ECONOMY, SOCIETY AND CULTURE IN AL-ÁNDALUS

INTRODUCTION
Andalusian society was predominantly urban and mercantile and any people lived in cities, which
brought together diverse religions and social groups. A middle class developed, made up of merchants and
professionals, who were known as alfaquíes. Cities were important political, cultural and economic centres.
There were important cities in Al-Andalus, such as Córdoba, Seville, Toledo, Granada, Badajoz, Zaragoza
and Valencia.
Economic activity in the Islamic world was concentrated in cities. They were centres for
manufacturing and trade, where agricultural and artisan products were exchanged. Cities also connected
international trade routes. Crafts and trade were therefore highly developed However, agriculture also
made considerable progress.

BODY
1. ECONOMY
Andalusí society was predominantly urban and many people lived in cities, Economic activity in the
Islamic world was concentrated in cities. They were centres for manufacturing and trade, where
agricultural and artisan products were exchanged. Cities also connected international trade routes.
Agriculture, livestock and mining
Agriculture played an important economic role in al-Andalus not only because of the value of its
production, but also because a high percentage of the population was engaged in farming. The most
common type of farm was the large estate, which was divided into plots and rented by small peasants.
Irrigated land also abounded in small and medium-sized holdings.
Muslims introduced important innovations in agriculture. They added new products to the
Mediterranean trilogy (wheat, olives and vines), such as
● Cereals: rice.
● Vegetables: aubergines, asparagus, spinach, chard, pumpkins, cucumbers, green beans, garlic,
onions, carrots, turnips.
● Fruits: watermelons, melons, bitter oranges, pomegranates, lemons, figs, bananas, quinces,
apricots.
● Spices: saffron.

● Other: sugar cane and cotton.

So, the cultivation of fruit trees (oranges, etc.), vegetables (aubergines, rice, etc.) and industrial
plants (flax, cotton, etc.) became important, as did the mulberry tree as a basis for silkworm rearing. It was
a complementary activity for many peasants, especially for women. It was an intensive agriculture, which
generated surpluses to supply the urban market.
Agriculture improved under the Muslims thanks to the compilation and translation of many
agricultural texts from the Middle East and the development and improvement of previously used
irrigation systems. In the most fertile areas, such as the river valleys, irrigation developed considerably
through the proliferation of networks of irrigation ditches which carry water to the fields, making use of
the uneven ground, wells to collect groundwater and waterwheels to lift river water which was then stored
in a tank. They also developed techniques for draining wetlands for agricultural use. The new hydraulic
techniques for extracting and piping water meant more water could be used in agriculture, which led to an
increase in productivity.
1
 This agricultural prosperity made it possible to feed a growing population, develop trade and for new
cities to develop.
There was also a livestock sector, which occupied the less fertile land and used it as pasture for large
flocks of sheep and goats for milk and meat production.
Mining production continued the Roman heritage. Gold, silver, iron, copper, lead and zinc were
mainly extracted. The production of sea salt for cooking and marble for construction was also very
important.
Crafts and trade
The importance of the cities made it possible the development of a handicraft industry. The textile
sector was one of the most developed. In cities such as Saragossa and Cordoba, flourished the production
of silk and linen fabrics. Leather working, the production of parchment and paper, the manufacture of glass
and ceramics, weapons, gold and silver work and shipbuilding were also important.
Trade was very active in al-Andalus due to the existence of important cities and the development of
an efficient system of communications and transport, both by sea and by land. All the cities had souks
(zocos o mercados) where products were exchanged, and artisans, grouped into streets according to their
guild (textile, paper, leather, metalwork, glass, etc.), sold their goods at retail.
Long-distance trade was also very important. Metals and wood arrived from Europe; slaves, gold and
ivory arrived from Africa, and luxury goods and spices came from the Middle East and Asia. Al-Andalus
exported artisan and agricultural goods. The traders were mainly Mozarabs, Jews and Italians.
This economic prosperity was stimulated by the existence of a single currency that circulated in all
Islamic lands (the gold dinar and silver dirham). The latter one was predominant, as the supply of gold was
only secured when 'Abd al-Rahman III controlled the African gold routes from the south of the Sahara to
the Mediterranean coast.
2. SOCIETY
Andalusian society was very heterogeneous due to its ethnic and religious diversity, and the tribal
factor was very important. The society of al-Andalus was made up of three main religious groups: Muslims,
Christians, and Jews. The Muslims,
There were different social groups

⮚ Muslims: they formed the dominant social group since the had led the invasion. But, although united
on the religious level, it was a diverse group.

