PHYSICAL SCIENCE

11 - B AND C

LEAH BAGALIHOG

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What I Need to Know
This module was designed and written with you in mind. It is to help
you master the formation of heavier elements during star formation
and evolution, and synthesis of new elements in the laboratory. The
scope of this module permits it to be used in many different learning
situations. The language used recognizes the diverse vocabulary level
of students. The lessons are arranged to follow the standard sequence
of the course.

QUARTER 1 MODULE 1: Lesson 1 – Formation of

Elements During Stellar Formation and Evolution

After going through this module, you are expected to:

1. Describe the formation of heavier elements during the

formation and evolution of stars;
2. Cite astronomical evidence which justifies the formation of
elements during stellar formation and evolution;
3. Appreciate the importance of the discovery of atomic
number which led to the synthesis of new elements in the
laboratory.

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 What I Know

DIRECTIONS: Read each question carefully. Choose the letter of

the best answer. Write your answer on your notebook.
LESSON 1: Synthesis of New Elements in
the Laboratory
What I Need to Know
At the end of this lesson, I should be able to:

1. Explain how the concept of atomic number led to the synthesis

of new elements in the laboratory;
2. Understand the synthesis of an element in a laboratory;
3. Know the importance of the periodic table of elements

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PRE-TEST: 1WRITE THE LETTER OF THE CORECT ANSWER.
1. Which of the following asserts that stars are formed when a
dense region of molecular cloud collapse?
a. Big Bang Theory c. Creation Theory
b. Evolution Theory d. Star Formation Theory
2. Which refers to the fragments of clouds that contract and form a
stellar core?
a. Protostar b. Red giant c.Supernova d.White dwarf
3. What will be formed when a protostar attains its gravitational
equilibrium?
a. Main sequence star c. Supernova
b. Red Giant d. White dwarf
4. Where do hydrogen and helium fuse in a main sequence star?
a. Core b. Crust c. Inner core d. Mantle
5. Helium will be converted into what after its fusion with two more
helium atoms?
a. Argon b. Carbon c. Chlorine d. Oxygen
6. When a star has used up all the hydrogen in its core, hydrogen
will be converted into helium in the layer immediately
surrounding the core. What stage of star formation is this?
a. Protostar b. Red giant c. Supernova
d. White dwarf
7. During red giant formation, what element will be produced by
the fusion of oxygen with helium?
a. Helium b. Hydrogen c. Neon d. Silicon
8. During red giant formation, what element will be produced by
the fusion of neon with helium?
a. Carbon b. Magnesium c. Manganese
d. Silicon
9. During red giant formation, what element will be produced by
the fusion of silicon with another silicon atom?

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 a. Argon b. Boron c. Iron d. Gold
10. At what stage does the outer covering of a star blow due to
insufficient energy?
a. Protostar b. Red giant c. Supernova
d. White dwarf
11. What will happen to a star if its core can no longer produce the
needed energy?
a. Protostar b. Red giant c. Supernova
d. White dwarf
12. Who predicted new elements based on the atomic number of
known elements?
a. Ernest Rutherford b. John Newlands
c. Henry Mosely d. Plato
13. What type of nuclear reaction emits a particle with two protons
and two neutrons?
a. Alpha emission b. Beta emission
c. Gamma emission d. Fusion
14. What type of nuclear reaction emits electrons?
a. Alpha emission b. Beta emission c. Gamma emission d.
Fission
15. What type of nuclear reaction emits gamma rays?
a. Alpha emission b. Beta emission
c. Gamma emission d. Fusion

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LESSON 1 Formation and Synthesis of Heavier
Elements
What is It
Evolution of Stars and the Formation of Heavier Elements
Star formation theory states that stars are
formed when a dense region of molecular
cloud collapses. During this process, fragments
of clouds contract and form a stellar core
known as protostar. The contraction and
gravitational force of the protostar result in an
increase in temperature which triggers nuclear
reaction within the star upon reaching 10
million Kelvin. Throughout the reaction,
neutrinos and positrons are released, slowing
down the reaction. Once the contraction stops
and the protostar attains its gravitational
equilibrium, a main sequence star will be
formed.

In the core of a main sequence star, hydrogen fuses with helium through
proton-proton chain. In addition, the gravitational force of a main sequence
star forces hydrogen and helium to fuse resulting to burning of the 2 primordial
elements. Furthermore, at this stage, helium is converted to carbon at the core
while hydrogen is converted into helium surrounding the core which denotes
the formation of red giant. On the other hand, since massive stars possess
enough energy, mass, temperature, and pressure, the star will undergo a series
of stages where heavier elements are fused around the shell of the core
whereas carbon will be formed through helium fusion, neon will be formed
through oxygen fusion, magnesium from neon fusion, silicon from magnesium
fusion, and iron from silicon fusion which denotes the formation of red giant.
Considering that the majority of helium surrounding the core has been
converted into carbon, the rate of reaction will decrease causing the
gravitational force to act squeezing the entire star. With low mass stars,
considering that the amount of energy is not enough to sustain the reaction,
and that the star’s fuel has been exhausted, the outer material covering the
star will eventually be blown-off leaving an inert carbon core resulting to the
formation of white dwarf.

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 The first 3 minutes of Big Bang focused primarily on the expansion and
cooling of universe so as to the synthesis of the first three elements. On the
other hand, the second cosmological event is Stellar nucleosynthesis, a
process in which heavier elements such as Beryllium ( 4Be) and Iron (26Fe) were
formed by combining protons and neutrons from the nuclei of a lighter
elements.
Moreover, under the process of stellar nucleosynthesis, heavier elements
are created in different types of stars as they die or explode and the abundance
of these elements change as the stars evolve.

Stable Helium reacts with Carbon to produce oxygen and gamma rays
under extreme gravitational force and temperature. Oxygen as the product of
the initial reaction then reacts with Helium to form Neon
and gamma rays ( 42He + 168O 2010Ne + 00γ). The third
reaction involves carbon reacting with another Carbon
forming Magnesium and gamma ray
(126C + 126C 2412Mg + 00γ). On the other hand, Oxygen to Oxygen fusion will
create Silicon, alpha particle (Helium) and gamma rays as product.
(168O + 168O 2814Si + 42He + 00γ). The process will continue to form heavier
elements from lighter ones, but not heavier than Iron with atomic mass of 26.
Lastly, supernova happens when the core can no longer produce the needed
energy to resist gravitational force, leading to its explosion and release of large
amounts of energy.

