JJ 2015 J2 H2 Physics (9646) Nuclear Physics

Nuclear Physics

Content

• The nucleus
• Isotopes
• Mass defect and nuclear binding energy
• Nuclear processes
• Radioactive decay
• Biological effect of radiation

Learning Outcomes
(a) infer from the results of the α-particle scattering experiment the existence and small size of the nucleus.

(b) distinguish between nucleon number (mass number) and proton number (atomic number).

(c) show an understanding that an element can exist in various isotopic forms each with a different number of
neutrons.

(d) use the usual notation for the representation of nuclides and represent simple nuclear reactions by nuclear
equations of the form
14
7 N + 42 He → 17
8 O + 11 H

(e) show an understanding of the concept of mass defect.

(f) recall and apply the equivalence relationship between energy and mass as represented by E = mc2 in problem
solving.

(g) show an understanding of the concept of binding energy and its relation to mass defect.

(h) sketch the variation of binding energy per nucleon with nucleon number.

(i) explain the relevance of binding energy per nucleon to nuclear fusion and to nuclear fission.

(j) state and apply to problem solving the concept that nucleon number, proton number, energy and mass are all
conserved in nuclear processes.

(k) show an appreciation of the spontaneous and random nature of nuclear decay.

(l) infer the random nature of radioactive decay from the fluctuations in count rate.

(m) show an understanding of the origin and significance of background radiation.

(n) show an understanding of the nature of α, β and γ radiations.

(o) define the terms activity and decay constant and recall and solve problems by using A = λN.

(p) infer and sketch the exponential nature of radioactive decay and solve problems by using the relationship
x = xoexp(-λt), where x could represent activity, number of undecayed particles and received count rate.

(q) define half-life.

0.693
(r) solve problems by using the relation λ = .
t1
2

(s) discuss qualitatively the effects, both direct and indirect, of ionizing radiation on living tissues and cells.

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History of Nuclear Physics

• 1896: Discovery of Radioactivity by Henri Becquerel

[Nobel Prize in Physics – 1903]
• 1897: Discovery of the electron by J.J. Thomson
[Nobel Prize in Physics – 1906]
• 1905: Formulation of the mass-energy equivalence by Albert Einstein
• 1910: Discovery of the nucleus by Han Geiger and Ernest Marsden,
under the direction of Ernest Rutherford.
• 1932: Discovery of the neutron by James Chadwick
• 1949: Invention of carbon dating technique by Willard Frank Libby
[Nobel Prize in Chemistry – 1960]
• 6th Aug 1945: Uranium fission bomb “Little Boy” detonated over Hiroshima, Japan.
• 9th Aug 1945: Plutonium fission bomb “Fat Man” detonated over Nagasaki, Japan.
• 3rd Sep 1948: 1st nuclear (fisson) reactor operational in Tennessee, U.S.A.
• 26th Apr 1986: Chernobyl nuclear disaster
(1st of only two Level 7 event)(max.)
on the International Nuclear Event Scale (INES)
• 11th Mar 2011: Fukushima nuclear disaster (2nd Level 7 event)
• 15th Oct 2012: Results of two-year pre-feasibility study concludes that
“nuclear technology is not suitable for Singapore.”
th
• 18 Jan 2013: nuclear power plants (operational: 437; under construction: 68)
• 2017 (expected): 1st efficient nuclear (fusion) reactor operational

(a) infer from the results of the α-particle scattering experiment the existence and small
size of the nucleus

Rutherford’s α-particle scattering experiment: Setup

Rutherford's experiment consisted of a beam of alpha particles, generated by the

radioactive decay of radium, directed normally onto a sheet of very thin gold foil in an
evacuated chamber (Fig. 1).

A zinc sulphide screen at the focus of a microscope was used as a detector; the screen
and microscope could be swivelled around the foil to observe particles deflected at any
given angle.

Figure 1: An arrangement (top view) used in Ernest

Figure 2: Relationship between number
Rutherford’s lab in 1911-1913 to study the scattering of
of scattered alpha particles and the
α-particles by thin gold foils.
scattering angle.

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Rutherford’s α-particle scattering experiment: Observations

1
1. A very small fraction of the alpha particles (approximately ) were deflected
8000
back through at angles more than 90o (Fig. 2)
At that time, Rutherford remarked, "It was almost as incredible as if you fired a 15-
inch shell at a piece of tissue paper and it came back at you!"

2. Most of the fast, highly charged alpha particles was undeflected pass through with
very small deflections.

Rutherford’s α-particle scattering experiment: Inferences

1. Recall from the topic of “Dynamics”: Regardless of the nature of the force in an
elastic collision, to get a scattering angle greater than 90o, the target must be more
massive than the projectile.
It cannot be the case of electrons deflecting the α-particles since the latter’s mass is
about 7000 times that of the former.

