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QUARTER 1
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Learning Activity Sheet in EARTH SCIENCE
(Grade 12)
Copyright © 2020
DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION
Regional Office No. 02 (Cagayan Valley)
Regional Government Center, Carig Sur, Tuguegarao City, 3500
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Page
Compentency Code
number
Give evidence for and describe the formation of
heavier elements during star formation ad
evoution S11/12PS-IIIa-2 1 - 20
Explain how the concept of atomic number led
to the synthesis of new elements in the
laboratory S11/12PS-IIIb-11 21 – 33
Determine if a molecule is polar or non-polar
given its structure S11/12PS-IIIc-15 34 – 52
Relate the polarity of a molecule to its
properties S11/12PS-IIIc-16 53 – 69
Describe the general types of intermolecular S11/12PS-IIIc-d-
forces 17 70 - 79
Explain the effect of intermolecular forces on S11/12PS-IIId-e-
the properties of substances 19 80 - 100
Explain how the structures of biological
macromolecules such as carbohydrates, lipids,
nucleic acid, and proteins determine their
properties and functions S11/12PS-IIIe-22 100 - 131
Use simple collision theory to explain the
effects of concentrate temperature, and
particles size on the rate of reaction S11/12PS-IIIf-23 132 - 145
Define catalyst and describe how it affects
reaction rate S11/12PS-IIIf-24 146 - 154
Determine the limiting reactant in a reaction
and calculate the amount of product formed S11/12PS-IIIh-27 155 - 174
Describe how energy is harnessed from
different sources:
A. Fossil fuels
B. Biogas
C. Geothermal
D. Hydrothermal S11/12PS-IIIi-29 175 - 194
E. Batteries
F. Solar cells
G. Biomass
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From product labels, identify the active
ingredient(s) of cleaning products used at home S11/12PS-IIIi-j-31 195 - 209
Give the use of the other ingredients in cleaning
agents S11/12PS-IIIi-j-32 210 - 225
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PHYSICAL SCIENCE
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heavier elements, either through fusion or during supernovae the first stars began
forming about 400 million years after the Big Bang.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hertzsprung–Russell_diagram
These main sequence stars are in hydrostatic equilibrium, meaning that their
inward gravitational pressure is balanced by outward thermal pressure (generated by
the fusion within the hot core). The main sequence represents the major hydrogen-
burning phase of a star’s lifetime. A general rule is that the larger a star, the shorter its
life span along the main sequence branch.
Following the hydrogen-burning phase, more massive stars can evolve along
the red-giant-branch (RGB) or asymptotic-giant-branch (AGB) stars. These are
represented by the branch in the top right. RGB stars continue to fuse hydrogen in
their cores while AGB stars begin to burn heavier elements such as carbon and
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oxygen. While these stars will not be discussed in explicit detail, they are important to
the formation of elements through stellar nucleosynthesis.
What is Stellar Nucleosynthesis?
Elements heavier than beryllium are formed through Stellar nucleosynthesis –
is the process by which elements are formed within stars. The abundances of these
elements change as the stars evolve.
Learning Competency:
Give evidence for and describe the formation of heavier elements during star formation
and evolution (S11/12PS-IIIa-2)
Activity 1: Find Me
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...refer to Hertzsprung-Russel Diagram
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EVIDENCES OF FORMATION OF HEAVIER ELEMENTS THAN BERYLLIUM
In the evolution of stars, they grow and exhaust their fuel, changing to a different
source of energy (i.e. a different element). For a typical main sequence star, the
stars begin producing energy from hydrogen burning (proton-proton fusion).
Eventually, the supply of hydrogen begins to decrease and finally the core is entirely
depleted and consists only of helium.
The inward
push from
gravity
The pressure is
generated from
the thermal
energy from
nuclear fusion
http://woodahl.physics.iupui.edu/Astro105/
in the core
As the main sequence star glows, hydrogen in its core is converted into helium
by nuclear fusion. When the hydrogen supply in the core begins to run out, and the
star is no longer generating heat by nuclear fusion, the core becomes unstable and
contracts. The outer shell of the star, which is still mostly hydrogen, starts to expand.
As it expands, it cools and glows red. The star has now reached the red giant phase.
It is red because it is cooler than it was in the main sequence star stage and it is a
giant because the outer shell has expanded outward. In the core of the red giant,
helium fuses into carbon. All stars evolve the same way up to the red giant phase. The
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amount of mass a star has determines which of the following life cycle paths it will take
from there.
This results in an expansion of a large, outer-atmosphere of the star, resulting
in a large radius and a low surface temperature. This is a characteristic Red Giant. It
is a luminous giant star with low to intermediate mass (0.3-8 solar masses), and a
relatively low density (because of the expanded radius).
Gravity again squeezes the star. In a low-mass star, there is not enough mass
for a carbon fusion to occur. The star’s fuel is depleted, and overtime, the outer
material of the star is blown off into space. The only thing that remains is hot and inert
carbon core. The star becomes a white dwarf.
A large star (larger than our Sun) that is massive enough to continue past He
burning to carbon, oxygen and silicon burning will eventually result in a layered
structure (like an onion). Each element begins to burn, the lighter element moves into
a shell around it. Therefore, when the star begins to burn carbon, there would be a
shell of helium-burning, surrounded by another shell of hydrogen-burning. This
continues through to silicon-burning, which deposits iron in the core and continues in
a small shell around it.
During these different stages of fusion, the star is able to balance the inward
force of gravity with outward thermal pressure. This is because of the energy and heat
generated from the fusion in the shells. When fusion stops, however, and the core
consist of Fe, the star can no longer generate energy from fusion. This is because Fe
has a high binding energy and its fusion is an energy-consuming process. Therefore,
the star can no longer balance the inward force of gravity with an outward thermal
pressure; without the generation of heat and energy, the star will collapse and then
explode into a supernova type II.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proton–
proton_chain_reaction
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The alpha process (or alpha fusion) is a method by which stars convert helium
nuclei (alpha particles) into heavier elements. Because of the number of protons
and neutrons in an alpha particle, the heavier elements produced by the alpha process
have an even number of protons and neutrons. Elements with odd atomic numbers
can subsequently produce by radioactive decay or from other reactions, such as
during a supernova.
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Chain of Alpha Processes
https://slideplayer.com/slide/12355862/
The general process, in which an alpha particle is added to a nucleus results in
a chain of reactions. This set of reactions is also known as the alpha ladder. It can
form all the even elements from beryllium to iron. The reactions proceed at a very low
rate and do not contribute significantly to the energy production in stars, but are
important for the generation of the elements.
Main Theory:
A hydrogen atom has the most basic nucleus in the universe. It is made
up of one proton. In the core of a star the temperature is high enough
(10,000,000K) to start nuclear fusion. Nuclear fusion is the process of
combining nuclei to form new, larger nucleus element. This activity will
go step by step through the process of converting Hydrogen into Helium.
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Part 1
Theory
In the first step, 2 protons combine. In doing so one of the protons will convert
into a neutron by losing a positron (positive electron) and a neutrino; this is also known
as beta decay. Beta decay occurs when, in a nucleus with too many protons or too
many neutrons, one of the protons or neutrons is transformed into the other.
This changes one of the protons (positive charge) into a neutron (neutral charge) and
allows the two particles to combine.
Directions:
1. Come up to the front and collect two white cotton balls and a glue
stick (These white cotton balls represent two protons, so one
hydrogen nucleus each)
2. Glue the cotton balls down to in the proper location, with each proton
representing one hydrogen nucleus.
3. Collect 2 new cotton balls, one white (proton) and one red (neutron).
Glue these down in the correct location, to represent a deuterium
nucleus (the product of the reaction).
4. Let the cotton balls dry and glue them into the proper location.
Part 2
Theory
In the second step, a proton combines with a deuterium nucleus
(produced in step one). This new nucleus will now have 2 protons and
1 neutron, and represent a Helium-3 nucleus. Note that the hydrogen
nuclei combined to form a new element, helium.
Directions:
1. Collect 4 white cotton balls (protons) and 2 red cotton balls (neutrons)
2. On the given worksheet glue the white and red cotton balls in the
proper locations, with the two reacting species consisting of hydrogen
(1 proton) and deuterium (one proton, one neutron). After they
combine, their product can be represented by 2 protons and 1
neutron (Helium-3 nucleus).
Part 3
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Theory
The nucleus from step 2 is a Helium-3 nuclei. In step 3 two Helium-3
nuclei will combine to form a Helium-4 nucleus and release 2 protons
(i.e. 2 hydrogen nuclei). The resulting Helium-4 nucleus is also referred
to as an alpha particle.
Directions:
1. Collect 8 white cotton balls (protons) and 4 red cotton balls (neutrons)
2. On the given worksheet, glue the white and red cotton balls in the
proper locations. The two products should be Helium-3 nuclei, with
2 protons and 1 neutron each (therefore 2 white and 1 red cotton
balls). The product of this reaction is a Helium 4 nucleus (2 protons
and 2 neutrons; 2 white, 2 red). The two protons that are release by
this reaction can be represented by the remaining 2 white cotton balls
(these are individual hydrogen nuclei).
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6. Now count the number of neutrons (red) and ADD that to the number of
protons (white) to find the atomic mass, write it down on your periodic
table. What is this nuclei’s atomic mass?
7. What element has a nucleus like this?
8. On your blank periodic table write in the information in the proper location.
9. Make a second Alpha particle and glue it to the first Alpha particle.
10. What is this nuclei’s atomic number? What is this nuclei’s atomic mass?
What element’s nucleus is this?
11. On your blank periodic table write in the information in the proper location.
12. Make another Alpha particle and glue it to the nucleus
13. What is this nuclei’s atomic number? What is this nuclei’s atomic mass?
What element’s nucleus is this?
14. On your blank periodic table write in the information in the proper location.
15. Repeat steps 13, 14 and 15 until you have an Iron nucleus.
16. What one factor ultimately organizes the elements on the periodic table?
Part 2
1. Look at your periodic table. Are there elements missing between He and
Fe?
Based on the trend that we have been working with, fill in the blank atomic numbers
and atomic masses for the missing elements between He and Fe.
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Activity 4: Plot Me!!
http://www.science.uottawa.ca/eih/ch1/Image4.gif
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1. What does the entire area on the graph represent?
4. Which elements where charted outside the grey area? What would it indicate
about those elements?
5. There are two K’s (potassium) atoms on the graph. What is it called there are
two atoms of the same element with different atomic masses? What on the
subatomic level, is different between the two atoms?
6. Do all stable atoms have the same number of protons and neutrons?
Assessment
MULTIPLE CHOICE: Encircle the letter of the correct answer.
11. Which of these is a portion of the electromagnetic spectrum that can go through
the Earth’s atmosphere?
a. X-ray `light’ b. Ultraviolet light c. Gamma-ray light’ d. Visible-wavelength light
12. In what part of the Hertzsprung-Russell diagram would you find the brightest,
hottest main-sequence stars?
a. The upper-left part of the diagram
b. Along the right-hand edge of the diagram
c. The lower-right part of the diagram
d. Along the lower edge of the diagram
14. Which of the following processes is likely to generate the heaviest element?
a. CNO cycle c. triple-alpha process
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b. r-process d. Big Bang nucleosynthesis
15. Which of the following reactions is not a part of the alpha ladder?
a. 2412Mg + 42He ---→ 2814Si c. 3618Ar + 42He ---→ 4020Ca
b. 3115P + 42He ---→ 3517Cl d. 4422Ti + 42He ---→ 4824Cr
7-10. Modified True or False: If the statement is true, write True. Otherwise, replace
the underlined portion with the correct word or phrase.
__________________ a. A star gets lighter as time goes on.
__________________ b. Most of the heaviest elements were formed in main-
sequence stars.
__________________ c. The heavy elements in a star are found in its core.
__________________ d. In stellar nucleosynthesis, heavier elements are formed
from combining lighter ones.
Reflection
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https://www.coursehero.com/file/52900814/Lesson-2-Formation-of-Heavier-Elementspptx/
https://earthref.org/SCC/lessons/2012/nucleosynthesis/
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electromagnetic_spectrum
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hertzsprung%E2%80%93Russell_diagram
http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/6b/HRDiagram.png
Bigbang: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Big_Bang
Redshift: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Redshift
Supergiant: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supergiant
Supernova: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supernova
Answer Key
Activity 1.Find Me!
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Questions:
1. What color are the hottest stars? Blue
2. What color are the coolest stars? Red
3. Which stars are the smallest? White Dwarfs
4. Which stars are the largest? Supergiants
5. Which stars are the brightest? Blue (main-sequence or supergiants)
6. Which stars are the dimmest? White Dwarfs
7. What classification of star is the hottest? Blue Supergiants
8. What classification of star is the coolest? Red (main-sequence or giants)
9. What classification is our Sun? Main Sequence Star
10. What color is our Sun? Yellow
11. Compared to other stars what is the Suns temp? Average (~5000 K)
12. Where does the Sun fit in this diagram? Yellow, along main-sequence
13. What is the color of the hottest stars? Blue and White
14. Which classification of star has the most energy? Blue and White (also, hottest)
a. How is a star’s temperature related to its energy?
The hotter the star, the more energy it has
b. How is a star’s magnitude related to its energy?
Along the main sequence, stars of greater magnitude are hotter (have more
energy)
c. How is a star’s luminosity related to its energy?
For main-sequence stars, the luminosity increases with temperature. For the
giants and super-giants, large (high magnitude) and luminous stars are actually
quite cool.
d. Hypothesize what classification of stars are at the beginning of their life cycle
and which are at the end of their life cycle?
Hotter stars are younger, cooler stars are older. Giants and super-giants are
dying. White dwarfs are also at the end of a life cycle. The main-sequence
stars show a strong relation between temperature (energy) and magnitude and
brightness—the hotter ones of these are younger.
Activity 4. Plot Me
Answer the following questions:
1. What does the entire area on the graph represent?
It represents all the possible nuclides that can form, including those that will
decay because they are unstable.
2. What does the black area represent? What is it called?
It is the “valley of stability” and represents all the stable nuclides that can exist.
3. What does the straight line represent?
It has a slope of one and shows the expected trend for atoms with the same
number of neutrons and protons in their nuclei.
4. Which elements where charted outside the grey area? What would it indicate
about those elements?
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All nuclides that cannot form, because they are never unstable
5. There are two K’s (potassium) atoms on the graph. What is it called there are
two atoms of the same element with different atomic masses? What on the
subatomic level, is different between the two atoms?
They are called isotopes. They have a different number of neutrons in their
nuclei, but the number of protons is the same.
6. Do all stable atoms have the same number of protons and neutrons?
No, as atoms get larger, they typically have more neutrons than protons
Assessment
1.D 11.B
2.B 12.A
3.D 13.B
4.C 14.B
5.A 15.B
6.A 16.A
7.C 17.HEAVIER
8.B 18.SUPERNOVA
9.A 19.TRUE
10.C 20.TRUE
Prepared by:
PHYSICAL SCIENCE
Name: ____________________________ Grade Level: _________
Date: _____________________________ Score: ______________
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LEARNING ACTIVITY SHEET
Chemists within the 19th century generally approves about what particles
consisted matter and agreed that matter is made of atoms. However, they are not
familiar about the structure of the atoms.
The information about the known elements gave them encouragement to
arrange the elements in a table.
An element is a substance that cannot be broken down into simpler one. Most
known chemical elements are found to occur on Earth naturally. All elements are all
represented by their atomic number, the number of protons in their nucleus. The
natural elements start with hydrogen (1) and end with californium (98).
But it doesn't stop there. Scientists have created 20 other synthetic elements.
Those start with einsteinium —99. You could also consider atomic numbers 95–98
synthetic elements because they’re almost exclusively man-made that results to a total
of 24 synthetic elements discovered. These elements are generally used to fuel
chemical reactors, and these could also be used for detectors and
spectrophotometers. Some are applicable in pharmaceutical industries.
Naturally - Occurring
and Synthetic Elements
Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Synthetic_element
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The table shows the naturally-occurring and synthetic elements. A synthetic
element is one of 24 chemical elements that do not occur naturally on Earth: they have
been created by human manipulation of fundamental particles in a nuclear reactor,
a particle accelerator, or the explosion of an atomic bomb; thus, they are called
"synthetic", "artificial", or "man-made". The synthetic elements are those with atomic
numbers 95–118, as shown in purple on the accompanying periodic table and the rest
are the naturally-occurring elements.
Different elements have different number of protons. Atomic number is equal to
number of protons. All atoms of a given element have the same number of protons but
may have different number of neutrons and atoms of the same element with different
number of neutrons are called isotopes.
Source: http://terpconnect.umd.edu/~wbreslyn/chemistry/isotopes/isotopes-of-hydrogen.html
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Glenn Theodore Seaborg was an American chemist whose contribution in the
synthesis, discovery and study of ten transuranium elements earned him a share of
the 1951 Nobel Prize/honor in Chemistry.
