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MA1511

MA1511 Engineering Calculus

Chapter 5 Infinite Series

5.1 Sequences
Sequence
A sequence {𝑎𝑛 } is an infinite set of numbers expressed in a definite order :
𝑎1 , 𝑎2 , 𝑎3 … , 𝑎𝑛 , …
𝑎1 is the first term, 𝑎2 is the second term, and in general, 𝑎𝑛 is the 𝑛th term.

Two familiar examples of sequences are

 arithmetic sequences
𝑎, 𝑎 + 𝑑, 𝑎 + 2𝑑, … , 𝑎 + (𝑛 − 1)𝑑, …
𝑑 is known as the common difference.
 geometric sequences
𝑎, 𝑎𝑟, 𝑎𝑟 2 , … , 𝑎𝑟 𝑛−1 , …
𝑟 is known as the common ratio.

Limit of a Sequence
1
Consider the sequence 𝑎𝑛 = 𝑛. When 𝑛 tends to infinity (𝑛 becomes arbitrarily large), it is obvious

that 𝑎𝑛 tends to zero (written as lim 𝑎𝑛 = 0 or 𝑎𝑛 → 0).

𝑛→∞

We say that the sequence {𝑎𝑛 } is convergent and that it converges to 0.

The graph of 𝑎𝑛 versus 𝑛 illustrates this fact.

Dr NG Wee Seng
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Essentially, the limit of a sequence {𝑎𝑛 } , if it exists, is the unique finite real number that 𝑎𝑛
approaches when 𝑛 becomes very large.
If a sequence does not approach a finite real number as 𝑛 tends to infinity, we say that the sequence is
divergent.

Not all sequences are convergent. For example, the sequence 𝑏𝑛 = √𝑛 is divergent because √𝑛 tends
to infinity when 𝑛 tends to infinity. In this case, we say that this sequence diverges to infinity.

The sequence 𝑐𝑛 = (−1)𝑛 is another example of a divergent sequence. To see this, we observe that

{𝑐𝑛 } = {−1, 1, −1, 1, −1, 1, … . . }

Since the sequence is alternating between two values ( -1 or 1) indefinitely , the sequence does not
approach a unique finite real value when 𝑛 tends to infinity.

∞
A Limit of the form ∞

𝑃(𝑛)
The following example illustrates the method of calculating limits of the form lim where 𝑃(𝑛)
𝑛→∞ 𝑄(𝑛)

and 𝑄(𝑛) are functions made up of non-negative powers of 𝑛, for example, 𝑛2 + 2√𝑛 + 5.

Note that both 𝑃(𝑛) and 𝑄(𝑛) tend to infinity as n tends to infinity, so we are dealing with a limit of
∞
the form (known as an indeterminate form).
∞

The method for evaluating such limits entails dividing the numerator and denominator by the highest
𝑃(𝑛)
power of 𝑛 that appears in the expression , as illustrated in the following example.
𝑄(𝑛)
Dr NG Wee Seng
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Video Example 5.1.1

Evaluate the limit (if it exists) :
6𝑛5 +𝑛+5
(i) lim
𝑛→∞ (3𝑛−1)2 (𝑛+1)3
6𝑛√𝑛+5
(ii) lim
𝑛→∞ (3𝑛−1)2

2
Answers : (i) 3 (ii) 0

Dr NG Wee Seng
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More complicated limits can be evaluated using standard results on limits given in Result 5.1A. While
results 1 and 3 are obvious, results 2 and 4 are non-trivial results whose proofs require the use of more
advanced Calculus techniques that are beyond the scope of this course.

Result 5.1A (Some Standard Results on Limits of Sequences)

1. lim a  1 for any non-zero 𝑎

1
n

n 
1
2. lim n n  1
n 

3. lim r  0 for −1 < 𝑟 < 1

n
n 

4. lim 1  an   e for any 𝑎 ∈ R

n a
n 

The following result provides a list of so-called limit laws that enable us to calculate limits involving
two convergent sequences or functions of convergent sequences.
Result 5.1B (Limit Laws)
Let {𝑎𝑛 } and {𝑏𝑛 } be two convergent sequences with
lim 𝑎𝑛 = 𝐴 and lim 𝑏𝑛 = 𝐵.
𝑛→∞ 𝑛→∞