2. The gold nuclei are very small in size (i.e the foil has a lot of empty space).

Models for the atom

Figure 3a: The quantum mechanical model of an

atom, in this case, helium. The quantum
mechanical model is based on mathematics.
Although it is more difficult to understand than the
Bohr model, it can be used to explain observations
made on complex atoms.
Figure 3b: The Bohr model of an atom. It can
make accurate predictions for the behaviour
of simple atoms such as hydrogen.

The currently accepted model of an atom (Fig. 3a) consists of a dense central nucleus
surrounded by a cloud of negatively charged electrons:

• Over 99.94% of an atom's mass is concentrated in the nucleus with protons and
neutrons having roughly equal mass.
• The protons are positively charged while the neutrons have no charge.
• The electrons determine the chemical properties of an element, and strongly influence
an atom's magnetic properties.

Worked Example 1

Two α-particles with equal energies are fired towards the nucleus of a gold atom.
Which diagram could represent their paths?

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Solution:

B: The straight path is quite close to the gold nucleus. It should show deflection.

C: The two paths should not be parallel since the electrostatic force acting on the α-particle
decreases according to the inverse square law with distance from the gold nucleus.
D: Both α-particle and the gold nucleus are positively charged, and should repel each other
instead of attracting each other.

(Ans : A)

Worked Example 2 (2002/9248/P1/Q30)

In an α-particle scattering experiment, a student determined the number n of α-particles incident

per unit time on a detector held at various angular positions θ .

α-particles

Which graphs best represents the variation of n with θ ?

Solution:

(Ans : C) Relate to Fig. 2

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(b) distinguish between nucleon number (mass number) and proton number (atomic
number)

Atomic Structure
This section is related to concepts learnt in O-level/H1/H2 chemistry.

Protons and neutrons in a nucleus are collectively known as nucleons. The total
number of protons and neutrons in a nucleus is known as its nucleon number (which is an
integer, without unit). Nucleon number is also known as mass number1.

Proton number of a nucleus is the number of protons in it. Each element in the Periodic
Table has a unique proton number in the nucleus of its atom, starting with hydrogen having
proton number = 1, helium having proton number = 2, etc. It is the proton number in the
nucleus of its atom that determines the element. Hence, proton number is also known as
atomic number of the nucleus of the atom of that element.

All atoms are neutral. In an atom, the proton number of its nucleus and the number of
electrons orbiting this nucleus must be the same.

(c) show an understanding that an element can exist in various isotopic forms each with
a different number of neutrons

Isotopes
This section is related to concepts learnt in O-level/H1/H2 chemistry.

An element is determined by the proton number of the nucleus in its atom. Atoms whose
nuclei have the same proton number belong to the same element. This is despite the fact
that they may carry different number of neutrons. Such atoms (having the same number of
protons but different number of neutrons) are called isotopes.

Quite a number of elements have isotopes.

• Take for instance the element oxygen, nuclei of oxygen atoms must each have 8
protons. Some of the oxygen nuclei have 8 neutrons each, some have 9 neutrons and
some even have 10 neutrons; but they are all nuclei of oxygen atoms. Atoms with these
nuclei are known as isotopes of oxygen.
• Another element that has isotopes is hydrogen. An ordinary hydrogen atom has 1
proton in its nucleus, with no neutron. Another isotope which has 1 neutron in its
nucleus is known as deuterium, and yet another which has 2 neutrons in its nucleus is
known as tritium.

Chemically, these isotopes are identical (since chemical reactions only involve orbital
electrons, and all isotopes of the same element have the same number of orbital
electrons), but their nuclei have different masses.

Physically, isotopes exhibit different characteristics.

1
Since a proton or a neutron has a mass of about 1 u, so in this unit of mass, the total mass of a nucleus is
about the same as its nucleon number, thus nucleon number is also known as mass number. E.g., an α-
particle (which is actually a helium nucleus, consisting of 2 protons and 2 neutrons) has a nucleon number
= 4. It also has a mass of about 4 u.
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(d) use the usual notation for the representation of nuclides and represent simple

→
nuclear reactions by nuclear equations of the form 147 N + 42 He 17 1
8O + 1H

Symbolic representation of nuclides

This section is related to concepts learnt in O-level/H1/H2 chemistry

The nucleus is the central part of an atom. The term “nucleus” is used when we are
considering it as part of the atom i.e taking the presence of the orbital electrons into
consideration. When we consider the nuclei of a particular isotope, the term “nuclide” is
used instead.

