Air Pollution Control Techniques

for SPM and Gaseous Pollutants

 Settling Chambers
• Settling chambers use the force of gravity to
remove solid particles.

• The gas stream enters a chamber where the

velocity of the gas is reduced. Large particles drop
out of the gas and are recollected in hoppers.
Because settling chambers are effective in
removing only larger particles, they are used in
conjunction with a more efficient control device.
 Settling Chamber

Source: Saral Aslan and Demir Salami, Chapter 2 GRAVITY SETTLERS

PERFORMANCE MODELS, v1.0.0 Istanbul 2018
• Efficiency of a separating device
η= quantity of particulates collected from gas/
quantity of particulates present initially
Vs= hV/ L ----------- (i)
L= length of chamber
V= horizontal velocity of carrier gas
Vs= settling velocity of particulates
h= height through which particulates travel
before settling down
• By stokes law
Vs= g(ρp- ρ)D2/18μ --------- (ii)
D= dia of particle
g= acceleration due to gravity
ρp= density of particle
ρ = density of gas
μ= viscosity of gas
• From eq- i and ii
D= [18Vhμ/ Lg (ρp- ρ)]1/2
D = is minimum size of particle that can be
removed in a settling chamber
• Advantages
✓ Low initial cost.
✓ Easy to design.
✓ Low pressure drop.
✓ Low maintenance cost.
✓ Dry and continuous disposal of solid particulates.
• Disadvantages
➢ Require large space.
➢ Less collection efficiency.
➢ Only larger size particles can be collected.
• Application
❖application is limited.
❖Used widely for removal of large solid
particulates from draft furnace, kilns
❖Sometimes used in process industry, food and
metallurgical industry.
❖Used as pre-cleaners for high efficiency
collectors.
 Cyclones
• The general principle of inertia separation is that the particulate-laden gas
is forced to change direction. As gas changes direction, the inertia of the
particles causes them to continue in the original direction and be
separated from the gas stream.

The walls of the cyclone narrow toward the bottom of the unit, allowing
the particles to be collected in a hopper.

The cleaner air leaves the cyclone through the top of the chamber, flowing
upward in a spiral vortex, formed within a downward moving spiral.
Cyclones are efficient in removing large particles but are not as efficient
with smaller particles. For this reason, they are used with other
particulate control devices.
 Venturi Scrubbers
• Venturi scrubbers use a liquid stream to
remove solid particles.

• In the venturi scrubber, gas laden with

particulate matter passes through a short tube
with flared ends and a constricted middle.

• This constriction causes the gas stream to

speed up when the pressure is increased.
• The difference in velocity and pressure
resulting from the constriction causes the
particles and water to mix and combine.
• The reduced velocity at the expanded section
of the throat allows the droplets of water
containing the particles to drop out of the gas
stream.
• Venturi scrubbers are effective in removing
small particles, with removal efficiencies of up
to 99 percent.
• One drawback of this device, however, is the
production of wastewater.
Figure: Venturi Scrubber components
 BAGHOUSE FILTERS
• Fabric filters, or baghouses, remove dust from a gas stream by
passing the stream through a porous fabric. The fabric filter is
efficient at removing fine particles and can exceed efficiencies of 99
percent in most applications.

• Direct Interception, Inertial impaction, diffusion, electrostatic

attraction and gravitational settling are the removal mechanism.
Later on sieving.

• The selection of the fiber material and fabric construction is

important to baghouse performance. The fiber material from which
the fabric is made must have adequate strength characteristics at
the maximum gas temperature expected and adequate chemical
compatibility with both the gas and the collected dust. One
disadvantage of the fabric filter is that high-temperature gases
often have to be cooled before contacting the filter medium.
• Possiblity of fire explosion if sparks are
discharged

• Space Limitations

• Design – Filtering rates or air-to-cloth ratio

0.5-5 m/min (m3 air/min.m2 cloth)
Figure: Baghouse filters
 Electrostatic Precipitators (ESPs)
• An ESP is a particle control device that uses electrical
forces to move the particles out of the flowing gas
stream and onto collector plates.

• The ESP places electrical charges on the particles,

causing them to be attracted to oppositely charged
metal plates located in the precipitator.

• The particles are removed from the plates by "rapping"

and collected in a hopper located below the unit.
• The removal efficiencies for ESPs are highly
variable; however, for very small particles
alone, the removal efficiency is about 99
percent.

• Electrostatic precipitators are not only used in

utility applications but also other industries
(for other exhaust gas particles) such as
cement (dust), pulp & paper (salt cake & lime
dust), petrochemicals (sulfuric acid mist), and
steel (dust & fumes).
Low Voltage Two-Stage ESP
High Voltage ESP
Schematic View of Plate type ESP
Collection Efficiency of ESP
Figure: Electrostatic
precipitator components
 Control of gaseous pollutants from
stationary sources
• The most common method for controlling
gaseous pollutants is the addition of add-on
control devices to recover or destroy a pollutant.
• There are four commonly used control
technologies for gaseous pollutants:
- Absorption,
- Adsorption,
- Condensation, and
- Incineration (combustion)
 Absorption
• The removal of one or more selected
components from a gas mixture by absorption is
probably the most important operation in the
control of gaseous pollutant emissions.
• Absorption is a process in which a gaseous
pollutant is dissolved in a liquid.
• As the gas stream passes through the liquid, the
liquid absorbs the gas, in much the same way
that sugar is absorbed in a glass of water when
stirred.
• Absorbers are often referred to as scrubbers,
and there are various types of absorption
equipment. The principal types of gas
absorption equipment include spray towers,
packed columns, spray chambers, and venture
scrubbers.
• In general, absorbers can achieve removal
efficiencies grater than 95 percent. One
potential problem with absorption is the
generation of waste-water, which converts an
air pollution problem to a water pollution
problem.
 Adsorption
• When a gas or vapor is brought into contact with a
solid, part of it is taken up by the solid. The molecules
that disappear from the gas either enter the inside of
the solid, or remain on the outside attached to the
surface. The former phenomenon is termed absorption
(or dissolution) and the latter adsorption.
• The most common industrial adsorbents are activated
carbon, silica gel, and alumina, because they have
enormous surface areas per unit weight.
• Activated carbon is the universal standard for
purification and removal of trace organic contaminants
from liquid and vapor streams.
• Carbon adsorption systems are either
regenerative or non-regenerative.
- Regenerative system usually contains more
than one carbon bed. As one bed actively
removes pollutants, another bed is being
regenerated for future use.
- Non-regenerative systems have thinner beds
of activated carbon. In a non-regenerative
adsorber, the spent carbon is disposed of
when it becomes saturated with the pollutant.
 Condensation
• Condensation is the process of converting a gas or
vapor to liquid. Any gas can be reduced to a liquid by
lowering its temperature and/or increasing its
pressure.

