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LEARNING MODULE

PHYSICAL SCIENCE
Physical Science
Quarter 1: Formation of Light
Elements in the Universe
 What I Need to Know

This module was designed and written with you in mind. It is here to help you
understand the formation of light elements in the universe!

The language used recognizes the diverse vocabulary level of students. The lessons
are arranged to follow the standard sequence of the course. But the order in which
you read them can be changed to correspond with the textbook you are now using.

The module is divided into three lessons, namely:

 Lesson 1 – Cosmology of the big bang model.
 Lesson 2 - Overview of the proof for the big bang model.
 Lesson 3 – Reactions involving the nucleosynthesis of the first elements.

After going through this module, you are expected to:

1. Give evidence for and explain the formation of light elements in the big bang
theory.
2. Enumerate the steps involved in the nuclear fusion and model them .
3. Recognize the role played by nuclear fusion in stars and how it affects our
everyday lives
 What I Know

Choose the letter of the best answer. Write the chosen letter on a separate sheet of
paper.

1. What is the term referred to the process that creates new atomic nucleus
from preexisting nucleons , primarily protons and neutrons?
a. nuclear fusion
b. nuclear reaction
c. nuclear synthesis
d. nucleosynthesis

2. What is the term referred to the process by which light nuclei fuse together
to form a heavier nucleus?
a. nuclear fusion
b. nuclear reaction
c. nuclear synthesis
d. nucleosynthesis

3. It is a theory that explains that the universe started as a very dense and hot
“singularity” which eventually cooled and began to form different particles?
a. big bang theory
b. cosmic inflation theory
c. oscillating theory
d. steady state theory

4. What was formed as the universe expanded and cooled down?

a. electron
b. neutron
c. proton
d. subatomic particles

5. What is formed when there is a fusion of a proton and neutron in big bang
nucleosynthesis??
a. deuterium
b. protium
c. tritium
d. hydrogen

6. What is formed when there is a fusion of two deuterium nuclei in big bang
nucleosynthesis?
a. Helium-3
b. Hydrogen
c. neutron
d. one neutron and helium-3
7. What are the conditions in the universe so that a nuclear fusion could
occur?
a. high energy
b. high energy and temperature
c. high temperature
d. moderate conditions

8. What is formed when there is fusion of deuterium and tritium?

a. Helium-2
b. Helium-3
c. Helium-4
d. Helium-4 and neutron

9. What is the term referred to form of an element that has the same atomic
number of the original element but with different atomic mass or mass
number?
a. elements
b. heavy elements
c. isotopes
d. light elements

10.The following light elements were formed in the big bang nucleosynthesis?
a. H, He, Be, C
b. He, H, Be, Li
c. Li, H, He, Na
d. Fe, H, He, Be
Physical Science
MODULE 1: Formation of Light
Elements in the Universe
Lesson
Formation of Light
1 Elements in the Universe
The big bang theory is the leading explanation about how the universe began 13.8
billion years ago. This theory explains that the universe started as a very dense and
hot state that expanded rapidly.

This rapid expansion caused the universe to cool down and become less dense
forming new particles, the protons, neutrons and electrons. As it cooled down and
these particles formed, the universe entered the phase called nucleosynthesis.
Nucleosynthesis is the process that creates new atomic nucleus from preexisting
nucleons , primarily protons and neutrons.

What’s In

How was the universe formed?

How do we use the periodic table of elements?

Notes to the Teacher

It is significant that learners had background on formation of
universe and the use of periodic table of elements, in particular
aside from the familiarization of name and symbol of elements
they need to have been familiarized to distinguish which element
is lighter and heavier and the basis for such distinction
particularly the atomic no. and the atomic mass.
 What’s New

Cosmology and the Big Bang model

Cosmology is the study of how the universe began, how it continue to exist, and
how it will end. Different religions and cultures have different interpretations about
cosmology based on their beliefs. Do you think there is a proof that any of these
cosmologies are true?
Science brings forth a cosmological theory not from beliefs but from scientific
evidence that universe once began to expand and continues to expand until today.
This theory is called the Big Bang theory or Big Bang model. Astronomers George
Lemaitre and Edwin Hubble were some of its proponents. George Lemaitre is also a
catholic priest but he did not find his theory or science incompatible with his
religion. Why is it that some people think that science goes against what they
believe in?