Pieces of Evidence
One remarkable evidence to support stellar nucleosynthesis and star
formation theory is the discovery of interstellar dusts and gasses which justifies
the stages of stellar formation which are happening across the universe. In
addition, infrared radiation being emitted in the process of stellar formation
serves as a strong indication that stellar nucleosynthesis is a concurrent with
stellar formation and evolution.

Atomic Number and Synthesis of New Elements

Throughout history, scientist have been working on a periodic
organization of elements as to their properties and to predict new elements.
This is because understanding the properties of these known elements will
provide them a pattern which would help them discover new elements. Henry
Gwyn Jeffreys Mosely an English chemist arranged the elements in the periodic
table by using atomic number as basis. This allowed him to identify and predict

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 any element considering the number of protons which is equal to the atomic
number. In addition, he emphasized that adding proton to an element
increases its atomic number and that new element will be formed.

Nuclear Reaction
Alpha Emission: a particle with two protons and two neutrons is emitted
resulting to a lighter new element. 23892 U 234 4
90 Th + 2 He

Beta Emission: a neutron becomes a proton, and an electron will be ejected

resulting to a new element with the same mass. 13153 I 131 0
54 Xe + -1 e

Gamma Emission: gamma ray will be emitted when a radioactive nuclide

leaves a nucleus in an excited state. 13756 Ba 137
56 Ba + γ-photon.
Activity 1 A : Stellar Products
Directions: Based on your understanding about the formation of heavier
elements during stellar nucleosynthesis, predict the reactants, and products
which will be formed by the following reactions inside the table.

Reactant Reactant Atomic # Mass # of Chemical Product

1 2 of Reactant 2 Equation
Reactant
2
Helium Oxygen
Helium Neon
Helium Magnesium
Helium Silicon
Helium Sulfur
Helium Argon
Helium Calcium
Helium Titanium

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 Activity 1 B: Birth from the Stars
Directions: Identify the elements formed during the following stages of star
formation and evolution.
Stages What were How were these elements formed?
the elements
formed?

Protostar

Main
Sequence
Star
Red Giant
Star
White
Dwarf
Supernova

Activity 1 C: It’s Okay Decay

Directions: Determine the type of chemical reaction in each item (a-emission,
b- emission, y-emission, fission, fusion). In addition, write the product of the
following chemical reactions on the space provided for product side.

1. 1532P 1632S +

2. 92238U 90234Th +

3. 90234Th 90234Th +

4. 53131I 54131Xe +

5. 88226Ra 86222Rn +

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 What I Have Learned

1. Gamma Ray is electromagnetic radiation with a relatively short wavelength

emitted during gamma decay and other reactions.
2. Radio Active Nuclei refers to an unstable nucleus that spontaneously emits
particles and energy throughout the radioactive decay process.
3. Supernova is a star that blows apart and releases a large amount of energy.
4. Star formation theory proposes that stars were formed due to the collapsing of
a dense region of molecular clouds.
5. Stellar nucleosynthesis refers to the process by which elements are formed
within the star during star formation and evolution.

Assessment 1
Directions: Read each question carefully. Choose the letter of the best answer.
Write your answer on a separate sheet of paper.

1. When helium atoms fuse, Helium will be converted to

.
a. Argon b. Carbon c. Chlorine d. Oxygen
2. will be formed when protostar attains its gravitational equilibrium.
a. Main sequence star c. Supernova
B. Red Giant d. White dwarf
3. Hydrogen and helium fuse at the of a main sequence star.
a. Core b. Crust c. Inner core d. Mantle
4. will be produced by silicon fusion during red giant formation.
A. Argon b. Boron c. Iron d. Gold
5. predicted new elements based on the atomic number of known elements.
a. Ernest Rutherford
b. b. John Newlands
c. c. Henry Mosely

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 d. d. Plato

6.will be produced by oxygen fusion during red giant formation.

a. Helium b. Hydrogen c. Neon d. Silicon
7. During the formation of a _____ hydrogen will be converted into helium in
the layer surrounding the core.
a. Protostar b. Red giant c. Supernova d. White dwarf
8. states that stars are formed when a dense region of molecular cloud
collapse.
A. Big Bang Theory c. Creation Theory
B. Evolution Theory d. Star formation Theory
9. Two protons and two neutrons will be emitted during
decay.
a. Alpha b. Beta c. Gamma d. Fusion
10. will happen to a star if its core can no longer produce the needed energy.
A. Protostar b. Red giant c. Supernova d. White dwarf
11. will be produced by neon fusion during red giant formation.
A. Carbon b. Magnesium c. Manganese d. Silicon
12. Gamma ray will be emitted during decay.
A. Alpha b. Beta c. Gamma d. Fusion
13. When the fragments of clouds contract, a stellar core known as is
formed.
A. Protostar b. Red giant c. Supernova d. White dwarf
14. Electron will be emitted during decay.
A. Alpha b. Beta c. Gamma d. Fission
15. During stage the outer covering of star will blow due to insufficient
energy.
A. Protostar b. Red giant c. Supernova d. White dwarf

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 Additional Activities 1
Directions: Write the balanced nuclear reaction of the
following elements under
alpha, beta and gamma decay.

ELEMENT RADIO ACTIVE DECAY BALANCED CHEMICAL REACTION

ALPHA DECAY
Ur Uranium 235 BETA DECAY
GAMMA DECAY

ELEMENT RADIO ACTIVE DECAY BALANCED CHEMICAL REACTION

Uranium 238 ALPHA DECAY
Carbon 14 BETA DECAY
Barium 137 GAMMA DECAY

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 Physical Science
Quarter 1 – Module 2:
Exploring Polarity of Molecules and its Properties

• Lesson 1 – Exploring Polarity of Molecules and its Properties

After going through this module, you are expected to:

1. Compare and contrast polar and non-polar molecule;

2. Identify the polarity of a molecule based on its structure;

and

3. Appreciate the importance of different molecules in

relation to its polarity by citing examples.
PRE TEST:
DIRECTIONS: Read each question carefully. Choose the letter of the best
answer.

