING

▪ The size of the sample - Simple random sample of groups or clusters of
▪ The extent of variation in the sampling elements.
population - May increase sampling error due to similarities
among cluster members.

RANDOM/ PROBABILITY SAMPLING DESIGNS

▪ Each element in the population has an equal and

independent chance of selection in the sample.
Equal: the probability of selection of each element
in the population is the same.
▪ That is, the choice of an element in the sample is
not influenced by other considerations such as
personal preference.
NON-RANDOM/ NON-PROBABILITY SAMPLING DESIGNS
▪ These are used when the umber of elements in a
population is either unknown or cannot be
individually identified.
▪ The selection of elements is dependent upon other ▪ using SRS, select an element from the first
considerations. interval (nth order)
▪ select the same order element from each
QUOTA SAMPLING subsequent interval.
▪ The researcher is guided by some visible
characteristic (gender or race) of the study
▪ Sample is selected from a location convenient to the
researcher.
▪ The process continues until the researcher has been
able to contact the required number of respondent
or quota.
Advantages:
- least expensive way of selecting samples
- do not need any information about the sampling
population
Disadvantages:
- findings cannot be generalized to the total
sampling population
- most accessible individuals might have
characteristics that are unique to them and
hence might not be truly representative of the
total sampling population.

ACCIDENTAL SAMPLING
▪ Whereas quota sampling attempts to include people
possessing an obvious/visible characteristic,
accidental sampling makes no such attempt.
▪ Common among market research and newspaper
reports
JUDGEMENTAL OR PURPOSE SAMPLING
▪ Judgement of the researcher as to who can provide
the best information to achieve the objectives of the
study
▪ This type of sampling is extremely useful when you
want to construct a historical reality, describe
phenomenon or develop something which only little
is known.
SNOWBALL SAMPLING
▪ Selecting samples using networks
▪ Few individuals in a group are selected and the
required information collected from them.
▪ Identifying other people in the group and the people
selected by them to be part of the sample
▪ Method is useful for studying communication
patterns, decision making or diffusion of knowledge
within a group.
MIXED SAMPLING DESIGN:
SYSTEMATIC SAMPLING DESIGN
▪ Has the characteristics of both random and non-
random sampling designs
▪ Sampling frame is first divided into a number of
segments called intervals
PROCEDURE OF SELECTING A SYSTEMATIC SAMPLE
▪ Prepare a list of all the elements in the study
population (N)
▪ Decide on the sample size (n)
▪ Determine the width of the interval (k)
Total population over sample size
SLOVIN’s FORMULA
𝑵
𝒏=
𝟏 + 𝑵𝒆𝟐
SAMPLE SIZE
The larger the sample size is, the more accurate
we can expect the sample estimate to be.
SAMPLING ERROR refers to the difference between the
sample and the population that exist only because of the
observations that happened to be selected for the
sample. Random and we have no control over.
Note: increasing the sample size will reduce the error.
NON-SAMPLING ERRORS are more serious, due to
mistakes made in the acquisitions of data or to the
sample observations being selected improperly. Most
likely caused by poor planning, sloppy work, etc.
Three types pf non-sampling errors:
▪ errors in data acquisition (incorrect
measurement because of faulty equipment,
mistake during transcription from primary
source, inaccurate recording of data, inaccurate
responses to questions)
▪ nonresponse errors, and
▪ selection bias
Note: increasing the sample size will not reduce the type
of error.
NON-RESPONSE ERROR- refers to error (or bias)
introduced when responses are not obtained from some
members of the sample
Response Rate- is a key survey parameter and helps in
the understanding in the validity of the survey and
sources of nonresponse error.
SELECTION BIAS- occurs when the sampling plan is such VARIABLE- represents model state, and may
that some members of the target population cannot
change during simulation.
possibly be selected for inclusion in the sample.
- Can be measured
WAYS OF OBTAINING DATA - Quantities that may vary between
1. Survey- make a census of the entire population. individuals
2. Observational study- we observe the subjects PAREMETER- commonly used to describe objects
but we do not attempt to modify the subjects statically. It is normally a constant in a single
being studied. simulation, and is change only when you need to
3. Experiment- we apply some sort of treatment adjust your model behavior.
and observe the effects. - Do not relate to actual measurements
- Relate to quantities defining theoretical
EXPERIMENTS model
▪ To demonstrate cause and effect relationship
between two variables, to show that changing
the value of one variable cause changes to occur
in a second variable.
▪ One variable is manipulated to create treatment
conditions and second variable is observed and
measured to obtain scores for group of
individuals in each of the treatment conditions.
The measurements are then compared to see
differences between treatment conditions. All
other variables are controlled to prevent them
from influencing the results.
▪ Independent variable- manipulated variable
▪ Dependent variable- observed variable