• Condensers are typically used as pretreatment devices.

They can be used ahead of absorbers, absorbers, and
incinerators to reduce the total gas volume to be
treated by more expensive control equipment.
Condensers used for pollution control are contact
condensers and surface condensers.
• In a contact condenser, the gas comes into
contact with cold liquid.

• In a surface condenser, the gas contacts a

cooled surface in which cooled liquid or gas is
circulated, such as the outside of the tube.

• Removal efficiencies of condensers typically

range from 50 percent to more than 95
percent, depending on design and
applications.
 Incineration
• Incineration, also known as combustion, is most used to control the
emissions of organic compounds from process industries.

• This control technique refers to the rapid oxidation of a substance

through the combination of oxygen with a combustible material in
the presence of heat.
When combustion is complete, the gaseous stream is converted to
carbon dioxide and water vapor.

• Equipment used to control waste gases by combustion can be

divided in three categories:
- Direct combustion or flaring,
- Thermal incineration and
- Catalytic incineration.
 Direct combustor
• Direct combustor is a device in which air and all the combustible
waste gases react at the burner.

• Complete combustion must occur instantaneously since there is no

residence chamber. A flare can be used to control almost any
emission stream containing volatile organic compounds. Studies
conducted by EPA have shown that the destruction efficiency of a
flare is about 98 percent.

• In thermal incinerators the combustible waste gases pass over or

around a burner flame into a residence chamber where oxidation of
the waste gases is completed. Thermal incinerators can destroy
gaseous pollutants at efficiencies of greater than 99 percent when
operated correctly.
 Catalytic incinerators
• Catalytic incinerators are very similar to thermal
incinerators.
• The main difference is that after passing through
the flame area, the gases pass over a catalyst
bed.
• A catalyst promotes oxidation at lower
temperatures, thereby reducing fuel costs.
• Destruction efficiencies greater than 95 percent
are possible using a catalytic incinerator.
Catalytic incinerator
Air quality model
Model categories
 Deterministic approach

Deterministic mathematical models calculate

the pollutant concentrations from emission
inventory and meteorological variables
according to the solution of various equations
that represent the relevant physical processes.
 Deterministic approach: Basics
• What is Transport ?
– It is also termed as advection
– Most obvious effect of atmosphere on emission
– Advection: implies transport of pollutant downwind of
source
•
• What is Dilution?
– It is also termed as “mixing”.
– It is accomplished through “turbulence”
– Mainly atmospheric turbulence is active
What is Dispersion?

Dispersion = Advection (Transport) + Dilution

= Advection +Diffusion
Basic Mathematical Equation
 Deterministic based AQM

The deterministic based air quality model

is developed by relating the rate of change
of pollutant concentration in terms of
average wind and turbulent diffusion
which, in turn, is derived from the mass
conservation principle.
where C = pollutant concentration; t = time; x, y, z = position of the receptor relative to the source;
u, v, w =wind speed coordinate in x, y and z direction;
Kx, Ky, Kz = coefficients of turbulent diffusion in x, y and z direction;
Q = source strength;
R = sink (changes caused by chemical reaction).
• The above diffusion equation is derived in
several ways under different set of
assumptions for development of air quality
models

• Gaussian model is one of the mostly used air

quality model based on ‘deterministic
principle’
 Gaussian plume Dispersion model:
Assumptions
• Steady-state conditions, which imply that the
rate of emission from the point source is
constant.
• Homogeneous flow, which implies that the
wind speed is constant both in time and with
height (wind direction shear is not
considered).
• Pollutant is conservative and no gravity
fallout.
• Perfect reflection of the plume at the
underlying surface, i.e. no ground absorption.
• The turbulent diffusion in the x-direction is
neglected relative to advection in the
transport direction , which implies that the
model should be applied for average wind
speeds of more than 1 m/s (> 1 m/s).
• The coordinate system is directed with its x-
axis into the direction of the flow, and the v
(lateral) and w (vertical) components of the
time averaged wind vector are set to zero.
• The terrain underlying the plume is flat

• All variables are ensemble averaged, which

implies long-term averaging with stationary
conditions.
Gaussian Plume Dispersion Model
 Statistical Approach
• Statistical models calculate pollutant
concentrations by statistical methods from
meteorological and emission parameters after
an appropriate statistical relationship has
been obtained empirically from measured
concentration
Basis for statistical approach
Regression and multiple regression models
• Regression models describes the relationship between
predictors (meteorological and emission parameters)
and predictant (pollutant concentrations)

Time series models (Box and Jenkins, 1976)

• Time series analysis is purely based on statistical
method applicable to non repeatable experiments.
• Box-Jenkins approach extracts all the trends and serial
correlations among the air quality data until only a
sequence of white noise (shock) remains.
• The extraction is accomplished via the difference,
autoregressive and moving average operators.
 Box Model
• Application : Area source

• Principle :
(i) It assumes uniform mixing throughout the
volume of a three dimensional box.
(ii) Steady state emission and atmospheric
conditions.
(iii) No upwind background concentration.
Model description
 Line source model
Application

• motor vehicle travelling along a straight section of highway

• agricultural burning along the edge of a field
• line of industrial sources on the bank of a river

Assumption

• Infinite length source continuously emitting the pollution

• Ground level source
• Wind blowing perpendicular to the line source
 Surface Wind Speed

