Social Interaction

The Muslim Umayyad conquest of the Iberian Peninsula signalled the coming together of
three different religions and the social customs and culture associated with each. This
period has become known as the Convivencia, meaning culture of tolerance. Although this
idea of a culture of tolerance is disputed by some historians, only a few instances of revolts
and violence were actually recorded. This does not mean that discrimination by Muslims did
not occur at the local level. However, the more educated classes of Muslims respected
Christians and Jews under Islamic law as dhimmis (protected peoples) or ‘Peoples of the
Book.’ It is important to note that the Muslim and Berber soldiers who carried out the
conquest formed only a small minority of the population of the Iberian Peninsula. Thus the
emergence of this unique Islamic society that formed in Al-Andalus was a slow and uneven
process. In order to understand how these distinct cultures and societies meshed into one,
over time, it is important to recognize what was distinct about each and how they were
viewed within the broader society.

Muslims

A self-depiction by the Muslims in Iberia. Taken from the Tale of Bayad and Riyad.

In Al-Andalus, Muslims were divided into three distinct ethnic groups. The largest group was
the Berbers. It is important to note that these Berbers, which mostly came from North
Africa, were mostly sedentary in lifestyle, not to be confused with the Nomadic Berbers
found in roughly the same geographic region of North Africa. In terms of social class, after
the invasion, Berbers mostly went on to form the rural proletariat. Although a number of
them went to the cities, mostly working to pursue crafts. In terms of religion the Berbers
were all Muslims, their ancestors having converted mostly to share in the wealth of Arab
conquests.
The second group of Muslims found in Al-Andalus was the Arabs. They formed a relatively
small section of Al-Andalus’ total population. They tended to have a higher economic
position in society and constituted the majority of the ruling class. They owned land in the
richest parts of the country. The most important cultural elements they brought with them
were their language and the Arabic tradition of learning and high culture, which emulated
that which could be found in Caliphate of Damascus. However, the actual amount of culture
these Arab invaders actually brought with them has been disputed by some historians.
Historian W. Montgomery Watt argues that the ancestors of the Arabs that came to invade
the Iberian Peninsula had been living a very rough life in the Steppes of Arabia, thus the
actual invaders had little time to acquire a high level of culture.[4] These Arab and Berber
invaders were also busy consolidating their control, having little time and money to devote
to purposefully spreading culture to the newly conquered regions.

The Iberian Umayyad golden age was also, in part, a result of its geographic location and
isolation from the central part of the Arabian empire. These Umayyad rulers felt the need to
prove that they were the equals of those in the homeland. This was combined with their
need to prove their worth as an independent region. It can thus be concluded that the
invading Arabs brought some level of culture to the peninsula, but the high culture that was
achieved during the golden age of Al-Andalus was the result of the combination and growth
the multiple cultures present in the geographic area.

The muwallads, or Muslims of Iberian descent, were far more numerous than those of
purely Arabic decent. They can be traced back to the marriage of the original invading Arabs
to the native women of Iberia. Those who converted to Islam by choice were also
categorized as muwallads. The muwallads adopted Arabic genealogies and thus became
further fused to the Arabs ethnically overtime. Many Iberians were quick to adopt Islam and
Arabic culture because they possessed nothing substantial that made them distinctively
Iberian that they could take pride in. The prior rule of the Visigoths was not concerned with
spreading culture to the general masses. Likewise the Catholic Church was more interested
in catering to the noble classes and spent little time in educating and culturing peasants.
Thus the acceptance of Arabic culture came naturally to many Iberian natives. By the 10th
century, no clear distinction existed between the muwallads and the Arabs. Also by the 10th
century, Muslims represented about 80% of the total population of Al-Andalus, this included
Christian converts and the Berber Muslims.

Christians

The Christians living in Al-Andalus, both before and after the invasion, were the Visigoths,
Hispano-Romans, and the native tribes of the Iberian Peninsula. The Visigoths and the
Hispano-Romans formed the noble class prior to the Arab-Berber invasion. The Christian
population as a whole was predominantly Catholic, although some Paganism and Arianism
still persisted in some areas, mixing with the Catholic tradition. Under the Christian Visigoth
rule, a tradition of learning had been established at Seville by Isidore (636 AD). Over time,
Seville became one of the leading intellectual centers of Christian Europe. This Isidorian
tradition seems to have been abandoned in favor of the Arabic tradition, although it
undoubtedly played a role in the further development of the Arabic tradition on the
peninsula.