____1. Which of the following statement is TRUE about water?

a. It is a polar molecule
b. It is a non-polar molecule
c. It is both polar & non-polar
d. It has no polarity
____2. Which of the following will be the solvent if a non-polar substance
dissolves in an unknown liquid?

a. Non-polar
b. Polar
c. Water
d. All of the above
____3. Which of the following shapes is most likely form of a non-polar
molecule?

a. Asymmetric linear
b. Bent
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 c. Square planar
d. Pyramidal
____4. Which of the following is an example of a non-polar molecule?
a. CO2
b. H2O
c. NH3
d. SO2

____5. Which of the following is an example of a polar molecule?

a. HCl
b. BF3
c. CCl4
d. XeF4

ACTIVITY 2 A
Directions: Based on your understanding of the formation of heavier
elements during stellar nucleosynthesis, complete the table below by writing
the reactants and chemical equations of the following elements.
Reactant Reactant Atomic Mass Chemical Equation Product
1 2 # #
Helium Ti
Helium Ar
Helium Si
Helium Cr
Helium Mg

Activity Objective

Investigate the solubility and miscibility of several substances using water as

the solvent. Describe what happens at the molecular level for each setup. Lastly,
identify the polarity of the substances based on the result of each setup.
Materials: 5 plastic cups half-filled with water, 5 ml of denatured alcohol, 5
ml of cooking oil, 5 ml of soy sauce, 5 ml of ethyl alcohol, and 5 ml
of shampoo.

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Safety Guidelines:

1. Perform this activity on a clean table and with complete materials.

2. Follow the given procedures and do not deviate from the instructions.

3. Clean and dispose of the materials properly after the activity.

Instructions:

Fill each cup halfway with water, then add 5 ml of each substance to
each cup. Observe and record your findings.
PREDICTION OBSERVATION EXPLANATION

Guide Questions:

1. Which of the following substances are miscible with water?

Explain.
2. Explain why some substances do mix while others
don’t.
Polarity of Molecules
Polarity refers to having a dipole, that is, a positive and a negative end.
Polarity is dictated by the distribution of electrons in the molecule; either the
electrons are equally distributed or unevenly scattered throughout the
molecule. Molecules can be classified as polar or nonpolar. Polarity is a physical
aspect of a molecule that affects and influences the behavior of a molecule.
Generally, the polarity of a molecule can be predicted from its shape (refer to
the image next page).
When electrons in a polar covalent bond are unequally shared
between two bonded atoms, it causes partial positive and negative charges.
One example of this is hydrochloric acid, where electrons are more
15
concentrated on the chlorine atom, being more electronegative than hydrogen.
This separation of the charges is responsible for its polarity.
Dipole moment is a quantity that describes the polarity of a bond
in a molecule. In more complex molecular shapes, if the dipole moments do not
add up to zero or do not cancel out, a net dipole moment is present, making
the molecule polar. A polar molecule results when a molecule contains polar
bonds in an asymmetrical arrangement. Example here are bent (H2O), trigonal
pyramidal (NH3), T-shape (ClF3).
If the dipole moments do cancel out, the molecule is non-polar.
Carbon tetrachloride, CCl4 is one examples. Even if the C-Cl bonds are polar,
their tetrahedral arrangement allows the bond dipoles to cancel each other.
Other shapes under this category can be symmetrical linear (CO 2), trigonal
planar (BF3), square planar (XeF4).

Polarity of Molecules and Its Properties

Properties of different molecules can be attributed to their polarity.
One of the most common manifestations of these molecular properties is
solubility and miscibility. Solubility refers to the ability of a substance (solute) to
dissolve in another substance (solvent). On the other hand, miscibility refers to
the ability of two substances, usually liquids, to mix in all proportions. [Note: In
advanced chemistry courses, the term miscibility may also be used for solids
and gases.]
Polarity has a direct effect on solubility and miscibility. Liquids tend to
be miscible with liquids of a similar polarity. That is, polar is miscible with polar,
nonpolar with nonpolar liquids. This is due to the attractive and repulsive forces
between molecules in the mix. Remember, concerning polarity, structure, and
properties of different molecules, the general rule “like dissolves
like” and “like mixes well with like”. The practical application of this
principle is when different substances mix well due to their similar

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polarity. One notable example is that vinegar mixes well with water since both
water and vinegar are polar substances.
Boiling point is the temperature at which a liquid turns into a gas.
There are several factors that influence the boiling point of a substance, but
here, we focus on the polarity of its molecules. Substances have varied boiling
points due to the differences in their respective molecular polarity.
How does polarity of molecules affect the boiling point of a substance?
The greater the polarity of the molecules in the substance, the greater their
forces of attraction between molecules, the greater the energy needed to
separate them into a gaseous form, and, therefore, the higher its boiling point.
The molecules in water, for example, are held together by strong H-bonds
(hydrogen bonds), which results in its very high boiling point (100°C). In
contrast, non-polar substances usually have relatively lower boiling points
because of weaker forces of attraction among the molecules.

Activity 2 B

Properties of Polarities
Directions: Explain the different molecular properties below regarding your
understanding of molecular polarity.
Property Explanation

Solubility

Boiling Point

Miscibility
Activity 2 C

Molecular Doodle

Directions: Illustrate the Lewis dot structures, name the shape of the
molecule, and identify whether the following molecules are polar or nonpolar
based on structure.

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Molecule/Compound Lewis Dot Shape Polarity
Structure
AlCl3
H2O
N2O
HF
PCl3
CO2
HCN
CH4
SO2
WHAT I HAVE LEARNED
1. Polarity refers to having a dipole, that is, a positive and a negative end.
The term may be applied to a bond between atoms in a molecule, or
to a whole molecule. In a polar bond, the electron pair is unevenly
pulled between the atoms. In a non-polar bond, the electron pair is
more or less evenly distributed. Simple molecules with non-polar
bonds are non-polar molecules. Those with polar bonds are polar
molecules.

2. In more complex molecules, their polarity depends on the general

distribution and type of bonds (whether polar or non-polar) present.
Polarity can be visualized through molecular shapes or quantified by
using dipole moments.