Insolation Cloud <2 2 to 3 3 to 5 5 to 6 >6

cover
Strong sun
A A-B B C C

Day Mod. Sun A-B B B-C C-D D

Slight sun
B C C D D

Day or Overcast D D D D D
Night

Night ≥ 0.5 cloud

cover E D D D

≤ 0.4 cloud
cover F E D D
A 200-MW power plant has a 100-m stack with radius 2.5 m, flue
gas exit velocity 13.5 m/s, and gas exit temperature 145 degrees
Celsius. Ambient temperature is 15 degrees Celsius, wind speed
at the stack is 5 m/s, and the atmosphere is stable, Class E, with a
lapse rate of 5 C/km. if it emits 300 g/s of SO2, estimate the
concentration at a ground level at a distance of 10 km directly
downwind.
 Sig y =
Sig z =
C=
= g/m3
[K] = [°C] + 273.15
EFFECTIVE STACK HEIGHT
• A power plant burns 104 kg hr-1 of coal that
contains 2.5% sulfur. The stack is 50 m high, and
the plume typically rises 30 m.

a) Calculate the ground-level concentration of

sulfur dioxide (SO2) (in micrograms m-3) 800 m
downwind from the source directly under the
plume under the following conditions: Wind
speed = 4 m s-1, moderately sunny day
(moderately unstable conditions).

b) Repeat the above calculation for a stack height

of 75 m and a wind speed of 6 m s-1.
Indoor Air
Pollution
 Indoor air pollution
• Indoor air contains higher concentrations of pollutants
than outdoor air (up to 70x)
– Synthetic materials not comprehensively tested
– To reduce heat loss & improve energy efficiency:
• ventilation systems are sealed off & recirculate air
• windows do not open
• This traps pollutants inside.

• Indoor air pollution usually is a greater threat to human

health than outdoor air pollution.
– Avg. U.S. citizen spends 90% of time indoors
– 6,000 people die per day from indoor air pollution

• Pollution levels inside cars in traffic clogged urban

areas can be up to 18 times higher.
 Indoor Air Pollution--Developing World
• From burning wood, charcoal, dung, crop waste
– With little to no ventilation
– Soot and carbon monoxide
– Causes pneumonia, bronchitis, allergies, cataracts,
asthma, heart disease, cancer & death
• ~1.6 million deaths/year
 Indoor Air Pollution--Developed World

• According to the EPA, the 4 most dangerous

indoor air pollutants in developed countries are:
– Tobacco smoke
– Formaldehyde
– Radioactive radon-222 gas
– Very small fine & ultrafine particles
• Other Important • Sources
Indoor Air pollutants – Building materials
– Nitrogen dioxide – Furnishings & fabrics
– Carbon monoxide – Glues
– Cleaning products
– Volatile Organic
Compounds (VOCs) – Combustion
appliances (cooking &
– House dust mites (& heating)
other allergens… from – Open fires
pets)
– Smoking
– Chlorinated organic – Living organisms
compounds (ex.
– Outdoor air
pesticides)
– Asbestos & man-
made mineral fibers
 Tobacco Smoke
• The most dangerous indoor pollutants in
the developed world
– Secondhand smoke from cigarettes is
especially dangerous
• Containing over 4000 dangerous chemicals
• Causes eye, nose, and throat irritation
• Smoking has declined in developed nations
 Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs)
• The most diverse group of indoor air pollutants
– Released by everything from plastics and oils to
perfumes and paints
• Ex. formaldehyde, which leaks from pressed wood and
insulation, irritates mucous membranes and induces skin
allergies
• Ex. pesticides, which are found indoors more often than
outdoors due to seepage

• Most VOCs are released in very small amounts

– Unclear health effects due to low concentrations
 Radon-222
• colorless, tasteless, odorless, radioactive gas from
decay of U-238 found in some soils & rocks
• can seep into some houses
– Most homes are now radon resistant

• 55% of our exposure to radiation comes from radon

– May harm lungs from long term exposure .
• increases the risk of lung cancer
– Chance increase more if a smoker (synergistic effect)
– causes 20,000 deaths a year in the U.S.
• Reducing the risk
– Sealing cracks in floors and walls
– Simple systems using pipes and fans
Sources & paths of entry for indoor radon-222 gas
 Living organisms can pollute indoors
• Dust mites
– feed on human skin & dust
• live in materials such as bedding & furniture fabrics
– can cause asthma attacks & allergic reactions

• Fungi, mold, mildew, airborne bacteria

– cause severe allergies, asthma,
& other respiratory ailments

• Animal dander
– worsen asthma
 Major Indoor Pollutants
Pollutant Source Health Effects
1, 1, 1- Aerosol sprays Dizziness, breathing
Trichloroethane irregularities
Asbestos Pipe insulation, Lung Cancer and
ceilings, floor asbestosis
tiles, oven mitts
Benzo-a-pyrene Tobacco smoke, Lung Cancer
woodstoves
Carbon Faulty furnaces, Headache, heartbeat
Monoxide cigarette smoke irregularities, death,
CO has 250x affinity
for hemoglobin than O2

http://www.metricmind.com/ac_honda/main.htm
Chloroform Pulp and paper mills, Cancer
water and
wastewater plants
Formaldehyde Paneling, particle Nausea, dizziness,
board, furniture, irritation of throat,
carpeting, adhesives eyes, and lungs
Methylene Paint strippers and Nerve disorders,
chloride thinner – persistent diabetes
Nitrogen oxides Furnaces, stoves, Headaches, irritated
fireplaces and vents lungs
Para- Air fresheners, Cancer
dichlorobenzene mothballs

http://www.metricmind.com/ac_honda/main.htm
Radon – 222 Soil and rock near Lung cancer
house foundation,
concrete
Styrene Carpets, plastics, Kidney & liver
damage
Tetrachlor- Dry-cleaning fluid Nerve disorders,
ethylene damage to liver and
kidneys, cancer
Tobacco Cigarettes and other Lung cancer and
Smoke smoking sources heart disease
Organic Dust mites, fungal and Allergies, coughs,
Material (Living algal spores, dust sneezing, eye
Organisms) (human skin), animal irritation, sore
dander, hair, carpet throats, difficulty
fibers, fur breathing
http://www.metricmind.com/ac_honda/main.htm
 Sick Building Syndrome
• A sickness produced by indoor pollution w/
general & nonspecific symptoms
– Ex. dizziness, headaches, coughing, sneezing,
nausea, burning eyes, chronic fatigue, irritability,
eye/nose/throat irritation, dry skin, nasal congestion,
difficulty breathing, nose bleeds, flu-like symptoms
• persistent set of symptoms in >20% population
• complaints/Symptoms relieved after exiting building
• causes(s) not known or recognizable