After the Muslim invasion, the Christians were classified under Islamic law as dhimmis
(protected peoples). This status allowed them to practice their religion freely under the
Umayyad dynasty. Christians were allowed to maintain many of their churches and the
organization of the Church remained mostly intact, with the exception of the confiscation of
many Catholic properties.[6] Bishops and other high ranking church officials had to be
approved by the Caliphate before they could take office. Although culturally many Christians
adopted the Arabic tradition, the cultural tradition of the Catholic Church and the culture
that had developed under the Visigoths was maintained in monasteries by monks. The
strong monastic tradition throughout the southern portion of the Iberian Peninsula
continued to flourish and develop under Muslim rule. Within the cities, some Christians
were able to rise to prominent positions within the Umayyad bureaucracy. One example is
of a Christian with the adopted name of [Abu Umar ibn Gundislavus], who became vizier
under Abd al-Rahman III. Another example being, Revemund, a Christian who was a
secretary under the same ruler and was later sent as an ambassador to Germany in 955-6.
He eventually became the bishop of Elvira. It is also important to note that Christian
artisans, especially from the Byzantine Empire, were called to work on various building
projects in the Caliphate of Cordoba. Some of these artisans remained integrated into
Andalusian society. Although Christians lost their absolute dominant status they had
previously experienced in Iberia, they were still able to gain positions of prominence under
Muslim rule, however, these conditions deteriorated with the Almoravids and Almohads
(see Restrictions Imposed on Christians and Jews).

Jews

Jews formed a small yet significant ethnic minority in the Iberian Peninsula, constituting
about 5% of the total population in Al-Andalus. They began to settle in the Iberian Peninsula
in significant numbers around the 1st century AD. Under Christian Visigothic rule, Jews faced
persecution. In 613, the Visigothic King Sisebut issued a decree which forced Jews to convert
to Christianity or be exiled and have their property confiscated. It comes as no surprise that
many Jews welcomed their Muslim rulers and saw the Muslim conquest of the Iberian
Peninsula as deliverance. After the conquest, under Islamic law, Jews were also categorized
as dhimmis, having the same social standing as Christians.

The Jewish communities scattered throughout the rural areas of Al-Andalus remained fairly
isolated, however Jews living in cities and towns, like those in Cordoba that became
integrated into Islamic culture and society. Jews came to hold very influential positions in
the Umayyad bureaucracy. One example is the Jewish scholar and physician Hasdai b.
Sharprut, who served as a diplomat of the Umayyad government. Many Jews living in the
cities also became involved in trade as merchants. Under the Caliphate of Cordoba, Jews
experienced [A Golden Age of Jewish Culture] within Spain, in which Jewish scholars,
philosophers, and poets prospered. Jews also contributed to the scientific and mathematic
fields of study prominent in Cordoba at this time. Overall, Jews were granted better
treatment, with the coming of the Muslims invaders, than they had previously experience
under Christian rule. Conditions deteriorated under Almoravid and Almohad rule (see
Restrictions Imposed on Christians and Jews).