3. Molecules are either symmetrical or asymmetrical. Asymmetry refers

to molecule having no axis of symmetry and that the original state and
rotated state is distinguishable from one another.

4. Symmetry refers to a property of molecule whose structure does not

change if you turn its axis of symmetry in its original state, and the
rotated state is indistinguishable from one another.

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 5. Miscibility refers to the capacity of a liquid to be mixed with other
liquids to form a homogenous substance. Miscibility is influenced by
the polarity of the substances attempted to be mixed. [Miscibility
may also be used in relation to solids and gases, but this use
is beyond the scope of this lesson].

ACTIVITY 2 D : Directions: Based on your understanding of the topics

presented in this module, briefly answer the following questions regarding the
structure and properties of polar molecules.

1. Which substances available in your home are miscible in water?

Explain.
2. Classify ten substances/compounds present in your surrounding as to
their polarity?
3. Relate the polarity of the listed substances and compounds to their
properties?
4. How did your understanding of polarity and its property change your
perception of different substances and compounds available around
you?

ASSESSMENT 2
DIRECTIONS: Read each question carefully. Choose the letter of the best
answer. Write your answer on a separate sheet of paper.

____1. Which of the following will be the solvent if a nonpolar substance

dissolves in an unknown liquid?
a. Ionic c. Polar
b. Non-polar d. Water
____2. Which of the following is an example of non-polar molecule?
a. O3 c. ClBr3
b. N2 d. SO2
____3. Which of the following is a common structure of a non-polar molecule?
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a. Bent c. Linear
b. Trigonal pyramidal d. Trigonal planar
____4. Which of the following is TRUE about boiling point of polar molecules?
a. Generally high boiling point
b. Boiling point cannot be determined
c. Generally low boiling point
d. Similar non-polar molecules

____5. Which of the following is TRUE about H2O?

a. Non-Polar c. Low boiling point
b. B. Polar d. Linear Structure

ADDITIONAL ACTIVITY 2:
Directions: Complete the table below, based on your understanding of the
polarity of molecules, their structure, and their properties.
Miscible High
Molecular Water
Molecule Polarity on Boiling
Shape Soluble?
Water? Point?

CH4

SO2

N2

O2

O3

PCl3

H2O

HF

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Physical Science Quarter 1 – Module 3:
Intermolecular Forces of Attraction
PERFORMANCE STANDARD: The learners should be able to make a creative
representation of the atom or the chemical
element in a timeline
LEARNING COMPETENCIES: Describe the general types of intermolecular forces
CODE: S11/12PS-IIIc-d-17
Explain the effect of
intermolecular forces on the
properties of substances
CODE: S11/12PS-IIId-e-19

The module is divided into two lessons, namely:

• Lesson 1 – General Types of Intermolecular Forces

• Lesson 2 – Effect of Intermolecular Forces on the Properties of
Substances

After going through this module, you are expected to:

1. describe the three major types of intermolecular forces of attraction;

2. explain the effect of intermolecular forces of attraction on the
properties of substances; and
3. recognize the significance and/or implications of the types of
intermolecular forces of attraction to real-world examples.

WHAT I KNOW:
Multiple Choice:
DIRECTIONS: Read each question carefully. Choose the letter of the best
answer. Write your answer on a separate sheet of paper.

1. Which of the following is an intermolecular force of attraction that is present

in non-polar molecules?

A. covalent bond C. dipole-dipole forces

B. hydrogen bond D. London dispersion forces

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2. Which of the following is the strongest intermolecular force of attraction?
A. ionic bond C. dipole-dipole forces
B. hydrogen bond D. London dispersion forces
3. Which of the following molecules can exhibit hydrogen bonding?
A. HF C. HCl
B. NaF D. NaBr
4. What best explains the unusually high boiling point of water?
A. There is a strong dipole-dipole bond between water molecules.
B. Water is capable of hydrogen bonding.
C. Dispersion forces are present in all molecules.
D. The shape of the polar bonds is asymmetrical.
5. A substance with weak intermolecular forces of attraction will exhibit which
of the following?
A. Low heat of vaporization
B. Slow evaporation
C. Low vapor pressure
D. High melting point
6. Which of the following pertains to London dispersion
forces? A. They are the weakest intermolecular force.
B. They operate only in polar molecules.
B. They operate only in ionic compounds.
D. They are an attractive force between hydrogen and an electronegative atom.

7. Which statement about dipole-dipole forces is

correct? A. They are present in polar molecules.
B. They are present in nonpolar molecules.
C. They are the weakest intermolecular force.
D. They are the strongest intermolecular force.
8. For a given substance, which of the following phase transitions shows an
increase in the intermolecular forces of attraction?
A. solid to liquid C. Liquid to gas
B. gas to liquid D. Solid to gas
9. What type of intermolecular force is present in all substances, regardless of
polarity?
A. ionic bond C. dipole-dipole forces
B. hydrogen bond D. London dispersion forces
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 10. Which of the following can exhibit hydrogen bonding among themselves?
A. H2Te B. H2Se C. H2O

11-15. Which five properties below indicate strong intermolecular forces in a

liquid?
A. a lower evaporation rate
B. a better capillary action
C. a higher boiling point
D. a higher melting point
E. a higher viscosity
F. a greater surface tension
G. a lower boiling point

LESSON 1: General Types of

Intermolecular Forces

ACTIVITY 3 A:
To help you fully understand the intermolecular forces of attraction and their
effect on the properties of substances, you must first understand the polarity
of the molecules. Test your ability and apply the principles you have learned in
the previous lesson by completing the table below. The first two items were
already done for you as an example.
Lewis Structure Shape of Net Polarity
Molecule the dipole of the
Molecul mome Molecul
e/ nt e
Molecula
r
Geometr
y
1 NH3 Trigonal Yes Polar
Pyramidal

..
H N H

H
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2 CS2 Linear No Nonpolar

. ..
C S
.