• New buildings are more commonly “sick” than

old ones because of reduced air exchange.
– Can be solved with low-toxicity building materials &
good ventilation
 Building Related Illness
• Also due to exposure to indoor air pollutants
• Recognizable Causes
• Clinically Recognized Disease
– Examples
• Pontiac Fever – Legionella spp.
• Legionnaire's Disease
• Hypersensitivity Pneumonitis
• Humidifier Fever
• Asthma
• Allergy
• Respiratory Disease
– Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease
 Reducing Indoor Air Pollution

•Little effort has been devoted to reducing indoor

air pollution even though it is more harmful to
human health than outdoor air pollution

•Environmental & health scientists call for us to

focus on preventing air pollution (especially
indoor) in developing countries.
 Solutions
Indoor Air Pollution
Prevention Cleanup or
Dilution

Cover ceiling tiles & lining of AC Use adjustable fresh air

ducts to prevent release of mineral vents for work spaces
fibers
Increase intake of outside air
Ban smoking or limit it to well
ventilated areas
Change air more frequently
Set stricter formaldehyde
emissions standards for carpet, Circulate a building’s air
furniture, and building materials through rooftop green houses

Prevent radon infiltration Use exhaust hoods for stoves

and appliances burning
Use office machines in well natural gas
ventilated areas
Use less polluting substitutes for Install efficient chimneys for
harmful cleaning agents, paints, wood-burning stoves
and other products
Fig. 19-20, p. 461
 We can reduce indoor air pollution
• In developed countries:
– Use low-toxicity material
– Monitor air quality
– Keep rooms clean
– Limit exposure to chemicals
– Allow for better mixing of indoor & outdoor air

• In developing countries:
– Dry wood before burning
– Cook outside
– Use less-polluting fuels (natural gas)
 We can reduce indoor air pollution
• The amount of air available (for mixing of indoor
& outdoor air) to dilute pollutants is an important
indicator of the likely contaminant concentration
– Indoor air can mix with outside air by 3 mechanisms
• infiltration
• natural ventilation
• forced ventilation
 Mixing of Indoor & Outdoor Air
• Infiltration
– natural air exchange that occurs between a
building & its environment when doors &
windows are closed
• leakage through holes or openings in the building
– Influenced by:
» pressure differentials inside & outside the building
» temperature differentials inside & outside of bldg
~in winter, warm air inside wants to rise  exits
through cracks in ceiling & draws in outside air
» how fast wind is blowing
 Mixing of Indoor & Outdoor Air
• Natural ventilation
– air exchange that occurs when windows or
doors are opened to increase air circulation

• Forced ventilation
– mechanical air handling systems used to
induce air exchange using fans & blowers
 What Can You Do?
Indoor Air Pollution

• Test for radon and formaldehyde inside your home and take
corrective measures as needed.
• Do not buy furniture and other products containing formaldehyde.
• Remove your shoes before entering your house to reduce inputs
of dust, lead, and pesticides.
• Test your house or workplace for asbestos fiber levels and for
any crumbling asbestos materials if it was built before 1980.
• Don't live in a pre-1980 house without having its indoor air
tested for asbestos and lead.
• Do not store gasoline, solvents, or other volatile hazardous
chemicals inside a home or attached garage.
• If you smoke, do it outside or in a closed room vented to the outside.
• Make sure that wood-burning stoves, fireplaces, and kerosene-
and gas-burning heaters are properly installed, vented, and
maintained.
• Install carbon monoxide detectors in all sleeping areas.
Fig. 19-21, p. 461
Urban Heat Island
• An urban heat island (UHI) is a metropolitan area that is
significantly warmer than its surrounding rural areas due to
human activities.

• The phenomenon was first investigated and described by

Luke Howard in the 1810s, although he was not the one to
name the phenomenon.

• The temperature difference usually is larger at night than

during the day, and is most apparent when winds are weak.
UHI is most noticeable during the summer and winter.

• The main cause of the urban heat island effect is from the
modification of land surfaces, which use materials that
effectively store short-wave radiation.
• Waste heat generated by energy usage is a secondary contributor.

• As a population center grows, it tends to expand its area and

increase its average temperature.

• Monthly rainfall is greater downwind of cities, partially due to the

UHI.

• Increases in heat within urban centers increases the length of

growing seasons, and decreases the occurrence of weak tornadoes.

• The UHI decreases air quality by increasing the production of

pollutants such as ozone, and decreases water quality as warmer
waters flow into area streams and put stress on their ecosystems.
• Not all cities have a distinct urban heat island.
Mitigation of the urban heat island effect can
be accomplished through the use of green
roofs and the use of lighter-colored surfaces in
urban areas, which reflect more sunlight and
absorb less heat.
• Despite concerns raised about its possible
contribution to global warming, comparisons
between urban and rural areas show that the
urban heat island effects have little influence
on global mean temperature trends.
 Causes of UHI
• The principal reason for the nighttime
warming is that the short-wave radiation is
still within the concrete, asphalt, and buildings
that was absorbed during the day, unlike
suburban and rural areas.

• This energy is then slowly released during the

night as long-wave radiation, making cooling a
slow process.
• Two other reasons are changes in the thermal
properties of surface materials and lack of
evapotranspiration (for example through lack
of vegetation) in urban areas.