Seaborg was the head or co-discoverer of ten
elements: plutonium, americium, curium, berkelium, californium, einsteinium, fermiu
m, mendelevium, nobelium and seaborgium. According to him, Uranium or plutonium
are being bombarded with neutrons in nuclear reactors. The first production is in 1944.
NUCLEAR REACTION
Nuclear Reaction a term implied that causes a nuclide to change by
bombarding it with energetic particle. It involves a heavy target nucleus and a light
bombarding particle. It can produce a heavier product nucleus and emits a very high
electromagnetic energy. Nuclear reactions may increase or decrease the number of
protons of an atom, thus, producing new elements or isotopes.
SYNTHETIC ELEMENTS
A term for chemical element that does not occur naturally on Earth. It can only
be created artificially, and it is radioactive and decay rapidly into lighter elements. It
only occurs on Earth as the product of atomic bombs or experiments. Scientist
discovered that a nucleus with too many or too few neutrons compared to its protons
is radioactive. Radioactive materials are very unstable. Technetium with an atomic
number of 43 is the first synthetic element that is artificially produced. It was produced
by E. Segre and C. Perrier in 1937 by bombarding molybdenum nuclei with deuterium.
In 1940, neptunium is produced by bombarding uranium atoms with neutrons. Since
then, elements with atomic numbers 95 to 118 have been synthesized.
Learning Competency:
Explain how the concept of atomic number led to the synthesis of new elements in the
laboratory (S11/12PS-IIIb-11)
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Material: Paper and pen
Periodic Table of Elements
Source: https://www.slideshare.net/JhayGonzales/synthesis-of-the-new-elements-in-the-laboratory
Element Natural/Synthetic
1. Fermium
2. Chromium
3. Curium
4. Nobelium
5. Helium
6. Bohrium
7. Calcium
8. Cadmium
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9. Copernicium
10. Americium
Activity 2: Identify Me
Activity 3: My Discovery
Direction: Match column A to column B. This is all about the contributions of the
different scientist to the synthesis of new elements in the laboratory.
COLUMN B
a. Discovered that when an aluminum nucleus
COLUMN A
was bombarded with alpha particles, a
1. Ernest Rutherford
phosphorous nucleus and a neutron produced. 24
2. Frederick Soddy
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b. He was the at first
all times
to produce oxygen nuclei and
3. Antoine-Henri
protons by bombarding nitrogen nuclei with alpha
Becquerel
particle.
Activity 4: Research on Me!
1. Curium
2. Berkelium
3. Californium
4. Mendelevium
5. Nobelium
6. Lawrencium
7. Dubnium 25
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8. Copernicium
9. Hassium
Activity 5: Think About It!
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________
4. What are the common characteristics of all synthetic elements?
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________
5. What are the uses of synthetic element?
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___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________
REFLECTION:
References:
slideshare.net/JhayGonzales/synthesis-of-the-new-elements-in-the-laboratory
www.slideshare.net>bRoKendaRkaNgeI03>6-concept-of-atomic-no
https://www.angelo.edu/faculty/kboudrea/periodic/physical_natural.htm
https://www.vox.com/2014/5/8/5684538/new-chemical-element-117
www.ucoclick.org
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glenn_T._Seaborg
https://www.quora.com/How-does-the-idea-of-an-atomic-number-lead-to-
synthesizing-new-elements
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Synthetic_element
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ANSWER KEY
Element Natural/Synthetic
1. Fermium Synthetic
2. Chromium Natural
3. Curium Synthetic
4. Nobelium Synthetic
5. Helium Natural
6. Bohrium Synthetic
7. Calcium Natural
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8. Cadmium Natural
9. Copernicium Synthetic
Activity 2: IDENTIFY ME
Activity 3: MY DISCOVERY
1. B
2. D
3. E
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4. A
5. C
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Out of 118 elements that have been identified in the periodic table, 24 elements
in the universe.
Prepared by:
SHAROLYN T. GALURA
Licerio Antiporda Sr National High School-Dalaya Annex
PHYSICAL SCIENCE
Name: ____________________________ Grade Level: _________
Date: _____________________________ Score: ______________
A molecule could be a group of atoms. It’s the tiniest unit that may participate
during a chemical reaction.
There are many different types of molecules, and each one of those molecules
may be categorized into polar and non-polar groups. They are separated from each
within the presence or absence of electric poles. Let’s explore further: There are many
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different molecules, and there are many ways to sort them. A way to classify them
relies on polarity. Polarity means having dipoles, a positive and a negative end. Based
on polarity, molecules can be polar or nonpolar. Some samples of polar molecules are
water, alcohol and ammonia and non-polar molecules are hydrocarbons like gasoline,
methane, ethylene and diatomic molecules (O2, N2, etc.)
Polar molecules have dipoles. Dipole moment is use to measure the polarity
of a chemical bond between two atoms in a molecule. Their dipole moments of polar
molecules don’t add up to zero (or don’t cancel out). In polar molecules, we see that
the charge is not uniformly distributed. It’s electrically asymmetric, that is, the electrical
charges are not equally distributed. When a highly electronegative atom bond with a
comparatively less electronegative atom, a polar molecule is made. It interacts with
other molecules of the same polarity to form solutions. Water and carbon monoxide
are examples of polar molecules.
Nonpolar molecules do not have positive or negative ends. Their dipole
moments add up to zero (they cancel out). It is electrically symmetric, that is the
electrical charges are uniformly distributed. Most of the hydrocarbons liquids are
nonpolar. Nonpolar molecules do not interact the same way. If two combining atoms
have similar or equal electronegativity values, the bond formed is nonpolar. Carbon
tetrachloride and methane are examples of nonpolar molecules.
Source: https://saylordotorg.github.io/text_general-chemistry-principles-patterns-and-applications-v1.0/s12-09-polar-covalent-
bonds.html
Both types of molecules go by “like dissolves like” principle, which means that
polar molecules can dissolve into other polar molecules and nonpolar into other non-
polar molecules. Polar cannot dissolve into non-polar molecules and vice versa.
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In terms of electronegativity difference, polar molecules has electronegativity
difference between 0.5 & 1.9 while nonpolar molecules have electronegativity
difference of 0.4 & less.
Source: https://www.wikihow.com/Calculate-Electronegativity
Example:
1. HCl
EN of H = 2.1
EN of Cl = 3.0 ΔEN = 0.9
2. H2O
EN of H = 2.1
EN of O = 3.5 ΔEN = 1.4
Elements with the higher EN value become the partial negative pole while
elements with the lower EN value become the partial positive pole. This makes the
molecule a polar molecule.
Generally, you can tell if a molecule is polar or nonpolar based on its structure
or shape and the polarity of the individual bonds present in the molecule. Bond
polarity is a useful concept for describing the sharing of electrons between atoms
• A nonpolar covalent bond is one in which the electrons are shared equally
between two atoms
• A polar covalent bond is one in which one atom has a greater attraction for
the electrons than the other atom. If this relative attraction is great enough, then
the bond is an ionic bond
H-H, N-N
HCl, CO ---non-polar
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CO2 , there is electrical symmetry therefore it is nonpolar.
C-O is polar but if we consider the whole O=C=O due to symmetry then it is
nonpolar.
Emphasize the possibility of having a polar bond between two atoms but if we
consider the structure of the whole molecule it turns out to be nonpolar.
Molecular Geometry
The valence shell electron pair repulsion theory or VSEPR theory helps predict
the spatial arrangement of atoms in a polyatomic molecule. The shapes are designed
to minimize the repulsion within a molecule. Symmetry plays an important role in
determining the polarity of a molecule.
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Source: https://www.pinterest.ph/ali_sajid29/boards/
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Source:
https://ontrack-media.net/gateway/chemistry/g_cm3l4rs5.html
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Steps in Determining the Polarity of a Molecule
1. Draw the correct Lewis structure and molecular geometry of the molecule.
2. Identify the polarity of each bond present in the molecule. A bond is polar when the
atoms in the bond have different electronegativity. Recall that electronegativity is the
measure of the tendency of an atom to attract a bonding pair of electrons. (You may
use the periodic table to determine the electronegativity values of the atoms.)
3. Draw the dipole moment vectors for polar bonds. The dipole moment vector points
to the more electronegative atom.
Source: http://www.ochempal.org/index.php/alphabetical/c-d/dipole-moment/
4. Determine the sum of the dipole moment vectors. If the dipole moments cancel out
each other, the molecule is nonpolar; otherwise, it is polar.
Example 1:
Carbon dioxide (CO2) is the gas that you exhale.
1. Correct Lewis structure and geometry:
Source: https://www.makethebrainhappy.com/2018/01/lewis-dot-structure-for-CO2.html
2. Oxygen is more electronegative than carbon. Therefore, the C—O bonds are polar.
3. Since CO2 has a linear symmetrical structure, the dipole moments of the C—O
bonds cancel out.
Therefore, CO2 a nonpolar molecule.
Example 2:
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Sulfur dioxide (SO2) is a colorless toxic gas formed by burning sulfur in air.
1. Correct Lewis structure and geometry:
Source: https://chemistry.stackexchange.com/questions/87057/lewis-structure-of-SO2
2. Oxygen is more electronegative than sulfur. Therefore, the S—O bonds are polar.
Source: https://www.toppr.com/ask/question/statement-1-the-molecule-SO2-has-a-net-dipolestatement-2-oxygen-has-the-
higher-electronegativity/
3. Since the molecule is bent-shaped, the dipole moments do not cancel out.
Therefore, SO2 is a polar molecule.
Tip: Note that the shape or structure does not directly determine whether the molecule
is polar or nonpolar. However, you need to know the shape of the molecule to know if
the dipole moments cancel out.
Mostly, yes. As aforesaid, bent molecules are asymmetrical just like trigonal
pyramids and that means that they are polar molecules.
The Exceptions
There are a few exceptions to the rules of polar and nonpolar molecules, and
C-H bond is a classic example. This molecule is nonpolar even though the bonds are
slightly polar. Nitrogen trichloride (NCl3) is a rare example. Nitrogen and chlorine are
both electronegative. That’s why their bond (N-Cl) is non-polar. However, when you
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see the NCl3 molecule, you will see that the nitrogen atom has a single pair of
electrons. This makes the molecule polar by nature. Sulfur trioxide (SO 3) and Boron
trihydride (BH3) are other examples. They have polar bonds, but they are nonpolar in
nature. Ozone or trioxygen (O3), on the other hand, has a nonpolar bond but is polar
by nature.
This Learning Activity Sheets composed of different interesting activities which
will make you enjoy learning. Are you ready? You may now start to learn this topic.
Learning Competency:
Determine if a molecule is polar or non-polar given its structure (S11/12PS-IIIc-15)
Direction: Identify the following molecules whether polar or nonpolar (it is possible
to have a polar bond between atoms but nonpolar molecule.)
2. HCl
3. N2
4. CS2
5. N2O
6. O3
7. NI3
8. Br2
9. CH2O
10. BCl3
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Q1. How are polar molecules different from nonpolar?
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
Q2. What types of elements combine to form a polar molecule and a non-polar
molecule?
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
Source: http://curriculum.nismed.upd.edu.ph
1. H - O (in H2O)
2. Cl - Cl (in Cl2)
3. N - H (in NH3)
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4. C - H (in CH4)
5. H – H (in H2)
6. C–P
7. F – Cl
8. Fe – O
9. P - Cl
10. I–I
Q1. What is the difference between polar and nonpolar molecules in terms of their
electronegativity difference?
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
Q2. What is electronegativity?
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
Procedures:
1. Draw the Lewis structure and describe the molecular geometry of the following
molecules.
1. NH3
2. CH4
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3. PCl5
4. CCl4
5. F2
6. HF
7. O3
8. NCl3
9. CHN
10. CH2O
Q1. Why is it that homo-nuclear diatomic molecules always form nonpolar bond?
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
Q2. How many nonbonding pairs of electrons did the polar molecules have?
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
Q3. How many nonbonding pairs of electrons did the nonpolar molecules have?
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
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Direction: Label the following statements as True or False. If the statement is
false, underline the word/s that make it false and change it to make
it true.
_____ 1. In a nonpolar bond, the electronegativity difference of the bonded
atoms should be 0.4 or less
_____ 2. In a polar bond, electrons are shared between atoms.
_____ 3. A nonpolar molecule has a dipole
_____ 4. In a polar bond, the electronegativity difference of the atoms must be
greater that 1.9
_____ 5. Nonpolar molecules have positive or negative ends.
Activity 5: Who Am I?
Direction: For each of the following Lewis structure, determine the shape/molecular
geometry of each molecule and identify whether it is a polar or nonpolar molecule.
1. 6.
2. 7.
3. 8.
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4. 9.
5. 10.
Reflection:
References:
ANSWER KEY
Q2. What types of elements combine to form a polar molecule and a non-polar
molecule?
Polar molecules – between nonmetals with different electronegativities
Nonpolar – between multiple atoms of the same element
7. F – Cl 0.8 Polar
8. Fe – O 1.6 Polar
9. P - Cl 1.0 Polar
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Q1. What is the difference between polar and nonpolar molecules in terms of their
electronegativity difference?
Polar molecules has electronegativity difference between 0.5 & 1.9 while
nonpolar molecules have electronegativity difference of 0.4 & less.
Q2. What is electronegativity?
Electronegativity is the ability for an atom in a molecule to attract electrons to
itself.
5. F2 Linear Nonpolar
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6. HF Linear Polar
7. O3 Bent Nonpolar
Q1. Why is it that homo-nuclear diatomic molecules always form nonpolar bond?
Homo-nuclear diatomic molecules always form nonpolar bond because of the
equal distribution of electrons.
Q2. How many nonbonding pairs of electrons did the polar molecules have?
1 or 2
Q3. How many nonbonding pairs of electrons did the nonpolar molecules have?
Zero (0)
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Activity 5: WHO AM I?
1. 6.
Linear, Polar
Tetrahedral, Polar
2. 7.
Linear, Nonpolar
3. 8.
Linear, Polar
4. 9.
Linear, Nonpolar
Bent, Nonpolar
5. 10.
Linear, Nonpolar
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Prepared by:
SHAROLYN T. GALURA
Licerio Antiporda Sr National High School- Dalaya Annex
PHYSICAL SCIENCE
Name: ____________________________ Grade Level: _________
Date: _____________________________ Score: ______________
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present. In a few cases, a molecule may have polar bonds, but in a symmetrical
arrangement which then gives rise to a non-polar molecule like carbon dioxide.
Source: http://physicalsciencetext.weebly.com/97---properties-due-to-polarity.html
Polar molecules like water are liquid at room temperature. They have a strong
attraction to each other, but not as strong as ions. Molecules that are nonpolar do not
have the attraction. The only thing that keeps them together is their size. Larger non-
polar molecules like gasoline can be a liquid at room temperatures but become a gas
very easily. Most small. nonpolar molecules (CH4) are gases for a very long period of
time. N2 becomes a liquid at -196°C (-320°F).
The magnitude of these forces is directly proportional to boiling and melting
points. In addition, molecular polarity affects solubility in polar molecules. They are
best solvated by polar solvent molecules and nonpolar molecules are best solvated by
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nonpolar solvent molecules. The general rule of solubility is Like Dissolves Like. This
explains that polar solvent dissolve polar solute, while nonpolar dissolve
nonpolar. Water (polar) and oil (nonpolar) don’t mix and if the sum of the bond
polarities is zero, the molecule is nonpolar which means the substance is not soluble
in polar solvents like water and will be more soluble in nonpolar solvents like hexane
and it will have relatively low boiling and melting points. However, the sum of the
bond polarities is not zero, the molecule is polar. The greater the sum, the more polar
the molecule and the greater its solubility in polar solvents like water and the higher
its expected boiling and melting points.
Another way to determine if a molecule is polar or nonpolar, it is frequently
useful to look at Lewis structures. Nonpolar compounds will be symmetric, meaning all
the sides around the central atom are identical - bonded to the same element with no
unshared pairs of electrons. Notice that a tetrahedral molecule such as CCl4 is
nonpolar. Another nonpolar molecule shown below is boron trifluoride, BF 3. It is a
trigonal planar molecule and all three peripheral atoms are the same.
Nonpolar
Source: https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Introductory_Chemistry/Map%3A_Chemistry_for_Changing_Times_
(Hill_and_McCreary)/04%3A_Chemical_Bonds/4.12%3A_Shapes_and_Properties-_Polar_and_Nonpolar_Molecules
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Valence Shell Electron-Pair Repulsion Theory (VSEPR theory). Assuming you do, you
can look at the structure of each one and decide if it is polar or not - whether you know
the individual atom electronegativity. This is because you know that all bonds between
unlike elements are polar, and in these examples, it doesn't matter which direction the
dipole moment vectors are pointing in or out.