Key stages of the Big Bang model

There are five key stages in the Big Bang model

Figure 1.1 Big bang Timeline

Source: https://www.rankred.com/dark-matter-may-have-existed
a. The universe may have begun as an infinitely hot and dense initial singularity, a
point with all of space, time, matter and energy. There is no space around the
singularity.

b. Then it began to rapidly expand in a process called inflation. Space itself

expanded faster than a speed of light. In this still hot and dense mass of the
universe, pairs of matter and antimatter (quarks and antiquarks were formed from
energy, but these cancelled each other back into energy (annihilation).

c. The universe cooled down as it expanded. An excess of matter – electrons,

protons and neutrons and other particles came to be in a highly energetic state.
Photons (light particles) are being scattered everywhere. Protons and neutrons
came together to form different types of nuclei through the process called
nucleosynthesis and nuclear fusion.

d. Later on, electrons started to bind to ionize protons and nuclei forming neutral
atoms in a process called recombination. The bound particles no longer scattered
photons so light and energy moved freely across the space. This period is called
“dark ages”.

e. Gravity caused these atoms to collapse onto one another to form stars and
galaxies and other matter. This still happens until today. Space continue to expand
at an accelerating rate.

Cosmic Inflation
This refers to the expansion of the universe. How does the universe expand? Could
you imagine if the earth is expanding meaning becoming bigger, would you think
we are now more nearer to the sun? If we go nearer to the sun, what will happen to
us? The expansion of the universe can be explained in an illustration in inflating a
balloon. Figure 1.2 below, illustrates how the universe expands, in what directions
it is going into and to how much bigger is the expansion.

In the figure, the circle is the balloon represents the universe, the stickers are the
galaxies. Galaxies are group or cluster of stars including planets. Our planet earth,
the solar system, belongs to one cluster or galaxy called the milky way. We belong
to milky way. There are so many billions of galaxies in the universe

Activity 1: Expansion of the Universe

1. Start with a balloon at its normal which means no air inside. Paste a small
rounded stickers in 1 cm or 2cm apart. Notice the distances from each other,
designate a letter to identify the reference points (ist circle).
2. Blow the balloon to at least half in size, notice the positioning of the stickers
from each other, notice the distances (2nd circle). Observe
3. Do the stickers appear to be moving away from each other? Are the stickers
moving across the balloons? Do the stickers grow in size?
4. Blow again the balloon to its fullest, notice again the positioning of the stickers
from each other, notice the distances 3rd circle).
5. Did the positioning of the stickers (galaxies) from each which varies? by how
much?
6. What is the direction of expansion?
7. Back to the question, would you think during the expansion the distances of the
planet changes? Like our distance to the sun Yes or No, why?
 Figure 1.2

8. What can you conclude about the expansion of the universe based on the
activity?
9. Write your observation and answers in your notebook

Overview on the proof of a big bang model

What are the proofs that there was really a big bang?

1.Redshift is the first evidence of the big bang model. Using different instrument
can enable us to detect the light of other galaxies. It was found out that the light of
galaxies is found to be redshifted (the light looks “stretched”) which suggests that
galaxies are moving away from each other (red light has a longer wavelength which
shows going away compared to blue light we see in the skies with a shorter
wavelength which means nearer). It was later determined that they are not moving
away instead space itself is expanding in all directions causing all the galaxies to be
relatively farther apart.
2.The relative abundance of light elements in the universe is the second
evidence to prove. Through measurements, we find that around 24% of the
universe’s ordinary matter is currently comprised of helium, about 74% hydrogen
and 2% of other elements. These figures only make sense if nucleosynthesis in the
big bang model actually occurred since no chemical process significantly changes
these percentages.
3.Cosmic Microwave background or the energy (thermal radiation) that was left
as a result of recombination. Atoms became neutral due to the binding of nuclei
and electrons. The remaining radiation began to scatter. This is seen by scientists
as a faint microwave glow emitted by any object in space.