• With a decreased amount of vegetation, cities

also lose the shade and cooling effect of trees,
the low albedo of their leaves, and the
removal of carbon dioxide.
 Thermal (top) and vegetation (bottom) locations around New York City via infrared
satellite imagery. A comparison of the images shows that where vegetation is dense,
temperatures are cooler.
Image of Atlanta, Georgia, showing temperature distribution, with blue
showing cool temperatures, red warm, and hot areas appear white.
• Materials commonly used in urban areas for
pavement and roofs, such as concrete and
asphalt, have significantly different thermal
bulk properties (including heat capacity and
thermal conductivity) and surface radiative
properties (albedo and emissivity) than the
surrounding rural areas.
• This causes a change in the energy balance of
the urban area, often leading to higher
temperatures than surrounding rural areas.
• Other causes of a UHI are due to geometric
effects. The tall buildings within many urban
areas provide multiple surfaces for the reflection
and absorption of sunlight, increasing the
efficiency with which urban areas are heated.
This is called the "urban canyon effect".

• Another effect of buildings is the blocking of

wind, which also inhibits cooling by convection
and pollution from dissipating.

• Waste heat from automobiles, air conditioning,

industry, and other sources also contributes to
the UHI
• High levels of pollution in urban areas can also
increase the UHI, as many forms of pollution
change the radiative properties of the
atmosphere.

• As UHI raises the temperature of cities, it will

also increase the concentration of ozone in
the air, which is a greenhouse gas.

• Ozone concentrations will increase because it

is a secondary gas, aided by an increase in
temperature and sunlight.
• Some cities exhibit a heat island effect, largest at night. Seasonally,
UHI shows up both in summer and winter.

• The typical temperature difference is several degrees between the

center of the city and surrounding fields.

• The difference in temperature between an inner city and its

surrounding suburbs is frequently mentioned in weather reports, as
in "68 °F (20 °C) downtown, 64 °F (18 °C) in the suburbs".

• Black surfaces absorb significantly more electromagnetic radiation,

and causes the surfaces of asphalt roads and highways to heat.

• The annual mean air temperature of a city with 1 million people or

more can be 1.8–5.4 °F (1.0–3.0 °C) warmer than its surroundings.
In the evening, the difference can be as high as 22 °F (12 °C).
• The IPCC stated that "it is well-known that compared to non-urban areas
urban heat islands raise night-time temperatures more than daytime
temperatures."[17] For example, Barcelona, Spain is 0.2 °C (0.4 °F) cooler
for daily maxima and 2.9 °C (5.2 °F) warmer for minima than a nearby rural
station.

• A description of the very first report of the UHI by Luke Howard in the late
1810s said that the urban center of London was warmer at night than the
surrounding countryside by 3.7 °F (2.1 °C).

• Though the warmer air temperature within the UHI is generally most
apparent at night, urban heat islands exhibit significant and somewhat
paradoxical diurnal behavior.

• The air temperature difference between the UHI and the surrounding
environment is large at night and small during the day. The opposite is
true for skin temperatures of the urban landscape within the UHI
• Throughout the daytime, particularly when the skies are free of
clouds, urban surfaces are warmed by the absorption of solar
radiation.

• Surfaces in the urban areas tend to warm faster than those of the
surrounding rural areas. By virtue of their high heat capacities,
urban surfaces act as a giant reservoir of heat energy. For example,
concrete can hold roughly 2,000 times as much heat as an
equivalent volume of air. As a result, the large daytime surface
temperature within the UHI is easily seen via thermal remote
sensing.
• As is often the case with daytime heating, this warming also has the
effect of generating convective winds within the urban boundary
layer.

• It is theorized that, due to the atmospheric mixing that results, the

air temperature perturbation within the UHI is generally minimal or
nonexistent during the day, though the surface temperatures can
reach extremely high levels.
• At night, the situation reverses. The absence of solar heating causes
the atmospheric convection to decrease, and the urban boundary
layer begins to stabilize. If enough stabilization occurs, an inversion
layer is formed. This traps urban air near the surface, and keeping
surface air warm from the still-warm urban surfaces, forming the
nighttime warmer air temperatures within the UHI.

• Other than the heat retention properties of urban areas, the

nighttime maximum in urban canyons could also be due to the
blocking of "sky view" during cooling: surfaces lose heat at night
principally by radiation to the comparatively cool sky, and this is
blocked by the buildings in an urban area.

• Radiative cooling is more dominant when wind speed is low and the
sky is cloudless, and indeed the UHI is found to be largest at night in
these conditions.
 Impacts
• Ant colonies in urban heat islands have an increased heat tolerance
at no cost to cold tolerance.

• Aside from the effect on temperature, UHIs can produce secondary

effects on local meteorology, including the altering of local wind
patterns, the development of clouds and fog, the humidity, and the
rates of precipitation.

• The extra heat provided by the UHI leads to greater upward motion,
which can induce additional shower and thunderstorm activity.

• In addition, the UHI creates during the day a local low pressure area
where relatively moist air from its rural surroundings converges,
possibly leading to more favorable conditions for cloud formation.
• Rainfall rates downwind of cities are increased between 48% and
116%. Partly as a result of this warming, monthly rainfall is about
28% greater between 20 miles (32 km) to 40 miles (64 km)
downwind of cities, compared with upwind.

• Some cities show a total precipitation increase of 51%.

• Research has been done in a few areas suggesting that

metropolitan areas are less susceptible to weak tornadoes due to
the turbulent mixing caused by the warmth of the urban heat
island.
• Using satellite images, researchers discovered that city climates
have a noticeable influence on plant growing seasons up to 10
kilometers (6.2 miles) away from a city's edges.

• Growing seasons in 70 cities in eastern North America were about

15 days longer in urban areas compared to rural areas outside of a
city's influence.
 Health effects
• UHIs have the potential to directly influence the health and welfare
of urban residents. Within the United States alone, an average of
1,000 people die each year due to extreme heat.
• As UHIs are characterized by increased temperature, they can
potentially increase the magnitude and duration of heat waves
within cities.

• Research has found that the mortality rate during a heat wave
increases exponentially with the maximum temperature, an effect
that is exacerbated by the UHI.

• The nighttime effect of UHIs can be particularly harmful during a

heat wave, as it deprives urban residents of the cool relief found in
rural areas during the night.
• Increased temperatures have been reported to cause heat
stroke, heat exhaustion, heat syncope, and heat cramps.
Some studies have also looked at how severe heat stroke
can lead to permanent damage to organ systems.