● Arabs: They were a minority who monopolised government positions, privileges and land property.
They came from Arabia and they considered themselves superior to other conquered peoples who
had concentrated and converted to Islam after the conquest. They formed the social elite and after
the conquest of the Iberian Peninsula, they received the lands that had previously belonged to the
Visigothic nobles. These families became wealthy owners of large tracts of land in the most fertile
areas of the peninsula: the Guadalquivir valley, Murcia and Valencia. They formed the social elite
and tended also to be large landowners and to hold high positions in the caliphate administration.

● Berbers: they were Muslims and they had also participated in the conquest of the Iberian
Peninsula, but they had born in North Africa, not in Arabia and, therefore, they were considered
Muslims of lesser status. They lived from livestock and land that the Arabs despised. They provoked
several revolts to obtain the same rights as the Arabs.

2
 ● Muladis: They were Hispanic-Visigoths who converted to Islam in order to enjoy the same rights
other Muslims enjoyed (e.g. they did not pay as many taxes as non-Muslims did). Within the group
of Islamic citizens, they were the last ones to be converted.

⮚ Non-Muslims: Al- Qur’an demands respect for The Book peoples, that is to say, for those religions
based on The Bible; that’s why Muslims let Christians and Jews live among them with their own
customs, laws and religion, but they had to pay a special tax (the yizya), they could not accede to
political posts and could not practice their religion in public. Anyway, the Caliphate treated non-
Muslims differently at different times, being the 10th century the longest period of tolerance with the
reigns of Abd-al-Rahman III and his son, Al-Hakam II.

● Mozarabs: they were Christians that had long lived under Muslim domination and so had come to
adopt many Arabic customs, art and words, while holding onto old Christian rituals and their own
Latin-derived languages. Each of these communities inhabited a separate part of the cities. From
the 11th century onwards, their numbers decreased significantly due to persecution by the
Almoravids and Almohads, and many fled to the Christian kingdoms.

● The Jews worked mainly as tax collectors, in trade or as doctors or ambassadors and lived in
separate quarters: juderias. Jews of Al-Andalus prospered, devoting themselves to the service of
the Caliphate of Cordoba, to the study of the sciences, and to commerce and industry, especially to
trading in silk and slaves, in this way promoting the prosperity of the country. Southern Iberia
became an asylum for the oppressed Jews of other countries.
3. ART, LITERATURE AND SCIENCES IN AL-ANDALUS
Scientific knowledge, art and education were enormously important in Al-Andalus. Its emirs and
caliphs, including Abd al-Rahman II, Abd al-Rahman III and Al-Hakam II, were scholars who surrounded
themselves with great thinkers and artists. They translated the main works of antiquity, created libraries
and built many schools to spread knowledge. It was through Al-Andalus that much of this knowledge came
to feudal Europe. In addition, the fact that all Muslims spoke one language, Arabic, helped the transfer of
knowledge from one territory to another.
Arab scientists incorporated the knowledge of past cultures and perfected it. In addition, they
created new techniques and inventions that transformed the life and customs of their contemporaries.
Their legacy has survived to this day. Scientists from Al-Andalus were recognised worldwide for their work
in mathematics, astronomy, medicine, botany, agronomy and astrology. There were notable scholars such
as Al-Majriti (mathematics), Abu al-Qasim and Avenzoar (medicine) and Ibn Bassal (agronomy). They
greatly influenced Europe and their writings were studied until the 17 th century.
There were many historians and geographers, such as Al-Idrisi and Ibn Hayyan, although much of
their work has been lost, and notable philosophers, included Averroes and Maimonides, who was Jewish.
Prose and poetry were highly valued by the andalusies, who loved beauty and nature. Ibn Hazem,
author of The Ring of the Dove, and Princess Wallada were two notable poets. In addition to this cultivated
and elegant poetry, popular forms also emerged, such as zajal.
Al-Hakam II, who was the second Umayyad caliph of Córdoba (961-976), succeeding his father, Abd
al-Rahman III, was a great patron of the arts and sciences, and founded many state schools. The most
important library in medieval Europe was founded in Córdoba, which housed some of the most important
works of the period. The library also held workshops in calligraphy, poetry, bookbinding and grammar.
Islamic art was closely linked to religion and was characterised by the predominance of architecture
over other art forms. Mosques are the most representative buildings from this period, but fortresses,

3
palaces, souks, public baths and schools (madrassas) were also built. Because the Koran prohibited the
depiction of human figures, there was little development in painting and sculpture. Instead, artists
specialised in abstract and geometric motifs. Artists cultivated various decorative arts, making dishes, jugs,
door knockers, etc. out of metal, glass and ivory. Marquetry and, above all, pottery and mosaics were
designed with a huge variety of shapes and colours

Islamic architecture was characterised by certain features:

✔ Simple building materials: brick and wood.