Then,
1. lim 𝑐𝑎𝑛 = 𝑐𝐴 and lim (𝑐 + 𝑎𝑛 ) = 𝑐 + 𝐴 for any real number 𝑐
𝑛→∞ 𝑛→∞

2. lim (𝑎𝑛 + 𝑏𝑛 ) = 𝐴 + 𝐵 and lim (𝑎𝑛 − 𝑏𝑛 ) = 𝐴 − 𝐵

𝑛→∞ 𝑛→∞

3. lim (𝑎𝑛 𝑏𝑛 ) = 𝐴𝐵
𝑛→∞
𝑎 𝐴
4. lim (𝑏𝑛) = 𝐵 provided 𝐵 ≠ 0 and 𝑏𝑛 ≠ 0 for all 𝑛
𝑛→∞ 𝑛

5. lim 𝑓(𝑎𝑛 ) = 𝑓(𝐴) if 𝑓 is a function and the limit on the left exists
𝑛→∞

For example, we know from result 5.1A (2) & (4) that

1 2 𝑛
lim 𝑛𝑛 = 1 and lim (1 + ) = 𝑒 2 .
𝑛→∞ 𝑛→∞ 𝑛

We can now use the above laws to deduce that

1
2 𝑛
(a) lim (3𝑛𝑛 − 4 (1 + 𝑛) ) = 3 × 1 − 4 × 𝑒2 = 3 − 4𝑒2 (using limit laws no. 1 and 2 )
𝑛→∞
2 𝑛 1
(b) lim ((1 + 𝑛) ∙ (𝑛𝑛 ) ) = 𝑒2 × 1 = 𝑒2 (using limit law 3)
𝑛→∞
1
(c) lim √4 + 5𝑛𝑛 = √4 + 5 = 3 (using limit law 5 with 𝑓(𝑥) = √4 + 5𝑥 )
𝑛→∞

Dr NG Wee Seng
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We illustrate the combined use of both Results 5.1A and 5.1B in the next example.

Video Example 5.1.2

Evaluate
2
2 𝑛
(i) lim ((3𝑛)𝑛 − 5 (1 + 𝑛) )
𝑛→∞
3 −4𝑛
(ii) lim (1 − 2𝑛)
𝑛→∞

Dr NG Wee Seng
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5.2 Infinite Series

Partial Sum
Given a sequence {𝑎𝑛}, the 𝑛th partial sum, 𝑆𝑛 is the sum of its first 𝑛 terms:
𝑛

𝑆𝑛 = 𝑎1 + 𝑎2 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑛 = ∑ 𝑎𝑘 .
𝑘=1

Infinite Series
Since {𝑆𝑛 } is itself a sequence, we can consider the limit of {𝑆𝑛 } as 𝑛 tends to infinity.
Symbolically, we write
𝑛 ∞

lim ∑ 𝑎𝑘 = ∑ 𝑎𝑘
𝑛→∞
𝑘=1 𝑘=1

If the limit of {𝑆𝑛 } exists and equals 𝐿, then

∞

∑ 𝑎𝑘 = 𝐿.
𝑘=1

In this case, we say that the infinite series is convergent and it converges to 𝐿.

If {𝑆𝑛 } is divergent, then the infinite series is divergent.

An obvious example of a divergent infinite series is

∞

∑𝑘.
𝑘=1
The corresponding partial sum is given by
𝑛

𝑆𝑛 = ∑ 𝑘
𝑘=1
This is the partial sum of an arithmetic sequence {𝑛} whose first term and common difference are both
equal to one Applying a standard formula1,
𝑛
1
𝑆𝑛 = ∑ 𝑘 = 𝑛(𝑛 + 1).
2
𝑘=1

Cleary, when 𝑛 tends to infinity, 𝑆𝑛 tends to infinity. Hence, the above infinite series is divergent.

𝑛
1
The sum of the first 𝑛 terms of an arithmetic sequence with first term 𝑎 and common difference 𝑑 ≠ 0 is (2𝑎 +
2
(𝑛 − 1)𝑑)

Dr NG Wee Seng
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In fact, it is easy to show for any arithmetic sequence {𝑎𝑛 } , the infinite series
∞

∑ 𝑎𝑘
𝑘=1
is divergent.