• This damage can increase the risk of early mortality

because the damage can cause severe impairment in organ
function.

• Other complications of heat stroke include respiratory

distress syndrome in adults and disseminated intravascular
coagulation.
• Some researchers have noted that any compromise to the
human body’s ability to thermoregulate would in theory
increase risk of mortality. This includes illnesses that may
affect a person’s mobility, awareness, or behavior.
• Researchers have noted that individuals with cognitive health issues
(e.g. depression, dementia, Parkinson’s disease) are more at risk
when faced with high temperatures and “need to take extra care”
as cognitive performance has been shown to be differentially
affected by heat.

• People with diabetes, are overweight, have sleep deprivation, or

have cardiovascular/cerebrovascular conditions should avoid too
much heat exposure.
• Some common medications that have an effect on
thermoregulation can also increase the risk of mortality. Specific
examples include anticholinergics, diuretics, phenotiazines and
barbiturates. Not only health, but heat can also affect behavior.

• A U.S. study suggests that heat can make people more irritable and
aggressive, noting that violent crimes increased by 4.58 out of
100,000 for every one degree increase in temperature.
• A researcher found that high UHI intensity correlates with
increased concentrations of air pollutants that gathered at
night, which can affect the next day’s air quality.
• These pollutants include volatile organic compounds,
carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxides, and particulate matter.

• The production of these pollutants combined with the

higher temperatures in UHIs can quicken the production of
ozone. Ozone at surface level is considered to be a harmful
pollutant.

• Studies suggest that increased temperatures in UHIs can

increase polluted days but also note that other factors (e.g.
air pressure, cloud cover, wind speed) can also have an
effect on pollution.
 Impact on nearby water bodies
• UHIs also impair water quality. Hot pavement and rooftop surfaces
transfer their excess heat to stormwater, which then drains into storm
sewers and raises water temperatures as it is released into streams, rivers,
ponds, and lakes.

• Additionally, increased urban water body temperatures lead to a decrease

in diversity in the water. In August 2001, rains over Cedar Rapids, Iowa led
to a 10.5C (18.9F) rise in the nearby stream within one hour, which led to a
fish kill. Since the temperature of the rain was comparatively cool, it could
be attributed to the hot pavement of the city.

• Similar events have been documented across the American Midwest, as

well as Oregon and California. Rapid temperature changes can be stressful
to aquatic ecosystems. Permeable pavements may mitigate these effects
by percolating water through the pavement into subsurface storage areas
where it can be dissipate through absorption and evaporation.
 Impact on energy usage
• Another consequence of urban heat islands is the increased
energy required for air conditioning and refrigeration in
cities that are in comparatively hot climates.

• The Heat Island Group estimates that the heat island effect
costs Los Angeles about US$100 million per year in energy.
Conversely, those that are in cold climates such as Moscow,
Russia would have less demand for heating.

• However, through the implementation of heat island

reduction strategies, significant annual net energy savings
have been calculated for northern locations such as
Chicago, Salt Lake City, and Toronto.
 Mitigation
• The heat island effect can be counteracted slightly by using white or
reflective materials to build houses, roofs, pavements, and roads,
thus increasing the overall albedo of the city.

• Relative to remedying the other sources of the problem, replacing

dark roofing requires the least amount of investment for the most
immediate return.

• A cool roof made from a reflective material such as vinyl reflects at

least 75 percent of the sun’s rays, and emit at least 70 percent of
the solar radiation absorbed by the building envelope. Asphalt built-
up roofs (BUR), by comparison, reflect 6 percent to 26 percent of
solar radiation.
• Using light-colored concrete has proven effective
in reflecting up to 50% more light than asphalt
and reducing ambient temperature.

• A low albedo value, characteristic of black

asphalt, absorbs a large percentage of solar heat
creating warmer near-surface temperatures.

• Paving with light-colored concrete, in addition to

replacing asphalt with light-colored concrete,
communities may be able to lower average
temperatures
• A second option is to increase the amount of well-watered
vegetation. These two options can be combined with the
implementation of green roofs.

• Green roofs are excellent insulators during the warm

weather months and the plants cool the surrounding
environment.

• Air quality is improved as the plants absorb carbon dioxide

with concomitant production of oxygen. The city of New
York determined that the cooling potential per area was
highest for street trees, followed by living roofs, light
covered surface, and open space planting.