Polar
Source: https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Introductory_Chemistry/Map%3A_Chemistry_for_Changing_Times_
(Hill_and_McCreary)/04%3A_Chemical_Bonds/4.12%3A_Shapes_and_Properties-_Polar_and_Nonpolar_Molecules
Source: http://physicalsciencetext.weebly.com/96---polar-and-non-polar-molecules.html
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with charged or polar molecules, it will separate from them. An example is when you
mix oil and water. Oil is nonpolar and water is polar. This difference in polarity causes
oil to float on top of water rather than mix with it.
Classification
Bonds can fall between one of two extremes – being completely nonpolar or
completely polar. A completely nonpolar bond occurs when the electro negativities are
the same and therefore have a difference of zero. A completely polar bond is more
correctly called an ionic bond, and occurs when the difference between electro
negativities is large enough that one atom actually takes an electron from the other
atom. The terms "polar" and "nonpolar" are usually applied to covalent bonds, that is,
bonds where the polarity is not complete. To determine the polarity of a covalent bond
using numerical value, the difference between the electronegativity of the atoms is
used.
Bond polarity is typically divided into three groups that are loosely based on the
difference in electronegativity between the two bonded atoms.
Source: https://www.mchmultimedia.com/PhysicalChemistry-help/clientstories/study-tips/a-look-into-bonding-part-1-atoms.html
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Source: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=40mG2rQlLpk
Learning Competency:
Relate the polarity of a molecule to its properties (S11/12PS-IIIc-16)
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Polar Nonpolar
Molecule Properties Molecule
1. Boiling point
2. Melting point
3. Solubility
4. Intermolecular
forces of
attraction
5. Surface
tension
Direction: Label each of the following as polar or nonpolar molecule and explain
why.
Sample Molecules Polarity Explanation
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1. Propane, C3H8
2. Water, H2O
3. Methanol, CH3OH
4. Oxygen, O2
Q1. How can you determine if the polarity (polar and nonpolar molecule) is symmetric
or asymmetric?
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
Direction: Given the molecular shape and geometric type of the molecules, describe
each geometric type and identify the polarity of the molecules
Molecules Geometric Description Polar or
Type Nonpolar?
1. 1. Linear
2. 2. Bent
3. Tetrahedral
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4. Trigonal
pyramidal
5. Trigonal planar
Direction: Given the Lewis structure of the following molecule, identify whether the
given molecule is symmetric or asymmetric and label if it is polar or nonpolar
molecule.
LEWIS SYMMETRIC or POLARITY
STRUCTURE ASYMMETRIC (Polar/Nonpolar)
1. N2
2. C2H4
3. HBr
4. OCl2
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5. SiCl4
Reflection:
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___________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
References:
https://www.toppr.com/guides/chemistry/chemical-bonding-and-molecular-
structure/polarity-of-bonds/
http://chemphys.armstrong.edu/P1/polar/polarity.html
physicalsciencetext.weebly.com/97---properties-due-to-polarity.html
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemical_polarity
http://physicalsciencetext.weebly.com/96---polar-and-non-polar-molecules.html
https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Physical_and_Theoretical_Chemistry_Textb
ook_Maps/Supplemental_Modules_(Physical_and_Theoretical_Chemistry)/Physical
_Properties_of_Matter/Atomic_and_Molecular_Properties/Molecular_Polarity
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemical_polarity#Polar_molecules
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=40mG2rQlLpk
https://opentextbc.ca/chemistry/chapter/7-6-molecular-structure-and-polarity/
https://www.mchmultimedia.com/PhysicalChemistry-help/clientstories/study-tips/a-
look-into-bonding-part-1-atoms.html
ANSWER KEY
Activity 1: COMPARE ME NOT
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Polar Nonpolar
Molecule Molecule
Properties
1. High boiling 1. Low boiling
1. Boiling point point
point
2. High melting 2. Melting point 2. Low melting
point point
3. Soluble in 3. Solubility 3. Soluble in
Polar solvent non-
4. Intermolecular Polar solvent
4. Strong
forces of 4. Weak
intermolecular
attraction intermolecular
forces of
attraction forces of
5. Surface
5. High Surface attraction
tension
Tension 5. Low Surface
Tension
Q3. Explain why nonpolar molecules usually have much lower surface tension than
polar ones.
Because the molecules aren't attracted to each other as much as in polar molecules,
these molecules are much less likely to have high surface tension.
Q1. How can you determine if the polarity (polar and nonpolar molecule) is symmetric
or asymmetric?
Nonpolar molecules are symmetric because there is no unshared electrons while polar
molecules are asymmetric because it contain lone pairs of electrons on the central
atom or having atoms with different electronegativities bonded.
Prepared by:
SHAROLYN T. GALURA
Licerio Antiporda Sr National High School- Dalaya Annex
PHYSICAL SCIENCE
Name: ____________________________ Grade Level: _________
Date: _____________________________ Score: ______________
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THE GENERAL TYPES OF INTERMOLECULAR FORCES
What holds multiple water molecules to each other? Why does a substance
have its distinctive phase? These are conceivably some of the questions we ignore
and fail to appreciate. Considering that fact, these learning activity sheets were
designed to grow your interest in science concepts we often disregard and learn more
about them.
By now you should be comfortable with the idea of a chemical bond. Both ionic
and covalent bonds form because atoms want to have the stable configuration of noble
gases. Example: Covalent bonds hold the hydrogen and oxygen atoms together in a
single water molecule. Break bonds and you change the chemical nature of that
substance.
In these learning activity sheets you will find out the different types of
intermolecular forces (IMF’s) that plays an unobtrusive role in all matters we use in our
daily life.
This type of intermolecular force is very weak and acts in short distances. It is
formed due to the attraction between the positively charged nucleus of an atom with
the negatively charged electron cloud of a nearby atom. This interaction creates an
induced dipole.
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In addition, dispersion forces cause nonpolar substances to condense to liquids
and to freeze into solids when the temperature is lowered sufficiently. Because of the
constant motion of the electrons, an atom or molecule can develop a temporary
(instantaneous) dipole when its electrons are distributed unsymmetrically about the
nucleus.
https://www.chem.purdue.edu/gchelp/liquids/disperse.html
We could discount intermolecular interactions between gas-phase molecules
because these molecules are mostly far apart and moving rapidly relative to each
other. In the liquid phases, all molecules interact with one another. The stronger the
interaction between a molecule and a pure liquid, the greater will be the solubility of
the molecule in the liquid.
All molecules interact with each other through London dispersion forces, or
induced dipole interactions. In figure A.1, a 2-atom molecule collides with a 3-atom
molecule. The electron cloud of the first molecule repels the electron cloud of the
molecule it strikes, causing a displacement of some electron density away from the
nucleus. The nucleus is then poorly shielded by its own electrons and attracts the
electron cloud of the first molecule.
Figure A.1
Image: http://butane.chem.uiuc.edu/pshapley/genchem1/l20/1.html
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Both molecules now have a small dipole moment that was induced by molecular
collision.
Molecules with permanent dipoles can interact with other polar molecules
through dipole-dipole interactions. Again this is electrostatic in nature. The molecular
dipole vector points towards high electron density.
Image: http://butane.chem.uiuc.edu/pshapley/genchem1/l20/1.html
Average dipole-dipole interaction is relatively weak, around 4kJ/ mol. This
interaction is effective over a very short range. The strength of dipole-dipole
interaction is inversely proportional to distance raised to the fourth power (d 4).
Reminder: Polar molecules are also referred to as “dipoles” due to their two poles.
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Hydrogen that is bonded to very electronegative elements (F, O, or N) is highly
electron deficient. It acts as a Lewis acid and interacts with basic sites in other
molecules. The hydrogen bonding interaction is stronger than dipole-dipole
interactions. Again, it adds to the existing London dispersion forces to stabilize
molecules in solution.
Image: http://butane.chem.uiuc.edu/pshapley/genchem1/l20/1.html
The covalent bond that link H and oxygen together is known as coordinate
covalent bond, Oxygen bonds with H using its lone pair of electron.
Hydrogen bonding interactions are stronger than the other interactions that take
place in solution, with an energy of 5 to 30 kJ/mol for each interaction. It has some
aspects of dipole-dipole interactions and some aspects of covalent bonding. For
example, the interaction between X and H in X---H-Y is less than the sum of the radii
of the two atoms but more than their covalent bond distance.
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Learning Competency:
Describe general types of intermolecular forces (S11/12PS-IIIc-d-17)
Objective:
Investigate how intermolecular forces affect a piece of newspaper.
You need:
1. Newspaper strips
2. All purpose adhesive or contact cement(rugby)
3. Baby powder
4. A pair of scissors
Instructions:
1. Coat one side of the newspaper with all purpose adhesive and then lightly
apply baby powder to the same side.
2. Fold the newspaper in half so that the all purpose adhesive side is
touching. Notice that the paper does not stick together.
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3. Then, holding the newspaper in the air, cut a small piece of the newspaper
off the bottom. Hold on to one piece of the paper and let the other piece
drop. Notice that the paper now sticks together.
4. Continue cutting the paper and examining what is happening before moving
on to the discussion questions.
Discussion Questions:
1. What forces are at work when the paper doesn't stick together?
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
2. Why does cutting the paper change the forces between the molecules?
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
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Activity 2: Intermolecular Forces
Objective:
Determine the polarity and the strongest intermolecular force in the
molecules.
Instruction:
Indicate the strongest type of intermolecular force (LDF, DDF, HBF, or IDF)
between the molecules in the following:
Strongest
Polar or Non-Polar?
Intermolecular Force
A. CO2
B. PF3
C. HF
D. CH4
E. KBr in H2O
Reflection:
1. I learned that ______________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
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___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________.
References
Types of Intermolecular Forces, Professor Patricia Shapley (2011)
http://butane.chem.uiuc.edu/pshapley/genchem1/l20/1.html
London Dispersion Forces, Bozeman Science ( 2013)
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1iYKajMsYPY
https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/General_Chemistry/Map%3A_Chemis
try_The_Central_Science_(Brown_et_al.)/11%3A_Liquids_and_Intermolecula
r_Forces/11.S%3A_Liquids_and_Intermolecular_Forces_(Summary)
Intermolecular Forces Magic Trick, FlinnScientific (2012)
http://elearning.flinnsci.com
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Answer Key
Independent Activity 1
Discussion Question Answers:
1. None. The powder will absorb any remaining moisture and create a thin,
slippery barrier that will keep the newspaper from sticking to itself.
2. When you cut the newspaper you put intense pressure on it allowing the
rubber cement molecules at the tip of the newspaper to stick together.
Independent Activity 2
Answers: A) nonpolar, LDF; B) polar, DDF; C) polar, HBF; D) nonpolar, LDF; E)
polar,IDF
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Prepared by:
ALDRIN GRAGEDA
Pattao National High School
PHYSICAL SCIENCE
Name: ____________________________ Grade Level: _________
Date: _____________________________ Score: ______________
Imagine you just broke your favorite lamp. You have several different types of
glue to put it back together. If you choose a weaker glue, it won't take much force for
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the lamp to fall apart again, while using a stronger glue would require a lot more force
to break that bond.
Intermolecular forces are like the glue, only instead of holding a lamp together,
intermolecular forces hold molecules together. There are strong and weak forces; the
stronger the force, the more energy is required to break those molecules apart from
each other.
So, if two molecules are only connected using van der Waals dispersion forces,
then it would require very little energy to break those molecules apart from each other.
On the other hand, if two molecules are connected using ionic bonds, it takes a whole
lot more energy to break those two apart.
In these learning activity sheets, you will learn and understand how
intermolecular forces affect the physical properties of substances.
Viscosity
When you pour a glass of water, or fill a car with gasoline, you observe that
water and gasoline flow freely. But when you pour syrup on pancakes or add oil to a
car engine, you note that syrup and motor oil do not flow as readily. The viscosity of
a liquid is a measure of its resistance to flow. Water, gasoline, and other liquids that
flow freely have a low viscosity. Honey, syrup, motor oil, and other liquids that do not
flow freely, like those shown in Figure 1, have higher viscosities. We can measure
viscosity by measuring the rate at which a metal ball falls through a liquid (the ball falls
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more slowly through a more viscous liquid) or by measuring the rate at which a liquid
flows through a narrow tube (more viscous liquids flow more slowly).
Figure 1. (a) Honey and (b) motor oil are examples of liquids with high viscosities; they
flow slowly. (credit a: modification of work by Scott Bauer; credit b: modification of work
by David Nagy)
The IMFs between the molecules of a liquid, the size and shape of the
molecules, and the temperature determine how easily a liquid flows. As Table 2 shows,
the more structurally complex are the molecules in a liquid and the stronger the IMFs
between them, the more difficult it is for them to move past each other and the greater
is the viscosity of the liquid. As the temperature increases, the molecules move more
rapidly and their kinetic energies are better able to overcome the forces that hold them
together; thus, the viscosity of the liquid decreases.
Substance Formula Viscosity (mPa·s)
mercury Hg 1.526
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Substance Formula Viscosity (mPa·s)
Process Questions:
Put a check in the box opposite the correct answer.
1. What happens to the viscosity of a liquid when its temeperature is raised?
The viscosity of the liquid increases.
The viscosity of the liquid stays the same.
The viscosity of the liquid decreases.
The temperature of a liquid does NOT raise.
2. What is the definition of Low-viscosity?
When a solid, quickly flows out of its container.
When a fluid, slowly empties from its container.
When a fluid quickly flows out of its container.
Answer is not shown
Surface Tension
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A phenomenon caused by cohesive forces (intermolecular forces) between
molecules allowing liquids to create a thin film on its surface. This causes liquids to
acquire a certain shape when put on a container or dropped on surfaces.
In a container, the bulk of a liquid has a balance of intermolecular forces in all
direction. There is a net inward force on the surface since there are no liquids there.
This creates surface tension. Stronger intermolecular bonds equates to stronger
surface tension.
Among common liquids, water exhibits a distinctly high surface tension due to
strong hydrogen bonding between its molecules. As a result of this high surface
tension, the surface of water represents a relatively “tough skin” that can withstand
considerable force without breaking. A steel needle carefully placed on water will float.
Figure 2. Attractive forces result in a spherical water drop that minimizes surface area;
cohesive forces hold the sphere together; adhesive forces keep the drop attached to
the web.
Some insects, like the one shown in Figure 3, even though they are denser than water,
move on its surface because they are supported by the surface tension.
(credit photo: modification of work by “OliBac”/Flickr)
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Figure 3. Surface tension (right) prevents this insect, a “water strider,” from sinking
into the water.
Process Questions:
Put a check in the box opposite the correct answer.
1. When there are no external forces, the shape of a liquid drop is determined
by
Surface tension of the liquid
Density of liquid
Viscosity of liquid
Temperature of air only
Formation of meniscus
A. Concave meniscus
Occurs when there is stronger adhesive force between the container and the
liquid than the liquid’s molecules. The adhesive force overcomes the cohesive force
of the liquid. This causes the liquid to climb up the sides of the container.
B. Convex meniscus
Occurs when there is stronger cohesive force between the liquid’s molecules
than the adhesive force between the liquid and the container. This causes the liquid
to create a dome shape on its surface.
Figure 4. Differences in the relative strengths of cohesive and adhesive forces result
in different meniscus shapes for mercury (left) and water (right) in glass tubes.
(credit: Mark Ott)
Capillary Action
If you place one end of a paper towel in spilled wine, as shown in Figure 5, the
liquid wicks up the paper towel. A similar process occurs in a cloth towel when you
use it to dry off after a shower. These are examples of capillary action—when a liquid
flows within a porous material due to the attraction of the liquid molecules to the
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surface of the material and to other liquid molecules. The adhesive forces between the
liquid and the porous material, combined with the cohesive forces within the liquid,
may be strong enough to move the liquid upward against gravity. (credit photo:
modification of work by Mark Blaser)
Figure 5. Wine wicks up a paper towel (left) because of the strong attractions
of water (and ethanol) molecules to the −OH groups on the towel’s cellulose fibers and
the strong attractions of water molecules to other water (and ethanol) molecules
(right).
Process Questions:
Put a check in the box opposite the correct answer.
1. Which of the following is not an example of capillary action?
A paper towel soaking up spilled milk
A tree moving water up to its highest leaves
The convex surface of mercury in a narrow glass tube
Water climbing higher in a straw than in the glass in which it sits
2. Under what conditions does capillary action occur?
When cohesion and adhesion are equal
When cohesion is greater than adhesion
When adhesion is greater than cohesion
All of the answers are correct
Learning Competency:
Explain the effect of intermolecular forces on the properties of substances
(S11/12PS-IIId-e-19)
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Activity 1: Measure Surface Tension with a Coin
Have you ever noticed on a rainy day how water forms droplets on a window?