As for geometric series, we recall that a geometric sequence {𝑎𝑛} with first term 𝑎 and common ratio
𝑟, that is, 𝑎𝑛 = 𝑎𝑟 𝑛−1 , has a partial sum given by
𝑛
𝑘−1
𝑎(1 − 𝑟 𝑛 )
𝑆𝑛 = ∑ 𝑎𝑟 =
1−𝑟
𝑘=1

and the infinite series

∞

∑ 𝑎𝑟 𝑘−1
𝑘=1
is convergent if and only if −1 < 𝑟 < 1.
𝑎
Furthermore, its limit is if −1 < 𝑟 < 1.
1−𝑟

We summarise these facts in

Result 5.2A
The geometric series converges if and only if −1 < 𝑟 < 1.

Furthermore, for −1 < 𝑟 < 1 ,

∞
𝑎
∑ 𝑎𝑟 𝑘−1 = .
1−𝑟
𝑘=1

Remarks
In general, any series of the form

∑ 𝐴𝑟 𝑘 ,
𝑘=𝑚

where 𝐴 and 𝑟 are constants and 𝑚 is a positive integer, is a geometric series with common ratio 𝑟.
The first term 𝑎 is obtained by letting 𝑘 = 𝑚 in the sequence 𝐴𝑟 𝑘 , giving 𝑎 = 𝐴𝑟 𝑚 .

Dr NG Wee Seng
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Video Example 5.2.1

Determine the range of values of 𝑥 for which the series.
∞
100𝑥 𝑘
∑ 2𝑘−1
5
𝑘=1

is convergent and find its value in terms of 𝑥 when it is convergent.

Dr NG Wee Seng
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When given two convergent infinite series

∞ ∞

∑ 𝑎𝑘 , ∑ 𝑏𝑘
𝑘=1 𝑘=1

a natural question to ask is whether the series obtained by

 term-by-term addition/subtraction of the two series:
∞ ∞

∑(𝑎𝑘 + 𝑏𝑘 ) or ∑(𝑎𝑘 − 𝑏𝑘 )
𝑘=1 𝑘=1
 scalar multiplication of any one of the series, say
∞

∑ 𝑐 𝑎𝑘
𝑘=1
is also convergent. The next result provides a definitive answer to these questions.
Result 5.2B (Rules for Infinite Series)
For simplicity, we shall write the infinite series

Suppose ∑ 𝑎𝑘 and ∑ 𝑏𝑘 are two convergent series.

Then, for any constants 𝛼, 𝛽, ∑(𝛼𝑎𝑘 + 𝛽𝑏𝑘 ) converges and

∑(𝛼𝑎𝑘 + 𝛽𝑏𝑘 ) = 𝛼 ∑ 𝑎𝑘 + 𝛽 ∑ 𝑏𝑘

For example, if we are given two convergent series

∞ ∞

∑ 𝑎𝑘 = 2 and ∑ 𝑏𝑘 = −3
𝑘=1 𝑘=1

then the series

∞

∑(3𝑎𝑘 − 2𝑏𝑘 )
𝑘=1

is convergent and
∞ ∞ ∞

∑(3𝑎𝑘 − 2𝑏𝑘 ) = 3 ∑ 𝑎𝑘 − 2 ∑ 𝑎𝑘 = 3 × 2 − 2 × (−3) = 12

𝑘=1 𝑘=1 𝑘=1

Dr NG Wee Seng
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We end this section with a result stating that the behavior (convergence or divergence) of an infinite is
unaffected by adding or removing a finite number of terms.

Result 5.2C
Let 𝑚 be a positive integer. Then, is convergent if and only if is convergent.

This result can be proved by observing that

∞ ∞

∑ 𝑎𝑘 = 𝑎1 + 𝑎2 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑚−1 + ∑ 𝑎𝑘
𝑘=1 𝑘=𝑚

Since the two series differ by a finite sum 𝑎1 + 𝑎2 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑚−1 , one of them is convergent
(divergent) if and only if the other is convergent (divergent).

Dr NG Wee Seng
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5.3 Two Convergence Tests for Infinite Series

As discussed in the preceding section, one way of determining whether a given infinite series is
convergent is to examine the limit of the corresponding sequence of partial sums. However, partial sums
are often difficult to calculate. There are methods for testing convergence of infinite series that do not
require the partial sums. These methods are known as convergence tests for infinite series.
We present two such methods in this section.

The first convergence test, known as the 𝒏th Term Test , is a divergence test as it enables us to
identify certain divergent series.