The Big Bang Nucleosynthesis

Nucleosynthesis is the process that creates new atomic nucleus from preexisting
nucleons, primarily protons and neutrons. Big bang nucleosynthesis in physical
cosmology refers to the production of nuclei other than H-1, the normal, light
hydrogen, during the early phases of the universe, shortly after the big bang. How
does free proton (p+) and neutron (n) would combine and separate from each other
due to the high energies at that time?
The composition of nuclei is given below in Figure 1.3. D and T are isotopes of
hydrogen namely deuterium and tritium respectively, other elements are helium,
beryllium and lithium. Isotopes are form of an element that has the same atomic
number of the original element but with a different atomic mass or mass number.
For Hydrogen there are three isotopes namely protium (P), deuterium (D) and
tritium (T).
 Figure 1.3 Composition of nuclei

Due to rapid cooling due to expansion, nucleosynthesis halted for about three
minutes after the big bang occurred which left mostly of hydrogen(H) isotopes
(P,D,T), helium (He) isotopes and a very tiny bit of other elements like lithium(Li)
and beryllium(Be). The relative abundance of He and H did not change much today.

Two nuclear reactions are happened during big bang nucleosynthesis(Fig.1.4).

1.combination of proton (p) and neutron (n) produces deuterium (D) nuclei and
and gamma (γ) rays.
p+ + n = D + (γ) , ( D is composed of 1p and 1n).
(p + n)
2. Then two deuterium nuclei combine to form one neutron and helium-3(³He) that
has two protons and one neutron.
D + D = ³He +n
(p + n) (p +n) ( 2p +n)

The two equations reaction above shows a balanced equation of the reactants at
the left with the product at the right. Which means the no. of p and n on both sides
of the equation is the same.

Figure 1.4
Source: http://www.einstein-nline.info/images/spotlights/BBNI/pn_to_he3.gif
These are not the only reactions that occurred but these were the most significant

Nuclear Fusion
The energy and temperature of the universe are extremely high to cause the
neutrons and protons to combine and form species of atomic nuclei in a process
called nuclear fusion. Nuclear fusion is a type of nuclear reaction in which the
light nuclei fuse together to form a heavier nucleus. When this happens, a
tremendous amount of energy is released.
An example of nuclear fusion (Figure 1.5): deuterium (with one neutron and one
proton) fuses with tritium (with one proton and two neutrons) producing a helium
nuclei and a neutron, and releasing energy.
4
In equation, D + T = He + n
(p + n) (p + 2n) (2p +2n)

Check: 2p + 3n = 2p + 3n

Figure 1.5
Source: https://chem.linretexts.org/bookshelves/…/Fission _and _Fusion

Formation of light elements

Light elements which includes Hydrogen (H), Helium (He), and small amounts of
Beryllium (Be) and Lithium( Li) were formed through nuclear fusion in the big bang
nucleosynthesis. The isotopes produced were H-1, H-2, H-3, He-4 and Li-7. After
fusion, the total mass of the light nuclei formed in the fusion process is less than
the total mass of the nuclei that fused. Nuclear fusion reactions are accompanied
with tremendous release of energy.

Figure 1.6
Figure 1.6 shows the nuclear equation for the fusion reactions that took place
during the big bang nucleosynthesis. These main nuclear reactions were
responsible for the abundance of lighter nuclei in the universe
 What is It

The expansion of the universe means the expansion of space in between galaxies.
During expansion the galaxies are moving farther apart from each other
proportionately in all directions because it is the space in between them (galaxies)
that expands. While within the galaxy itself - stars, planets maintain its sizes and
distances from each other.

Three evidences proved that big bang existed as this is the most leading theory.
Three minutes after big bang, particles, electrons, protons and neutrons and other
particles combine to form different nuclei through nuclear fusion and
nucleosynthesis. Then this light nuclei combine again forming light elements such
as H, He, Be and Li.

Important first reactions in big bang nucleosynthesis are:

1.combination of proton and neutron produces deuterium.

2.two deuterium produces Helium-3
3. combination of tritium and deuterium produces Helium-4
 What’s More

Activity 1.1- Multiple Choice

Direction: Select the best answer. Write the letter on a separate answer sheet.
1. It refers to a process in the stages of the big bang model wherein protons and
neutrons came together to form different types of nuclei?
a. big bang singularity
b. inflation
c. nucleosynthesis
d. recombination

2. It refers to a process in the stages of the big bang model wherein the universe
rapidly expand?
a. big bang singularity
b. inflation
c. nucleosynthesis
d. recombination

3. It refers to the first stage of the big bang model wherein it begun as an
infinitely hot and dense?
a. big bang singularity
b. inflation
c. nucleosynthesis
d. recombination

4. It refers to a process in the stages of the big bang model wherein electrons
started to bind to ionize protons and nuclei forming neutral atoms?
a. big bang singularity
b. inflation
c. nucleosynthesis
d. recombination

5. Arrange the stages of the big bang theory:

1-recombination 2- big bang singularity 3-inflation 4-nucleosynthesis
a. 2314
b. 2341
c. 3241
d. 3412

6. Which of these is true about the big bang model?

a. The singularity is an established, well-defined part of the model
b. Cosmic expansion stopped at some point in time
c. Part of its proof is the amounts of H and He we have in the universe
today.
 d. Part of its proof is the amounts of H and He we have in the universe
today.