Why does it do that instead of spreading out evenly over the whole surface? You might
not guess it but this property of water is also related to washing dishes and doing the
laundry. How? It all has to do with something called surface tension. Try this activity
to learn more!
Objective:
Measure how soap affects the surface tension of water by putting drops of water
on a coin.
Materials and Equipment:
• Tap water
• Dish soap
• Drinking glasses, cups, or small bowls (2)
• Spoon
• 1 cc syringes (2)
• Coin
• Paper towel or dish towel
Experimental Procedure
1. Fill in the table below with the data gathered from this activity.
Note: You can record the volume of water in either milliliters (mL) or cubic
centimeters (cc). One milliliter is equal to one cubic centimeter (1 mL = 1 cc).
Regular Water
Soapy Water
Figure 1. A syringe filled to the 1.0 mL mark (highlighted in red) with water.
6. Place your coin on a flat, level surface where you can easily clean up a small
amount of water, like on a kitchen counter.
7. Hold the tip of the syringe over the center of the coin. Slowly press down on
the plunger, allowing one drop of water at a time to fall onto the coin.
8. Watch the coin very carefully. The drop of water forming on top of the coin
will gradually get larger. Stop pushing on the plunger as soon as the drop
spills over the edge of the coin, as shown in Figure 2.
Figure 2. From left to right: a small drop of water starts out on the coin. Eventually it
gets big enough to reach the edges of the coin, and finally it spills over the edge.
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9. Now, look at how much water is left in your syringe. The syringe in Figure 3
has 0.3 mL of water left. Record the value left in your syringe in table 1.
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b. Put the average mL of water when the drop broke on the y-axis
(vertical line).
c. If you need help making a graph, try the Create a Graph website.
For help creating graphs, try this website:
National Center for Education Statistics, (n.d.). Create a Graph.
Retrieved June 2, 2009, from http://nces.ed.gov/nceskids/createagraph/
16. Based on the size of the droplets, do you think adding soap increased or
decreased the surface tension of the water?
Make it your own!
Variations:
Do you get different results depending on which side of the coin you use (heads
or tails)?
Do your results change if you use an old, dirty coin or a new, shiny coin? If you
do not have any shiny new coins, look up directions online for how you can
clean coins with vinegar.
Try mixing other things from your kitchen with water. Does dish soap give
different results from hand soap or laundry detergent? What about pouring in
something like salt or sugar?
What happens if you try the experiment with different liquids, like milk or juice?
Process Questions:
1. What is surface tension?
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
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___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
Engineers often design devices that transport fluids, use fluids for lubrication,
or operate in environments that contain fluids. Thus, engineers must understand how
fluids behave under various conditions. Understanding fluid behavior can help
engineers to select the optimal fluids to operate in devices or to design devices that
are able to successfully operate in environments that contain fluids.
Objectives:
After this activity, students should be able to:
✓ measure the viscosity of a fluid; and
✓ describe a fluid as having "high" or "low" viscosity.
Materials List:
• ruler
• stopwatch
• graduated cylinder (the taller the better)
• marble or steel ball (must be half the diameter of the cylinder or smaller, and
sink in the fluid being measured; the slower the ball sinks, the easier it is to
measure the viscosity)
• Viscosity Activity Worksheet (found at the last page of this module)
• Internet access, to research viscosities for one worksheet question
• thick, somewhat clear household fluids, such as motor oil, corn syrup,
pancake syrup, shampoo, liquid soap enough of each liquid to fill a graduated
cylinder
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• scale, to measure the masses of graduated cylinders, with and without the
liquids
Procedure:
1. Choose a fluid to measure the viscosity.
2. Calculate the density of the fluid.
• Weigh the empty graduated cylinder.
• Fill the cylinder with fluid, and record the volume.
• Weigh the full graduated cylinder. Subtract the mass of the empty
graduated cylinder to determine the mass of the fluid.
• The density of the fluid is the mass over the volume.
Alternatively, place the sphere in a graduated cylinder half filled with water; the
displacement of the water is equal to the volume of the sphere.
• Weigh the sphere, and calculate the density:
4. Drop the ball into the fluid, timing the ball as it falls a measured distance.
5. Calculate the velocity of the ball falling through the fluid.
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where g is acceleration due to gravity (981 [cm/s2]). The answer should be
in units of kg/cm s, or mPa-s. For comparison, the viscosity of water is
approximately 1 mPa-s.
7. For accuracy, repeat the experiment and calculate an average viscosity.
8. Share, compare and discuss results with your classmates through video
conferencing.
Activity Extensions
Viscosity changes with temperature! Have students measure the
viscosity of a fluid at a few different temperatures and graph the viscosity (y-
axis) vs. temperature (x-axis).
1. Describe the fluid you are working with using every day descriptive vocabulary. (For
example: “I am looking at honey. It is yellow(ish) and clear(ish). It is pretty thick and
moves slowly. It feels sticky.”)
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
Mcylinder=__________ [g]
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• Fill the cylinder with fluid, and record the volume in cm 3. Note: 1 cm3=1 ml.
Volfluid=__________ [cm3]
• Weigh the full graduated cylinder. Subtract the mass of the empty graduated cylinder
and record the mass of the fluid.
Mfluid=__________ [g]
• The density of the fluid is the mass over the volume. Calculate the density of the fluid.
= _________ [g/cm3]
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= __________ [g/cm3]
4. Measure the terminal velocity of the sphere falling through the fluid using these
steps:
• With your stopwatch ready, drop the ball into the fluid.
If the fluid is not very viscous, the ball will fall through it very fast, so be ready!
If the fluid is thick enough, then the ball will reach a constant speed.
This is the terminal velocity, the point at which the drag on the sphere by the fluid is
equal to the force of gravity.
• Measure how fast the ball falls a distance. Record the distance, and the time.
distance = __________ [cm]
time = ____________ [s]
• Calculate the velocity, which is the distance divided by the time.
Vs = __________ [cm/s]
5. Using this equation, derived from Stokes’ law, calculate the viscosity of your fluid.
Gravity is 981 cm/s2. Be very careful to show your units and how they cancel out.
Your final answer should be in units of [g/(cm s)].
6. Viscosities are usually recorded in [Pa s]. To convert from [g/(cm s)] to [Pa s],
simply divide by 10:
=__________ [Pa s]
7. Using the internet, look up the viscosities of some common household fluids.
Be sure to include units. Do any of the answers surprise you?
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Fluid Viscosity Fluid Viscosity
Note: In searching the internet, you may find viscosities in a variety of units. Some may be in Poise [P] or
Centipoise [cP]. 1 [cP]=.001 [Pa s]. The viscosity of water is 1 [cP]. Other fluids may have viscosity in
Stokes [St], which is the ratio of the viscosity to the density of the fluid. To convert from Stokes, multiply it
by the fluid’s density, or find another source! Hint: Search for “dynamic viscosity.”
Objective:
• Describe the relationship of the properties of matter with intermolecular
forces of attraction.
Properties Description
Ex.
this is the measure a liquid’s resistance to
Viscosity flow. Generally, the stronger is the IMF in the
liquid the more viscous it is.
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Boiling
Point/Evaporation
Surface tension
Capillary action
Convex/Concave
meniscus
References
Teaching Guide for Senior High School PHYSICAL SCIENCE
Intermolecular Forces on Physical Properties, © copyright 2003-2020 Study.com
https://study.com/academy/lesson/effect-of-intermolecular-forces-on-physical-
properties
OpenStax, Chemistry. OpenStax CNX. Jun 20, 2016
http://cnx.org/contents/85abf193-2bd2-4908-8563-90b8a7ac8df6@9.311.
https://opentextbc.ca/chemistry/chapter/10-1-intermolecular-forces/
Finio, Ben. "Measuring Surface Tension of Water with a Penny." Science
Buddies, 12 Jan. 2020
https://www.sciencebuddies.org/science-fair-projects/project-
ideas/Chem_p021/chemistry/measuring-surface-tension-of-water-with-a-penny.
Accessed 4 June 2020.
Measuring Viscosity © 2011 by Regents of the University of Colorado
https://www.teachengineering.org/activities/view/cub_surg_lesson03_activity1
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Answer Key
Vicosity Process Questions:
1. The viscosity of the liquid decreases.
2. When a fluid quickly flows out of its container.
3. The shape of the molecules of the liquid.
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2. A water molecule in the middle of a droplet gets pulled equally in all directions by
the neighboring molecules. However, a molecule at the surface of the droplet gets
pulled mostly inward by the molecules below it. This means that all the molecules
at the surface help "hold together" the droplet of water.
3. Soap is an example of a “surfactant”. This means that soaps tend to reduce the
surface tension of a liquid in which it is dissolved thus making the drop smaller.
Answers to questions 1-6 will vary, depending on the fluids and equipment used.
SAE 30 motor
0.25 to 0.5 [Pa S] ketchup 50 to 70 [Pa S]
oil
shortening or
maple syrup 0.15 to 0.2 [Pa S] 1,000 to 2,000 [Pa S]
lard
2 x 10-3 to 5 x10-3
milk honey 2 to 3 [Pa S]
[Pa S]
Activity 3.
Boiling Point- solutions with stronger intermolecular forces (IMF) have higher
boiling points than solutions with weaker intermolecular forces. The solutions with
stronger IMF holds it molecules together stronger hence making it harder for the
solution to evaporate and eventually boil.
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Capillary Action- this is the ability of fluids to rise in narrow tubes. The IMF between
the surface of the tube and the liquid allows the liquid to rise provided that the IMF
between the surface and the liquid is stronger than the cohesive forces within the
liquid.
Convex and concave meniscus - a convex meniscus is formed when the cohesive
forces within a liquid is stronger than the adhesive forces between the liquid and
the surface of the container. Concave meniscus on the other hand is the opposite
wherein the adhesive forces is stronger than the cohesive forces. The cohesive and
adhesive forces are both due to IMF.
Prepared by:
ALDRIN GRAGEDA
Pattao National High School
PHYSICAL SCIENCE
Name ________________________ Grade Level: __________________
Date: _________________________ Score: _______________________
LEARNING ACTIVITY SHEET
BIOLOGICAL MACROMOLECULES
CARBOHYDRATES
The term carbohydrate is derived from the French term hydrate de carbone
i.e. It is a hydrate of carbon or Cn (H2O)n.
Carbohydrates are, in fact, an essential part of our diet; grains, fruits, and
vegetables are all natural sources of carbohydrates. Carbohydrates provide energy to
the body, particularly through glucose, a simple sugar that is a component of starch
and an ingredient in many staple foods. It is made up of monomers of sugar.
Carbohydrates also have other important functions in humans, animals and plants. It
serves as precursors for many organic compounds (fats, amino acids). It is also
present as glycoproteins and glycolipids in the cell membrane and functions such
as cell growth and fertilization. Present as structural components like cellulose in
plants, exoskeleton of some insects, cell wall of microorganisms. Serves also as a
storage form of energy (glycogen) to meet the energy demands of the body.
Learning Competency:
Explain how the structure of biological macromolecules such as carbohydrates, lipids,
nuclei acid and proteins determine their properties and functions (S11/12PS-IIIe-22)
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https://www.google.com/search?q=fruits+and+vegetables&tbm=isch&ved=2ahUKEwiui7XU0u_qAhVkzYsBHdgeBGQQ2cCegQIABAA&oq=fruits+
and+vegetables&gs_lcp=CgNpbWcQAzIHCAAQsQMQQzICCAAyAggAMgIIADICCAAyAggAMgIIADICCAAyAggAMgIIADoECAAQQzoFCAAQsQ
NQOQPWIOjEGC5uhBoAHAAeACAAdcRiAG8UJIBCTYtMS4wLjQuMZgBAKABAaoBC2d3cy13aXotaW1nwAEB&sclient=img&ei=fPEfX67dK-
Sar7wP2L2QoAY#imgrc=FOTbZ2nRvEkbGM
MONOSACCHARIDES
(mono- = “one”; sacchar- =“sweet”) are simple sugars, the most common of
which is glucose. In monosaccharides, the number of carbon atoms usually ranges
from three to six. Most monosaccharide names end with the suffix –
ose.Monosaccharides or simple sugars are the basic building blocks of large
carbohydrate molecules. Monosaccharides contain two kinds of functional groups-two
or more hydroxyl groups (-OH) and a carbonyl group (C=O). Glucose is an example
of this type of sugar. It is a major carbohydrate found in plants and animals. Glucose
has many isomers. Isomers are two or more compounds that have the same molecular
formula but different arrangements of atoms.
Functional groups– two or more hydroxyl groups (-OH) and carbonyl groups
(C=O). Because they have polar, hydroxyl (-OH) groups in their molecular structure,
they are very soluble in water.
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There are 3 classifications of monosaccharide:
1. Glucose
- The most common simple sugar in our body.
- It is also known as “blood sugar” since it is the principal sugar in the blood ,
“dextrose”, and “grape sugar” or “wine sugar” due to its abundance in grapes.
- It is also the chief source of energy for our body cells.
2. Fructose
- It is the sugar present in fruits, honey and vegetables.
- Fructose has been used as a sweetener.
- It is often called “fruit sugar”.
3. Galactose
- It is the simple sugar present in milk and peas.
https://www.google.com/search?q=monossacharide+structure&tbm=isch&ved=2ahUKEwjl0P-Y1O_qAhUpxosBHQHxAbAQ2-
cCegQIABAA&oq=monossacharide+structure&gs_lcp=CgNpbWcQA1D3kAlYkuUJYNrpCWgAcAB4AIABAIgBAJIBAJgBAKAB
AaoBC2d3cy13aXotaW1nwAEB&sclient=img&ei=GPMfX-XkO6mMr7wPgeKHgAs
Directions. Loop the words that are related to monosaccharides. They are written
horizontally, diagonally or vertically.
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DISACCHARIDES
In the morning, Aaron Jay’s mother prepares his coffee; he always adds half a
teaspoon of table sugar. He remembered his TLE teacher who mentioned one time in
their classes that the sugar we use to sweeten coffee is a disaccharide. It is also called
sucrose with the molecular formula C12H22O11. He wondered how sucrose, which is
disaccharide, is formed.
A disaccharide consists of 2 monosaccharide units (similar or dissimilar) held
together by a glycosidic bond. They are crystalline, water soluble and sweet to taste.
The three most common disaccharides are:
MALTOSE
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- made up of 2 glucose molecules
https://www.google.com/search?q=maltose+structure&tbm=isch&ved=2ahUKEwiA8tX3
1O_qAhUNUJQKHfVRD9IQ2-cCegQIABAA#imgrc=0kl0rZhgnEOjxM
LACTOSE
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Glucose + Galactose = Lactose
https://www.google.com/search?q=lactose+structure+and+image&tbm=isch&ved=2ahUKEwigvd
HZoe_qAhU_xIsBHYEcA5QQ2-cCegQIABAA
SUCROSE
Sucrose or table sugar is a type of sugar that is present in almost everything
we eat. It is a natural compound and one that gives us valuable energy. We are
energetic because of this. It is obtained commercially from sugarcane, sugar beet, and
other plants and used extensively as a food and sweetener. It is obtained when
Glucose + Fructose = Sucrose
https://www.google.com/search?source=univ&tbm=isch&q=sucrose+structure+and+image&sa
=X&ved=2ahUKEwjYtZi0oe_qAhUDGqYKHcSmAuIQsAR6BAgJEAE
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Activity 3. Classify Me!
Directions: Determine the given disaccharide according to its classification. Write
your answers below the structure or the picture.
1 2
cCegQIABAA&oq=ice+cream+image&gs_lcp=CgNp
https://www.google.com/search?q=maltose+structure bWcQA1CHxBJYpNoSYN7eEmgAcAB4AIABAIgBA
&tbm=isch&ved=2ahUKEwiA8tX31O_qAhUNUJQKHf JIBAJgBAKABAaoBC2d3cy13aXotaW1nwAEB&scli
ent=img&ei=3fsfX7b7Dsem0QTywbqwDA#imgrc=Q
VRD9IQ2-cCegQIABAA#imgrc=0kl0rZhgnEOjx M CG9PWvRSnbduM
ture
e_q
3 cCegQIABAA&oq=beverage+image&gs_lcp=CgNpb
4
WcQA1D28A5YwvkOYIKDD2gAcAB4AIABAIgBAJI
BAJgBAKABAaoBC2d3cy13aXotaW1nwAEB&sclien
t=img&ei=K_0fX4_kMM-Rr7wPprag-
5 6
https://www.google.com/search?source=univ&tbm=isch&q=sucro https://www.google.com/search?q=sugars&tbm=isch&ved=2ah
se+structure+and+image&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjYtZi0oe_qAhUD UKEwjI-LTr3u_qAhUPU5QKHV6SB3wQ2-
GqYKHcSmAuIQsAR6BAgJEAE cCegQIABAA&oq=sugars&gs_lcp=CgNpbWcQA1DFlhZY1aM
WYMykFmgAcAB4AIABAIgBAJIBAJgBAKABAaoBC2d3cy13a
XotaW1nwAEB&sclient=img&ei=Qv4fX8jPCo-
m0QTepJ7gBw#imgrc=JV0oVgybfkF-0M
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POLYSACCHARIDES
Polysaccharides are complex macromolecules that are made made up of
chains of monosaccharides. The bonds that form these chains are glycosidic bonds.
