Chapter 4

STRUCTURE OF THE
ATOM

4.1 The Atomic Models of Thomson and Ruther-

ford
The first model of the atom was given by J.J. Thomson in 1898. He assumed
Joseph John Thomson
that atoms are homogeneous uniform spheres of positively charged matter was born in 1856 in Eng-
in which electrons are embedded, much like “raisins in plum pudding.” In land, of Scottish parentage.
He studied engineering at
1911, Geiger and Marsden conducted an experiment in which they studied Owens College, Manchester,
the scattering of α-particles (ionized helium atom) by a very thin foil of and moved on to Trinity Col-
lege, Cambridge. In 1884
gold. A calumniated beam of α-particles hitting a gold foil showed that de- he became Cavendish Profes-
flection through large angles. Most of these particles went undeflected while sor of Physics. One of his
a few were turn back. Thomson’s model could not explain it. Rutherford students was Ernest Ruther-
ford, who would later suc-
suggested that the atom consists of a central massive nucleus where its en- ceed him in the post. For his
tire mass and positive charge is concentrated and it is this nucleus which is discovery of the electron, he
was awarded a Nobel Prize
responsible for repelling the alpha particles. Around the nucleus there is a in 1906. In 1918 he be-
mist of electrons whose total charge is equal in magnitude to the charge in came Master of Trinity Col-
lege, Cambridge, where he
the nucleus. remained until his death. He
died in 1940 and was buried
in Westminster Abbey, close
to Isaac Newton.
4.2 Rutherford Scattering
A charged particle of mass m, charge Z1 e and velocity vo is incident on a
target material or scatterer of charge Z2 e. The impact parameter, b, is the
closest distance of approach between the beam particle and scatterer if the
projectile had continued in a straight line. Let us find the relation between
b and the scattering angle θ.
Z
∆p = F∆p dt

1
 Class Notes on
4.2. RUTHERFORD SCATTERING Applied Modern Physics ECEG-341

Figure 4.1: α-particle scattering

where F∆p is the force along the direction of ∆p.

∆p = Pf − Pi
pi ≈ pf = mvo (assume no recoil of the scatterer)

Then (isosceles triangles of Pi , Pf , and ∆p)

∆p mvo
=
sin θ sin( π−θ
2 )

Since
   
Ernest Rutherford (1871- π−θ θ
1937) was the brilliant New sin = cos
Zealand physicist who ex- 2 2
   
plained natural radioactiv- θ θ
ity, determined the structure sin θ = 2 sin cos
of the atom, and changed one 2 2
element into another (nitro-  
gen to oxygen) by splitting
θ
∴ ∆p = 2mvo sin
an atom’s nucleus. A farm 2
boy from New Zealand’s
South Island, he spent most
of his professional career The coulomb force F is along the instantaneous direction of the position
overseas at McGill Univer- vector r (unit vector â )
r
sity in Montreal, Canada
(1895-98), and at Manch-
ester University (1898-1907)
and Cambridge University
1 Z1 Z2 e2
F= âr = F âr
(1919-37) in the United 4πεo r2
Kingdom. Rutherford was
an energetic pioneer in nu-
clear physics: he discovered and F∆p = F cos φ since ∆p is in φ = 0 direction. Therefore,
(and named) alpha and beta
radiation, named the nucleus Z
and proton and won the
1908 Nobel prize in chem- ∆p = 2mvo sin (θ/2) = F cos φdt
istry for explaining radioac-
Z1 Z2 e2
Z
tivity as the disintegration cos φ
of atoms. Rutherford’s de- = dt
scription of an atomic struc-
4πεo r2
ture with orbital electrons
became the accepted model Murad Ridwan, 2 of 5
(with further help provided School of Electrical & Computer Engineering
by his student and colleague, AAiT, Addis Ababa University.
Niels Bohr), and in 1920 he
predicted the existence of the
neutron, which was later dis-
covered by James Chadwick.
 Class Notes on
4.3. ESTIMATION OF NUCLEAR RADIUS Applied Modern Physics ECEG-341

The instantaneous angular momentum must be conserved, so

dφ
mr2 = mvo b
dt
vo b
⇒ r2 =
dφ/dt
Z1 Z2 e 2
Z
cos φ dφ
∴ 2mvo sin(θ/2) =
4πεo vo b dt
2 Z φf
Z1 Z2 e
= cos φdφ
4πεo vo b φi