Activity 1.2 Irregular Crossword Puzzle

Direction: Complete the crossword by filling in a word that fits its clue. Use a
separate answer sheet.

ACROSS

1- light nuclei fuse together to form to a heavier nucleus

2- subatomic particle with a positive charge
3- isotope of hydrogen with 1 proton and 1 neutron
4- the lightest element
5- isotope of hydrogen with I proton and 2 neutrons
6- with a negative charge
7- symbol for lithium
8- symbol for helium

DOWN

1- creates new atomic nucleus from preexisting nucleons

2- subatomic particle with a zero charge
3- symbol for beryllium
4- densely part of an atom containing p and n
5- ability to do work
Activity 1.3 Fill in the blanks
Answer the following in a separate answer sheet

1. What are the four light elements formed in the big bang nucleosynthesis?
__________________________________________________________ .
2. What is formed when a proton and a neutron fuse?
___________________________________________________________ .
3. What is formed when 2 deuterium nuclei combine?
__________________________________________________________ .
4. What is formed when a deuterium fused to tritium?
__________________________________________________________ .
5. What is formed when a deuterium combines with helium-3?

__________________________________________________________

Activity 1.4 – Complete the nucleosynthesis reactions below

Given: Composition of each nuclei:

D= 1p+, 1n T=1p+,2n He3 = 2p+,1n He4 = 2p+,2n Be7 = 4p+,3n Li7 =
3p+,4n
1. p+ + n = _____+ γ
3
2. He + D = _____+ p+
3. 7Li + _____ = 2 4He
4. ____ + D =T + p+
7
5. ____ + ____ = Be + γ
 What I Have Learned

Complete the sentences.

1. Big bang nucleosynthesis is the formation of new atomic nucleus from

preexisting ______.
2. ______________ is a nuclear reaction wherein light nuclei fuse together to
form heavier nuclei.
3. __________ is a form of element that has the same atomic number but
different atomic mass.
4. __________ and __________ are isotope of Hydrogen.
5. The fusion of proton and neutron resulted to ______________ .
6. The fusion of two deuterium produces _____________ .
7. The fusion of deuterium and tritium resulted to _________ .
8. The light elements formed in big bang nucleosynthesis are ______, _______ ,
_________ and _________.
9. There are three evidences to prove that a big bang had occurred that is
____________,_____________ , and ____________ .
10. The expansion of the universe means expansion of __________ between
galaxies. Galaxies moves farther apart from each other proportionately in all
directions.
 What I Can Do

What could happen if there is no nucleosynthesis and nuclear fusion ?

What could happen if there is no light elements formed.

Assessment

Multiple Choice. Choose the letter of the best answer. Write the chosen letter on a
separate sheet of paper.
1. What is the term referred to the process that creates new atomic nucleus
from preexisting nucleons, primarily protons and neutrons?
a. nuclear fusion
b. nuclear reaction
c. nuclear synthesis
d. nucleosynthesis

2. What is the term referred to the process by which light nuclei fuse together
to form a heavier nucleus?
a. nuclear fusion
b. nuclear reaction
c. nuclear synthesis
d. nucleosynthesis

3. It is a theory that explains that the universe started as a very dense and hot
”singularity ‘ which eventually cooled and began to form different particles?
a. big bang theory
b. cosmic inflation theory
c. oscillating theory
d. steady state theory

4. What was formed as the universe expanded and cooled down?

a. electron
b. proton
c. neutron
d. sub atomic particles
5. What is formed when there is a fusion of a proton and neutron in big bang
nucleosynthesis?
a. deuterium
b. hydrogen
c. protium
d. tritium
6. What is formed when there is a fusion of two deuterium nuclei in big bang
nucleosynthesis?
a. helium-3
b. hydrogen
c. neutron
d. one neutron and helium-3

7. What are the conditions in the universe so that a nuclear fusion could
occur?
a. high energy
b. high energy and temperature
c. high temperature
d. moderate conditions