BIAS- systematic distortion of measurements sources:

measurement flaw, incorrect sampling method
ACCURACY- success of estimating the true value of
quantity
PRECISION- clustering of sample values about their own
average
ENGINEERING DATA ANALYSIS (ENMA 311) Compound Events:
PROBABILITY Composition of two or more other events.
Can be formed in two different ways.
PROBABILITY EXPERIMENT 1. Union
▪ Is an action through which specific results • Outcomes in either events A or B or both
(counts, measurements or responses) are • ‘OR’ statement
obtained. • Denoted by ∪ symbol (i.e., A ∪ B)
Example: Rolling a die and observing the 2. Intersection
number that is rolled is a probability experiment. • Outcomes in both events A and B
The result of a single trial in a probability experiment is • ‘AND’ statement
outcome. • Denoted by ∩ symbol (i.e., A ∩ B)
The set of all possible outcomes for an experiment is the
sample space. What is Probability?
Example: The sample space when rolling a die 1. Numerical measure of the likelihood that event
has six outcomes. {1,2,3,4,5,6} will occur
❖ P(Event)
Sample Space Example: ❖ P(A)
Experiment Sample Space ❖ Prob(A)
Toss a Coin. Note Face {Head, Tail} 2. Lies between 0 & 1
Toss 2 Coins, Not Faces {HH, HT, TH, TT} 3. Sum of sample points is 1
Select 1 Card, Note Kind {2
Select 1 Card, Note Color {Red, Black} Assigning Probabilities
Play a Tennis Game {Win, Lose, Tie} Three approaches:
Inspect a Part, Note 1. Classical/Theoretical
Quality {Defective, Good} 2. Relative Frequency/Empirical
Observe Gender {Male, Female} 3. Subjective

Event – consists of one or more outcomes and is a subset Summary of Types of Probability
of the sample space.
Approaches to Probability
Example:
A die is rolled. Event A is rolling an event number.
Note: Events are represented by uppercase
letters. Objective Subjective

Simple event – is an event that consists of a single

outcome. Classical Empirical Based on
Example: Probability Probability available
A die is rolled. Event A is rolling an even number. information
This is not a simple event because the outcomes
of event A are {2, 4, 6}.
Based on Based on
Experiment: Toss 2 Coins. Note Faces. equally likely relative
Sample Space: HH, HT, TH, TT outcomes frequencies
Event Outcomes in Event
1 Head & 1 Tail HT, TH
Head on 1st Coin HH, HT Classical Probability
At Least 1 Head HH, HT, TH Classical (or theoretical) probability is used
Heads on Both HH when each outcome in a sample space is equally likely
Tails on Both TT to occur. The classical probability for event E is given by

Experiment: Toss 2 Coins, Note Faces. 𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛𝑡

𝑃(𝐸) =
Sample Space S = {HH, HT, TH, TT} 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒 𝑠𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑒

Example:
Compound A die is rolled.
Event: TH Find the probability of Event A: rolling a 5.
At least one Tail HH HT
There is one outcome in Event A: {5}
Outcome 1
TT 𝑃(𝐴) = ≈ 0.167
6
S “Probability of Event A”
Empirical Probability Probability Rules for Sample Points
Empirical (or statistical) probability is based Let pi represent the probability of sample point i.
on observations obtained from probability experiments. 1. All sample point probabilities must lie between
The empirical frequency of an event E is the relative 0 and 1 (i.e., 0≤pi≤1).
frequency of event E. 2. The probabilities of all sample points within a
sample space must sum 1 (i.e., Ʃpi=1).
𝐹𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝐸𝑣𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝐸
𝑃(𝐸) =
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 An EVENT and its COMPLIMENT
𝑓
=
𝑛
E
Example:
A travel agent determines that in every 50 reservations
she makes, 12 will be for a cruise. (not E)
What is the probability that the next reservation she
makes will be for a cruise? Complementary Events
The complement of Event E is the set outcomes in the
12 sample space that are not included in event E.
𝑃(𝑐𝑟𝑢𝑖𝑠𝑒) = = 0.24 (Denoted E’ and read “E prime.”)
50

Law of Large Numbers 𝑃(𝐸) + 𝑃(𝐸 ′ ) = 1 𝑃(𝐸) = 𝑃(𝐸 ′ ) 𝑃(𝐸 ′ ) = 1 − 𝑃(𝐸)