Let φi be on the -ve side and φf on the +ve side of z 0 (φ = 0), then

φi = −φf , −φi + φf + θ = π ⇒ φi = −(π − θ)/2, φf = (π − θ)/2

(π−θ)/2
8πεo mvo2 b
Z
sin(θ/2) = cos φdφ = 2 cos(θ/2)
Z1 Z2 e 2 −(π−θ)/2
Z1 Z2 e 2
∴b = cot(θ/2)
4πεo mvo2

Or with Ek = 12 mvo2 - kinetic energy of the particle:

Z1 Z2 e 2
b= cot(θ/2) (4.1)
8πεo Ek

4.3 Estimation of Nuclear Radius

For a given Ek and b there ia a distance of closest approach between a
bombarding particle and target scatterer of like charges. The minimum
separation occurs for a head-on collision. The particle turns around and
scatters backward at 180o . At the instant the particle turns around, the
entire kinetic energy has been converted into coulomb potential energy.
(Z1 e)(Z2 e)
Ek =
4πεo r
Z1 Z2 e2
∴ rmin = (4.2)
4πεo Ek
For α particles (Z1 = 2) of 7.7 MeV scattering on aluminium (Z2 = 19) or
gold(Z2 = 79)

rmin (aluminium) = 5 × 10−15 m

rmin (gold) = 3 × 10−14 m

We now know that nuclear radii vary from 1 to 10 × 10−15 m.

Murad Ridwan, 3 of 5
School of Electrical & Computer Engineering
AAiT, Addis Ababa University.
 Class Notes on
4.4. ELECTRON ORBIT (HYDROGEN ATOM) Applied Modern Physics ECEG-341

Figure 4.2: Electron orbit of hydrogen atom

4.4 Electron Orbit (Hydrogen Atom)

The coulomb attractive force between the nucleus and the orbiting electron
is
1 e2
Fe = − âr
4πεo r2
The electron’s radial acceleration is
v2
ar = , v − the tangential velocity
r
From Newton’s second law,

1 e2 mv 2
=
4πεo r2 r
Implying
e
v=√ (4.3)
4πεo mr
The total energy E of the electron in a hydrogen atom is the sum of its
e2
kinetic energy ( 12 mv 2 ) and potential energy (− 4πεor
)

E = Ek + Ep
mv 2 e2
= −
2 4πεo r
Substituting v from Eq. 4.3

e2
E=− (4.4)
8πεo r

Murad Ridwan, 4 of 5
School of Electrical & Computer Engineering
AAiT, Addis Ababa University.
 Class Notes on
4.4. ELECTRON ORBIT (HYDROGEN ATOM) Applied Modern Physics ECEG-341

The total energy is negative, indicating a bound, attractive system. Experi-

mentally it is found that a binding energy of 13.6 eV is required to separate
a hydrogen atom into a proton and an electron. Therefore,
e
r = −√ = 5.23 × 10−11 m
4πεo mr
In summary, the classical atomic model assumes that the atom consists of a
small, massive, positively charged nucleus surrounded by moving electrons,
resembling the planetary model of the solar system.
This model fails to explain the origin of spectral lines. An orbiting
electron has an acceleration directed towards the center. According to the
classical electrodynamics, an accelerated charged particle emits radiation.
This implies that with the loss of energy by radiation, the electron orbit
should shrink and the electron should crash into the nucleus. This process
would occur in about 10−9 s. Also, by this process, it would emit a continuous
range of radiations. Actually, however, it is observed that atoms are stable
and emit only discrete spectral lines when excited.
To overcome this difficulty, Bohr discarded the classical atomic model
and put forward his quantum model of the atom. The main idea in it is
that electrons can revolve in certain stationary orbits only, those in which
no radiation of energy takes place.

Exercise 1: Calculate the time, according to classical laws, it would take the
electron of the hydrogen atom to radiate its energy and crash into the nucleus.
   2   2 2
1 2Q d r
(Hint: The radiated power P is given by 4πε o 3c3 dt2 where Q is the
charge, c the speed of light, and r the position vector of the electron from the
center of the atom.)

Murad Ridwan, 5 of 5
School of Electrical & Computer Engineering
AAiT, Addis Ababa University.