Three important polysaccharides, starch, glycogen, and cellulose, are composed of
glucose. Starch and glycogen serve as short-term energy stores in plants and animals,
respectively. The glucose monomers are linked by glycosidic bonds.
Common Properties Structure
Polysacc
haride
Starch - a chain of glucose units
- serve as a source of energy for
animals and humans.
- natural polymers glucose
-what we eat from plants are
mostly made of starch.
https://www.google.com/search?q=starch+structure&tbm=is
ch&ved=2ahUKEwiy672p_-_qAhVMXJQKHZBeA10Q2-
cCegQIABAA&oq=starch+structure&gs_lcp=CgNpbWcQA1
Dg6ANY7_YDYKn9A2gAcAB4AIABAIgBAJIBAJgBAKABA
aoBC2d3cy13aXotaW1nwAEB&sclient=img&ei=UiAgX7L6
EMy40QSQvY3oBQ#imgrc=2DWaZRA80PuDlM
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Glycogen - it is what we store as we digest
starch.
- found in the muscle and liver
- it acts as an immediate source
of energy in the muscles.
- it is concentrated in the liver https://www.google.com/search?q=glycogen+structure&tbm
=isch&ved=2ahUKEwjmm9zY__qAhUB15QKHZAgBUkQ2-
and can constitute up to 10
cCegQIABAA&oq=glycogen+structure&gs_lcp=CgNpbWcQ
percent of the dry weight of the A1Da5g1Yt4UOYNWKDmgAcAB4AIABAIgBAJIBAJgBAKA
BAaoBC2d3cy13aXotaW1nwAEB&sclient=img&ei=tSAgX6
liver. btFIGu0wSQwZTIBA
Activity 4. Coding-Decoding
Directions. To test your knowledge on polysaccharides, using the decoder, decode the
terms given.
DECODER
A B C D E F GH I J K L MN OP Q R S T U V WX Y Z
Z Y X WV U T S R QP O N ML K J I H GF E D C B A
TERMS ANSWERS
1. HGZIXS ________________________
2. XVOOFOLHV ________________________
3. KLOBHZXXSZIRWV ________________________
4. TOBXLTVM ________________________
5. MFGIRGRLM ________________________
6. ZWSVHREVH ________________________
7. NFHXOV ________________________
8. TOBXLHRWRX ________________________
9. KOZMGH ________________________
10. OREVI ________________________
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LIPIDS
One day, when Aaron Jay accidentally mixed oil and water, he observed that
they do not mix. He was late in his Chemistry class the following morning but he was
able to catch up the discussion of his teacher on lipids. His teacher explained that oil
and water do not mix because they do not have the same polarity. Also oils are
composed primarily of long hydrocarbon chains. Lipids are hydrophobic (water
fearing), or insoluble in water, because they are nonpolar molecules. This is because
they are hydrocarbons that include only nonpolar carbon-carbon or carbon-hydrogen
bonds. They perform many different functions in a cell. They also provide insulation
from the environment for plants and animals. For example, they help keep aquatic
birds and mammals dry because of their water-repelling nature. Lipids are also the
building blocks of many hormones and are important constituents of the plasma
membrane. It includes a wide variety of structural types which includes carboxylic
acids or fatty acids, triglycerides or neutral fats, (also called fats and oils)
phospholipids, waxes, steroids and prostaglandins. Let us look into the classes of
lipids.
The presence of double bonds in the fatty acids lower its melting point. At room
temperature, lauric acid is solid while linoleic acid is liquid.
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Activity 5. Build Me
Directions: Provide the structural formula and the melting point for the common fatty
acids in the table listed below. Lauric is given.
Table 1. Research on the different structure of Some Common Fatty Acids.
Common Fatty Structural Formula Melting Point
Acids (0C)
Lauric CH3(CH2)10COOH 44
Myristic 53
Palmitic 63
Stearic 70
Oleic 16
Linoleic -5
Linolenic -11
Arachidonic -50
__________________________________________________________
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2.Which fat has the greatest amount of saturated fatty acids?
__________________________________________________________
3.If you need a diet that is high in saturated fatty acids, what fat/oil are you going to
use?
___________________________________________________________
4. Carbohydrates and lipids are composed of the same chemical elements, but in
different proportions. Both are used primarily as energy sources for cell metabolism.
Which type of molecule has the higher calorie content per gram? Explain your answer.
______________________________________________________________
The human body needs essential fatty acids but cannot synthesize all the fatty
acids. Hence, they must be supplied in the diet. Infants lacking these fatty acids in
their diet will lose weight and can develop eczema, an inflammatory skin condition.
Table 2, gives the amount of fatty acids in different sources. The table identifies
which source is rich in saturated fatty acids or unsaturated fatty acids.
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Self-Test 2.
Can we consider fats good or bad? Explain your answer.
B.STEROIDS
Steroids, also called corticosteroids, are anti-inflammatory medicines that
quickly fight inflammation in the body.. These are lipids characterized by three
cyclohexane rings and one cyclo-pentane ring. The steroid nucleus is found in the
structure of several vitamins and hormones, drugs, poisons, bile acids and sterol
(sterol alcohol).
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Cholesterol is a sterol formed in brain tissue, nerve tissue and the blood, and is
a major compound found in gallstones. An important nerve cell, myelin covers nerve
axons to help conduct the electrical impulses that make movement, sensation,
thinking, learning and remembering possible. Studies have shown that cholesterol was
found to be the most important factor in the formation of synapses, which greatly affect
our memory and learning ability. It contributes to the formation of lipid depositions on
the inner walls of blood vessels, which harden them and obstruct blood flow, this leads
to high blood pressure, heart diseases and or stroke.
Figure 9 shows the unique structure of cholesterol which consists of four linked
hydrocarbon rings forming the bulky steroid structure. There is a hydrocarbon tail
linked to the end of the steroid and a hydroxyl group linked to the other end.
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C.PHOSPHOLIPIDS
A phospholipid is a type of lipid molecule that is the main component of the
cell membrane. Lipids are molecules that include fats, waxes, and some vitamins,
among others. Each phospholipid is made up of two fatty acids, a phosphate group
and a glycerol molecule. When many phospholipids line up, they form a double layer
that is characteristic of all cell membranes.
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Self-Test 4. Directions. Answer what is asked in the following statement.
PROTEINS
Proteins are the most abundant organic molecules of the living system. In
1839, Dutch chemist GJ. Mulder was first to describe proteins. They constitute about
50% of the cellular dry weight. They constitute the fundamental basis of structure and
function of life. The term protein is derived from a Greek word proteios meaning first
place.
Let us continue the story of Aaron Jay on his journey this time to the word of
proteins. From the result of his activity, he was able to know that egg white, fish, meat
and cheese are foods rich in proteins. He learned from their discussion that proteins
are found in all living cells.Proteins are present in the different parts of the body like
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the muscle, skin, nails and others. So it means that they are the second most common
molecules found in the human body (after water) and make up about 10% to 20% of
the mass of the cell. They are made up of the elements Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen,
Nitrogen and Sulfur (C, H, O, N, S). So when Aaron Jay eats protein-rich foods, his
digestive system breaks the long protein chains into simpler substances called amino
acids. He learned from his Chemistry class that amino acids are the building blocks of
proteins. Of the 20 amino acids found in human protein, 11 can be synthesized by the
body and 9 have to be supplied by the foods we eat. These 9 amino acids are also
called essential amino acids.
The figure shows the structure of amino acids. An amino acid contains both amino group (-
NH2) and a carbonyl group (-COOH). All the twenty amino acids found in proteins have the
amino group and carbonyl group attached to the same carbon. Since the amino acids contain
both an acid group (COOH) and a basic group NH2, the amino acid can act either as an acid
or base in aqueous solution.
https://www.google.com/search?q=amino+acid+structure&tbm=isch&ved=2ahUKEwizrJWdpO_qAhUB6ZQKHfXYDVoQ2-cCegQIABAA
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Activity 6. Its Research Time
Directions. Research on the different amino acids and provide the necessary
information needed in the table below. The first one is given to you.
Amino Acids Abbreviation Symbol Condition (essential,
non essential,
conditional)
1.Alanine Ala A Non essential amino
acid
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
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13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
PROTEIN STRUCTURE
There are four levels of protein structure that interdependently affect the natural
conformation of a protein.
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sequence of the amino acid is changed,
the properties of the protein are
changed.
B.Secondary Structure This refers to the coiling of the
protein chain into a α-helix structure,
formation of b sheets, or twisting into
random structures. These structures are
the results of the interactions between R
groups, H bonding or formation of -S-S-
bonds between chains. Protein
molecules are so long that they
automatically coil, fold or twist. The
resulting shape is unique for each
polypeptide in a particular medium, at a
particular PH.
C.Tertiary structure This describes the shape of the
coiled chain when it is folded or hydrated
in its natural state.
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LEVELS OF PROTEIN
STRUCTURE
https://www.google.com/search?q=levels+of+structure+of+proteins&tbm=isch&ved=2ahUKEwjahp7Iq-_qAhVVzYsBHT12BiUQ2-
cCegQIABAA&oq=levels+of+structure+of+proteins&gs_lcp=CgNpbWcQA1Ct_fsEWMHb_ARg2uT8BGgAcAB4AIABAIgBAJIBAJgBAK
ABAaoBC2d3cy13aXotaW1nwAEB&sclient=img&ei=fsgfX9rPC9War7wPveyZqAI#imgrc=TVAK2tHffPDrpM
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One molecule of catalase can decompose almost a hundred thousand
molecules of hydrogen peroxide every second. That's very impressive!
This is a model of catalase, showing the globular structure - a bit like a
tangled mass of string:
https://www.chemguide.co.uk/organicprops/aminoacids/enzymes.html
The role of an enzyme can be compared to a lock and a key. The lock will not
open unless you use the right key. In the same manner, an enzyme works for a
specific substrate like the enzyme lactase. Its role is to break the sugar lactose into
glucose and galactose. Without enzymes, chemical reactions in the body may be too
slow to occur at normal conditions and may affect the normal functioning of the
different systems of the body.
NUCLEIC ACIDS
Aaron Jay wonders why siblings resemble each other or how a mother and her
daughter look alike. Like Aaron Jay, he and you, will discover the answer as you
explore the next lesson on nucleic acids.
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Nucleic Acids are molecules that code for hereditary traits by controlling the
production of protein. Like proteins, nucleic acids are long chains of polymers
consisting of simpler units or monomers. It is located in the nuclei of cells. Its elemental
compositions are carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen and phosphorus.
There are two types of nucleic acids: DNA, or deoxyribonucleic acid; and RNA,
or ribonucleic acid. DNA found mainly in the cell nuclei contains the genetic information
that codes for the sequences of amino acids in proteins. RNA is found throughout the
cell and carries out the synthesis of proteins. Nucleic acids are polynucleotides and
their building blocks are nucleotides.
Nucleotides
The monomers of nucleic acids are nucleotides. Each nucleotide is formed by
3 units – PHOSPHATE, SUGAR, NITROGENOUS BASE. It is an energy rich
compound that drives metabolic processes in cells . It serves as chemical signals, key
links in cellular systems that respond to hormones and other extracellular stimuli. The
structural component of no of enzyme cofactor and metabolic intermediate.
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Model of Nucleotide
https://www.google.com/search?q=model+of+nucleotide&tbm=isch&source=iu&ictx=1&fir=kKemlHDg4QOm0M%253A%
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https://www.diffen.com/difference/DNA_vs_RNA
References
Printed Materials:
Herma D. Acosta, Liza A. Alvarez, Dave G. Angeles, Ruby D. Arre, Ma. Pilar P.
Carmona, Aurelia S. Garcia, Arlen Gatpo, Judith F. Marcaida, Ma. Regaela A. Olarte,
Marivic Rosales, and Nilo G. Salazar First Edition 2015, Science - Grade 10 Learner’s
Material
Electronic Sources:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=H8WJ2KENlK0
https://www.diffen.com/difference/DNA_vs_RNA
https://www.google.com/search?q=STRUCTURE+FOR+SUCROSE&tbm=isch&ved=
2ahUKEwipguX_z-LpAhWFAKYKHciEDbIQ2-
cCegQIABAA&oq=STRUCTURE+FOR+SUCROSE&gs_lcp=CgNpbWcQAzICCAAy
BggAEAUQHjIGCAAQBRAeMgYIABAFEB4yBggAEAUQHjIGCAAQBRAeMgYIABA
FEB46BAgAEEM6BAgAEBhQ1PVuWOWob2D9sW9oAHAAeACAAYgGiAGUTJIBC
zItNi4zLjIuOC4ymAEAoAEBqgELZ3dzLXdpei1pbWc&sclient=img&ei=_wHWXumGE
IWBmAXIibaQCw#imgrc=O7tqHdLtLiesbM
https://www.google.com/search?q=STRUCTURE+FOR+MALTOSE&tbm=isch&ved=
2ahUKEwiDoe_p1uLpAhWlx4sBHa6NCUwQ2-
cCegQIABAA&oq=STRUCTURE+FOR+MALTOSE&gs_lcp=CgNpbWcQAzICCAAyB
ggAEAUQHjIGCAAQBRAeUOqrA1jeswNgm7wDaABwAHgAgAG0AogB5QySAQcw
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LjEuNS4xmAEAoAEBqgELZ3dzLXdpei1pbWc&sclient=img&ei=KAnWXoPtFKWPr7
wPrpum4AQ#imgrc=MLu3HGCqGmX8aM
https://www.slideshare.net/mobile/wcadigpub2009zs/energy-and-digestion
https://pnhs.psd202.org/documents/rkieft/15009211.pdf
https://www.slideshare.net/mobile.earshadshinichi/macromolecules-of-life-
biomolecules?from_m_app=ios
https://www.google.com/search?q=levels+of+protein+structure&tbm=isch&source=iu
&ictx=1&fir=Ux9E08J1ctimYM%253A%252CQQN5AmWiU-
cPRM%252C_&vet=1&usg=AI4_kRwRAoXoI7p2ukQs3GmUiKvYhE5ag&sa=X&ved
=2ahUKEwjS06fU2uDpAhXEL6YKHbWxAH4Q_h0wAXoECAUQBg&biw=1366&bih=
631#imgrc=Ux9E08J1ctimY
https://www.google.com/search?source=univ&tbm=isch&q=sucrose+structure+and+i
mage&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjYtZi0oe_qAhUDGqYKHcSmAuIQsAR6BAgJEAE
https://www.google.com/search?q=biomacromolecules+images&tbm=isch&ved=2ah
UKEwiHiKunxejqAhUJ6ZQKHXwjBHkQ2cCegQIABAA&oq=biomacromoleculemage
s&gs_lcp=CgNpbWcQAzoECAAQQzoGCAAQBxAeOgYIABAIEB5Qm52JBFiQzYkE
YILgiQRoCHAAeACAAf8DiAHGDpIBCTAuMi40LjUtMZgBAKABAaoBC2d3cy13aXot
aW1nwAEB&sclient=img&ei=9jccX4e1FYnS0wT8xpDIBw&bih=687&biw=1508#imgr
c=da1NHKepFvWI7M&imgdii=oK5KQuZ4I0wu2M
https://www.google.com/search?q=amino+acid+structure&tbm=isch&ved=2ahUKEwi
zrJWdpO_qAhUB6ZQKHfXYDVoQ2-cCegQIABAA
https://www.google.com/search?q=maltose+structure&tbm=isch&ved=2ahUKEwiA8t
X31O_qAhUNUJQKHfVRD9IQ2-cCegQIABAA#imgrc=0kl0rZhgnEOjxM
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Answer Key
ACTIVITY 1.
1. Tomato
2. Acorn Squash
3. Potato
4. Sweet potato
5. Pumpkin
6. Corn
ACTIVITY 2.
1. Galactose
2. Molecules
3. Glucose
4. Fructose
5. Monosaccharides
6. Carbohydrates
7. Dextrose
8. Carbonyl
9. Hydroxyl
10. Sugar
ACTIVITY 3.
1. Maltose
2. Lactose
3. Lactose
4. Maltose
5. Sucrose
6. Sucrose
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ACTIVITY 4
1. Starch
2. Cellulose
3. Polysaccharide
4. Glycogen
5. Nutrition
6. Adhesives
7. Muscle
8. Glycosidic
9. Plants
10. Liver
ACTIVITY 5
SELF-TEST 1
1. Soybean and Olive Oil
2. Lard
3. Olive Oil
4. Both carbohydrates and lipids serve as a source of energy but these compounds
contain different capacities for energy but storage. Each gram of carbohydrates
stores 4 calories of energy since it contains more energy per gram than
carbohydrates.