✔ Richly decorated vaults and domes

Horseshoe arch
(arco de herradura)
Buttress arch (arco
de entibo)
Trilobed arch (arco
trilobulado)
Interlaced arch
(arco entrecruzado)

✔ Austere decoration of external walls in contrast with the rich and varied decoration of interiors
based on marble, tiles, plaster and wood.

4
 ✔ Many of the buildings, particularly palaces, had beautiful gardens, where the vegetation and
water combined to create a peaceful and relaxing atmosphere, integrating architecture and
nature.

Paint, mosaics and stucco were used to cover walls. The types of ornamentation can be classified as
follows:

Interlacing (lacería):
geometric motifs Calligraphy (caligráfica):
written text from the Koran.
Ataurique: plant motifs.

Arabesque (arabesca):
intertwined plant and geometric
motifs

Architecture in Al-Andalus followed Islamic models, but adopted some of its own features: the
horseshoe arch framed by an alfiz, the simple or interlaced lobed arch, and a variety of vaults. The
grandeur and rich ornamentation of its buildings made andalusí architecture one of the most important
styles of the medieval Muslim world.

⮚ Emirate and caliphate period (756-1031)

The most useful technical contributions were made, and the most richly ornamental buildings
constructed, during this period. Examples include:
The Great Mosque of Córdoba The Palace of Medina al-Zahara (Córdoba).

5
⮚ Taifa and Almohad period (1031-1212): This period saw a more austere architectural style, which
enhanced architectural structure and neglected ornamentation.
The Alcazaba in Málaga Aljafería in Zaragoza

Giralda in Torre del Oro in

Sevilla. Sevilla

⮚ Nasrid period (1238-1492). This period was characterised by richly decorated interiors that hid the
poor-quality building materials. Examples include: the Alhambra and.
The Alhambra in Granada Generalife in Granada

6
CONCLUSION
Throughout centuries, Al-Andalus brought new ways of living and producing that were different from
those of the Christian kingdoms and Western Europe.
The Arabic language, the Islamic customs and the knowledge from the East that Muslims introduced
to the Iberian Peninsula became part of our cultural heritage. Muslim contribution to agriculture was
decisive and the Spanish language has more than 4,000 words of Arabic origin. Elements of everyday life
such as gastronomy (olive oil and turrones), libraries and public baths, street lighting, etc., come from the
Muslim heritage and part of our music, instruments and folklore also are rooted in the customs of Al-
Andalus.
Andalusí society was predominantly urban and cities were important political, cultural and economic
centres. Cordoba, Sevilla Granada, Badajoz, Zaragoza o Valencia were some of the most important cities in
Al-Andalus.

ACTIVITIES

1) Put a ✔ next to the new crops introduced by the Arabs and a ✘ next to the rest. Translate them into
Spanish:
- olive /_____________
- chard / ____________
- garlic /_____________
- apricot / _____________
- cotton _____________
- rice /_____________
- hazelnut /_____________
- oats /_____________
- saffron /_____________
- acorn / _____________
- eggplant /_____________
- pumpkin /_____________
- sugar cane /_____________
- barley /_____________
- onion /_____________
- asparagus /_____________
- spinach /_____________
- pomegranate /___________
- fig /_____________
- green beans /____________
- lemon /_____________
- apple /_____________
- melon /_____________
- quince /_____________
- turnip /_____________
- bitter orange /__________
- nut /_____________
- cucumber /_____________
- banana /_____________
- watermelon /___________
- wheat / _____________
- grape /_____________
- carrot / __________

7
2) Choose the correct term for each definition:

⮚ Irrigation system that uses a large hydraulic drive to extract water from rivers and is driven by the
flow of the river itself:
o irrigation ditch.
o water tank.
o noria.
o well.
o water wheel.
⮚ Channel that carries water from the river to the fields, making use of the uneven ground:
o irrigation ditch.
o water tank.
o noria.
o well.
o water wheel.
⮚ Artificial water reservoir for irrigation:
o irrigation ditch.
o water tank.
o noria.
o well.
o water wheel.
⮚ A hole in the ground to capture groundwater:
o irrigation ditch.
o water tank.
o noria.
o well.
o water wheel.
⮚ Machine that is operated by animal power and is made up of a drum that passes the movement of
the animal and a chain with clay pots that raise water from a well to the surface:
o irrigation ditch.
o water tank.
o noria.
o well.
o water wheel.
3) Complete the sentences with the missing words:
Toledo / agricultural / Seville / gates / political / artisans / souks / Valencia / Europe / urban / products /
Granada / dirham / Badajoz / labyrinth / Zaragoza / neat / Asia / souks /cities / 30.000/ cultural / trade /
Africa / gilds / Long distance / night / Córdoba /walls
- Al-Andalus was based on an _______________ society and had large _______________.
- _______________ was the most important city in Al-Andalus and had over _______________
inhabitants. Other important cities were _______________, _______________, _______________,
_______________, _______________ and _______________.