Result 5.3A( 𝒏th Term Test , also known as Divergence Test)

If {𝑎𝑛} does not converge to 0, then the infinite series
∞

∑ 𝑎𝑘
𝑘=1
is divergent.

Unfortunately, the converse of the above result is not true in general. That is,

{𝑎𝑛} converges to 0 does NOT necessarily imply that the series

∞

∑ 𝑎𝑘
𝑘=1

is convergent.

The implication is that even if {𝑎𝑛} converges to 0, it is impossible to tell whether the corresponding
infinite series is convergent or divergent without conducting another convergence test.

Dr NG Wee Seng
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The next result is specifically used to test convergence of a special type of series
∞
1 1 1 1
∑ 𝑝
= 𝑝 + 𝑝 + 𝑝 + ⋯,
𝑘 1 2 3
𝑘=1

known as a 𝒑-series.

Result 5.3B ( 𝒑 - series Test )

The series
∞
1
∑
𝑘𝑝
𝑘=1
(known as a 𝑝-series)

is convergent if 𝑝 > 1 and is divergent if 𝑝 ≤ 1

Remarks

1 1 1
1. The well-known harmonic series 2  k  1  2  3  ....
k 1
is an example

of a divergent 𝑝-series (where 𝑝 = 1).

2. We know immediately from the above test that the series

∞
1
∑ (𝑝 = 2)
𝑘2
𝑘=1

is convergent while the series

∞
1
∑ (𝑝 = 1)
𝑘
𝑘=1

is divergent.
1 1
Note that both sequences { } and { 2 } converge to 0. This is an example showing that the
𝑛 𝑛
converse of the Divergence Test does not hold in general.

2
A direct proof of the divergence of the harmonic series and a proof of the p-series test can be found in LumiNUS >
Files > Supplementary Sides folder
Dr NG Wee Seng
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Video Example 5.3.1

Use the 𝑛th term test to show that the series
∞
(2𝑘 + 1)
∑
(3𝑘 + 2)(5𝑘)2/𝑘
𝑘=1

is divergent.

Dr NG Wee Seng
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5.4 Power Series

So far, we have been discussing series of constant terms. We now turn our attention to series whose
terms are functions of some variable, 𝑥. We consider a special type of such series where the terms are
powers of 𝑥, given by
∞

∑ 𝑐𝑘 𝑥 𝑘
𝑘=0

The numbers 𝑐0 , 𝑐1 , 𝑐2 , … . . are the coefficients of the series. Such a series is known as a power
series.

A more general form of power series is

where 𝑎 is the center of the series.

An example of a power series is the following infinite geometric series with common ratio, 𝑥
∞
1
∑ 𝑥𝑘 = 1 + 𝑥 + 𝑥2 + ⋯ =
1−𝑥
𝑘=0

Here, the coefficients 𝑐𝑘 = 1 for all 𝑘 = 0, 1, 2, ,3 …

Convergence of Power Series

We shall investigate convergence of a given power series
∞

∑ 𝑐𝑘 (𝑥 − 𝑎)𝑘
𝑘=0

One immediate conclusion we can draw is that the series is convergent when 𝑥 = 𝑎 . In fact, when
𝑥 = 𝑎. the series is numerically equal to the first coefficient 𝑐0 when 𝑥 = 𝑎, since all the other
terms, 𝑐𝑘 (𝑥 − 𝑎)𝑘 , 𝑘 > 0, are equal to 0.
In general, the behavior (convergence or divergence) of the series depends on the terms
𝑐𝑘 (𝑥 − 𝑎)𝑘 , 𝑘 = 0, 1, 2 … .. . According to result 5.3A (the 𝑛 th term test) , convergence implies
𝑐𝑘 (𝑥 − 𝑎)𝑘 → 0 as 𝑘 → ∞.
So we would expect 𝑐𝑘 (𝑥 − 𝑎)𝑘 to be “sufficiently small” for convergence to be possible.

Dr NG Wee Seng
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It turns out that any given power series

∞

∑ 𝑐𝑛 (𝑥 − 𝑎)𝑛
𝑛=0

behaves in exactly one of the following three possible ways :

(1) it diverges for all values of 𝑥 (other than 𝑥 = 𝑎),

(ii) it converges for all values of 𝑥

(iii) it converges if |𝑥 – 𝑎| < 𝑅 and diverges when |𝑥 – 𝑎| > 𝑅 for some positive real number
𝑅, called the 𝐫𝐚𝐝𝐢𝐮𝐬 𝐨𝐟 𝐜𝐨𝐧𝐯𝐞𝐫𝐠𝐞𝐧𝐜𝐞 of the power series.