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SELF-TEST 2
It depends. If you eat in moderation, fats are good sources of body fuel. They
are considered as good emergency food and are a sufficient energy storage system.
However, an excess quantity of fats is not good for the heart for they tend to clog
arteries and overwork the heart.
SELF-TEST 3
Cholesterol plays an important role in eukaryotes and especially abundant in cell
membranes. Small amounts of cholesterol can also be found in the membrane of some
organelles inside the cells, such as mitochondria and the endoplasmic reticulum.
SELF-TEST 4
1. Phospholipids
2. Phospholipids
3. Fats and oils
4. Fatty acids
5. Lipids
6. Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen
7. Corn
8. Beef
9. Steroid
10. Cholesterol
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ACTIVITY 6
Prepared by:
IVON A. ADDATU
Tuao Vocational Technical School-Pata Annex
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PHYSICAL SCIENCE
Name: ____________________________ Grade Level: _________
Date: _____________________________ Score: ______________
Chemical reactions occur everywhere every day. Plants use carbon dioxide and
release oxygen through photosynthesis. Vehicles engines burn fuel and give off
exhaust gases. Metal pipes rust, and marble statues corrode. Even the stomach
chemically breaks down food into the nutrients needed by the body using the natural
substances present in the stomach like hydrochloric acid.
The behavior of the atoms, molecules, or ions that comprise the reactants is
responsible for the rates of a given chemical reaction. Collision theory is a set of
principles that states that the reacting particles can form products when they collide
with one another provided those collisions have enough kinetic energy and the correct
orientation. Particles that lack the necessary kinetic energy may collide, but the
particles will simply bounce off one another unchanged. The figure below illustrates
the difference. In the first collision, the particles bounce off one another and no
rearrangement of atoms has occurred. The second collision occurs with greater kinetic
energy, and so the bond between the two red atoms breaks. One red atom bonds with
the other molecule as one product, while the single red atom is the other product. The
first collision is called an ineffective collision, while the second collision is called an
effective collision.
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Photo
source:https://flexbooks.ck12.org/cbook/ck-12-middle-school-physical-science-flexbook 2.0/
An ineffective collision (A) is one that does not result in product formation. An
effective collision (B) is one in which chemical bonds are broken and a product is
formed.
.
How Fast Does It Go?
Sodium reacts violently with water.
That’s what is happening in the picture.
Why does sodium have such explosive
reactions?
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Temperature
When the temperature of reactants is higher, the rate of the reaction is faster.
At higher temperatures, particles of reactants have more energy, so they move faster.
As a result, they are more likely to bump into one another and to collide with greater
force. For example, food spoils because of chemical reactions, and these reactions
occur faster at higher temperatures (see the bread on the left in the Figure). This is
why we store foods in the refrigerator or freezer (like the bread on the right in the
Figure). The lower temperature slows the rate of spoilage.
Left image: Bread after 1 month on a warm countertop. Right image: Bread after 1 month in a cold
refrigerator.
Surface Area
When a solid substance is involved in a chemical reaction, only the matter at
the surface of the solid is exposed to other reactants. If a solid has more surface area,
more of it is exposed and able to react. Therefore, increasing the surface area of solid
reactants increases the reaction rate. Look at the hammer and nails pictured in the
Figure below. Both are made of iron and will rust when the iron combines with oxygen
in the air. However, the nails have a greater surface area, so they will rust faster.
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Photo source:https://flexbooks.ck12.org/cbook/ck-12-middle-school-physical-science-flexbook 2.0/
Concentration of Reactants
Concentration is the number of particles of a substance in a given volume.
When the concentration of reactants is higher, the reaction rate is faster. At higher
concentrations, particles of reactants are crowded closer together, so they are more
likely to collide and react. Did you ever see a sign like the one in the Figure? You might
see it where someone is using a tank of pure oxygen for a breathing problem.
Combustion, or burning, is a chemical reaction in which oxygen is a reactant. A greater
concentration of oxygen in the air makes combustion more rapid if a fire starts burning.
Photo source:https://flexbooks.ck12.org/cbook/ck-12-middle-school-physical-
science-flexbook 2.0/
Q: It is dangerous to smoke or use open flames when oxygen is in use. Can you
explain why?
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________.
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Short Quiz
Directions: Encircle the letter that you think best answers the question.
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6. In both instances, decreasing the temperature and decreasing the reactant
concentration ultimately do the same thing when it comes to the reaction rate. What
do these changes accomplish?
a. They decrease the frequency of atomic collisions, therefore decreasing the
reaction rate.
b. They increase the frequency of atomic collisions, therefore increasing the
reaction rate.
c. The decrease of one thing increases the other, and that is why they both
decrease reaction rate.
d. Increase the amount of reactants involved in the reaction.
7. What happens to the rate of reaction as temperature decreases and why?
a. The rate decreases because there are less molecules.
b. The rate increase because molecules are faster.
c. The rate increases because molecules are closer together.
d. The rate decreases because molecules are moving slower.
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Learning Competency:
Use simple collision theory to explain the effect of concentration, temperature and
particle size on the rate of reaction (S11/12PS-IIIf-23)
A. List down at least five (5) chemical reactions which you are familiar with.
1. ________________________________________________________
2. ________________________________________________________
3. ________________________________________________________
4. ________________________________________________________
5. ________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________
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Activity 2: Loop a Word!
Directions: Encircle the word which corresponds the answer on the statement below.
Words appear straight across, backward, straight across, up and down, down and up,
and diagonally.
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Activity 3: Compare Me Not!
Directions: Create analogies for the factors that affect the speed of a reaction. (e.g.
studying is like the concentration factor in the reaction rate when you increase it, the
more chances of successful and greater reaction in the future.)
Temperature
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________
Surface Area
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________
Concentration
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________
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__________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________
Sum Up!
1. What conditions must exist before a chemical reaction can take place?
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________
2. List three (3) things that affect the reaction rate of a chemical reaction.
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________
3. Name three (3) ways a reaction can be slowed down.
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________
4. Why does fruit ripen more slowly in the refrigerator?
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________
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Reflection
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References
https://www.cpalms.org/Public/PreviewResourceLesson/Preview/51001
https://flexbooks.ck12.org/cbook/ck-12-middle-school-physical-science-flexbook-
2.0/
https://www.thoughtco.com/glow-stick-rate-of-chemical-reaction-607631
https://store.csionline.org/docs/physicalExample.pdf
https://quizizz.com/admin/quiz/582a58bd0a0d754977e97359/reaction-rates#
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Answer Key
Q: It is dangerous to smoke or use open flames when oxygen is in use. Can you
explain why?
A: Because of the higher-than-normal concentration of oxygen, the flame of
a match, lighter, or cigarette could spread quickly to other materials or even
cause an explosion
Short Quiz
1. C 2. B 3. D 4. D 5. B
6. A 7. D 8. B 9. D 10 A
Activity 1:
A. Answer varies
1. Photosynthesis
2. Rusting of iron
3. Changing color of the leaf
4. Etc….
B. Possible answer
1. Increase or decrease the amount or concentration
2. Increase or decrease the temperature
3. Increase or decrease the surface area of the reactants
4. Apply or add catalysts
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Activity 2.
1. CONCENTRATION
2. TEMPERATURE
3. COLLISION
4. SURFACE AREA
5. INEFFECTIVE
6. ACTIVATION
7. EFFECTIVE
8. COMBUSTION
9. CHEMICAL
10. KINETIC
Activity 4:
Sum Up:
1. The reactant’s particles must come in contact with each other, and this contact
must occur in such a way that the different particles can bond with each other.
2. Temperature, surface area, and concentration
3. Decrease temperature, decrease surface area and decrease reactant
concentrations
4. Heat changes the rate of a chemical reaction; the temperature in the
refrigerator is lower
Prepared by:
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PHYSICAL SCIENCE
The tunnel through this mountain provides a faster route for cars to get to the other
side of the mountain. If a chemical reaction were like a road to the other side of a
mountain, a catalyst would be like a tunnel.
What Is A Catalyst?
A catalyst is a substance that increases the rate of a chemical reaction. The
presence of a catalyst is one of several factors that influence the rate of chemical
reactions. (Other factors include the temperature, concentration, and surface area of
reactants.) A catalyst isn’t a reactant in the chemical reaction it speeds up. As a result,
it isn’t changed or used up in the reaction, so it can go on to catalyze many more
reactions.
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Question 1: How is a catalyst like a tunnel through a mountain?
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________
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Question 2: In the Figure above, look at the energy needed in the catalytic and
non-catalytic pathways of the reaction. How does the amount of
energy compare? How does this affect the reaction rate along each
pathway?
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
_______________________
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More than 1000 different enzymes are necessary for human life. Many enzymes
are needed for the digestion of food. An example is amylase, which is found in the
mouth and small intestine. Amylase catalyzes the breakdown of starch to sugar. You
can see how it affects the rate of starch digestion in the Figure below
Question 3: If you chew a starchy food such as a soda cracker for a couple of
minutes, you may notice that it starts to taste slightly sweet. Why does
this happen?
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
_________________________________________
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Self-Test
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c. It depends on the amount of the reactant
d. No relationship at all
Learning Competency:
Define catalysts and describe how it affects reaction rate (S11/12PS-IIIf-24)
2 3
6 7
9 10
Across
2. Using amylase starch can be broken down into _____________
4. A substance that increases the rate of a chemical reaction
6. Energy needed to start a reaction
8. Catalysts in living things
9. Catalyzes the breakdown of starch to sugar
Down
1. A substance that it isn’t changed or used up in the reaction
3. The catalyst brings the ___________ together by temporarily bonding with them.
5. In human body enzymes are used to aid _____________.
7. When a catalyst is added to a reaction the rate of reaction ________.
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10. Catalysts permit reactions to proceed along a ___________energy path.
Directions: Research reactions that take place inside the human body or that are
used in industry that require the use of a catalyst.
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________
Directions: Create at least three (3) analogies about catalyst. (e.g. Our coach in
basketball club is like a catalyst it increases our motivation and eagerness to
win.)
1. ____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________
2. ____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________
3. ____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________
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Reflection:
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References
https://flexbooks.ck12.org/cbook/ck-12-middle-school-physical-science-flexbook-
2.0/section/5.28/primary/lesson/catalysts-ms-ps
https://store.csionline.org/docs/physicalExample.pdf
https://quizizz.com/admin/quiz/5e7ba44053158c001bee292a/catalysts#
https://worksheets.theteacherscorner.net/make-your-own/crossword/
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Answer Key
QUESTION 2: In the Figure above, look at the energy needed in the catalytic and
non-catalytic pathways of the reaction. How does the amount of energy compare?
How does this affect the reaction rate along each pathway?
The catalytic pathway of the reaction requires far less energy. Therefore, the
reaction will occur faster by this pathway because more reactants will have
enough energy to react.
QUESTION 3: If you chew a starchy food such as a soda cracker for a couple of
minutes, you may notice that it starts to taste slightly sweet. Why does this happen?
The starches in the cracker start to break down to sugars with the help of the
enzyme amylase.
QUIZ TIME
1. A
2. C
3. A
4. A
5. A
6. D
7. A
8. B
9. B
10. A
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ACTIVITY 1
1. Catalyst
2. Sugar
3. Reactants
4. Catalyst
5. Digestion
6. Activation
7. Increases
8. Enzymes
9. Amylase
10. Lower
Prepared by:
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PHYSICAL SCIENCE
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Limiting Reactant
For a chemist, the balanced chemical equation is the recipe that must be
followed. As you have seen earlier, the Haber process is a reaction in which nitrogen
gas is combined with hydrogen gas to form ammonia. The balanced equation is shown
below.
We know that the coefficients of the balanced equation tell us the mole ratio
that is required for this reaction to occur. One mole of N2 will react with three moles of
H2 to form two moles of NH3.
Now let us suppose that a chemist is to react three moles of N2 with six moles
of H2 (see Figure below).
Reactants Products
Balanced equation 1 mol N2 3 mols H2 2 mols NH3
Before reaction (given) 3 mol N2 6 mols H2 0 mol NH3
After reaction 1 mol N2 0 mol H2 4 mols NH3
So what happened in this reaction? The chemist started with 3 moles of N2. You
may think of this as being 3 times as much as the “recipe” (the balanced equation)
requires since the coefficient for the N2 is 1. However, the 6 moles of H2 that the
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chemist started with is only two times as much as the “recipe” requires, since the
coefficient for the H2 is a 3 and 3 × 2 = 6. So the hydrogen gas will be completely used
up while there will be 1 mole of nitrogen gas left over after the reaction is complete.
Finally, the reaction will produce 4 moles of NH3 because that is also two times as
much as shown in the balanced equation. The overall reaction that occurred in words:
All the amounts are doubled from the original balanced equation.
The limiting reactant (or limiting reagent) is the reactant that determines the
amount of product that can be formed in a chemical reaction. The reaction proceeds
until the limiting reactant is completely used up. In our example above, the H 2 is the
limiting reactant. The excess reactant (or excess reagent) is the reactant that is initially
present in a greater amount than will eventually be reacted. In other words, there is
always excess reactant left over after the reaction is complete. In the above example,
the N2 is the excess reactant.
In the real world, amounts of reactants and products are typically measured by
mass or by volume. It is first necessary to convert the given quantities of each reactant
to moles in order to identify the limiting reactant.
Silver metal reacts with sulfur to form silver sulfide according to the following balanced
equation:
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Step 1: List the known quantities and plan the problem.
Known
• given: 50.0 g Ag
• given: 10.0 g S
Unknown
• limiting reactant
Use the atomic masses of Ag and S to determine the number of moles of each present.
Then, use the balanced equation to calculate the number of moles of sulfur that would
be needed to react with the number of moles of silver present. Compare this result to
the actual number of moles of sulfur present.
𝐦𝐚𝐬𝐬 (𝐠) → 𝐦𝐨𝐥𝐞
Step 2: Solve.
First, calculate the number of moles of Ag and S present:
1 mol Ag
50.0 g Ag x = 0.464 mol Ag
107.87 g Ag
1 mol S
10.0 g S x = 0.312 mol S
32.07 g S
Second, find the moles of S that would be required to react with all of the given Ag:
1 mol S
0.464 mol Ag x = 0.232 mol S (required)
2 mols Ag
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The limiting reactant/reagent is the one that produced the least amount of products.
Condition 1: If all of the amount of silver (Ag) will be consumed, how much of the silver
sulfide (Ag2S) will be produced?
1 mol Ag 2 S
0.464 mol Ag x = 0.232 mol Ag 2 S
2 mols Ag
Condition 2: If all of the amount of sulfur (S) will be consumed, how much of the silver
sulfide (Ag2S) will be produced?
1 mol Ag 2 S
0.312 mol S x = 0.312 mol Ag 2 S
1 mol S
From the two conditions, which reactant produced the least amount of product? Yes,
silver is the limiting reactant since it produces lesser amount of Ag2S than sulfur.
There is a very important point to consider about the preceding problem. Even though
the mass of silver present in the reaction (50.0 g) was greater than the mass of sulfur
(10.0 g), silver was the limiting reactant. This is because chemists must always convert
to molar quantities and consider the mole ratio from the balanced chemical equation.
There is one other thing that we would like to be able to determine in a limiting reactant
problem - the quantity of the excess reactant that will be left over after the reaction is
complete. We will go back to the sample problem above to answer this question.
What is the mass of excess reactant remaining when 50.0 g Ag reacts with 10.0 g S?
Step 2: Solve.
There were 10.0 g of sulfur present before the reaction began. If 2.57 g of sulfur
remains after the reaction, then 7.43 g S reacted.
This is the amount of sulfur that reacted. The problem is internally consistent.
2Ag (𝑠) + S(𝑠) → 𝐴𝑔2 S(𝑠)
Reactants Product
Balanced equation 2 mols Ag 1 mol S 1 mol Ag2S
Before reaction (given) 50.0 g Ag or 10.0g S or 0 g Ag2S
0.464 mol Ag 0.312 mol S
During reaction (amount of
reactants consumed and -0.464 mol Ag -0.232 mol S +0.232mol Ag2S
product formed)
After the reaction 0 mol Ag 0.08 mol S or 0.232 mol Ag2S
2.55 g S
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Conclusion Limiting Excess
Reactant Reactant
More Examples!
Consider again the reaction:
The excess reagent is N2. If you have 6.60 moles H2 then you will need
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After the reaction 0 mol H2 2.22 mols N2 4.40 mols NH3
Conclusion Limiting Excess
Reactant Reactant
b. If 25.5 g H2 are made to react with 64.2 g N 2, what is the limiting reagent? What is
the theoretical yield in g of NH3 that will be produced? How do you determine the
limiting reagent?
i. Get the number of moles of each reactant.
ii. Calculate the number of moles of product using each reagent.
iii. The one that yields the smallest number of moles of product is the limiting reagent.