8. What is formed when there is fusion of deuterium and tritium?

a. Helium-2
b. Helium-3
c. Helium-4
d. Helium-4 and neutron

9. What is the term referred to form of an element that has the same atomic
number of the original element but with different atomic mass or mass
number?
a. elements
b. heavy elements
c. isotopes
d. light elements

10. The following light elements were formed in the big bang nucleosynthesis?
a. H, He, Be, C
b. He, H, Be, Li
c. Li, H, He, Na
d. Fe, H, He ,Be
 Additional Activities

Do an advance reading on Nuclear fission. Compare and contrast between nuclear

fusion and nuclear fission by completing the Venn diagram below

Nuclear Fusion Nuclear Fission

Physical Science
MODULE 2: Formation of Heavy
Elements in the Universe
 What I Need to Know

This module was designed and written with you in mind. It is here to help
understand the formation of heavy elements in the universe. The scope of this
module permits it to be used in many different learning situations. The language
used recognizes the diverse vocabulary level of students. The lessons are arranged
to follow the standard sequence of the course. But the order in which you read
them can be changed to correspond with the textbook you are now using.

The module is divided into three lessons, namely:

 Lesson 1 – Isotopes and element notation
 Lesson 2 – The stellar nucleosynthesis
 Lesson 3 – Different nuclear reaction process

After going through this module, you are expected to:

4. give evidence for and describe the formation of heavier elements during star
formation and evolution.
5. explain other processes that led to other elements.
6. write out fusion reactions involve.
7. explain how heavier elements formed.
 What I Know

Choose the letter of the best answer. Write the chosen letter on a separate sheet of
paper.

11.What is the term referred to the formation of heavy elements by fusion of

lighter nuclei in the interior of stars?
a. big bang nucleosynthesis
b. nuclear fusion
c. stellar nucleosynthesis
d. supernova nucleosynthesis

12.What is the term referred to the process when there is a fusion of proton
turning to neutron via beta-plus decay?
a. CNO
b. proton-proton chain
c. triple-alpha process
d. r-process

13.If an element is used by a star in fusion, it is sometimes called “burning”

even though no actual combustion occurs. Which of the following processes
is likely
to involve “carbon burning.”?
a. alpha ladder
b. CNO cycle
c. triple-alpha process
d. s-process

14.Which of the following reactions is not a part of the alpha ladder?

24
Mg + 42He → 28 36
a. 12 14 Si c. 18 Ar + 42 He→ 40
20 Ca

31
P + 42He → 35 44
b. 15 17Cl d. Ti +42He → 48
22 24Cr

15.What is the process when alpha particle He-4 fused to heavy elements to
form heavier elements?
a. alpha ladder process
b. big bang nucleosynthesis
c. CNO cycle
d. r-process
 12
16.What is the reaction involve when C is used as a catalyst?
a. CNO cycle
b. fusion
c. r-process
d. triple-alpha process

17.Which is not a proton-proton chain reaction ?

a. 1H + 1H → 2 H + v + e+
b. H + 1H → 3He + γ
2

c. 3He + 3He → 4 He + 2 1H
24 4 28
d. 12 Mg + 2He → 14 Si

18.The following is a part of CNO cycle except?

a. 12C + 1 H → 13N + γ
b. 13N → 13C + e+ + v
c. 13C + 1 H → 14N + γ
d. none of the above

19.Most of the heaviest element were formed in the ___________?

a. main sequence star
b. red giant star
c. sun
d. all of the above

20.The heavy elements in the star are found in its ___________?

a. core
b. middle
c. outer part
d. all of the above
Lesson
Formation of Heavy
1 Elements in the Universe
As discussed in module 1 light elements H, He, Be and Li were formed just after
big bang. These were formed through nucleosynthesis and nuclear fusion
processes.

Once matter recombined which means lighter elements combined to other lighter
elements, forming another elements which is heavier, gravity and other forces
brought matter together and eventually form stars, 200 billion years after the big
bang.

What’s In

How were the element formed? How will you explain the big bang nucleosynthesis
and nuclear fusion ?

Notes to the Teacher

It is significant that learners had background on the big bang
model, its stages and big bang nucleosynthesis and nuclear
fusion processes particularly on the formation of light elements
 What’s New

Writing notation for isotopes and atoms of an element

Recall on how symbols for an atom of an element or isotope are written?