The usual notation used for the representation of a nuclide is as follows:

A
Z
X
where: X is the chemical symbol of that element
(e.g. H for hydrogen, He for helium)
A is the nucleon number (mass number); and
Z is the proton number (atomic number).

The number of neutrons in a nuclide of element X can be determined from

A
Z
X by subtracting Z from A i.e
number of neutrons = A – Z

The nuclei of the isotopes of oxygen (mentioned in learning outcome (c) previously) can be
represented by 168 O , 178 O , and 188 O respectively.

Likewise, the nucleus of ordinary hydrogen atom, with 1 proton and no neutron in its
nucleus, can be represented by 11 H . Isotopes of hydrogen like deuterium (1 proton, 1
neutron) and tritium (1 proton, 2 neutrons) can be represented by 21 H and 31 H respectively.

A nuclear reaction

In a nuclear reaction, there is a transformation of at least one nuclide to another.

A nuclear reaction must be caused by an external stimulus such as the collision of two or
more nuclides and can be represented by a nuclear equation as follows:
→

14
7 N + 42 He 17
8 O + 11 H ---- (1)

Conservation laws in nuclear reactions

Nuclear reactions obey 4 important conservation laws:

(i) Conservation of nucleon number: 14 + 4 = 17 + 1 (from (1))

(ii) Conservation of proton number: 7 + 2 = 8 + 1 (from (1))
(iii) Conservation of mass-energy
(iv) Conservation of linear momentum

The conservation of mass-energy in a nuclear reaction is related to the concept of mass

defect and binding energy.

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(e) show an understanding of the concept of mass defect

Mass defect

The mass of a single nuclide is less than the total mass of its individual nucleons. For example,
when a single helium nuclide is split up to give 2 protons and 2 neutrons, the mass of the single
helium nuclide is less than the total mass of its 4 individual nucleons (Fig. 4), so there is a
shortage of mass (mass defect). The mass defect is 0.03035 u (= 4.03188 u – 4.00153 u).

Figure 4: Mass defect of helium nuclide, which is an alpha particle

Mass defect of a nucleus, +m = ( Total mass of its

individual nucleons ) − (mass of the nucleus)
In actual fact, energy has to be supplied to the single helium nucleus to split it up into 4
nucleons. This energy supplied is converted to mass to make up the mass defect of 0.03035 u
and known as binding energy.

Binding energy Eb of a nucleus is the minimum energy required to break the

nucleus into its individual nucleons.

(f) recall and apply the equivalence relationship between energy and mass as
represented by E = mc2 in problem solving

(g) show an understanding of the concept of binding energy and its relation to mass
defect

(j) state and apply to problem solving the concept that nucleon number, proton number,
energy and mass are all conserved in nuclear processes.

Einstein’s mass-energy equivalence

Just like other forms of energy: light, heat, electrical or elastic potential energy, which can
be transformed from one form to another; mass can also be regarded as energy and can
also be transformed to other forms of energy. Conversely, other forms of energy can also
be transformed to mass. It is a deeper insight into the principle of conservation of energy!

E = mc2
where: E represents energy in J;
m represents mass in kg; and
c represents the speed of light in vacuum (c = 3.00 × 108 m s-1)

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Thus, the relationship between binding energy Eb and mass defect for a nucleus +m is
given by

Eb = (+m )c 2

Worked Example 3

A nucleus has a nucleon number A, a proton number Z, and a binding energy B. The
masses of the neutron and proton are mn and mp, respectively, and c is the speed of
light. The mass of the nucleus is given by

B B
A (A - Z)mn + Zmp - B (A + Z)mn + Zmp +
c2 c2
B B
C Amn + Zmp - D Amn + Zmp +
c2 c2

Solution:

Number of neutrons = nucleon number – proton number = A - Z

Mass defect of a nucleus = Total mass of its individual nucleons – mass of the nucleus

Since number of protons = Z, the number of neutrons = A - Z

Mass defect of a nucleus = mass of neutrons + mass of protons – mass of the nucleus
= (A – Z)mn + Zmp – mass of nucleus

Binding energy of a nucleus = (mass defect of nucleus)c2 B = (mass defect) c2

B = [(A – Z)mn + Zmp – mass of nucleus]c2

B/c2 = (A – Z)mn + Zmp – mass of nucleus

Mass of the nucleus = (A – Z)mn + Zmp – B/c2

(Ans : A)

Putting it altogether

Consider nuclear reaction (1) again as follows:

→

14
7 N + 42 He 17
8 O + 11 H ---- (1)

One way of thinking about this nuclear reaction is that it involves

• the breaking up the nitrogen nuclide and helium nuclide into its nucleons of 9 neutrons
and 9 protons (this process requires absorption of energy) and then
• assembling them back into an oxygen nuclide and a hydrogen nuclide (this process
requires a release of energy).