3 CH4

4 H2O

What’s New

When you think of forces of attraction, you may think of humans. Like
most of us, you will probably say that it is something that exists between
people. In humans, there are forces of attraction that bring people together
into friendship, marriage, and other types of relationships. Like people,
molecules have this force of attraction that holds them together with the
surrounding molecules. But just like any other force, there are stronger and
weaker interactions.
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 What is It

An intermolecular force of attraction (IMFA) is simply an

attractive force between neighboring molecules. There are three common
types, namely: London dispersion forces, Dipole-dipole, and Hydrogen bonds.
London dispersion forces are present in molecules, regardless
of the polarity. This is the weakest among the intermolecular forces. They
originate from the fluctuations of the electron distribution around the molecule
over time. Since larger molecules have larger electron clouds, they exhibit
stronger dispersion forces than smaller molecules. On the other hand,
dipole-dipole forces are present only in polar molecules (i.e., those with a
net dipole moment). This kind of force is stronger than London dispersion
forces because polar molecules have a permanent uneven distribution of
electrons. Hydrogen bond is a special type of dipole-dipole interaction that
occurs in molecules having a hydrogen atom bonded to an electronegative
atom such as fluorine, oxygen, or nitrogen. It is the strongest intermolecular
force of attraction among the three.
A very good example of a molecule that contains only London
dispersion forces is methane (CH4), the simplest hydrocarbon. It is a non-polar
molecule, and is not capable of any other type of intermolecular force of
attraction. Another example of a hydrocarbon is octane (C8H18), a nonpolar
molecule that exhibits only
London dispersion forces as well. Since octane is a bigger molecule than
methane, the former is capable of stronger dispersion forces. An example of
dipole-dipole attraction can be seen in hydrogen chloride (HCl). This is because
the electronegativity difference between the H and the Cl atoms make the
covalent bond between them polar. Lastly, hydrogen bonds can be seen in a
water molecule (H2O) because hydrogen is bonded to a highly electronegative
atom which is oxygen.
Intermolecular forces are involved in phase changes. The IMFA in
solids are very strong, thus the particles are compact. The IMFA in liquids are
not strong enough to keep the particles remain in fixed positions so liquids
generally tend to resemble the shape of their containers. The IMFA in gases are
extremely weak or almost negligible thus, particles are free to move around.

25
 ACTIVITY 3 B:

IMFA – WHAT TYPE?

Objective: Identify the types of intermolecular forces of attraction.

Directions: Identify the type of IMFA for the following substances and answer
the questions that follow.

Substance Type of IMFA

1. CO

2. NH3

3. CCl4
Table 1 – Substances and IMFA Types
Critical Thinking Questions:

1. How do you determine the type of IMFA that occurs in each of the given
substances?
2. Rank the strength of each compound based on IMFA.
(1 = strongest, 2 = in between, 3 = weakest)
Explain your answer.

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ACTIVITY 3 C
IMFA – INCREASE OR DECREASE?

Objective: Determine the increase or decrease in the intermolecular forces of

attraction that takes place in phase change.

Directions: For each of the phase changes below, choose whether the
intermolecular forces increased or decreased. Write a checkmark (/) under the
column for your answer. Then, answer the critical thinking questions.

Table 2 – Phase Changes and Increase or decrease in IMFA

Phase Changes Intermolecular Forces

Initial State Final Increase Decrease

State
solid liquid /

1 liquid solid

2 liquid gas

3 gas liquid

4 solid gas

5 gas solid

Critical Thinking Questions:

1. Which of the phases of matter (solid, liquid, gas) has the strongest and
weakest
IMFA? _________________________________________
2. What do you think is the reason for the varying strengths of IMFA between
the phases of matter?

27
 Effect of Intermolecular
Lesson 2 Forces on the Properties of
Substances

Intermolecular forces of attraction (IMFA) control how well molecules

stick together. These affect many of the measurable physical
properties of substances. Read the poem below to have a preview of
these properties.

IMFA
Helen Grace L. Cabalag, 2020

Intermolecular forces vary

In their effects on a substance’s property
The magnitude of their intensity
Can be observed in a fluid’s viscosity.

If IMFA is the topic of discussion,

These two properties are always in mention
In
liquids,there
is
evaporation
in tubes,
there is
capillary
action.

Oh before moving on to the lesson,

28
 Another property caused by cohesion
Striders walk without hesitation,
Present in water, there is surface tension.

The rule “like dissolves like” in solution

Is the same in the forces of attraction
The very core of the explanation
To a table salt-water combination.

Whether it is high or low, it is ranging

Boiling and melting points are always
changing
IMFA need a little bit of explaining
For extreme temperatures in H-bonding.
What is It

The intermolecular forces are associated with the observable

properties of various substances. The physical properties of molecules depend
upon the type and strength of their intermolecular forces of attraction. These
properties are solubility, melting point, boiling point, surface tension, viscosity,
capillary action, and evaporation rate.
When it comes to solubility, the solute and the solvent mix when
they both exhibit the same intermolecular forces of attraction. The melting
and boiling points of substances with stronger IMFA are higher compared
to those with weaker IMFA. In the case of surface tension, molecules with
stronger intermolecular forces of attraction will exert greater cohesive forces
and acquire less surface area (higher surface tension) than those with weaker
IMFA. Viscosity is also affected by intermolecular forces. Molecules with
stronger intermolecular forces of attraction have greater resistance to flow,
and thus higher viscosity compared to those with weaker IMFA. This is also true
in capillary action. Capillary action is something that you observe when you
dip a paper towel in water, and the water "magically" climbs up the towel. The
water molecules climb up the towel and drag other water molecules along the
way. A better capillary action indicates stronger intermolecular forces. This
trend however is different in evaporation. The lower the evaporation rate,
the weaker the intermolecular forces.

29
WHAT’S MORE
IMFA – EFFECTS ON PROPERTIES
Objective: Determine the effects of intermolecular forces of attraction on the
properties of substances.

ACTIVITY 4 A – Boiling and Melting Point

Directions: The boiling and melting points of HCl and O 2 are shown below.
Determine the type of intermolecular force of attraction exhibited by the
molecules.

Molecule Boiling Melting Type of IMFA

Point Point
1. HF 20ºC -83 ºC _________________________
2. O2 -182ºC -218 ºC _________________________
Table 3– Melting & Boiling Point and IMFA Types

Critical Thinking Questions:

1. What can you infer from the table above?
______________________________________
2. How do you relate the melting and boiling point of a substance to its
IMFA?
Explain their relationship.