Mass number or atomic mass of an element is the no. of protons plus the no. of
neutrons of an element while the atomic number is the number of protons or
electrons of an element. The element symbol, atomic mass and atomic no. of an
element can be found in the periodic table of elements. Let’s view a periodic table
and have an example.

Figure 2.1 Periodic Table of Elements

Source : http;//www.ptable.com.

Let’s isolate one element which serves as a legend. What is the atomic mass and
atomic number of iron or Fe?

The atomic mass of Fe is 55.845 rounded to 56, and the atomic number is 26. To
write this in a notation,
 56
26 Fe

What is the number of protons (p)? And the number of neutrons(n)?

The no. of protons will be:
As defined atomic mass is the no. of p + + n which is 56 , while atomic no is the no.
p+ , which is 26, in getting the no. of n, just subtract 26 from 56 (56-26) =30. (Do
Activity 1.1, 1.2)

Isotope Notation
For isotopes, same way of representing. Like for element hydrogen H. The isotopes
deuterium(D) tritium (T)
with 1p, 1n 1p, 2n
2
D or 21 H 3
Isotope notation 1 1 T or 31 H
Or H-2 H-3 , other ways of naming the
isotopes is by writing the symbol followed by the mass no.

Can you do it for carbon isotopes : carbon-12, carbon13 and carbon 14. Carbon
has an atomic no. of 6. Try it in activity 1.3 follow the format above.

The Cosmic Connection

Carl Sagan’s The Cosmic Connection (Sagan, 2000) find it out remarkable that the
elements we find on earth are also those we find among the stars. In addition the
most of what we know as matter was made by the processes inside the stars
themselves. We are as much a part of the universe as the stars.
He also stated that Big Bang nucleosynthesis in physical cosmology refers to the
production of nuclei other than H-1, the normal, light hydrogen, during the early
phases of the universe, shortly after the big bang.

Give your thoughts how we being made of stardust makes us cosmic (part of the
universe) and yet helps us realize that we are not the center of the universe.
________________________________________________________________________________
Star Formation
 Figure 2.2
Source:https://www.sciencelearn.org.nz/image_maps/50-universal-element-formation
What are the stages of the star?, How did a star formed (Recall your earth and life
science lecture).

Stellar Nucleosynthesis
Elements formed in big bang nucleosynthesis are only the light elements which are
H, He, Li and Be and very light isotopes. Elements formed then with five to eight
nucleons are very unstable (prone to change, give way) the main reason why Li
and Be occur only in trace amounts.
Heavy elements were formed only billions of years later, after the formation of stars
200 billion years after big bang. The density inside a star is great enough to sustain
fusion for the extended time periods required to synthesize heavy elements. Stars
are hot and dense enough to burn hydrogen-1(¹H) to helium-4 ( 4He). The formation
of heavy elements by fusion of lighter nuclei in the interior of stars is called Stellar
nucleosynthesis.
Hydrogen and helium atoms in stars began combining in nuclear fusion reactions
once hydrogen-helium stars had formed from the action of gravity. This releases a
tremendous amount of light, heat and radioactive energy. Fusion resulted in the
formation of nuclei of new elements. The first fusion process occurs in the
hydrogen core of stars such as the sun with a temperature of less than 15 million
K. These kind of stars are called main-sequence stars.

In figure 2 .3 below shows the equilibrium in main sequence stars including the
sun. That is the inward force of gravity, which tends to compress the star, is
balanced by the outward force due to pressure, outward radiation and gas pressure
forces are balanced by gravity forces.
Over time, the forces acting on the star become unbalanced. When the inward
gravitational forces are less then the outward radiation pressure forces, the star
swells and cools thus turning red we call red giant star a low-mass star. (see figure
2.2)
 Figure 2.3. Equilibrium of the Sun and other main-sequence stars

Low mass star turns into planetary nebula towards the end of their red giant
phase.
At that point the star becomes highly unstable and starts to pulsate. The outer
layer are ejected by the resulting stellar winds. Planetary nebula are short-lived
and last only for a few thousand of years.
There are three nuclear synthetic pathways or main branch of the process. These
are the proton-proton chain, triple alpha process and CNO (carbon-nitrogen-
oxygen) process.

Proton-proton chain is a reaction by which stars convert hydrogen to helium. The

conversion of hydrogen to helium is slow, the complete conversion of the hydrogen
in the core of the sun is calculated to take more than ten billion years. Refer to
Fig.2.