8
 - Typically, city centres in Al-Andalus did not follow a _______________ layout. They were a
l_______________ of narrow streets surrounded by _______________ with several
_______________ hat were closed at _______________.
- Cities were important _______________, _______________ and economic centres.
- Cities were centres for _______________ and _______________. Artisans were grouped into
neighbourhoods according to their _______________.
- All cities had _______________, where _______________ were exchanged.
- _______________ trade was also very important. Metals and wood arrived from ______________;
slaves, gold and ivory arrived from ____________; and luxury goods and spices came from the
Middle East and ___________. Al-Andalus exported _______________ and _______________ goods.
- A single currency circulated in all Islamic lands: the gold __________ and the silver ___________.
4) Match the sentences to the social groups they describe:

⮚ They constituted the majority of the Muslim population: _______________

⮚ They were a minority who monopolised government positions, privileges and land: ____________

⮚ They had arrived with the conquering army or migrated from North Africa. Many were livestock
farmers and lived a humble existence: _______________

⮚ They paid more taxes and had limited rights: _______________ s

⮚ They practiced the Christian religion and lived mostly in cities: _______________ s

⮚ They worked in artisanship, trade, medicine or science: _______________

⮚ They ranged from aristocrats to common people: _______________

5) What was the importance of andalusí cities?

6) What enabled knowledge to spread so quickly throughout the Islamic world?
7) Write in the main characteristics of Islamic architecture:
Marble / Horseshoe / buttress / tiles /trilobed / brick / domes / calligraphy / austere / columns / gardens /
wood / arabesque / vaults / interlaced / ataurique / interlacing / wood / arches / pillars
- Simple building materials: _______________ and _______________.
- Types of ceilings: _______________ and _______________.
- Supports for walls and ceilings: _______________, _______________ and _______________.
- Types of arches: _______________, _______________, _______________ and _______________.
- Decoration of exterior walls: _______________.
- Decoration of interiors based on ____________, _________, ________ and _______________.
- Types of ornamental decoration: i____________ (geometric motifs), ____________ (plant motifs),
__________(intertwined plant and geometric motifs) and __________ (written text from the Koran).
- Many of the buildings, particularly palaces, had beautiful ______________outside.
8) Match each building or description to the corresponding period:
9
 Emirate and Caliphate period / Taifa and Almohad period / Nasrid period

✔ Alcazaba in Málaga. _______________

✔ Alhambra and Generalife in Granada. _______________

✔ Aljafería in Zaragoza. _______________

✔ This period saw a more austere architectural style, which enhanced the architectural structure and
neglected ornamentation. _______________
✔ Period characterised by a richly decorated interiors that hid the poor-quality building materials.
_______________
✔ Giralda and Torre del Oro in Sevilla. _______________

✔ Great Mosque of Córdoba. _______________

✔ Palace of Medina Azahara (Córdoba). ____________________

✔ Period in which significant technical contributions are made and the most richly ornamental
buildings were constructed. _______________
9) 9) Match each of the images below with the building it belongs to and the city in which it is located.

IMAGEN EDIFICIO CIUDAD

⮚ Mirador de Lindaraja

⮚ Patio de los Leones

⮚ Vista aérea

⮚ Jardines del Generalife

⮚ Sala de oración
1. Mezquita
⮚ Vista general
2. Alhambra
⮚ Sala del trono A. Granada
3. Medina Azahara
B. Sevilla
⮚ Exterior 4. Palacio de la Aljafería C. Zaragoza
D. Córdoba
⮚ Mihrab 5. Giralda

⮚ Patio de Santa Isabel 6. Torre del Oro

⮚ Patio de los Arrayanes o de

Comares
⮚ Baños

⮚ Salón dorado

⮚ Vista exterior

10
 1 2

3 4

5 6

7. 8

11
 9. 10 11

9. 10

13 14

10) Identify the type of decoration and arches in the pictures marked with a number or a letter. Where
would they appear? Why are human figures not represented?

12
 _______________ _______________

_______________ _______________ _______________

13