• From the standpoint of cost effectiveness, light surfaces,

light roofs, and curbside planting have lower costs per
temperature reduction
Green roof of City Hall in Chicago, Illinois.
NOISE POLLUTION PROBLEM
AND
SOLUTIONS
 POLLUTION
“Pollution means any contamination
of air, soil, water and environment. ,
Even loud noise and sound is also a
part of pollution.”
 NOISE
“The word noise comes from the Latin word noxia
meaning "injury" or "hurt" .” Noise is an unwanted,
unpleasant and annoying sound caused by vibration of
the matter.
Vibrations impinge on the ear
drum of a human or animal and
setup a nervous disturbance,
which we call sound. When the
effects of sound are undesirable
that it may be termed as “Noise”.
 Physically there is no distinction
between sound and noise. Sound is a
sensory perception and the complex
pattern of sound waves is labeled as
noise, music, speech etc. Noise has
become a very important "stress factor"
in the environment of man.
 MEASUREMENT OF NOISE
“A decibel is the standard for the measurement of
noise”
• 20 db is whisper.
• 40 db the noise in a quiet office.
• 60 db is normal conversation.
• 80 db is the level at which sound
becomes physically painful. And can
be termed as noise.
 Noise Pollution
“Noise pollution or environmental noise is
displeasing human-, animal- or machine-created
sound that disrupts the activity or balance of
human or animal life.”
“ The term "noise pollution" has been recently
used to signify the hazard of sounds which are
consequence of modern day development, leading
to health hazards of different type.”
 Noise pollution is a type of energy
pollution in which distracting, irritating, or
damaging sounds are freely audible. Noise
pollution contaminants are not physical particles,
but rather waves that interfere with naturally-
occurring waves of a similar type in the same
environment.
In the most narrow sense, sounds are
considered noise pollution if they adversely affect
wildlife, human activity, or are capable of
damaging physical structures on a regular,
repeating basis.
 Classification of Noise Pollution
There are 2 kinds of noise pollution.
A. Community Noise/ Environmental Noise (non
industrial noise pollution).
• Air craft noise
• Roadway noise pollution
• Under water noise pollution
B. Occupational Noise( industrial noise
pollution)
 COMMUNITY NOISE
Community noise (also called environmental
noise, residential noise or domestic noise) is
defined as noise emitted from all sources, except at
the industrial workplace. Main sources of
community noise include road, rail and air traffic,
construction and public work, and the
neighborhood.
Typical neighborhood noise comes from live
or recorded music; from sporting events including
motor sports; from playgrounds and car parks; and
from domestic animals such as barking dogs.
Air craft Noise Pollution
Noise from planes flying
over residential areas impairs
people's ability to work, learn
in school and sleep, and
consequently also results in
lowered property values in
affected areas.
As passenger
volume increases and new and
larger airports are built, noise
is becoming even more of a
concern.
Roadway noise pollution
Roadway noise is the collective
sound energy emanating from motor
vehicles.
In the USA it contributes more to
environmental noise exposure than any
other noise source, and is constituted
chiefly of engine, tire, aerodynamic
and braking elements.
In other Western countries as well
as Lesser developed countries,
roadway noise is expected to
contribute a proportionately large
share of the total societal noise
pollution.
 Under water noise pollution
UNP is intense human-generated noise in
the marine environment. It is caused by use of
explosives, oceanographic experiments,
geophysical research, underwater
construction, ship traffic, intense active sonars
and air guns used for seismic surveys for oil
and related activities.
 OCCUPATIONAL NOISE
The many and varied sources of noise is
industrial machinery and processes include:
rotors, gears, turbulent fluid flow, impact
processes, electrical machines, internal
combustion engines, pneumatic equipment,
drilling, crushing, blasting, pumps and
compressors. Furthermore, the emitted sounds
are reflected from floors, ceiling and equipment.
 Occupational exposure limits specify the
maximum sound pressure levels and exposure
times to which nearly all workers may be
repeatedly exposed without adverse effect on
their ability to hear and understand normal
speech. An occupational exposure limit of 85
dB for 8 hours should protect most people
against a permanent hearing impairment
induced by noise after 40 years of
occupational exposure.
 Sources of Noise Pollution
• Road Traffic noise
• Air Craft
• Noise from railroads
• Construction Noise
• Noise in Industry
• Noise in building
• Noise from Consumer products
• Loud Speakers / Public Address Systems
• Firecrackers
ROAD TRAFFIC NOISE Air Craft NOISE
In the city, the main Now-a-days , the problem
of low flying military aircraft
sources of traffic has added a new dimension
noise are the motors to community annoyance, as
and exhaust system the nation seeks to improve
of autos, smaller its nap-of the- earth aircraft
trucks, buses, and operations over national
motorcycles. parks, and other areas
previously unaffected by
aircraft noise has claimed
national attention over
recent years.
Noise from railroads
rail car retarders can
produce a high frequency,
high level screech that can
reach peak levels of 120 dB
at a distance of 100 feet,
which translates to levels as
high as 138, or 140 dB at
the railroad worker’s ear.
Construction Noise
The noise from
the construction of
highways, city streets,
and buildings is a
major contributor to
the urban scene.
Construction noise
sources include
pneumatic hammers,
air compressors,
bulldozers, loaders,
dump trucks (and their
back-up signals), and
pavement breakers.
 Noise in building
Apartment dwellers are often annoyed by
noise in their homes, especially when the building
is not well designed and constructed. In this case,
internal building noise from plumbing, boilers,
generators, air conditioners, and fans, can be
audible and annoying
 Noise from Consumer products
Certain household equipment, such as vacuum cleaners,
mixers and some kitchen appliances are noisemakers of the
house. Though they do not cause too much of problem, their
effect cannot be neglected.
Loud Speakers
Use of loud speakers / public address systems in
functions, meetings, religious places in open areas is a source
of serious nuisance.
Fire crackers
Use of firecrackers with high noise level may harm
the human hearing system. Especially sensitive are small
children.
 Problems of Noise Pollution
Noise pollution makes men more irritable. The effect of noise
pollution is multifaceted & inter related. The effects of Noise
Pollution on Human Being, Animal and property are as
follows:
• Hearing Impairment • Temporary or permanent
• It Decreases the Deafness
Efficiency of A Man • Aggressive Behavior
• Lack of concentration • Effect on Vegetation Poor
• Abortion is caused Quality of Crops
• Pupil Dilation • Effect on Animal
• Mental Illness • Effect on Property
• It Causes Heart Attack • Sleep interference
• Digestive problems • Speech interference
 HEARING IMPAIRMENT
Hearing is essential for well-being and safety.
Hearing impairment is typically defined as an increase
in the threshold of hearing as clinically assessed by
audiometry. There is general agreement that
exposure to sound levels less than 70 dB does not
produce hearing damage, regardless of the duration
of exposure. There is also general agreement that
exposure for more than 8 hours to sound levels in
excess of 85 dB is potentially hazardous; to place this
in context, 85 dB is roughly equivalent to the noise of
heavy truck traffic on a busy road
 The WHO recommends that unprotected exposure to
sound levels greater than 100 dB (for example, the sound of a
jackhammer or a snowmobile) should be limited in duration (4
h) and frequency (four times/yr).The threshold for pain is
usually given as 140 dB, a level readily achieved in today's
boom-cars. Impulse noise exposure (gunfire and similar
sources of intense noise of brief duration) should never exceed
140 dB in adults and 120 dB in children. Firecrackers, cap
pistols, and other toys can generate sufficient sound levels to
cause sudden and permanent hearing loss.
Levels greater than 165 dB, even for a few milliseconds,
are likely to cause acute cochlear damage. It is important to
remember to counsel patients that ears do not get used to
loud noise. As the League for the Hard of Hearing notes-they
get deaf.
IT DECREASES THE EFFICIENCY OF A MAN