The first reaction is the combination of proton (p) and neutron (n) produces
deuterium (D) nuclei and gamma (γ) rays.
1
H + 1H → 2 H + v + e + , proton fusion, with one proton turning into a
neutron via beta-plus decay, giving off a neutrino and a positron.

Figure 2.4 The main branch of the proton-proton chain reaction (p-p chain
resulting in the formation of 4He.

³He forms from deuterium and proton fusion, also known as deuterium burning.
This immediately consumes all deuterium produced.
²H + ¹H → ³He + γ
4
He forms from ³He fusion,
³He + ³He → 4He + 2 ¹H
Figure 2.5 A star with a very dense helium core and a hydrogen shell expands into
a red giant due to increased radiation pressure.

Triple alpha process is a set of nuclear fusion reactions by which three helium-4
nuclei (alpha particles ) are transformed into carbon.

Figure 2.6 The triple alpha process resulting in the formation of 12C(Elert,2015b)

The entire three-step process releases about 26.7 MeV (megaelectron volts of
energy. Energy released is responsible for the thermal pressure that pushes against
gravity. It is also responsible for the light , heat and radiation emitted by the star.
A different process facilitates hydrogen fusion in main sequence stars with
temperature greater than 15 million K.
The core of a star becomes comprised of He as H is depleted, while H fusion only
occurs in a shell around it. Due to this process, the temperature and density the
core of the star increase up to 100 million K. The star’s thermal pressure causes it
to push out H gas. The star balloons into a red giant.
Several nuclear fusion processes occur in a red giant aside from hydrogen fusion.
The first is the triple alpha process. Alpha particles refer to 4He. This reaction
involves the fusion of three 4He atoms in the following steps:
4
He + 4 He → 8Be
8
Be + 4He → 12C +γ

Note that the 8Be intermediate is unstable, so either it decays or forms 12 C. The
star can keep growing into supergiant as it accumulates mass. Alpha fusion
process continue in the core via the alpha ladder.
In alpha ladder process more and more alpha particles are fused to create
heavier elements all the way to iron, making the core and the star itself more
massive. In figure 2.7 below , an alpha particle 42He is added to an atomic nucleus
(such as carbon) to form oxygen. The addition of the alpha particle to an atom add
2 protons and therefore the atomic number of the product is a larger than the
original.

Figure 2.7 Alpha Process

Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/alpha_process

CNO cycle
The main sequence star hotter than 15 million K could facilitate the production of
helium once carbon was present from alpha processes. This happens through a
process where 12C is uses as a catalyst known as the carbon fusion cycle or the
CNO cycle. This process involves repeated proton capture and beta-plus decay.
Figure 2.8 The CNO cycle, which uses 12C as a catalyst to form more 4He in larger
or hotter main - sequence stars.
This is the way to account for the number of proton and neutrons in each step:

Carbon nuclei captures a p+ → N-13

N-13 unstable decay to C-13
C-13 captures p+, becomes N-14
N-14 captures another p to O-15
O captures p+
N-15 capture a p+ forming
Carbon and
Helium
 What is It

The formation of heavy elements can be summarized in a concept map below.

Disregard first the supernova nucleosynthesis as this will be discussed in the next
modules. Stellar nucleosynthesis is the formation of heavy elements in the interior
of the star particularly main sequence star. The sun is a main sequence star.

A star formed from a nebula is composed primarily of 75%H and 23%He. When a
star reaches a certain size it generates vast energy and nuclear fusion ignites . The
first fusion process forces Hydrogen together forming Helium, 4He. This main
branch is called proton-proton chain reaction. As the core of the star is becoming
helium filled as hydrogen depletes, its temperature increases to 100m K, its
thermal pressure pushes out the H gases the star becomes bigger to be red giant
star.

Several nuclear fusion occurred in the red giant star. The main branch is the
triple alpha process which involves 3 He atoms to combine to produce carbon.
Once carbon is produced there’s a continuation of fusing to He atoms producing
heavier element we call it the alpha ladder process.