Restrictions Imposed on Christians and Jews

Although Christians and Jews experienced a relatively high degree of religious and social
freedom under Muslim rule, they did lack certain rights that were reserved exclusively for
Muslims. The dihimmis, which included both Christians and Jews, were required to pay an
annual poll tax called a jizya. If a non-Muslim also owned a substantial amount of
cultivatable land, they were required to pay the kharaj or land-tax. There were also certain
restrictions and taxes levied on the church buildings themselves. Certain religious practices
like processions, chanting, and church bell ringing, were also censored by law, although the
enforcement of these laws varied from region to region. Under Islamic law, dihimmis were
supposed to assume a subordinate position in that they were not allowed to hold authority
over any Muslim. In practice this was not the case, as many Christians and Jews acquired
positions in the Cordoban bureaucracy as tax collectors, translators, and secretaries. That
being said, there were numerous advantages to converting to Islam. The ability for social
mobility changed drastically upon conversion to Islam. Converts had a greater ability to
acquire wealth and status. Slaves were also instantly freed and enfranchised if they
converted to Islam reciting the Shahada, “There is no god but God, and Muhammad is his
prophet.” Under the Almoravids tensions grew as more and more restrictions were forced
upon non-Muslims, although a certain level of prosperity for religious minorities was still
maintained under their rule. Under the Almohads these relative eras of tolerance ended
with many Christians and Jews being forced to convert to Islam or face persecution. Many
churches and synagogues were destroyed during Almohad rule and many Christians and
Jews moved to the newly conquered Christian city of Toledo. Overall, relations between the
various religious groups varied from region to region and the term convivencia, or culture of
tolerance, cannot be universally applied to Al-Andalus. Ibn Hazn (1064), a prominent poet
and philosopher from Cordoba, described the Christian community as ‘altogether vile,’
demonstrating that prejudices against Christians persisted in Al-Andalus, although it is hard
to gauge to what degree since they varied from region to region. The invasion of the
Almoravids, and later the Almohads, signaled a shift and eventual end to the religious
tolerance fostered under the Caliphate.
Social Mobility and Conversion
Conversion to Islam translated into a higher rate of social mobility for Christians and Jews
alike. There is little documentation available to indicate the conversion rates of Jews in Al-
Andalus, although the numbers of Jewish converts have been estimated as relatively small.
This is perhaps due to the tightly knit Jewish communities that had formed before the
Muslim invasion. Christians on the other hand were more eager to convert to Islam. Many
wished to secure higher ranking government positions; while others took such liking to
Islamic teaching and culture that they felt compelled to convert. Half of the Christians in Al-
Andalus are reported to have converted to Islam by the 10th century, with more than 80%
by the 11th century. Many Christians who did not accept Islam as their religion became
increasingly Arabized in terms of culture. These Christians, known as Mozarabs or
musta’ribs, a word meaning ‘Arabized’, adopted the Arabic language and customs. Although
the high conversion rates, as well as the adaptation of Arab culture homogenized the
society of Al-Andalus to a degree, factionalism still persisted, which lead to occasional
revolts and conflicts between the major religious groups.

Religious and Social Conflicts

At the time of the invasion, many Christians did indeed resist Muslim rule. In these early
years, certain kingdoms within Al-Andalus itself attempted to retain semi-autonomous
status under Muslim rule, but were soon forced to submit. Many Christians also fled to the
mountains up north and eventually formed the northern Christian kingdoms of Iberia that
would eventually bring down Islamic rule, through the Reconquista. After this initial
struggle, religious fervor did not manifest itself in the form of any significant religious
revolts. This is shown by the fact that not a single religious revolt took place during the 8th
century within Al-Andalus. However, in the middle of the 9th century, a small group of
zealous Christians led by Eulogius of Cordoba, a priest who was later canonized by the
Catholic Church as a Saint, caused a stir mostly around Cordoba by encouraging Muslims to
convert to Christianity and publicly denouncing Islamic teaching. Both of these acts were
punishable by death under Islamic law. These outbursts were mostly tied to the monastic
movement and purposeful martyrdom. Between 851 and 859 AD, Eulogius and forty-eight
other Christians were put to death. The movement did not gain widespread support from
Christians in Al-Andalus and after the executions the movement subsided. Religious
tolerance deteriorated under the Almoravids and the Almohads. Around the year 1000 AD,
Jews were being persecuted throughout Al-Andalus, although the city of Toledo still
remained fairly tolerant. The Almohads were especially severe in their treatment of non-
Muslims and persecution of Christians and Jews prompted many to migrate from Al-
Andalus.
Hybridization of Cultures: Architecture and Art
By understanding the background and social standing of each individual religious and ethnic
group, as well as their individual cultural backgrounds within Al-Andalus, it is possible to
understand how the culture of Al-Andalus formed into, not a completely unified new
culture, but rather a composite hybrid culture. These cultural aspects have withstood the
test of time and prove as the most evident examples of this hybridization that can be seen in
the art, architecture, language, and literature of Al-Andalus. The hybrid works that were
produced under, and resulted from Muslim rule of Al-Andalus, resulted in what has become
known as the Golden age of Jewish culture in Spain and laid the foundation for the
European Renaissance and the Scientific Revolution.

Art and Architecture

Moorish architecture of the praying hall.

Interior of the synagogue.

A casket made of ivory with carved decoration and engraved silver demonstrating
traditional Islamic art.