By default, 𝑅 = 0 in case (1) and 𝑅 = ∞ in case (2)

convergence

For example, the power series

∞

∑ 2𝑘 (𝑥 − 1)𝑘
𝑘=0

is a geometric series whose common ratio is 2(𝑥 − 1). The center of this series is 1.
1 1
By result 5.2A, this series converges if 2(𝑥 − 1) < 1 or 𝑥 − 1 < 2 and diverges if 𝑥 − 1 > 2.
1
Hence, the radius of convergence of this series is 2.

Dr NG Wee Seng
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Method of Finding the Radius of Convergence

The following convergence test, known as the Ratio Test and Root Test for power series, can be used
to find the radius of convergence of a power series.

Result 5.4A (Ratio / Root Test for Power Series )

Given a power series
∞

∑ 𝑐𝑘 (𝑥 − 𝑎)𝑘 ,
𝑘=0
let 𝑎𝑘 = 𝑐𝑘 (𝑥 − 𝑎)𝑘 .

(Ratio Test)
𝑎
Let 𝐿 = lim | 𝑎𝑘+1 |.
𝑘→∞ 𝑘

If 𝐿 < 1 (including 𝐿 = 0), the power series converges

If 𝐿 > 1 (including 𝐿 = ∞), the power series diverges

(Root Test)
Let 𝐿 = lim |𝑎𝑘 1/𝑘 |.
𝑘→∞

If 𝐿 < 1 (including 𝐿 = 0), the power series converges

If 𝐿 > 1 (including 𝐿 = ∞), the power series diverges

We illustrate the above result using the previous example:

∞

∑ 2𝑘 (𝑥 − 1)𝑘 .
𝑘=0

We let 𝑎𝑘 = 2𝑘 (𝑥 − 1)𝑘 .
𝑎𝑘+1 2𝑘+1 (𝑥−1)𝑘+1
If we apply the Ratio Test, we compute 𝐿 = lim | | = lim | | = |2(𝑥 − 1)|
𝑘→∞ 𝑎𝑘 𝑘→∞ 2𝑘 (𝑥−1)𝑘

We conclude from Result 5.4A that the power series

1
 converges when |2(𝑥 − 1)| < 1 or equivalently, |(𝑥 − 1)| < 2
1
 diverges when |2(𝑥 − 1)| > 1 or equivalently, |(𝑥 − 1)| > 2
1
Hence, the radius of convergence of the series is 2.

The same conclusion will be drawn if we apply the Root Test version of Result 5.4A

Dr NG Wee Seng
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The next example covers all possible cases of the convergence behaviour of power series.

Dr NG Wee Seng
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Video Example 5.4.1

Find the radius of convergence of the following power series

(a)

(b)

(c)

Answers: (a) Radius of convergence = 43 ; (b) Radius of convergence = 0 (c) Radius of

convergence = ∞

Dr NG Wee Seng
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5.5 Taylor Series

The Taylor series for 𝑓 centered at 𝑎 is given by the infinite power series
∞
𝑓 (𝑘) (𝑎)
∑ (𝑥 − 𝑎)𝑘
𝑘!
𝑘=0

provided 𝑓 (𝑘) (𝑎) exists for 𝑘 = 1 , 2, 3, …. Clearly, this is a power series whose coefficients are
𝑓(𝑘) (𝑎)
given by . For example, if 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑒 𝑥 , then for any positive integer 𝑛, 𝑓 (𝑛) (𝑥) = 𝑒𝑥 .
𝑘!
Hence, for any given 𝑎, the Taylor series for 𝑓 centered at 𝑎 is
∞ ∞
𝑓 (𝑘) (𝑎) 𝑒𝑎
∑ (𝑥 − 𝑎) = ∑ (𝑥 − 𝑎)𝑘
𝑘
𝑘! 𝑘!
𝑘=0 𝑘=0

Maclaurin series
The Taylor series of 𝑓 centered at 𝑎 = 0 , , is called the Maclaurin series of 𝑓
Many commonly encountered functions 𝑓 such as exponential functions, trigonometric functions and
logarithmic functions have the property that
∞
𝑓 (𝑘) (𝑎)
𝑓(𝑥) = ∑ (𝑥 − 𝑎)𝑘
𝑘!
𝑘=0

provided the series converges, that is the function is equal to its own Taylor series (or more technically,
we say the Taylor series converges to the function it represents) . Such functions are known as analytic
functions.