Thus,
if the total mass of the reactants is more than the total mass of the products, then the
nuclear reaction will be exothermic; the total binding energy of the reactants is less than
the total binding energy of the products.

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If the total mass of the reactants is less than the total mass of the products, then the
nuclear reaction will be endothermic; the total binding energy of the reactants is more than
the total binding energy of the products.

Thus, in a nuclear reaction, mass-energy is conserved!

Worked Example 4

By bombarding various gases with alpha particles, in 1919, Rutherford successfully

carried out the 1st nuclear reaction:

→
14 4 1 17
7 N + 2 He 0 n + 8 O
--- (1)
14.00674u 4.00260u 1.00867u 16.99913u

How much energy was released or absorbed in this reaction?

Solution:

Total mass of reactants = 18.00934u

Total mass of products = 18.00641u

Total mass of reactants > Total mass of product. Thus this reaction is exothermic.

Amount of energy released

= (18.00934-18.00641)(3 x 108)2(1.66 x 10-27)

= 4.38 x 10-13 J = 2.74 MeV

Worked Example 5

226 222
A stationary isotope Ra decays into
88 86 Rn with the emission of an α-particle and a
γ-ray photon of frequencyν.

The principle of conservation of energy is expressed in this decay by the equation

A [mRa – mRn] c2 = hν
B 1
2
2
mRn uRn = hν + 12 mα uα2
C [mRa – (mRn + mα)] c2 = hν + 1
2
mα uα2 + 1
2
2
mRn uRn
D [(mRn + mα) - mRa] c2 = hν + 1
2
mα uα2 + 1
2
2
mRn uRn

where appropriate, m represents the mass of a particle, u the speed of a particle and c
the speed of electromagnetic radiation.

Solution:

226
This process may be represented by 88 Ra → 42 He + 222
86 Rn

226
Since 88 Ra was originally stationary, the reactant must have more mass than the
products such that ΔM = mRa – (mRn + mα)
The energy converted from this mass, E = (ΔM ) c2 = [mRa – (mRn + mα) ] c2
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This energy is released in the form of the kinetic energies of the product particles and
the γ-ray: hν + 12 mα uα2 + 12 mRn uRn
2

By conservation of mass-energy, [mRa – (mRn + mα)] c2 = hν + 1

2
mα uα2 + 1
2
2
mRn uRn

(Ans : C)

(h) sketch the variation of binding energy per nucleon with nucleon number

Binding energy per nucleon with nucleon number graph

The binding energy per nucleon is the minimum average energy per
nucleon needed to split a nucleus into separate nucleons

Fission
Fusion

Figure 5: Binding energy per nucleon (MeV) vs mass number graph

Some important features of the graph (Fig 5):

• The maximum binding energy per nucleon for all nuclei is ~ 8.8 MeV.
• At the peak of binding energy, nickel-62 is the most tightly bound nucleus (per nucleon),
followed by iron-58 and iron-56. This is the approximate basic reason why iron and
nickel are very common metals in planetary cores, since they are produced profusely as
end products in supernovae and in the final stages of silicon burning in stars.
• The smallest nucleus with binding energy is deuterium ( 21 H ). Its binding energy per
nucleon is ~1.1 MeV. The smallest of all nuclei is hydrogen ( 11 H ), which has no binding
energy (only 1 proton).
• The largest nucleus in this particular graph is uranium-238 ( 238
92
U ), which has a binding
energy per nucleon of about ~7.5 MeV.
• The slope of the graph on the left is very steep, and positive; the slope of the graph on
the right is gradual and negative.

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(i) explain the relevance of binding energy per nucleon to nuclear fusion and to nuclear
fission

Nuclear stability

high binding energy per nucleon → need large amount of energy to break nucleus
into individual nucleons → nucleus is stable

low binding energy per nucleon → need small amount of energy to break nucleus
into individual nucleons → nucleus is unstable

Binding energy per nucleon is a measure of the stability of the nucleus.

Nuclear Fission vs Nuclear Fusion

Nuclear fission and nuclear fusion are two important exothermic types of nuclear reactions.

With reference to Fig. 5, in nuclear fission, a heavy nucleus with low binding energy per
nucleon is broken up into 2 or more lighter nuclei, each with higher binding energy per
nucleon.

With reference to Fig. 5, in nuclear fusion, two or more light nuclei with low binding energy
per nucleon is combined into one heaver nucleus, with higher binding energy per nucleon.

In both cases, since the total number of nucleons in a nuclear reaction is conserved, this
implies that the products have higher total binding energy compared to the reactants and
energy is released in the form of kinetic energy of the products and radiation, usually gamma
rays. The products are more stable than the reactants. The products also have less total
mass compared to the reactants.