ACTIVITY 4 B – Viscosity
Directions: Follow the procedures below and answer the critical thinking
questions. Materials: water, dishwashing liquid, mug/cup

Procedures:

1. Pour water and dishwashing liquid into the mug/cup.

30
 2. Observe the flow of the substances upon pouring.

Critical Thinking Questions:

1. What did you observe?
2. What can you conclude about the link between the strength of the IMFA
and the viscosity of a substance?

ACTIVITY 4 C – Capillarity
Directions: Follow the procedures below and answer the critical thinking
questions. Materials: water from the faucet, cooking oil, alcohol, large shallow
container, narrow glass tube or clear plastic straw, ruler

Procedures:
1. Place about 20 ml (about 4 teaspoonfuls) of water in the shallow container.
2. Hold the narrow tube above the extent of the water within the container.
3. Observe how far the water travels in the tube.
4. Measure the distance traveled by the liquid using a ruler.
5.Repeat steps no. 1-4 for the remaining two substances, remember to wash
and dry the dish and the tube/straw well.

Results:
Record your output in the table below. You do not need to measure
the exact distance traveled by the substance. Describe whether it traveled a
short /far distance.

Table 4– Substances and Distance

Travelled

31
 Distance traveled
Substance
in the tube

water from the

faucet

cooking oil

alcohol

Critical Thinking Questions:

1. Which of the substances travelled farther up the tube?
2. What can you conclude about the link between the strength of the IMFA and
capillarity?

ACTIVITY 4 D – Evaporation

Directions: Follow the procedures below and answer the critical thinking
questions.
Materials: water and nail polish remover (acetone), shallow bowls, teaspoon
(the one being used for coffee or tea)
Procedures:
1. Measure 20 ml of the given substances by using a teaspoon. Each teaspoon
is roughly estimated with 5mL capacity.
2. Place 20 ml of each of the substances in separate bowls.
3. Move carefully each bowl to a warm/sunny spot.
4. Mark the quantity of liquid in each bowl using a permanent marker.
5. Make several marks at different positions around the bowl.
6. Observe each bowl every minute and note which liquid evaporates quickly.

32
Results
Record your measurements in the table below. You do not need to
measure the specific level of the liquid. Just write what extent or proportion
the liquid evaporates.
Table 5– Substances and Level of Liquid

Level of liquid in different time

intervals
Substance
5 min 10 min 15 min 20 min 25 min

Water

Nail polish
remover

Critical Thinking Questions:

1. Which of the two substances takes
the longest time to evaporate?
2. 2. What can you conclude about the
link between the strength of the IMFA
and evaporation?

ACTIVITY 4 E
What I Have Learned

Complete the following sentences to summarize the important concepts

discussed in this module.

33
 1. The types of intermolecular forces of attraction are

___________________, ___________________ and

________________________.

2. __________________ is present in all molecules while

_____________________ are exhibited only by polar ones.

______________ on the other hand occurs when hydrogen is bonded

to fluorine, chlorine, oxygen or nitrogen.

3. Intermolecular forces have effects on the physical properties of

substances. The stronger the force, the more difficult it is to pull

molecules off from each other. When comparing properties of

substance, strong intermolecular forces lead in ___________ boiling

and melting points, _________ viscosity, __________ surface tension,

____________ capillary action and __________ evaporation rate.

Assessment 4
Multiple Choice. Read each question carefully. Choose the letter of the best
answer. Write your answer on a separate sheet of paper.

1. Which of the following is the intermolecular force that is present in all

types of neighboring molecules?

A. ionic bond C. dipole-dipole forces

B. hydrogen bond D. London dispersion forces

2. Which is properly ordered from the weakest to strongest intermolecular
attractions?

34
 A. London dispersion forces, dipole-dipole, hydrogen bond
B. dipole-dipole, hydrogen bond, London dispersion forces
C. dipole-dipole, London dispersion forces, hydrogen bond
D. London dispersion forces, hydrogen bond, dipole-dipole
3. Which type of intermolecular force of attraction is the strongest in the
molecule HF?
A. ionic bond C. dipole-dipole

B. dispersion D. hydrogen bond

4. Which one of the following properties decreases once the strength of its
intermolecular forces increases?

A. viscosity C. melting point

B. boiling point D. evaporation rate
5. Which of the following trends is correct about substances with stronger
intermolecular attractions?
A. higher melting and higher boiling points
B. lower melting points and higher boiling points
C. C. lower melting and boiling points
D. higher melting points and lower boiling
points
6. Which of the following pertains to London
dispersion force?
A. It is the weakest intermolecular force.
B. They operate only in polar molecules.
C. They operate only in ionic compounds.
D. It is an attractive force between hydrogen and fluorine.

7. Which statement about dipole-dipole forces is incorrect?

A. They are present in polar molecules.
B. They are present in nonpolar molecules.
C. They are the weakest intermolecular force.
35
 D. They are the strongest intermolecular force.
8. Which of the following phase transitions shows a decrease in
the intermolecular forces of attraction?
A. liquid to solid C. gas to liquid
B. liquid to gas D. gas to solid
9. What type of intermolecular force is present in all substances, regardless of
polarity?
A. ionic bond C. dipole-dipole forces
B. hydrogen bond D. London dispersion forces
10. Which of the following can exhibit hydrogen bonding among themselves?
A. H2Te B. H2Se C. H2O
11-15. Which five properties below indicate weaker intermolecular forces in a
liquid?
A. a higher evaporation rate E. a lower viscosity
B. a weak capillary action F. a greater surface tension
C. a higher boiling point G. a lower boiling point
D. a lower melting point

Additional Activities 4:

BE AN EXPERT ON IMFA
Directions: Choose one type of IMFA and answer these questions:

Critical Thinking Questions:

1. What type of attraction did you choose? ___________________________

2. Is your IMFA weak or strong? Explain,
_________________________________________________________________
_________________ 3. What are the common substances that are used at
home or industries that are held together by IMFA? Give one substance for
each type.
_________________________________________________________________
_________________ 4. How does your IMFA influence or affect a
substance’s physical properties?

