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An Intellectual Muslim in Andalusia

Julie A Hayes
Independent Study
Professor D Robinson
Fall 2005
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Introduction
Tariq led the first wave of Muslim settlement into Spain after conquering the

Visigoths in 711. The process of establishment reflected the assimilation of the Spanish

and Berber’s into the Arab/Islamic world. In spite of establishing a weak regime, the

Arabs were able to create a strong and prosperous caliphate, which lasted several

decades. One reason for the initial weakness was the division of lands between the

conquered and the conquerors, however it contributed enormously to the Arabization and

Islamization of Spain (Lapidus, 379).

Administrative changes under ‘Abd al-Rahman III were many. Not only did he

establish the hajib, but also appointed provincial tax collectors. The frontiers were left to

local or hereditary supervision. ‘Abd al-Rahman III also brought new cultural forms and

ideas to Andalusia. He adopted the Baghdadi ‘Abbasid cultural forms (Lapidus, 380)

while assimilating some aspects of the local culture. This included combining local and

Islamic symbolism at court. Rahman III took the title of Caliph, something not done by

the previous rulers of Andalusia. Other aspects of courtly life changed were the

expansion of the Mosque, irrigation works, and keeping Christian attacks in Northern

Spain in check.

Literary changes touched many aspects of life from the court level down to the

peasant or commoner. Poetry was the primary expression in the Middle East and became

as such in Andalusia. Baghdadi style was brought to Andalusia by the poet/singer Ziryab

(Lapidus, 380). Among the literary styles of the day, poetry in the form of the qasida

became dominant. With the conceptual change to poetry came also the change in style.

Poems were a mixture of Arabic (love) and Romance (kharja). They incorporated love,

courtly and masculinity with lower class/Christian slave girl and femininity. Other genres
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of literature flourishing during this time include Iraqi grammar and philology, Adab

(belles-lettres - first composed by ibn ‘Abd al-Rabbih), scientific/medical, and Aristotle’s

philosophy (Lapidus, 381).

The Glory of Andalusia

‘Abd al-Rahman III came to be caliph in the midst of turmoil in Andalusia. In 929

the claim made was that Rahman III was “khalifa amir al-mu’minin al-Nasir li-din-Allah”

showing his independence as ruler of Andalusia (Watt, 46). He claimed descent from the

caliphs in Damascus (Safran, 119). This was directed more against the Fatimids than

‘Abbasids and gave “petty rulers of North Africa some theological justification for

recognizing the suzerainty of the Umayyads in Cordoba.”

The two primary external dangers were the Kingdom of Leon and the Fatimid

power in Tunisia (Watt, 39). He was able to reverse the fate of Andalusia and bring it to

glory. His main objective was to unify Andalusia. He was able to take more complete

control over the Iberian Peninsula than his predecessors and successors (Watt, 41).

Militarily, Andalusia proved strong, yet they were unable to get beyond the Christian

Kingdom to expand Muslim territory. Muslims did not want to settle in the northern

areas, such as Leon. They were more comfortable in the cities. Christians, however, were

willing to resettle (Watt, 42).

Urbanization was the main contribution by Muslims in the Iberian Peninsula.

They were used to living in cities/towns. This was the main reason for non-settlement in

the northern areas. They were also more comfortable in a bustling center. Muslims

thrived in communities. Their experience in municipal administration aided in

urbanization in Andalusia. This “encouraged a genuine feeling of citizenship” (Watt, 49).

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Also contributing to urbanization was the implementation of a security-type force to

protect markets and consumers, the inclusion of regulated gilds of artisans, and inns for

travelling merchants. Merchants and traders were also able to establish links north into

France and south into North Africa by land and sea.

Feudalism is what was used to maintain a measure of security in the agricultural

north (Watt, 51). Muwallads (Spanish Muslims) had close ties with some Christain noble

families. In Western Europe, it was expected that Muslim rulers adapted to the principles

and practices which were most effective (Watt, 43). Watt gives some reasons for the

period of Umayyad rule in Andalusia being called a “great age” with the primary reason

being material or economic prosperity (48). Agriculturally, they were more prosperous

than many other Islamic lands: oranges and other fruits and vegetables were introduced

into the Iberian Peninsula, along with rice, sugar-cane, and cotton were some of the major

products in Andalusia.

Arabization

Mozarabs were Christians living under Muslim rule. They were interested in Arab

genealogy and origins, Malikite legal rite was the dominant law and, the Arabic language

was extremely popular. Intermarriage fused Arabs and Iberians as well as the acceptance

of Islam and Iberians adopting Arab genealogies as their own. “It is possible that for

some traces of the Arian heresy, professed by the Goths, made conversion [to Islam]

easier” (Watt, 54), according to Watt. There were also many social advantages to

becoming Muslim. According to Manuela Marin, “an estimate locates the midpoint of

Spanish conversion in 961 AD”. This means that a majority of the population was

practicing Muslims in Andalusia (Jayyusi, 878).

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Seville was one of the leading intellectual centers of Christian Europe. It was

abandoned for the Arabic tradition/literature (Watt, 55). Many Mozarabs may not have

been town-dwellers in the late 9th century, thus Christians began to move to the Christian

kingdoms outside Andalusia. Jews and slaves also shared in the intellectual life of

Andalusia. Slaves were imported for military use primarily. Some served as eunuchs.