From 2.29 moles of N2, how many moles of NH3 do we expect to get?
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Theoretical Yield, Actual Yield, and Percent Yield
The theoretical yield is the maximum amount of product that would result if the
limiting reagent is completely consumed. It is the amount of product predicted by
stoichiometry (as shown in the above example).
The actual yield is the quantity of the desired product actually formed.
If in the example given above, only 54.0 g NH3 were produced, then the actual yield is
54.0 g; the theoretical yield is 78.0 g and the % yield is:
Learning Competency:
Determine the limiting reactant in a reaction and calculate the amount of production
formed (S11/12PS-IIIh-27)
Activity 1: Self-Test
Directions: Encircle the letter of your choice.
1. What is a limiting reactant?
a. the reactant that determines how much product can be made
b. the reactant that is in excess
c. the product that you can make the most of
d. the amount of reactants that react with each other
2. You need 2 pieces of bread, 1 tablespoon of peanut butter and 2 tablespoons
of jelly to make a sandwich. If you have 10 pieces of bread, 4 tablespoons of
peanut butter and 20 tablespoons of jelly, what is the limiting reactant?
a. Bread
b. Jelly
c. peanut butter
d. sandwich
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3. Pretend you have a job building tricycles. If you had 100 handle bars, 150
wheels, 250 pedals, and 75 seats how many tricycles could you build?
a. 50
b. 75
c. 120
d. 125
4. In problem 3, what is the limiting reactant?
a. handle bars
b. wheels
c. pedals
d. Seats
5. In problem 3, how many pedals are left over after you have built the tricycles?
a. 0
b. 100
c. 150
d. 200
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Ingredients in the kitchen
16 pieces bread, 18 pieces ham, 7 pieces lettuce and 16 tomato slices.
Complete the table.
Clicker Question
1. How many sandwiches can you make? ____________
2. If you follow the recipe, using only the ingredients available, how many slices
of bread are left over? _______________
3. Which of the ingredients were present in excess? ______________
4. Which of the ingredients were consumed completely in making sandwiches?
___________________
5. Which ingredient limits the number of sandwiches you can make?
_______________________________
6. Define the term limiting ingredient. ________________________________
______________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
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You are given two boxes: one containing stacks of chocolate wafers and one
containing stacks of the creamy fillings. The shipping supervisor shows up to your
workstation and wants to know how many Oreos you can make with the contents of
these two boxes.
To figure this out, you look at the boxes and see the following information
printed along the outsides of each box:
Box 1
CONTENTS: Chocolate Wafers
SPECIFICATIONS: Halloween Printed, 4.6 grams each
TOTAL MASS OF CONTENTS: 662.4 grams
Box 2
CONTENTS: Double Stuff Filling
SPECIFICATIONS: Orange Color, Original Flavor, 5.3 grams each
TOTAL MASS OF CONTENTS: 508.8 grams
Taking in all this information, you think back fondly to your days as a Chemistry
student and realize that you can approach this like a chemistry problem!
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OREO ASSEMBLY QUIZ
Directions: Answer the following and encircle the letter of your choice.
1. If you make as many Oreos as possible, what will your estimated inventories
be after all Oreos are made? Enter your responses as integers.
In chemistry, the maximum amount of product that can be made from all of the
limiting reagent is called the theoretical yield. In this Oreo cookie scenario,
what is the theoretical yield?
a. 66 Oreos
b. 72 Oreos
c. 96 Oreos
d. 144 Oreos
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5. In chemistry, the actual amount product made and measured after a reaction is
called the actual yield. In this Oreo cookie scenario, what is the actual yield?
Here is a summary of your data:
Oreo Assembly “Equation”: 2 Wafers + 1 Filling → 1 Oreo Cookie
Starting Inventory: 144 wafers and 96 fillings
Damaged/Lost Oreos: 5 broken and 1 eaten
a. 66 Oreos
b. 72 Oreos
c. 96 Oreos
d. 144 Oreos
6. In chemistry, the percent yield is defined as
Percent yield = [(actual yield) / (theoretical yield)] x 100
In this Oreo cookie scenario, what is the percent yield?
Oreo Assembly “Equation”: 2 Wafers + 1 Filling → 1 Oreo Cookie
Starting Inventory: 144 wafers and 96 fillings
Damaged/Lost Oreos: 5 broken and 1 eaten
a. 68%.
b. 75%.
c. 92%.
d. 94%
7. The shipping supervisor returns to your station. When she asks about your
Oreo production, you report to her:
a. I made 72 Oreos, which is 100% of expected production.
b. I made 72 Oreos, which is 75% of expected production.
c. I made 66 Oreos, which is 92% of expected production.
d. I made 66 Oreos, which is 68% of expected production
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Activity 4: Problem Solving!
Silver metal reacts with sulfur to form silver sulfide according to the following reaction:
2Ag (s) + S(s) Ag2S (s)
c. What is the amount in g of the excess reactant expected to remain after the
reaction?
d. When the reaction occurred, the amount of Ag2S obtained was 45.0 g. What
is the percent yield of the reaction?
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Reflection
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References:
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Answer Key
ACTIVITY 1
1. A
2. C
3. A
4. B
5. C
ACTIVITY 2
1. 4
2. 8
3. Bread, Ham, Lettuce
4. Tomato slices
5. Tomato slices
6. An ingredient that limits the amount of product to be produced out of the
raw materials used.
ACTIVITY 3
1. 72- Oreo cookies, 0- chocolate wafers, 24- fillings
2. A
3. B
4. B
5. A
6. C
7. C
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ACTIVITY 4
a. Ag
b. 57 g
c. 3 g
d. 79 %
Prepared by:
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PHYSICAL SCIENCE
Name: ____________________________Grade Level: _________
Date: _____________________________Score:______________
1 2 3
5
4
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MY ANSWERS...
1. _______________________________ - _____________________________
2. _______________________________ - _____________________________
3. _______________________________ - _____________________________
4. _______________________________ - _____________________________
5. _______________________________ - _____________________________
WHAT IS ENERGY?
Matter is made up of invisibly small particles, occupies space, has mass, and
exhibits gravitational attraction. Energy, on the other hand, possesses none of these
characteristics. Evidence of energy is everywhere. All you need to do is look for
motion, heat, and light.
• force is that which can put matter into motion or stop it if it is already moving (
e.g. , you are stopped at a stop sign and the car behind you doesn't see you stop, and
can't stop before colliding with your rear bumper, pushing you into the intersection),
and
• motion is a change in distance or direction with time (e.g., making a right hand
turn).
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Energy can be possessed by an object in two different ways, kinetic energy and
potential energy. If this energy is due to the fact that matter is moving or is in use, it is
called kinetic energy. Kinetic energy (KE) of an object is the energy that it possesses
due to its motion. It is defined as the work needed to accelerate a body of a given
mass from rest to its stated velocity. If it is due to the position, structure of matter, or
composition, it is called potential energy. Potential energy is stored energy.
Humans need energy for just about any type of function they perform. Houses
must be heated; energy is required for industry and agriculture and even within our
own bodies a constant flow of energy takes place. All processes that provide us with
the luxuries of everyday lives require energy generation. This is an industrial process
that can be performed using various sources. These sources can be either renewable
or non-renewable. Renewable energy sources are replaced in time and will therefore
not run out easily. However, non-renewable energy sources are threatening to run out
if our standard of usage becomes too high.
A. Fossil Fuels
Fossil fuels consist of deposits of once living organisms. The organic
matter takes centuries to form. Fossil fuels principally consist of carbon and
hydrogen bonds. There are three types of fossil fuels which can provides
energy; coal, oil and natural gas.
https://www.lenntech.com/greenhouse-effect/fossil-fuels.htm
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Coal is a solid fossil fuel formed over millions of years by decay of land
vegetation. When layers are compacted and heated over time, deposits are turned into
coal. Coal is quite abundant compared to the other two fossil fuels. Analysts sometimes
predict that worldwide coal use will increase as oil supplies become scarcer. Current
coal supplies could last for 200 years or more. Coal is usually extracted in mines. Since
the middle of the 20th century, coal use has doubled. Since 1996 its application is
declining again. Many developing countries, like the Philippines, depend on coal for
energy provision because they cannot afford oil or natural gas. China and India are
major users of coal for energy provision.
Oil is a liquid fossil fuel that is formed from the remains of marine
microorganisms deposited on the sea floor. After millions of years the deposits end up
in rock and sediment where oil is trapped in small spaces. It can be extracted by large
drilling platforms. Oil is the most widely used fossil fuel. Crude oil consists of many
different organic compounds which are transformed to products in a refining process.
It is applied in cars, jets, roads and roofs and many other. Oil cannot be found
everywhere on earth and consequentially, there have been wars on oil supplies. A
well-known example is the Gulf War of 1991.
Natural gas is a gaseous fossil fuel that is versatile, abundant and relatively
clean compared to coal and oil. Like oil, it is formed from the remains of marine
microorganisms. It is a relatively new type of energy source. Since 1999, more coal
was used than natural gas. Natural gas has now overtaken coal in developed
countries. However, people are afraid that like oil, natural gas supplies will run out.
Some scientists have even predicted this might happen by the middle or end of the
21st century. Natural gas mainly consists of methane (CH4). It is highly compressed in
small volumes at large depths in the earth. Like oil, it is brought to the surface by
drilling. Natural gas reserves are more evenly distributed around the globe than oil
supplies.
Energy gained from burning fossil fuels is converted to electricity and heat in
commercial power plants. When fossil fuels are burned carbon and hydrogen react
with oxygen in air to carbon dioxide (CO2) and water (H2O). During this reaction heat
is released which further amplifies the reaction. Electricity is generated by transforming
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mechanical energy (heat) to electrical energy in a turbine or generator. Power plants
are very expensive to build, but once they are present efficiency in converting fuel to
energy is very high. Most of the time more electricity is created than is actually needed,
because electricity cannot be stored. Electricity demands vary throughout the year and
provision must meet the peak load, which means the highest possible demand within
a year. If demands significantly exceed a power plant's capacity to generate energy
this may cause temporary blackouts.
Learning Competency:
a. Fossil Fuels
b. Biogas
c. Geothermal
d. Hydrothermal
e. Batteries
f. Solar Cells
g. Biomass
Coal is crushed to a fine dust and burnt. Oil and gas can be burned
directly. Complete the process below.
Burn fuel--------> heat water to make steam---- -------> steam turns turbine-
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B. Biogas
https://dicoagroecologie.fr/en/encyclopedia/anaerobic-digestion-on-farms/
The two major gases that make up biogas are methane (CH4), which accounts
for about 60%-70% of the total and also carbon dioxide (CO2) which accounts for 30%-
40%. Small traces of other gases can be found. Overall the way biogas is composed
depends on the inputs or feedstock that goes into the AD process. In industry, biogas
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can be enhanced to filter out pure methane and removing other gases, which then
becomes biomethane.
Conversion to Electricity
Theoretically, biogas can be converted directly into electricity by using a fuel
cell. However, this process requires very clean gas and expensive fuel cells.
Therefore, this option is still a matter for research and is not currently a practical option.
The conversion of biogas to electric power by a generator set is much more practical.
In contrast to natural gas, biogas is characterized by a high knock resistance and
hence can be used in combustion motors with high compression rates.
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5. True or False: Anaerobic digestion is the breakdown of various plant and
animal material (known as biomass) by bacteria in an oxygen-free
environment.
C. Geothermal Energy
Hot rocks underground heat water to produce steam. We drill holes down
to the hot region; steam comes up, is purified and used to drive turbines, which drive
electric generators. There may be natural "groundwater" in the hot rocks anyway, or
we may need to drill more holes and pump water down to them.
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Activity 2: Power Essay
..........GEOPower Questions
1. Where does geothermal energy come from?
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______
D. Hydrothermal Energy
Hydrothermal energy refers to the heat obtained from hot water from
hydrothermal vents or seawater in contact with hot rock beds.
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where the vents are located. Hydrothermal vents are recognized as rich sources of
thermal energy. The hot water flowing from some vents contains thermal power of up
to 60 MW. The thermal energy contained in hydrothermal vents make them potential
sources for the generation of electric energy.
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E. Batteries
Batteries are also called electrochemical cells. They are devices that store and
convert chemical energy into electrical energy. They can be disposable or
rechargeable. The energy from batteries comes from a chemical reaction (e.g. redox
reaction between and to form).
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called an oxidation reaction. Meanwhile, at the positive terminal, the cathode accepts
electrons, completing the circuit for the flow of electrons. The electrolyte is there to put
the different chemicals of the anode and cathode into contact with one another, in a
way that the chemical potential can equilibrate from one terminal to the other,
converting stored chemical energy into useful electrical energy. “The ions transport
current through the electrolyte while the electrons flow in the external circuit, and that’s
what generates an electric current.”
If the battery is disposable, it will produce electricity until it runs out of reactants
(same chemical potential on both electrodes). These batteries only work in one
direction, transforming chemical energy to electrical energy. But in other types of
batteries, the reaction can be reversed. Rechargeable batteries (like the kind in your
cellphone or in your car) are designed so that electrical energy from an outside source
(the charger that you plug into the wall or the dynamo in your car) can be applied to
the chemical system, and reverse its operation, restoring the battery’s charge.
1. Draw two possible ways for the light bulb to glow on the space provided below.
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
__________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________
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F. Solar Cells
Why is daytime brighter and warmer than night-time? The answer is simple: solar
energy. Solar energy is simply the light and heat that come from the sun. People can
harness the sun's energy using solar cells or Photovoltaic cells.
Solar Cells or Photovoltaic Cells. A photovoltaic cell absorbs light and converts it
directly into electricity. A group of photovoltaic cells is known as a solar panel.
https://archive.epa.gov/climatechange/kids/solutions/technologies/solar.html
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When sunlight shines on the cell, photons (light particles) bombard the upper
surface.
Directions: In a tabular form, lists down the advantages and disadvantages of using
solar electricity system
ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES
G. Biomass
Biomass refers to the organic matter from living organisms and often refers to
plants or plant-based materials that can be converted to energy. It is the oldest source
of energy known to man.
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How is energy harnessed?
The biomass is burned to generate heat. The heat produced can be directly
used to do daily chores such as cooking.
Electricity may also be generated from biomass. The components of biomass
are burned in a boiler. The generated heat is used to produce steam which drives the
turbines to generate electricity.
Reflection
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References
McKinney, M.L. and Schoch, R.M., Environmental Science, Systems and Solutions.
Third edition, University of Tennessee, Knoxville USA 2003
www.digitaljournal.com/tech-and-science/technology/geothermal-energy-how-we-
harness-this-energy-source-part-2/article/484581
https://www.nrel.gov/docs/gen/fy01/30927.pdf
https://www.lenntech.com/greenhouse-effect/fossil-fuels.htm
https://www.thegreenage.co.uk/tech/biogas-energy/
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Answer Key
EXPLORE!!
!
ACTIVITY 1: COMPLETE E!
Activity 2:
Creating Biogas
1. B
2. A
3. Lack of oxygen
4. Biogas can be converted directly into electricity by using a fuel cell.
5. True
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ACTIVITY 3: POWER ESSAY!
1. Where does geothermal energy come from? (from deep inside Earth)
2. What makes geothermal energy a good alternative source of electric power?
(Geothermal energy generates electricity around the clock and does not
produce significant greenhouse gas emissions.)
3. What is one drawback of drilling geothermal wells? (You can’t drill just
anywhere for Earth heat; finding and trapping geothermal steam can be tricky
and costly.)
4. Why is geothermal energy not always a renewable energy source?
(Geothermal reservoirs are not inexhaustible; if not properly managed over
time, a geothermal resource may run out of steam.)
1. Draw two possible ways for the light bulb to glow on the space provided below.
Light the bulb using two wires. Attach one wire to the negative end of the battery
and wrap the other end of the same wire around the base of the bulb. Attach the other
wire to the positive end of the battery with electrical tape and to the base of the bulb,
completing the circuit and lighting the bulb
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Activity 5: In a tabular form, lists down the advantages and
disadvantages of using solar electricity system.
Prepared by:
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PHYSICAL SCIENCE
How do cleaning materials actually remove dirt? Can ordinary soaps use to
clean toilets bowls and sinks? Why would muriatic acid work better in getting rid of
heavy dirt?
People use soap in the same way to clean their skin. How does soap remove
dirt from the body? Why can people not just use a detergent instead? Are they
completely safe for human use? These questions will be answered in this lesson,
which explains the basic chemistry behind common cleaning products along with
their safety and health consideration.
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Learning Competency:
From product labels, identify the active ingredient(s) of cleaning products used at
home (S11/12PS-IIIi-j-31)
Question 1.