It is important to note that a distinction between Islamic art and architecture is not
important since the two are often tied together. Muslim art is limited, in a sense, by Islamic
religious bliefs that frown upon the glorification of human being or animals in the form of
art. Thus Muslim art tends to avoid depicting people or animals in art. The art of Al-Andalus
had a distinctly Arabic and Islamic inspired flavour, and manifested itself mostly in
sculptures and mosaics, as well as, other artefacts that served a dual purpose besides that
of being aesthetically pleasing. What made these works distinctly Andalusian was the
combination of various artistic elements from Catholic, Classical Roman, and Byzantine
artistic traditions.

The culmination of Christian and Moorish art came in the 11th century. This style became
known as the Mozarabic art. This artistic style included ceramics which incorporated mosaic
works. It also included the use of repetitive patterns revolving around flower-like designs
within sculptures and crafted works. Moorish ivory caskets in Al-Andalus showed signs of
western influences. Some depicted individual people and human forms, an element that is
not typical in Islamic art. Visigothic tradition also had an influence on the rulers of Cordoba
as they adopted the crowns in the style of those worn by Visigothic kings. Many of these
artistic elements were incorporated into architectural works, which reflected Muslim rulers’
desire to associate themselves with their ancestral roots in the Middle East, and indeed to
assert their Arabic heritage, even though many of these rulers were hybrids even in terms of
their genealogy. This is indicative of the multi-cultural influences that culminated in the
unique architectural style of Al-Andalus.

One famous example that illustrates this desire of Muslim rulers’ to tie themselves to their
ancestral homeland, while at the same inadvertently reflecting their multiculturalism, is the
Great Mosque of Cordoba. Construction began under the reign of Abd ar-Rahman I in 784
AD and was completed in 987 AD. It was built in part to demonstrate the linkage between
Al-Andalus and the ancestral land of the Arabs in Syria. The Great Mosque of Cordoba’s
architectural layout and style shares many similarities with the Great Mosque of Damascus
(completed 715). They share many of the same features like the prayer halls, high ceilings
held by double-tiered arcades on columns, and many mosaics.[12] The two also share similar
foundation myths, which further points to Muslim attempts in Al-Andalus to reconnect to a
nostalgic sense of homeland.

Despite these similarities, the mosque is not purely Arabic in style. It is a combination of
Roman, Byzantine, and Visigothic architectural elements. The capitals and column closely
emulate older Visigothic and Roman building found throughout the city of Cordoba. The red
and white colored arches are also reminiscent of the Roman aqueduct of Merida. The
mosaics themselves, although connected to those at the Great Mosques of Damascus, are
also a hybrid of Christian and Arabic influence. The artisans that produced these mosaics,
both at the Great Mosque and at the Cordoban palace estate al-Rustafa, were called from
Byzantium. Another example of the cultural exchange within architecture is illustrated by
the Medina Azahara, meaning beautiful city, on the outskirts of Cordoba started in 996 AD,
by Abd-ar-Raham III al-Nasir, which served as the capital of the Iberian Caliphate. Roman
influences can be seen throughout with the incorporation of an old Roman statue of a
goddess present in the gardens of the building. The feminine form also appeared along all
the various gates to the city. The capitals and columns of the palace are also in the style of
Christian cathedrals, while Byzantine influence is also seen throughout the construction of
the palace. Byzantium artisans are believed to have come to teach these techniques to
Andalusian artisans. Some of the original Byzantium artisans also remained in Al-Andalus
and became integrated into Andalusian society.

Likewise, Christians and Jews adopted the Arabic architectural elements into their own
churches and synagogues built under Moorish rule. This became known as the Mozarabic
style. Mozarabic architecture included the absence of exterior decoration, diversity of floor
plans, the use of the horseshoe arch in the Islamic style, and the use of the column as
support, with a capital decorated with vegetable elements.[13] Moorish styled architecture
continued to be popular long after Muslim rule was pushed out of Spain by the Reconquista.
Many Christian Cathedrals were built in the Moorish architectural style. Jewish synagogues,
like the Sinagoga del Transito in Toledo (built between 1357–1363), were built in the
Moorish style. The Spanish-Moorish artistic style that is exemplified by the Sinagoga del
Transito became known as the Mudejar style. Overall, the architecture of Al-Andalus is
reflective of the cultural exchange that took place between Christian and Arabic
architectural styles, the latter being representative of the need of Muslims leaders to form a
connectedness with their ancestral homelands.