Regarding the impact of noise on human

efficiency there are number of experiments which
print out the fact that human efficiency increases with
noise reduction. A study by Sinha & Sinha in India
suggested that reducing industrial booths could
improve the quality of their work. Thus human
efficiency is related with noise. Noise can adversely
affect performance, for example in reading,
attentiveness, problem solving and memory.
 LACK OF CONCENTRATION
• For better quality of work there should be
concentration, Noise causes lack of
concentration. In big cities, mostly all the
offices are on main road. The noise of traffic or
the loud speakers of different types of horns
divert the attention of the people working in
offices. Deficits in concentration can lead to
accidents.
 FATIGUE
Because of Noise Pollution, people cannot
concentrate on their work. Thus they have to give their
more time for completing the work and they feel tiring
ABORTION
There should be cool and calm
atmosphere during the pregnancy. Unpleasant sounds
make a lady of irriative nature. Sudden Noise causes
abortion in females.
PUPIL DILATION
Noise Pollution causes dilation of the pupil of the eye
 IT CAUSES MENTAL ILLNESS
• Noise Pollution causes certain diseases in human. It
attacks on the person’s peace of mind. The noises are
recognized as major contributing factors in accelerating
the already existing tensions of modern living. These
tensions result in certain disease like blood pressure or
mental illness etc..

• Noise pollution may cause or contribute to the

following adverse effects: anxiety, stress, nervousness,
nausea, headache, emotional instability,
argumentativeness, sexual impotence, changes in mood,
increase in social conflicts, neurosis, hysteria, and
psychosis.
 It Causes Heart Attack
Noise Pollution causes Increase in the rate of heart-beat,
increased cholesterol level and Constriction of blood vessels which
leads to blood pressure that resulted in heart attack.
Noise can trigger both endocrine and autonomic nervous system
responses that affect the cardiovascular system and thus may be a
risk factor for cardiovascular. high levels of stress hormones such as
cortisol, adrenaline, and noradrenalin can lead to hypertension,
stroke, heart failure, and immune problems.
Acute exposure to noise activates nervous and hormonal
responses, leading to temporary increases in blood pressure, heart
rate, and vasoconstriction.
 Digestive problems
Noise Pollution causes digestive spasms and stomach disorders
Temporary or permanent Deafness
The effect of nose on audition is well recognized. Mechanics,
locomotive drivers, telephone operators etc. All have their
hearing Impairment as a result of noise at the place of work.
Physicist, physicians & psychologists are of the view that
continued exposure to noise level above. 80 to 100 db is unsafe,
loud noise causes temporary or permanent deafness.

Aggressive Behavior
Noise above 80 dB may increase aggressive behavior. Annoyance is
defined as a feeling of displeasure associated with any agent or condition
believed by an individual to adversely affect him or her.
EFFECT ON VEGETATION,POOR QUALITY OF
CROPS
Now is well known to all that plants are
similar to human being. They are also as
sensitive as man. There should be cool &
peaceful environment for their better growth.
Noise pollution causes poor quality of crops in
a pleasant atmosphere.
 EFFECT ON ANIMAL
Noise pollution damages the nervous system of animal.
Animal looses the control of its mind. They become
dangerous
Noise can have a detrimental effect on animals by
causing stress, increasing risk of mortality by changing the
delicate balance in predator/prey detection and avoidance,
and by interfering with their use of sounds in communication
especially in relation to reproduction and in navigation.
Noise also makes species communicate louder, which is
called Lombard vocal response. Scientists and researchers
have conducted experiments that show whales' song length is
longer when submarine-detectors are on.
EFFECT ON BEACHED WHALE
One of the best known damage
caused by noise pollution is the death
of certain species of beached whales,
brought on by the loud sound of
military sonar.
 EUROPEAN ROBINS

• European Robins living in urban environments

are more likely to sing at night in places with
high levels of noise pollution during the day,
suggesting that they sing at night because it is
quieter, and their message can propagate
through the environment more clearly.
 Effect on Property
Loud noise is very dangerous to buildings, bridges and monuments. It
creates waves which struck the walls and put the building in danger
condition.
Sleep Interference
Very high levels of noise can wake people from their sleep with a jerk
and keep them awake or disturb their sleep pattern. This could make
them irritable and tired the next day. Arousal associated with night
time noise exposure increased blood and saliva concentrations of
these hormones such as cortisol, adrenaline, and noradrenalin even
during sleep. It is known, for example, that continuous noise in excess
of 30 dB disturbs sleep.
 Speech interference
• Noise more than 50dB can be very difficult to
hear and interpret and cause problems such
as partial deafness. Some effects may lead to
increased accidents, disruption of
communication in the classroom, and
impaired academic performance.
 Noise Mitigation
“Noise mitigation is a set of strategies to reduce noise
pollution.”
Construction of sound proof rooms for noisy machines in industries.
Use of horns with jarring sounds to be banned. No motor vehicle should be
fitted with multitioned horn giving a succession of different note or with any
other sound producing device giving an unduly harsh, shrill , loud or alarming
noise on other similar vehicles of such sound signals.
Every motor vehicle shall be fitted with a device (silencer).
Noise producing industries, aerodromes, and railway stations to be shifted
away from the inhabited areas.
Proper law should be enforced to check the misuse of loudspeakers and
public announcements systems. Loud speakers are banned from 10pm to
6am.
Growing green plants/trees along roadside to reduce noise pollution
as they absorb sound.
To avoid noise-induced hearing loss, pay attention to the noises
around you and turn down the volume whenever possible.
Avoid or limit time spent in noisy sports events.
Wear adequate hearing protection, such as foam ear plugs or ear
muffs, when you must be in a noisy environment or when using
loud equipment.
We must constantly check up on the appliances we use at home.
Most of them have rubber insulations that act for soundproofing.
But over time, this insulation may wear out, and that is when the
noise pollution will begin. Keep track of which appliances need
maintenance, and replace insulations if needed
Noise is also made by the escape of exhaust gases from the
engine, therefore every motor vehicle should be so constructed
and maintained as not to cause undue noise when in motion.
Before buying a home, see how far it is from the local airport.