Other main sequence star with a temperature of more than 15M K could facilitate
the production of helium once carbon is present in the alpha process. 12C serves
only as a catalyst. This fusion is known as the CNO cycle.
 Figure 2.9 Concept map
Another process is the s-process which occur in red giant star where there is a
slow neutron capture in red giant stars. In this process a nucleus captures
neutron to form isotopes with higher atomic mass. If new isotope is stable, increase
in mass can occur. If unstable, then beta decay can occur producing element with
a higher atomic no.
 What’s More

Activity 1.1 - Complete the table

Activity 1- Fill in the Table (see reference of elements)

Element Symbol Atomic Mass Atomic No.
Hydrogen 1 2 3
Lithium 4 5 6
Sodium 7 8 9

Activity 1.2- write the notation for the ff: elements

1. Hydrogen - _______
2. Lithium - _______
3. Sodium - _______

Activity 1.3 – Fill in the Table

Can you do it for carbon isotopes: carbon-12, carbon13 and carbon 14. Carbon
has an atomic no. of 6. Try it.

Name of isotopes 1 2 3

With # of p, n 4 5 6

Isotope notation 7 8 9

Or, other way 10 11 12

Activity 1.4 – Answer the following questions

1.What is the process of formation of heavy elements by the fusion of lighter nuclei
in the interior of stars? _______________________________________________

2.What is the process of converting hydrogen to helium.

______________________________________________________________________

3.What is the process of producing heavy elements wherein carbon is used as a

catalyst?

______________________________________________________________________

4.What is a process where three alpha particles fused to produce carbon?

______________________________________________________________________

5. What is a process wherein more and more particles are fused helium to create
heavier elements all the way to iron.

______________________________________________________________________
 What I Have Learned

Complete the sentence

11. Stellar nucleosynthesis is the formation of heavy elements in the _________

of a star.
12. The main component element of a star is ___________ and ___________ .
13. There are three main process in stellar nucleosynthesis_ proton-proton
chain, CNO cycle and the ___________.
14. Alpha particles refers to _________.
15. Proton-proton chain is a process of converting hydrogen to ____________ .
16. Triple alpha process is the formation of carbon elements from the fusion of
three ____________ .
17. CNO cycle is the process of producing heavy elements where _______ is used
as a catalyst.
18. ________________star fuse hydrogen atoms to form helium. About 90% of the
stars in the universe including the sun are main sequence star.
19. After carbon is produced there is a continuation of fusion of helium to
elements forming heavier ones. This process is called _____________ .
20. Big bang nucleosynthesis is the process of _________________________ while
stellar nucleosynthesis is ________________________________________ .
 What I Can Do

What is the important of stars to us?

Why heavy elements did not form in big bang nucleosynthesis?

Assessment

Multiple Choice. Choose the letter of the best answer. Write the chosen letter on a
separate sheet of paper.
9. What is the term referred to the formation of heavy elements by fusion of
lighter nuclei in the interior of stars?
a. big bang nucleosynthesis
b. nuclear fusion
c. stellar nucleosynthesis
d. supernova nucleosynthesis

10.What is the term referred to the process when there is a fusion of proton
turning to neutron via beta-plus decay?
a. CNO
b. proton-proton chain
c. triple-alpha process
d. r-process

11.If an element is used by a star in fusion, it is sometimes called “burning”

even though no actual combustion occurs. Which of the following processes
is likely to involve “carbon burning”?
a. alpha ladder
b. CNO cycle
c. s- process
d. triple-alpha-process

12.Which part of the following reactions is not a part of the alpha ladder?
24 4 28
a. 12 Mg + 2He → 14 S i
31 4 35
b. 15 P + 2 He → 17 Cl
36 4
c. 18 Ar + 2 He → 40
20 Ca

44
d. 22 Ti + 42He → 48
24 Cr
13.What is the process when alpha particle He-4 fused to heavy elements to
form heavier elements?
a. alpha ladder process
b. big bang nucleosynthesis
c. CNO cycle
d. r-process
12
14.What is the reaction involve when C is used as a catalyst?
a. CNO cycle
b. fusion
c. r-process
d. triple-alpha process

15.Which is not a proton-proton chain reaction?

a. 1H + 1H → 2H + v + e+
b. 2H + 1H → 3He +γ
c. 3He + 3He → 4He + 21H
d.24 4 28
12 Mg + 2He → 14 Si

16.The following is a CNO cycle except

a. 12C + 1H → 13N +γ
b. 13N → 13C + e+ + γ
c. 13C + 1H →14N +γ
d. none of the above

9. Most of the heaviest elements were formed in ______________?

a. main sequence star
b. red giant star
c. sun
d. all of the above

10. The heavy elements in the star are found in its ______?
a. core
b. middle
c. outer part
d. all of the above
 Additional Activities

Research on manmade elements.

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