36
 Physical Science Quarter 1 – Module 4:
The Chemistry of Life (Biomolecules)
The module will focus on discussing the general
structure and functions of biomolecules, as well as the
common samples or material where they could be seen.
The learners are also expected to:
(a) explain how the structures of biological
macromolecules, such as carbohydrates, lipids,
nucleic acid, and proteins, determine their
properties and functions (S11/12PS-IIIe-22)
After going through this module, you are expected to:
1. Identify the four macromolecules according to their
general structure;
2. Describe the properties of each macromolecule; and
3. Explain the functions of each macromolecule, as
well as the common samples where it can be seen.

37
What I Know
PRE TEST

Choose the letter of the best answer.

1) Which biomolecule has a biological function as a
first-line source of energy’?
A. Carbohydrates C. Nucleic Acids
B. Lipids D. Proteins
2.Which represents a carbohydrate?
A. CnH2n+2 C. CnH2n
B. (CH2O)n D. (C2HO)n
3.The following samples are simple carbohydrates
except _______.
A. Cellulose C. Glucose
B.Fructose D. Sucrose
4.Which statement below best describes a lipid?
A. It is insoluble in water.
B. It is always in gaseous form.
C. Its general structure is only made up of carbon
and hydrogen.
D. It can form ionic compounds due to its ability
to become ionic.
5.Which structure below is rich in lipid as manifested
by its function?
A.Human muscle fibers
B.Rigid cell wall of plant cells
C.Semi-permeable cell membrane
D. Enzymes catalyzing substances

6.Which one is NOT a lipid?

A.Cholesterol C. Triglyceride
B.Lactase D. Waxes
38
7.What is primarily the function of a nucleic acid?
A.As storage of energy of the body
B.As an energy source of the body
C.As structural molecules of most living organisms
D. For storage and expression of genetic information

8.What does DNA mean?

A.Dinucleotide adenine
B.Dinucleic adenine
C. Deoxyribonucleic acid
D. Diribonucleic acid

9.Which of the molecules below DOES NOT constitute a

nucleic acid?
A.Amino acid C. Phosphate group
B.Nitrogenous base D. Sugar

For nos. 10-11, refer to the figure below:

Figure 1 – Amino acid molecule

(https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amino_acid#/media/File:Amin
oAcidball.svg)

10.What group is attached to the left side of the central

Carbon?
A. Amino group
B.Hydrogen group
C.Acid group
D.Side Chains/Functional Groups
39
11.What makes an amino acid unique from one other?
A.The form of attachment
B.The different side chains
C.The manner of peptide bonding
D. The presence of acids and bases

12.Which is rich in protein?

A.Plant leaves C. Vegetable oil
B.Human hair D. Table salt

For nos. 13-15, choices are:

A. Carbohydrate C. Nucleic Acid
B. Lipid D. Protein
13.Which constitutes a plant fiber?
14.Which is a component of grease?
15.Which has amino acids as its building blocks?

Lesson
THE CHEMISTRY OF LIFE
1
Living organisms are primarily made up of organic
compounds. The process of building organic molecules by
living organisms is called biosynthesis.

What’s In
Biomolecules (also known as macromolecules) are
organic compounds that make up all living organisms.
They are all produced through the process of biosynthesis.
As previously discussed, organic compounds are
carbon-rich molecules usually in association with
hydrogen and oxygen. Organic and nature based materials
that we use today are primarily rich in these four
macromolecules. The four macromolecules are
carbohydrates, lipids, nucleic acids, and proteins.
40
What’s New

Activity 5 A
The objective of this activity is to determine how
familiar you are with the different types of macromolecules
and their examples.

Direction: Write the letter of the correct answer. Given the

samples below, determine if they are made from:

A. Carbohydrates C. Nucleic Acid

B. Lipids D. Proteins
1.

2.

3.

41
4.

5.

What is It

Have you ever thought about what makes up a living

organism? Biologically, they are made up of cells, tissues,
organs, and body systems. But if we look closely, all forms
of life are considered matter, hence, made up of compounds.
Molecules that make up a living organism are called
biomolecules. They are also known as macromolecules as
they large organic molecules.
Biomolecules are produced through a process
known as biosynthesis. There are four types of
biomolecules, namely: carbohydrates, lipids, nucleic acids,
and proteins. Let us describe each of them, focusing on
their function, importance, and practical examples.

42
CARBOHYDRATES
Carbohydrates are one of the most abundant
macromolecules on Earth.
Literally, the term means “hydrates of carbons” because of
its 1:2:1 ratio of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen of its
simplest chemical formula, respectively (e. g., C 6H12O6 for
glucose). A more generalized formula is C m(H2O)n, where m
is equal to 3 or more, and m and n are not necessarily equal
(e. g. C12H22O11 for sucrose or table sugar).
Carbohydrates are generally classified as simple or
complex. Table 1 shows the difference between simple and
complex carbohydrates.
Table 1 Simple and Complex Carbohydrates
Simple Complex
Carbohydrates Carbohydrates
Structure Small, usually Made up of long
made up of 1-2 chains of sugar
sugar molecules molecules; made up
of simple
carbohydrates
covalently bonded
together
Rate of Digestion Easy and quick to Longer time to
digest break down
Primary function Provides ‘instant’ As structural
in energy, commonly material, and as
relation to its in so-called ‘sugar storage form --
structure rush’ provides more
lasting energy
Examples glucose, table sugar Chitin (exoskeleton)
Cellulose (plant cell
wall)
Starch and glycogen

43
LIPIDS
Lipids are a large group of substances also found in
living systems. They are insoluble in water but are soluble
in solvents that are nonpolar or have low polarity. Lipids
have three major functions:

1. energy storage, especially in animal systems

2. structural, as part of cellular membranes
3. as chemical messengers that deliver signals
from one part of the body to another
There are several types of lipids based on their structure
but you would be more familiar with fats and oils, also
known as triglycerides, or simply, “fats”. A fat molecule is
composed of long-chain fatty acids bonded to glycerol.
Glycerol is an organic compound with three carbons, five
hydrogens, and three hydroxyl groups, while fatty acids
have long chains of hydrocarbons with a carboxyl group.
Can you identify these parts in Figure 1?