Examples of nuclear fission

Nuclear fission (Fig. 6 on pg. 12) is usually instigated by a neutron.

E.g., when a large nucleus like uranium-235 ( 235

92 U ) reacts with a neutron, nuclear fission takes

place in which the large uranium nucleus is broken into 2 smaller nuclei: lanthanum ( 148
57 La )

and bromine ( 85
35 Br ), with the emission of 3 neutrons. The reaction may be represented by the
equation:

235
92 U + 01 n → 148
57 La + 85
35 Br + 3 01 n --- (2)

235
Another possible, and less more common, nuclear fission with 92 U , which gives rise to a
rhodium nucleus ( 123
45 Rh ) and a silver nucleus ( 111
47 Ag ) may be represented as follows:

235
92 U + 01 n → 122
45 Rh + 112
47 Ag + 2 01 n --- (3)

The additional neutrons produced in a nuclear fission reactions of U-235, facilitate chain
reactions

☺: Note the neutron may be slow, with energy in the range of 1 eV to 10 eV or fast, with
energy in the range of 1 MeV to 20 MeV. Slow neutrons are used in thermal reactors while
fast neutrons are used in fast reactors.

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Figure 6 (right): A schematic nuclear fission chain

reaction. 1. A uranium-235 atom absorbs a neutron and
fissions into two new atoms (fission fragments), releasing
three new neutrons and some energy. 2. One of those
neutrons is absorbed by an atom of uranium-238 and
does not continue the reaction. Another neutron is simply
lost and does not collide with anything, also not
continuing the reaction. However, one neutron does
collide with an atom of uranium-235, which then fissions
and releases two neutrons and some energy. 3. Both of
those neutrons collide with uranium-235 atoms, each of
which fissions and releases between one and three
neutrons, which can then continue the reaction.

Worked Example 6

Explain why nuclear reaction (3) is less more common than nuclear reaction (2) given
the following data:

235 85
• Mass of 92 U : 238.02891u 235.04393u • Mass of 35 Br : 84.91565u
1 122
• Mass of n : 1.00000u 1.00866u
0 • Mass of 45 Rh : 121.94375u
148 112
• Mass of 57 La : 147.93268u • Mass of 47 Ag : 111.90704u

Solution:

148 85
Total mass of 57 La & 35 Br & 3 neutrons = 232.84833u 235.87431u
122 112
Total mass of 45 Rh & 47 Ag & 2 neutrons = 233.85079u 235.86811u

Since the products in reaction (3) have more less mass than the products in reaction
(2), the products in reaction (3) are less more stable than the products in reaction (2).

Hence, reaction (3) is less more common than reaction (2)

Examples of nuclear fusion

E.g., when 2 deuterons (nuclei of deuterium) are fused to form a helium nucleus, a neutron is
released in the process, represented by

2
1 H + 21 H 3
2 He + 01 n

Another possible nuclear fusion is the formation of a helium nucleus from a deuterium nucleus and a
tritium nucleus, represented by

2
1 H + 31 H 4
2 He + 01 n

There is no chain reaction in nuclear fusion.

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More information on nuclear fission and nuclear fussion (Optional)

Since all nuclei are positive, the fusion of 2 nuclei requires some energy to overcome their initial electrostatic
repulsion when they are brought together to be fused. This requires the 2 nuclei to have considerable kinetic
energy, so they need to be at a considerably high temperature (like 108 K), and so it is easier for smaller nuclei
to undergo fusion (also known as thermonuclear reaction).

Comparing fission and fusion:

In fission, the binding energy per nucleon increases from about 7.5 MeV to about 8.5 MeV (about 1 MeV)
whereas in fusion, the binding energy per nucleon increases from about 1 MeV to about 7 MeV (about 6 MeV).
So fusion would result in a release of energy about 6 times the amount released from fission, for the same
mass involved in these processes (because the values are all based on ‘per nucleon’).

At present, atomic bombs and nuclear reactors (which are like atomic bombs, but with the release of energy
under control, instead of a blast) involve fission to produce energy. They require nuclear fuels with large
nuclei, like uranium and plutonium, which are highly radioactive and limited in supply from ores, mined in
places like Russia.

The Sun and all hydrogen bombs use fusion to produce energy (which involves hydrogen nuclei, hence the
name ‘hydrogen bomb’ which are reputed to be much more powerful than atomic bombs; so now you should
know why. The high temperature required to initiate this thermonuclear bomb may be provided by the explosion
of an atomic bomb.) To date, fusion can only be achieved in this uncontrolled way of a bomb. It cannot be
done within a nuclear reactor which releases its energy in a controlled manner. If attempts to control the fusion
process were to succeed and be used in reactors, the hydrogen fuel required would be virtually inexhaustible,
in the form of hydrogen nuclei found in the water of our oceans!