As an experiment is repeated over and over, the
empirical probability of an event approaches the Example: There are 5 red chips, 4 blue chips, and 6
theoretical (actual) probability of an event. white chips in a basket. Find the probability of randomly
selecting a chip that is not blue.
Example:
Sally flips a coin 20 times and gets 3 heads. The 4
𝑃(𝑠𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑎 𝑏𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑐ℎ𝑖𝑝) = ≈ 0.267
empirical probability is 3/20. This is not representative 15
of the theoretical probability which is ½. As the number
of times Sally tosses the coin increases, the law of large 4 11
𝑃(𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑠𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑎 𝑏𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑐ℎ𝑖𝑝) = 1 − = ≈ 0.733
numbers indicates that the empirical probability will get 15 15
closer and closer to the theoretical probability.
Combination of Events
Probabilities with Frequency Distributions We study methods to determine probabilities of events
Example: that result from combining other events in various ways.
The following frequency distribution represents the ages
of 30 students in a statistics class. What is the The Addition Rule – “OR”
probability that a student is between 26 and 33 years Union of two events [event A or event B] or [A+B]
old? • The special addition rule (mutually exercise
Ages Frequency, f events)
18-25 13 • The general addition rule (non-mutually
26-33 8 P(age 26 to 33)=8/30 exclusive events)
=0.267
34-41 4
42-49 3 The Multiplication Rule – “AND”
50-57 2 Intersection of two events [event A and event B] or [A*B]
Ʃ𝑓 = 30 • The special multiplication rule (for
independents events)
Subjective Probability • The general multiplication rule (for non-
Subjective probability results from intuition, independent events)
educated guesses, and estimates. This approach reflects
the personal evaluation of the uncertainties involved. Venn diagrams for
If the experimental outcomes are not equally a) Event (not E)
likely, and no history of repetition exists, one needs to b) Event (A & B)
resort to subjective probability determination, c) Event (A or B)

Example:
A farmer predicts that the probability he gets a good
harvest is 0.80. E
A B A B
Range of Probabilities Rule (A & B) (A or B)
The probability of an event E is between 0 and 1, inclusive. That
is 0≤P(E)≤1.
CONDITIONAL PROBABILITY AND THE MULTIPLICATION 1
𝑃(𝑟𝑜𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑎 5) =
RULE 6
Whether or not the roll is a 5, P(Tail)=1/2, so the events
Conditional Probability are independent.
A conditional probability is the probability of 𝑃(5 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑇 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑇) = 𝑃(5) ∗ 𝑃(𝑇) ∗ 𝑃(𝑇)
an event occurring, given that another event has already 1 1 1
= ∙ ∙
occurred. 6 2 2
𝑃(𝐵ǀ𝐴) → "𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑏𝑎𝑏𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝐵, 𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝐴" 1
= ≈ 0.042
24
Example:
There are 5 red chip, 4 blue chips, and 6 white chips in The Addition Rule
a basket. Two chips are randomly selected. Find the
probability that the second chip is red given that the Mutually Exclusive Events
first chip is blue. (Assume that the first chip is not Two events, A and B, are mutually exclusive if they
replaced.) cannot occur at the same time.

Because the first chip is selected and not replaced, there

are only 14 chips remaining. A and B are mutually
5 exclusive. A B
𝑃(𝑠𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑎 𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑐ℎ𝑖𝑝ǀ𝑓𝑖𝑠𝑟𝑡 𝑐ℎ𝑖𝑝 𝑖𝑠 𝑏𝑙𝑢𝑒) = ≈ 0.357
14