Below are examples of functions with their associated Maclaurin series (𝑎 = 0 ).

∞
1 1
= ∑ 𝑥 𝑘 = 1 + 𝑥 + 𝑥 2 + 𝑥 3 + ⋯ for − 1 < 𝑥 < 1
1−𝑥
𝑘=0

∞
2
𝑥
1 𝑘 𝑥2 𝑥3
𝑒 = ∑ 𝑥 = 1 + 𝑥 + + + ⋯ for all 𝑥
𝑘! 2! 3!
𝑘=0

∞
3 (−1)𝑘 2𝑘+1 𝑥3 𝑥5
sin 𝑥 = ∑ 𝑥 = 𝑥 − + + ⋯ for all 𝑥
(2𝑘 + 1)! 3! 5!
𝑘=0
∞
4 (−1)𝑘 2𝑘 𝑥2 𝑥4
cos 𝑥 = ∑ 𝑥 = 1 − + + ⋯ for all 𝑥
(2𝑘)! 2! 4!
𝑘=0
∞
5 (−1)𝑘+1 𝑘 𝑥2 𝑥3
ln(1 + 𝑥) = ∑ 𝑥 = 𝑥 − + + ⋯ for − 1 < 𝑥 ≤ 1
𝑘 2 3
𝑘=1

Dr NG Wee Seng
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MA1511

∞
6 𝑝 𝑝(𝑝 − 1) 2 𝑝(𝑝 − 1)(𝑝 − 2) 3
(1 + 𝑥) = ∑ ( ) 𝑥 𝑘 = 1 + 𝑝𝑥 +
𝑝
𝑥 + 𝑥 +⋯
𝑘 2! 3!
𝑘=0
𝑝 𝑝 𝑝(𝑝−1)(𝑝−2)…(𝑝−𝑘+1)
for − 1 < 𝑥 < 1 , where ( ) = 1 , ( ) = , 𝑘 = 1,2,3 …
0 𝑘 𝑘!

Taylor Polynomials
Given a function 𝑓, its 𝑛th order Taylor polynomial centered at 𝑎, denoted by 𝑃𝑛 , is the sum of the
first (𝑛 + 1) terms of its Taylor series
∞
𝑓 (𝑘) (𝑎)
∑ (𝑥 − 𝑎)𝑘
𝑘!
𝑘=0

that is,
𝑛
𝑓 (𝑘) (𝑎)
𝑃𝑛 (𝑥) = ∑ (𝑥 − 𝑎)𝑘
𝑘!
𝑘=0

Approximation
The polynomial 𝑃𝑛 (𝑥) provides an approximation to the function 𝑓.
For example, from the above Maclaurin series for 𝑒 𝑥 , we see that
𝑥2 𝑥2 𝑥3
1+𝑥+ and 1 + 𝑥 + +
2 2 6

are respectively the quadratic (order 2) and cubic (order 3) approximations to the function 𝑒 𝑥 for 𝑥
close to 0. The larger the order (degree) of the polynomial, the better the approximation, as depicted in
the diagram below.

Dr NG Wee Seng
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MA1511

In the following example, we make use of the Maclaurin series for 𝑒 𝑥 to find a quadratic
approximation to another function.

Video Example 5.5.1

Use the Maclaurin series
∞
1 𝑘
𝑒𝑥 = ∑ 𝑥
𝑘!
𝑘=0

to find the first three terms in the Maclaurin series for (2𝑥 – 3)2 𝑒 −2𝑥 .

(This gives us a quadratic approximation to the function (2𝑥 – 3)2 𝑒 −2𝑥 .

End of Chapter 5

“Perfect numbers, like perfect men, are very rare.” – Rene Descartes

(For interest)
A perfect number is a number that is equal to the sum of its positive divisors (excluding the number itself) . E.g. 6 is a
perfect number, since 6 = 1 + 2 + 3

As for perfect men, there is no proper definition.

Dr NG Wee Seng