The on-going release of energy from the Sun (and the other stars) due to this fusion process is converted from
mass, resulting in the continuing loss of mass from the Sun (many tonnes per second).

(k) show an appreciation of the spontaneous and random nature of nuclear decay

Nature of radioactive/nuclear decay

Radioactive decay, also known as nuclear decay, is the process by which a nucleus of an
unstable atom loses energy by emitting particles of ionizing radiation an alpha or beta particle,
and usually accompanied by emission of a gamma ray photon.

Radioactive decay is
• spontaneous, and
- occurs without any external stimuli such as changes in temperature and pressure
• random
- cannot predict when it will occur
(In a large sample of radioactive nuclide, the probability of decay per unit time is constant and
predictable based on statistical analysis.)

(l) infer the random nature of radioactive decay from the fluctuations in count rate

Random errors in radioactive/nuclear decay

Since radiations from radioactive disintegrations cannot be seen with the naked eye, we need
detectors. A detector, for e.g. a Geiger-Muller tube (G.M. tube), is always connected to a
counting device, known as a counter. Whenever a radiation is detected, the counter would
obtain a signal which would be counted.
Of course, not all radiations can be detected and counted. In fact, most of the emitted radiations
would be radiated in other directions and would not be counted. The number of counts per unit
time recorded by a counter is known as ‘count rate’ (Fig. 7 on pg. 14). The fact that count rate
fluctuates indicates that radioactive decay must be emitting radiations in a fluctuating manner
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that is unpredictable, i.e. it is random.

Figure 7: Example of a Geiger-Muller tube, connected
to a counting device
Figure 8: An example of radioactive decay data, counting
numbers of decays observed in 30s intervals. The best-fit
exponential curve is shown. The points do not fall exactly
on the line because of fluctuations, i.e. random. For a large
sample size, statistically, its activity is directly proportional
to the number of radioactive nuclei present in the sample.

(m) show an understanding of the origin and significance of background radiation

Background radiation and count rate

When there is no radioactive source near a detector, it still registers counts of radiation,
known as background counts (Fig. 8).

The sources are both natural and artificial.

Radioactive material is found throughout nature:

• Detectable amounts occur naturally in soil, rocks, water, air, and vegetation, from
which it is inhaled and ingested into the body.

• In addition to this internal exposure, humans also receive external exposure from
radioactive materials that remain outside the body and from cosmic radiation from
space.

The worldwide average natural dose to humans is about four times more than the
worldwide average artificial radiation exposure.

• Nearly all artificial background radiation comes from medical imaging procedures
such as receiving X-rays for X-ray photographs.

• Some artificial background radiation comes from

- above ground nuclear testing accidents such as the Chernobyl and Fukushima
incidents.
- cigarettes, and
- the nuclear fuel cycle.

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(n) show an understanding of the nature of α, β and γ radiations

There are 3 kinds of radiations emitted from radioactive nuclei: α, β and γ radiations.
The following table2 shows their natures:

Alpha (α) Beta (β) Gamma (γ)

Nature Helium nucleus
4
(2 He ) Electron
0
e High energy
−1
electromagnetic
consists of 2 protons High energy electron radiations (photons)
and 2 neutrons emitted from nucleus of very short
wavelength ∼ 10-12 m

Charge +2 e −e No charge

Mass 4u 1/1840 u No mass

Ionising strength Strong Weak Very weak

Typical speed 0.1 c 0.3 c to 0.9 c c

Penetrating ability Stopped by 5 cm of air Stopped by a few mm Stopped by about

or a piece of paper of aluminium 10 cm of lead

Deflection in electric Slight Large None

(covered in H1/H2 chemistry)/
magnetic field

Some radioactive nuclides emit one kind of radiation, α, or β, or γ radiation only.

Some nuclides emit two kinds of radiation, either α and β, or α and γ, or β and γ radiations.

Some nuclides emit all 3 kinds.

Worked Example 7 (2008/H2/P1/Q40)

x 255
A nucleus of bohrium y Bh decays to mendelevium 101 Md by a sequence of three α-
particle emissions.

x
How many neutrons are there in a nucleus of y Bh ?

A 267 B 261 C 160 D 154

2
c = speed of light;
u = unified atomic mass constant;
e = elementary charge

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Solution:

y − 3(2) = 101 y = 107

x − 3(4) = 255 x = 267
Hence number of neutrons = 267 – 107 = 160

(Ans : C)

Worked Example 8 (2012/H2/P1/Q40)

Isotope Y forms after two successive decays. Each decay can be either alpha-
emission or beta-emission. Four other isotopes, P, Q, R and S are shown on the
diagram.