Figure 1 Lipid molecule

(https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lipid#/media/File:Fat_triglyceride_sho
rthand_formula.PNG)

Fatty acids that make up fats are either saturated or

unsaturated. Fats and oils may also be classified that way.
“Saturation/Unsaturation” of fats indicates the presence or
absence of double bonds in the fatty acid chain.
Unsaturated fats have at least one pair of double-bonded
carbons, are liquid at room temperature, and are
commonly extracted from plants. On the other hand,

44
saturated fats do not have double-bonded hydrocarbons,
are solid even at room temperature, and present in animal
fats. You may also have heard about trans fats. These are
artificially hydrogenated oils commonly used in the food
industry. Hydrogenation, the addition of hydrogen to the oil
structure, results in the saturation of the oil, making it
more stable hence prolonging the shelf life of food.

Can you name some examples of the different kinds of

lipids?

NUCLEIC ACIDS
Nucleic acids are the most important biomolecules in the
continuity of life.
They store genetic information in the cell, and are in the
form of either DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) or RNA
(ribonucleic acid). Nucleic acids are made up of
nucleotides. Nucleotides have three components:
pentose sugar (5-carbon sugar), phosphate group, and
nitrogenous base. Table 2 shows the features that
differentiate DNA from RNA. Figure 2 shows the parts of
a nucleotide.

Table 2 Features of DNA and RNA

Features DNA RNA
Strands Double-stranded, Single-stranded
helical
Nitrogenous base/s
adenine, guanine, adenine, guanine,
present cytosine, thymine cytosine, uracil
Sugar molecule Deoxyribose Ribose
Functions Carries genetic For protein
make up synthesis

45
 Figure 2 Parts of the nucleotide
(https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nucleotide#/media/F
ile:0322_DNA_Nucleotides.jpg)

PROTEINS
Proteins are some of the most complex macromolecules in
terms of structure and function. Like carbohydrates,
proteins are also very abundant in living organisms. The
building blocks of proteins are the amino acids of which 20
are known. An amino acid has an amino group, a
carboxylic group, and an R group or side chain. Each
amino acid has a different R group or side chain, which
makes each amino acid unique. Figure 3 below shows the
parts of the amino acid molecule.

Figure 3 Amino Acid Structure

(https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Unionized_Alpha_Amino_A
cid_Structure.svg)

46
The different types of proteins are classified based on their
function. Keratin in the hair is an example of a structural
protein, while hormones like insulin are regulatory proteins.
Actin and myosin proteins are for movement, and are called
contractile proteins. Antibodies that are produced by the
white blood cells are called protective proteins, while
hemoglobin which carries oxygen gas is an example of a
transport protein. Egg albumin is a storage protein that
serves as nourishment for the developing
embryo.

What’s More

Activity 5 B: Draw me

Draw the structure of the indicated example of

biomolecules. Label the parts of the molecule.
Biomolecule
Structure
Examples

1. Glucose

47
 2.
Cholesterol

3. Alanine

4. DNA

Activity 5 C: What makes it unique?

In two (2) sentences, describe the properties of the given
biomolecule.

1. Carbohydrates
2. Lipids
3. Nucleic Acids
4.Proteins

48
Activity 5 D: Biomolecule represent!
Complete the table below.

Sample Type of Function of the Sample

Biomolecule

Hemoglobin

RNA

Plant fiber

Margarine

ACTIVITY 5 E:
Fill in the blanks.
1. ____________________ are organic compounds
that make up a living organism.
2. Ratio of C:H:O of in a glucose is
___________________.
3. Fat molecules are composed of glycerol and
_________ _________.
4. Amino acids are the building blocks of
_________________.
5. _________________________ _____________ is a
type of nucleic acid that carries the genetic
information of all living organisms.

49
 ACTIVITY 5 F:
Now that you know the ideas and concepts of biomolecules.
Give an example of products that you know for each
biomolecule as per the indicated category.
Health Industry
Biomolecule Sciences

CARBOHYDRATE

LIPID

NUCLEIC ACID

PROTEINS

Assessment 6:
Choose the letter of the best answer.

1.Which biomolecule has a biological function as a

first-line source of energy’?
A. Carbohydrates C. Nucleic Acids
B. Lipids D. Proteins

50
2.Which represents a carbohydrate?
C. CnH2n+2 C. CnH2n
D. (CH2O)n D. (C2HO)n

3.The following samples are simple carbohydrates

except for _________
A.Cellulose C. Glucose
B.Fructose D. Sucrose

4.Which statement below best describes a lipid?

A. It is insoluble in water.
B.It is always in gaseous form.
C.Its general structure is only made up of carbon and
hydrogen.
D.It can form ionic compounds due to its ability to
become ionic.
5.Which structure below is rich in lipid as manifested
by its function?
A.Human muscle fibers
B.Rigid cell wall of plant cells
C.Semi-permeable cell membrane
D. Enzymes catalyzing substances
6.Which one is NOT a lipid?
A.Cholesterol C. Triglyceride
B.Lactase D. Waxes
7.What is primarily the function of a nucleic acid?
A. As storage of energy of the body
51
 B.As a source of energy of the body
C.As structural molecules of most living organisms
D. For storage and expression of genetic information

8.What does DNA mean?

A.Dinucleotide adenine C. Deoxyribonucleic acid
B.Dinucleic adenine D. Diribonucleic acid

9.Which of the molecules below IS NOT a part of a

nucleic acid?
A.Amino acid C. Phosphate group
B.Nitrogenous base D. Sugar
For nos. 10-11, refer to the figure below:

Figure 1 – Amino acid molecule

(https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amino_acid#/media/File:Amin
oAcidball.svg)

10.What group is attached to the left side of the central

Carbon?
A.Amino group
B.Hydrogen group
C.Acid group
D.Side Chains/Functional Groups
11.What makes an amino acid unique from each other?
A.The form of attachment

52
 B.The different side chains
C.The manner of peptide bond
D.The presence of acids and bases
12.Which is rich in protein?
A.Plant leaves C. Vegetable oil
B.Human hair D. Table salt
For nos. 13-15, choices are:

A. Carbohydrate C. Nucleic Acid

B. Lipid D. Protein
13.Which constitutes a plant fiber?
14.Which is a component of grease?
15.Which has amino acids as its building blocks?

53