Independent Events
Two events are independent if the occurrence of one of
the events does not affect the probability of the other A and B
event. A and B are not
Two events A and B are independent if mutually exclusive.
𝑃(𝐵ǀ𝐴) = 𝑃(𝐵) 𝑜𝑟 𝑖𝑓 𝑃(𝐴ǀ𝐵) = 𝑃(𝐴)
Events that are not independent are dependent.
A B
Example:
Decide if the events are independent or dependent. Example:
Selecting a diamond from a standard deck of Decide if the events are mutually exclusive.
cards (A), putting it back in the deck, and then
selecting a spade from the deck (B). Event A: Roll a number less that 3 on a die.
Event B: Roll a 4 or a die.
13 1 13 1
𝑃(𝐵ǀ𝐴) = = 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑃(𝐵) = = A B
52 4 52 4
The occurrence of A does not affect the probability of B, so the 1 4
events are independent. 2
Multiplication Rule
The probability that two events, A and B will occur in These events cannot happen at the same time, so the
sequence is events are mutually exclusive.
𝑃(𝐴 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐵) = 𝑃(𝐴) ∗ 𝑃(𝐵ǀ𝐴)
If the event A and B are independent, then the rule can The Addition Rule
be simplified to P(A and B) = P(A)*P(B).
The probability that event A or B will occur is given by
Example: 𝑃(𝐴 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐵) = 𝑃(𝐴) + 𝑃(𝐵) − 𝑃(𝐴 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐵)
Two cards are selected, without replacement, from a If events A and B are mutually exclusive, then the rule
deck. Find the probability of selecting a diamond, and can be simplified to P(A or B) = P(A)+P(B).
then selecting a spade.
Example:
Because the card is not replaced, the events are You roll a die. Find the probability that you roll a number
dependent. less than 3 or 4.
𝑃(𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑚𝑜𝑛𝑑 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑠𝑝𝑎𝑑𝑒) = 𝑃(𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑚𝑜𝑛𝑑) ∗ 𝑃(𝑠𝑝𝑎𝑑𝑒ǀ𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑚𝑜𝑛𝑑) The events are mutually exclusive.
13 13 169 P(roll a number less than 3 or roll a 4)
= ∗ = ≈ 0.064
52 51 2652 = 𝑃(𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑖𝑠 𝑙𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑛 3) + 𝑃(4)
2 1 3
Example: = + = = 0.5
6 6 6
A die is rolled and two coins are tossed.
Find the probability of rolling a 5, and flipping two tails.
Counting Principles Example:
You are required to read 5 books from a list of 8. In how
Fundamental Counting Principle many different orders can you do so?
If one event can occur in m ways and a second
event can occur in n ways, the number of ways the two 8! 8!
𝑛𝑃𝑟 = 8𝑃5 = = = 6720 𝑤𝑎𝑦𝑠
events can occur in sequence is m*n. This rule can be (8 − 5)! 3!
extended for any number of events occurring in a
sequence. Distinguishable Permutations
The number of distinguishable permutations
Example: of n objects, where n1 are one type, n2 are another type,
A meal consists of a main dish, a side dish, and a dessert. and so on is
How many different meals can be selected if there are 4 𝑛!
main dishes, 2 side dishes and 5 desserts available? , 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑛1 + 𝑛2 + 𝑛3 +∙∙∙ +𝑛𝑘 = 𝑛
𝑛1 ! ∙ 𝑛2 ! ∙ 𝑛3 ! ∙∙∙ 𝑛𝑘 !

Example:
# of main # of side # of
Jessie wants to plant 10 plants along the sidewalk in her
dishes dishes desserts
front yard. She has 3 rose bushes, 4 daffodils, and 3 lilies.
In how many distinguishable ways can the plants be
4 X 2 x 5 = 40 arranged?
There are 40 meals available. 10! 10 ∙ 9 ∙ 8 ∙ 7 ∙ 6 ∙ 5 ∙ 4!
=
3! ∙ 4! ∙ 3! 3! ∙ 4! ∙ 3!
Example: = 4,200 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑤𝑎𝑦𝑠 𝑡𝑜 𝑎𝑟𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑠
The access code to house’s security system consists of 5
digits. Each digit can be 0 through 9. How many different Combination of n Objects Taken r at a Time
codes are available if A combination is a selection of r objects from a
a) Each digit can be repeated? group of n things when order does not matter. The
b) Each digit can only be used once and not number of combinations of r objects selected from a
repeated? group of n objects is
𝑛!
a. Because each digit can be repeated, there are =𝑛 𝐶𝑟 =
(𝑛 − 𝑟)! ∙ 𝑟!
10 choices for each of the 5 digits. n = # in the collection
10 x 10 x 10 x 10 x 10 = 100,000 codes r = # taken in the collection
b. Because each digit cannot be repeated, there
are 10 choices of the first digit, 9 choices left Example:
for the second digit, 8 for the third, 7 for the You are required to read 5 books from the list of 8. In
fourth and 6 for the fifth. how many different ways can you do so if the order
doesn’t matter?
Permutations 8!
A permutation is an ordered arrangement of 8𝐶5 = = 56 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑏𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠
3! 𝑥5!
objects. The number of different permutations of n
distinct objects is n! “n factorial”. Note:
𝑛! = 𝑛 ∙ (𝑛 − 1) ∙ (𝑛 − 2) ∙ (𝑛 − 3) ∙ … ∙ 3 ∙ 2 ∙ 1 Permutation – order does matter
Combination – order does not matter
Example:
How many different surveys re required to cover all
possible question arrangements if there are 7 questions
in a survey?
7! = 7 ∙ 6 ∙ 5 ∙ 4 ∙ 3 ∙ 2 ∙ 1 = 5040 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒𝑦𝑠

Permutation of n Objects Taken r at a Time

The number of permutations of n elements
taken r at a time is
𝑛!
=𝑛 𝑃𝑟 =
(𝑛 − 𝑟)!
n = # in the group
r = # taken from the group
DISCRETE PROBABILITY DISTRIBUTIONS

PROBABILITY DISTRIBUTION. A listing of all the outcomes

of an experiment and all the probability associated with
each outcome.
The probability distribution of a discrete random
variable is a graph, table or formula that specifies the
probability associated with each possible outcome the
random variable can assume.

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