How many of the isotopes P, Q, R and S could be the initial isotope that, after two
successive decays, became Y?

A 1 B 2 C 3 D 4

Solution:

Y has proton number 93 and neutron number 135

i.e. nucleon number of 135+93 = 228.

If the two successive decays are both alpha-emissions,

Then the original isotope has proton number of (93+2+2) = 97 and nucleon number of
(228+4+4) = 236, which means a neutron number of 236 – 97 = 139 (Isotope S)

If the two successive decays are both beta-emissions,

Then the original isotope has proton number of (93-1-1) = 91 and nucleon number of
(228+0+0) = 228, which means a neutron number of 228 – 91 = 137 (Isotope P)

If the two successive decays is one beta-emission and one alpha-emission,

Then the original isotope has proton number of (93-1+2) = 94 and nucleon number of
(228+4+0) = 232, which means a neutron number of 232 – 94 = 138 (Isotope R)

(Ans : C)

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(o) define the terms activity and decay constant and recall and solve problems by using
A = λN

(p) infer and sketch the exponential nature of radioactive decay and solve problems by
using the relationship x = xoexp(-λt), where x could represent activity, number of
undecayed particles and received count rate

Relation between activity, decay constant and received count rate of a radioactive nuclide

The activity, A, of a radioactive sample is the number of radiations emitted per unit time:
radioactive decay
(Unit: Bq equivalent to s-1)

dN
A=−
dt

where the negative sign indicates a decrease in the number of undecayed particles, N.

☺: symbol ‘Bq’, named after Henri Becquerel, who shared the Nobel prize with the Curie.

Of course, activity is directly proportional to the number of undecayed particles.

Mathematically, this relationship is expressed as

A ∝ N ⇒ A = λN

where λ is the constant of proportionality, known as the decay

constant.

The above equations can be rewritten as

λN = −
dN
λ=
( - dNN )
dt dt
⎛ dN ⎞
where ⎜ - ⎟ may be interpreted as the fraction of the radioactive nuclei in a sample that
⎝ N ⎠
Decay constant λ of a radioactive nuclide is defined as the
has decayed3.
probability of decay per unit time of a particular nucleus.

Decay constant λ of a radioactive nuclide may be is defined as the fraction of

the radioactive nuclei in a sample of the nuclide that has decayed per unit time.
(Unit: s-1)

dN
λN = − is also a 1st order differential equation with solution:
dt

N = No e-λt . . . . . (4)

3
In probability theory, the Poisson process is a good model for radioactive decay. Thus, the decay constant
can also be defined as the probability per unit time that a nucleus will decay within an infinitesimal time
interval +t (2012/H2/P3/Q8(b)(ii)). Students interested in the detailed mathematics involved can consult
their respective tutors ☺.
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where No is the original number of radioactive nuclei in the sample at t = 0 s.

Since A = λN, so Ao = λNo. Equation (4) can be changed to

A = Ao e-λt . . . . . (5)
where Ao is the initial activity.

Any detector placed at a certain fixed position to measure the activity of a radioactive
sample, will receive a certain fraction of the radiations emitted from that sample, so the
received count rate, C, must be directly proportional to its activity, i.e. C ∝ A. (Assume no
background count rates.)

Hence equation (5) can be changed to

C = Co e-λt . . . . . (6)

where Co is the initial received count rate (Unit: counts s-1).

In general,
x = xo e-λt

where x can be count rate C,

activity A or
number of radioactive nuclei N;

xo is the initial value of the corresponding physical quantity.

Worked Example 9 (2011/H2/P1/Q40)

At time t, a sample of a radioactive substance contains N atoms of a particular nuclide.

At time t ++t , where +t is a short period of time, the number of atoms in the nuclide is
N −+N .

Which expression is equal to the decay constant of the nuclide?

+N +N +N N +N
A B C D
N +t N +t +t

Solution:

Recall :
dN
A = λN = −
dt
dN
λ=−
Ndt

(Ans : C)

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Worked Example 10 (2012/H2/P1/Q39)

The graph shows how the activities of two isotopes X and Y vary with time.

activity of X
What will be the ratio after each has decayed for 8 hours?
activity of Y

9 10 81 100
A B C D
10 9 100 81

Solution:

Using A = Ao e − λt ,
For X,
from time = 0 h to time = 4 h, 900 = 1000e − λX 4
⎛ 900 ⎞
from time = 4 h to time = 8 h, AX ' = 900e − λX 4 = 900 ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 1000 ⎠
For Y,
from time = 0 h to time = 2 h, 900 = 1000e − λY 2
3
− λY 6 − λY 2 3 ⎛ 900 ⎞
from time = 2 h to time = 8 h, AY ' = 900e = 900(e ) = 900 ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 1000 ⎠
2
AX ' ⎛ 1000 ⎞ 100
Thus, = =
AY ' ⎜⎝ 900 ⎟⎠ 81

