Lesson 2: We Are All Made of Star Stuff (Formation of the Heavy Elements)

Learning Competencies
1. Give evidence for and describe the formation of heavier elements during star formation and evolution
(S11/12PS-IIIa-2)
2. Write the nuclear fusion reactions that take place in stars that lead to the formation of new elements
(S11/12PS-IIIa-3)
3. Describe how elements heavier than iron are formed (S11/12PSIIIa- b-4)
List of important Terms:
a. Fusion
b. Stellar nucleosynthesis
c. Proton-proton chain reaction
d. Triple alpha process
e. Alpha ladder
f. CNO cycle
g. Main-sequence star
h. Red giant
i. Supernova explosion
j. Supernova nucleosynthesis
k. R-process
l. S-process
Learn about it!
Hydrogen and helium atoms in stars began combining in nuclear fusion reactions once hydrogen-helium
stars had formed from the action of gravity. This releases a tremendous amount of light, heat, and
radioactive energy. Fusion resulted in the formation of nuclei of new elements. These reactions inside
stars are known as stellar nucleosynthesis.
The rates of reaction in the proton-proton (p-p) chain, and point out that it will likely take a billion years
before a specific proton is involved in a successful p-p fusion. 2He often immediately decays back into
two protons, and rarely is a proton converted into a neutron to form deuterium (beta-plus decay).
However, enough make it to the next step with billions of protons reacting. The balanced equation for
the formation of one 4He atom in the proton-proton chain is as follows:
The first fusion process occurs in the hydrogen core of stars such as the sun with a temperature of less
than 15 million K. These kinds of stars are called main-sequence stars. The three steps of the process
known as the main-branch proton-proton chain.
3He forms from deuterium and proton fusion, also known as deuterium burning. This immediately
consumes all deuterium produced.
The entire three-step process releases about 26.7 MeV (megaelectronvolts) of energy. The energy
released is responsible for the thermal pressure that pushes against gravity. It is also responsible for the
light, heat and radiation emitted by the star. A different process facilitates hydrogen fusion in main
sequence stars with temperature greater than 15 million K. 7. The core of a star becomes comprised of
He as H is depleted, while H fusion only occurs in a shell around it. Due to this process, the temperature
and density of the core of the star increases up to 100 million K. The star’s thermal pressure causes it to
push out H gas. The star balloons into a red giant.
Several nuclear fusion processes occur in a red giant aside from hydrogen fusion. The first is the triple
alpha process. Alpha particles refer to 4He. This reaction involves the fusion of three 4He atoms in the
following steps:

The 8Be intermediate is unstable, so either it decays or forms 12C. The star can keep growing into a
supergiant as it accumulates mass. Apha fusion processes continue in the core via the alpha ladder.
More and more alpha particles are fused to create heavier elements all the way to iron, making the core
and star itself more massive.
The complete alpha ladder is shown below:
The main-sequence stars hotter than 15 million K could facilitate the production of helium once carbon
was present from alpha processes. This happens through a process where 12C is used as a catalyst
known as the carbon fusion cycle or the CNO cycle. This process involves repeated proton capture and
beta-plus decay.

A star will eventually be unable to generate energy to push against gravity due to the formation of
heavier elements, thus causing it to collapse on itself. It then undergoes a supernova explosion that
releases a tremendous amount of energy enough to synthesize elements heavier than iron. Examples of
these elements are uranium and thorium, which are some of the heaviest known elements. This is done
through the r-process that involves rapid capture of neutrons by the atom. Other heavy elements are
also synthesized through s-process involving slow neutron capture in red giants.
The processes change the atom’s atomic weight, after which the atom undergoes various decay
processes to change its identity.