Go and find a commercial product that are available in your home and read the labels
to identify the properties of chemical ingredients. Identify the different component of
different commercial products such as detergent, soap, muriatic acid and disinfectant
and give the function of each product.
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
Question 2
What are the active and inert component of common cleaning products?
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
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Activity 2: Common Active and Inert Components of Cleaning Products
Directions: Fill in the box!
Soap
Muriatic Acid
Disinfectants
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Activity 3: Stop, Look and Protect
Various chemicals have detrimental effects on human health. Some people may be
allergic to certain active and inactive (or inert) ingredients. It is therefore important
to check the ingredients of the products before making purchases. The first one is
given to help you.
Soap
Muriatic acid
Disinfectants
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Activity 4: Surveying the House
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Activity 5: Read the Labels
Examine household products available at your home. From the product label, fill
in the information needed for the following table. An example is given.
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Reflection:
1. I learned that _______________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
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References
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Answer Key
Activity 1
Question 1. Go and find a commercial product that are available in your home and
read the labels to identify the properties of chemical ingredients. Identify the different
component of different commercial products such as detergent, soap, muriatic acid
and disinfectant and give the function of each product.
Detergents
Detergents are synthetic, water soluble cleansing agents with wetting and
emulsifying properties. They contain sodium salts of strong acids derived from
petroleum or coal. Their cleansing action is better than soap. Water alone, as a polar
compound, cannot clean effectively since it will not attach to grease and dirt, which
are nonpolar substances.
Component
Surfactant- surface-active agents, have two ends-a polar head and a non polar
tails. Polar head is attracted to water molecules, the interaction of water
molecules with one another is reduced. Nonpolar tails are attracted to greased
and dirt
- reduce the surface tension of water enhancing its ability to wet
objects, spread over more surfaces, and seep into dirt and grease.
- ability to form micelles, which consequently trap dirt or hold
grease.
Basic or alkaline- most common since they are more effective in removing
scratches, oil and fats. But they may contain hazardous ingredients
Soap
Soap is a salt composed of sodium or potassium ions paired with long
hydrocarbon chain fatty acids, which prepared from vegetable oils or animal fats. The
cleansing action of soap is weaker than that of detergent because potassium or
sodium soaps are submerged in water that has an abundance of calcium or
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magnesium ions, a curd or an insoluble solid forms and the solution turns cloudy or
turbid
Component
• fatty acids have a polar carboxylate moiety as the head, and a
nonpolar hydrocarbon tail.
• synthetic, with sulphate or sulfonate group as the polar head
Muriatic Acid
The presence of stains and the inability to completely remove them through
extraordinary cleansing agents are caused b the hard water(contains high amount of
dissolved ions such as Ca, Mg and Fe, which form an insoluble solid with soaps.) and
lime buildup. This is common in areas where water has high mineral content. Calcium,
magnesium, and some elements in water can generate multi layered deposits on toilet
and sink. Flushing will thus be more sluggish and less effective. Dirt trapped between
layers of hard water mineral deposits stain the sink and toilet bowl, especially under
the rim and along sides above the water evaporates, an ultrathin layers of minerals is
left. More dust can then attach to the film., giving white, yellow, orange or brown colour
build up.
The properties of HCl or muriatic acid are ideal for cleansing since it is a strong
acid that can remove rust from metals. Since majority of ions that stick to the sink or
bowl include calcium and magnesium, when muriatic acid is in contact with lime and
hard water deposits, HCl rapidly dissolves them, a process accompanied by bubble
formation as represented by the equations below.
After the mineral deposits are dissolved, the toilet or sink would look clean and
shiny.
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Disinfectant
Disinfectant can rapidly inactivate or destroy various types of microorganisms
on surfaces of nonliving objects. It differs from an antiseptic, which kill microorganisms
on the skin of living things.
Types of Disinfectant
• Alcohols - it will denature the external membrane proteins of
microorganisms. A broader spectrum of bacteria on wet surface can be
killed by using a higher concentration of alcohol in water(70% ethanol or
isopropanol in water).
• Aldehydes - Formaldehyde, the ingredient in formalin, is an aldehyde
that has microbicidal and fungicidal properties.
• Acids - acetic acid and citric acid, disinfect by protonating (adding proton)
the DNA of microorganisms, which consequently disrupts its three-
dimensional structure and deactivate its function. Acid also disinfect by
acidifying(lowering pH) the environment in which microorganisms can
thrive, disrupting their protein structure.
• Bleach -Basic substances disinfect through the saponification of lipids in
the cell membrane of microorganisms. Sodium hydroxide(NaOH), also
known as lye or caustic soda, are used to disinfect buildings, but are
extremely caustic and corrosive to several metals
• Sodium hypochlorite (NaClO) - commonly know as household bleach. It
is active against vegetative bacteria, viruses, and fungi. However, NaClO
is an irritant to the eyes, skin, and mucus membrane
• Chlorine - is a oixic gas that may form when a hypochlorite reacts with
an acid or ammonia; thus, to keep this toxic gas from forming, never add
acids or ammonia to a bleach solution or hypochlorite-containing
solutions.
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Question 2: What are the active and inert component of common cleaning
product?
Activity No. 2
Chemistry Behind Common Cleaning Materials
Fill in the box!!
The inert ingredients refers to all the other substances in a product. An inert ingredients
does not affect the action of the active ingredient.
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potassium stearate, Hardening agents for bar sopas: olive oil and
sodium tallowate and canola oil
sodium cocoate
If antibacterial soap: Emolient to soften skin: glycerine
triclosan or
triclocarbon Emulsifiers or thickeners: polyethylene glycols
like PEG-6-methyl ether (makes the scents and
dyes blend evely with the soap.)
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Activity no.3
Stop, Look and Protect
Various chemicals have detrimental effects on human health. Some people may be
allergic to certain active and inactive (or inert) ingredients. It is therefore important
to check the ingredients of the products before making purchases.
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Muriatic acid Can form flammable H2 Keep container closed and away
gas if it comes in contact from incompatible substances.
with certain metals Ensure that the container is not
Reacts with oxidizing damaged.
materials, caustic
materials, and some Store in a dry and cool place. Do
metals not mix with metals or alkaline
substances.
Corrosive: can burn eyes
and skin on contact Use old clothes with long sleeves
to prevent the exposure of skin to
HCl fumes. Wear rubber gloves
before use.
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• Can irritate eyes, Avoid inhaling directly from
stomach, lungs, and containers.
nose
• Cause light- Avoid exposure to flames and
headedness if one extreme heat. Keep product
is exposed to container firmly closed if not used
alcohol vapors and when it is being transported.
Flammable and may
explode Always wear gloves. Wash
thoroughly after use.
May aggravate some skin
conditions
Activity No. 4
Surveying the house
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formalin Disinfectant Aldehyde
Muriatic acid Muriatic acid Hydrochloric acid
Ariel powder Detergent Surfactant
Anti-bacterial downy Disinfectant Oxidizing agent
Activity No. 5
Read the labels!
Examine household products available at your home. From the product label, fill in the
information needed for the following table. An example is given.
Household Product Active Ingredients Potential Risk(s) Hazard(s) And
Precaution(s)
Toilet cleaner Lactic Acid Eye and skin irritant Avoid contact with
eyes; maybe harmful
if swallowed
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Safeguard Fatty acid Eye irritant, when Do not ingest
swallowed can
cause vomiting and
nausea
sanitizer alcohol Can irritate eyes, Avoid contact with
stomach, lungs and eyes. Avoid
nose exposure to flames
and extreme heat
Prepared by:
CONSOLACION B. BALUGA
Piat National High School
212
NOTE: Practice personal hygiene protocols at all times
PHYSICAL SCIENCE
Name: ____________________________ Grade Level: _________
Date: _____________________________ Score:______________
https://www.hunker.com/12483474/types-of-cleaning-agents
A cleaning agent can be described as any product used to clean. This does not
mean a tool for cleaning. A broom, a mop or a paper towel would not be classified as
a cleaning agent. So, a cleaning agent is not the instrument used for cleaning but
rather the solvent or product that actually does the cleaning. They are either natural
or synthetic substances that are used to aid the cleansing process.
Some of the most typical kinds of cleaning agents are broadly defined
as disinfectants, deodorizers, detergents, polishes, abrasives and other types of
cleaning agents. These are all chemically different and perform different tasks, but
they are all used in the pursuit of a cleaner environment. They remove dust, bacteria,
grease, mold, fingerprints, dirt, cooking fluids and organic matter.
Almost every single cleaning agent can be classified as one of the following
four varieties: alkaline, acidic, neutral or degreaser. These four categories are the
broad umbrella terms for cleansers that have similar chemical properties and react in
similar ways with the substances that need to be cleaned. Certain cleaning jobs are a
job for alkaline cleaners only, while other messes or bacteria or stains may require the
use of a detergent or a degreaser or both.
All cleaning agents are not created equal. To understand exactly what cleaning
agent to use for a specific cleaning job, it is important to understand that all cleaning
agents are classified by their pH levels. pH stands for "potential hydrogen." This
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NOTE: Practice personal hygiene protocols at all times
means that an agent is rated on the pH scale for how many hydrogen molecules it is
likely to add when added to water. The scale goes from acid to neutral in the middle
with alkaline on the far end.
All cleaning agents are given a rating on the pH scale that goes from zero (most
acidic) to 14 (most alkaline). In the center, at seven on the scale, is water. Cleaners
like detergent are more alkaline and fall somewhere around 10 or 11 on the pH scale,
while acids like white vinegar or lemon fall closer to two.
Many people assume that the higher a cleaning agent's pH, the stronger a
cleaner it is. This is actually incorrect. pH is not a measurement of cleaning
strength or power. Something with a very high pH can be the absolute wrong variety
of cleaning agent for a particular mess. The trick to finding the right cleanser for
your situation is to be aware of the alkaline or acidity level that you need and choose
your cleaning agent accordingly based on its pH.
Acidic cleansers are any cleaning agent that can be described as low on the
acid side of the pH spectrum. These cleansers generally contain minerals like chelates
or sometimes hydrochloric acid. The goal of acidic cleaning agents is generally
to brighten up metals or dissolve existing minerals. For example, a grime-covered
stove will benefit from a spray containing vinegar or another acid because the acid
helps to dissolve and break up the bonds of the grease on the stove.
Acidic cleansers are also used in bathrooms to break up lime, scale and calcium
deposits that have adhered to the bathtub, sink and other areas. These deposits are
heavily prevalent when water is regularly used in a room. This is why bathroom fixtures
and hardware can take on a dull, spotty appearance after a while. Acidic cleansers
help to break up the film so they shine again.
Alkaline cleaners are all the way at the other end of the cleaning agent
spectrum. The role of an alkaline cleansing agent is to dissolve fats, oils and
proteins. This is found in dirt and oil but also in organic matter like blood and body
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fluids like sweat. Alkaline cleaners break down these entities and in doing so make
them easier to remove with water.
Alkaline cleaners are in almost every case meant to be used with water. Water
is the partner with an alkaline cleaner like bleach or OxiClean. While the cleansing
chemicals in an alkaline cleanser may break down the matter that needs to be
cleaned, water is the critical component. After using the alkaline cleaner, the water
washes away what the cleaner itself has helped to dissolve.
Degreasers serve a similar function as alkaline cleaners in that they can help
break down oil, fats and petroleum byproducts. They are useful in a variety of settings
but particularly of use in a construction capacity or when cleaning kitchen
appliances or hard kitchen surfaces and floors. Degreasers are also a critical part
of most facility maintenance cleaning regimens.
Neutral cleaners are the cleansers that are not brought out to break down
matter but are mostly used in order to clean dust or remove surface dirt. Water is
one of the most popular neutral cleaners. While it lacks cleaning chemicals, it has the
right pH for removing surface dust and debris from floors, tables and counters.
While housekeepers and scientists all generally agree that water is the most important
and effective of all cleaning agents, certain materials require specific types of cleaning.
Whether it's a mirror, a window or a tabletop, glass cleaning has its own set of
requirements and rules. For glass, you want a cleaner that is powerful enough to
dissolve things like fingerprints, grease, dust and other grime without leaving
streaks or marks.
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The most-recommended glass cleaner is Sprayway glass cleaner. It is an
aerosol spray that is good for mirrors, windows, tile and enamel surfaces. The foam
does not drip unlike many ammonia-based liquid cleaners, and it is strong without
being overpowering. The most highly recommended natural cleaner is Method brand's
glass and surface cleaner. It is ammonia free and entirely nontoxic, which is a benefit
for families with small children or pets.
Each of the cleaning agents has a specific purpose and should only be used as
intended, otherwise dangerous and costly mishaps can occur.
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________
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https://www.chemicalsafetyfacts.org/cleaning-products/
https://www.ajar.id/en/post/types-of-cleaning-agents-and-chemicals
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
________________.
https://www.hunker.com/12483474/types-of-cleaning-agents
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
_________
https://poloandtweed.com/blog/types-cleaning-agents-used-housekeepin
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Activity 2: Hazard Pictograms
Directions: Identify the given symbol found in labelling products.
_________________
________________
________________
________________
___________
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___________
___________
_________
Apart from the daily routine of dusting and cleaning, housekeepers are often
faced with a cleaning job which requires special treatment. A cleaning agent can be
described as any product used to clean. Give the cleaning job of the following
cleaning agent. https://poloandtweed.com/blog/types-cleaning-agents-used-housekeeping
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SELF-TEST
Multiple choice: Choose the letter of the correct answer.
1. A natural or synthetic substances that are used to aid the cleansing process.
a. cleaning agent c. cigarettes
b. alcoholic beverages d. cosmetics
4. Which label wording is the safest when looking to buy a household product?
a. caution c. danger
b. warning d. all of these
5. If you only need a hazardous chemical like a lawn pesticide every now and
then, how much of it should you buy?
a. The size that's the best buy for the money
b. Only as much as you think you will need
c. Twice as much as you need, so you'll have extra for later
d. None of the above
6. Which of these is the best way to store hazardous chemicals in the home?
a. In the original container in a safe place
b. In a replacement container with an airtight lid or cap
c. In a used, but clean jar
d. None of the above
Reflection:
1. I learned that _______________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
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References
https://www.chemicalsafetyfacts.org/cleaning-products/
https://www.foodsafety.ca/blog/4-types-cleaning-agents-and-when-use-them
https://www.hunker.com/12483474/types-of-cleaning-agents
https://www.cleaninginstitute.org/understanding-products/about-cleaning-
product-ingredients
https://www.hunker.com/12483474/types-of-cleaning-agents
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Answer Key
Cleaning agent can be classified as one of the following four varieties: alkaline,
acidic, neutral or degreaser. These four categories are the broad umbrella terms for
cleansers that have similar chemical properties and react in similar ways with the
substances that need to be cleaned.
All cleaning agents are not created equal. To understand exactly what cleaning
agent to use for a specific cleaning job, it is important to understand that all cleaning
agents are classified by their pH levels. pH stands for "potential hydrogen." This means
that an agent is rated on the pH scale for how many hydrogen molecules it is likely to
add when added to water. The scale goes from acid to neutral in the middle with
alkaline on the far end. All cleaning agents are given a rating on the pH scale that goes
from zero (most acidic) to 14 (most alkaline). In the center, at seven on the scale, is
water. Cleaners like detergent are more alkaline and fall somewhere around 10 or 11
on the pH scale, while acids like white vinegar or lemon fall closer to two.Many people
assume that the higher a cleaning agent's pH, the stronger a cleaner it is. This is
actually incorrect. pH is not a measurement of cleaning strength or power.
Acidic cleansers are any cleaning agent that can be described as low on the
acid side of the pH spectrum. These cleansers generally contain minerals like
chelates or sometimes hydrochloric acid. The goal of acidic cleaning agents is
generally to brighten up metals or dissolve existing minerals.
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NOTE: Practice personal hygiene protocols at all times
fluids like sweat. Alkaline cleaners break down these entities and in doing so make
them easier to remove with water.
Activity No. 2
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NOTE: Practice personal hygiene protocols at all times
Cleaning Agent Detector
Apart from daily dusting and cleaning, housekeepers often face difficulty in
cleaning jobs which requires special treatment. A cleaning agent may be described
as any product used to clean something up.
Give the cleaning job of the following cleaning agent.
Cleaning Agent Cleaning Job
sodium hypochlorite (Diluted liquid Fabric stained with fungi, mould and
household bleach) mildew
Sodium hypochlorite and sodium Bathroom drain clogged with hair and soap
hydroxide
Solvents and alkaline cleaning agents Glass stained with body oils
Self -Test
Answer key
1.A 11. F
2. A 12. T
3. D 13. F
4. D 14. F
5. B 15. T
6. A
7. D
8. C
9. F
10. F
Prepared by:
CONSOLACION B. BALUGA
Piat National High School
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