(Ans : D)

(q) define half - life

(r) solve problems by using the relation λ=

0.693
t1/2

Half-life of a radioative nuclide

Related to concepts learnt in H1/H2 chemistry

Half-life t 1/ 2 of a radioactive nuclide is defined as the average time taken for half of the original
number of radioactive nuclei in a sample to decay.
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There are several ways to define half-life, t1/2. It can be defined as the time taken for

(i) half of the original number of radioactive nuclei in a sample to remain undecayed; or
(ii) the activity of a radioactive sample to decrease to half its original value; or
(iii) the received count rate to reduce to half its original value.
(assume no background count rate)

When t = t1/2, N = 21 No.

From (4), ln N = ln No − λt, ln ( 21 No) = ln No − λt1/2
ln ( 21 ) = − λt1/2
ln2
t1/2 =
λ
ln 2 0.693
λ= =
t 1/2 t 1/2

Worked Example 11 (2007/H2/P1/Q39)

A graph of the natural logarithm of the activity A of a radioactive source plotted against
time is given.

What is the half-life of the source in years?

A 0.0044 B 160 C 400 D 860

Solution:

At time = 0 year, A = e7.5 Bq

e7.5
After one half-life, the activity of the source becomes ≈ 904 Bq.
2
ln(904) ≈ 6.8 . From the graph, the answer must be 160 years.

OR

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7.5 − 4.0
Gradient of graph = −λ =
0 − 800
ln 2
t1/2 = ≈ 160 years
λ

(Ans : B)

Worked Example 12 (2008/H2/P1/Q39)

A detector of ionising radiation gives a background count rate of 24 per minute.

A radioactive source is placed close to the detector and the reading is 532 counts per
minute.

What will be the reading of the detector after two half-lifes of the source?

A 127 B 133 C 151 D 157

Solution:

The original activity of the source is 532 – 24 = 508 Bq counts per minute

After two half-lives, the activity becomes 508(0.5)(0.5) = 127 Bq counts per minute

The reading of the detector includes the background count rate i.e.
127 + 24 = 151 counts per minute

(Ans : C)

(s) discuss qualitatively the effects, both direct and indirect, of ionizing radiation on
living tissues and cells

Effect of ionising radiation

Inside the nucleus (not the same as the nucleus of an atom) of each human cell there are 46
chromosomes organized into two sets of 23 chromosomes. Packaged inside these chromosomes
is DNA (deoxyribo-nucleic acid), whose base pairs form sequences called nucleotides which in
turn form genes. Genes tell the cell to make proteins which determine cell type and regulate cell
function.

When cells are exposed to ionizing radiation, damage can occur either by direct action or indirect
action.

Direct action occurs when alpha particles, beta particles or gamma radiation create ions which
break the bonds within the DNA and cause mutations, which lead to

• creation of tumour cells or

• cell death.

Tumour cells can remain dormant for years and can be benign or cancerous. If genetic damage
affects reproductive cells, damage to the genes in reproductive cells can lead to defective
offsprings.

Ionizing radiation can also impair or damage cells indirectly by creating free radicals. Free
radicals are molecules that are highly reactive due to the presence of unpaired electrons on the
molecule. Free radicals may form compounds, such as hydrogen peroxide, which could initiate
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harmful chemical reactions within the cells. As a result of these chemical changes, cells may
undergo a variety of structural changes which lead to altered functions described above.

Heavy charged particles such as alpha particles have a greater probability of causing direct
damage compared to low charged particles such as beta particles which causes most of its
damage by indirect effects.
---The End--

Reference Textbooks:
Duncan, T. (1994). Advanced Physics (4th Edition). London: Butler & Tanner Limited Frome and London.
th
Halliday, D., Resnick, R., & Walker, J. (2005). Fundamentals of Physics (7 Edition). New Jersey: John Wiley & Sons,
Inc.

Hutchings, R. (1991). University of Bath. Macmillan Science 16-19 Project Physics. London: Macmillan.

Serway, R.A., & Jewett, J.W., Jr. (2004). Physics for Scientists and Engineers (6th Edition). Belmont, CA: Brooks/Cole –
Thomson Learning

Loo Kwok Wai, Ong Bee Hoo (2003). Longman A-Level Course in Physics Vol 2

Acknowledgements

- Updated by Tan C. K., 2015.

- Edited by Chong K.W. and Chin F.S., 2014.
- Adapted from Nuclear Physics lecture notes, Oh TH, 2008/2012, Chew KM, 2010

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