Even fewer rose to power and influence. Freed slaves tended to settle in towns becoming

an important part of society by the 11th century. For Jews and slaves “the Arabic element

in the culture of the Muslims [in Andalusia] was more influential than the Islamic

element” (Watt, 60).

An Intellectual Muslim in Andalusia

Law

Law/jurisprudence has always been a focal point (Watt, 61). Jurists in Andalusia

discussed legal, etiquette and liturgical issues. There were no jurists under Rahman I

(Watt, 63). Law for Muslims was and is a way of life. The Shari’a [what is revealed] is

the main source of law code for most Muslims. By 720 AD, it was realized that there

were different versions of law in and around the Islamic world. Jurists had to determine if

an act was in accordance with Shari’a and they had to form the basics of the law to justify

consistency. This became the Sunna and it was based on Muhammad’s practice which

was authenticated in his Traditions. Thus, Muslims had three sources for law by this time:

the Qur’an, the Sunna, and Muhammad’s Traditions. Schools of thought/law began to

emerge between 800 and 900 AD. The Sunni’s recognized the Hanafite, Malikite,

Shafi’ite, and Hanbalite schools, while in Andalusia, the Malikite School was the only

school of thought recognized.

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Two students from Cairouan systematically arranged many questions and

recorded answers given thus codifying the Shari’a on Malikite principles (Watt, 64). The

first book was introduced around 800 AD by ‘Isa ibn-Dinar and Yahya ibn-Yahya al-

Laythi in 12 volumes. The emir, al-Hakam I, gave some official recognition making it the

official rite of Spain. The second book was actually a supplementary book to the first and

was introduced by al-‘Utbi.

Jurists in Andalusia were practical, not theoretical. They worked in close

association with Cairouan and other cities in North Africa. They had a tendency to cling

to orthodoxy, or something simple and practical. Some notable jurists included Baqi ibn-

Makhlad and al-Mundhir ibn-Sa’id al-Balluti. Baqi held Shafi’ite views. He was trained

in the heart of the Islamic World. His main interests lay in speculative and derivation

from Traditions. Baqi incurred hostility upon his return to Andalusia, but received

protection from the emir, Muhammad I. Al-Mundhir was the chief qadi (judge) in

Cordoba from 950 until 966 AD. He had a reputation for holding Zahirite beliefs.

Zahirites were known to hold private opinions on secondary matters which were

generally objected to by Malikites. Both men were supported by the rulers in Andalusia

leading one to believe that the Malikites were not a “monopoly”.

Literary

Historical and biographical writing also became a staple in Andalusia. The most

famous historical writer was ‘Arib. He continued the history of al-Tabari during the Hijra

years of 291-320 (904-32 AD). ‘Arib aside, most writings of this nature were of local

interests. Ahmand al-Razi was the first notable historian of Andalusia writing his book,

Cronica del Moro Rasis. For the most part, however, most biographical works were lost,
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possibly during the Reconquista. What does remain for the modern historian is a work by

al-Khushani of Cairouan entitled History of the Judges of Cordoba. This is the only real

glimpse one has into the intellectual life of individual persons in Andalusia.

Other forms of literary style came to Andalusia with the Umayyads. This included

poetry and belles-lettres. Arab poets notoriously followed a strict writing form. A typical

poem might include an erotic prelude, successive conventional themes, and a culmination

in praise to some chieftain or tribe. Arab poets also used elaborate meters and single

rhymes throughout their writings. Subsidiary themes developed once in Andalusia: love-

songs and wine-songs. According to Watt, “that which alone was deemed worthy of

studying and recording was a poetry which had its outlet principally at the courts of

princes, princelings, and other imitators” (71). For the most part, poetry was written for

the elite, thus the strict adherence to form and style. Poets depended on the elite for

patronage. Commoners had an equivalent poetry in the form of folk-tales and folk-songs,

much like those founding the One Thousand and One Nights (the Arabian Nights).

Andalusia continued to receive cultural guidance from the East. So much so that

Christian writers complained that fellow-Christians were more interested in Arabic

literature and texts than the Latin counterparts (Watt, 72). Two important men of

influence came to Andalusia: Ziryab and Abu-‘Ali al-Qali. Ziryab was a notable singer in

the East. When he arrived in Andalusia, Ziryab founded the Andalusian school of music

and song. He also came to teach the manners of Baghdadi society to Andalusians.

Abu-‘Ali came to dictate his Amali. This was, in essence, disconnected discourses of

lexigraphical, or grammatical, interest studded with poetic quotations (Watt, 72).

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In the late Umayyad period, two more men of letters came out of Cordoba:

Ibn-‘Abd-Rabbih and Ibn-Hani’. Rabbih is best known for his poetry, but he also wrote a

literary thesaurus entitled al-‘Iqd al-Farid. This work was modeled after ibn-Qitayba’s

The Fountains of Story (Watt, 73). This was the first time a narrative on the warlike

exploits of ‘Abd al-Rahman III was written. Narratives were rare in Arabic literature at

this time. Ibn-Hani’ is noted for his accomplishments as a poet, but left for Fatimid North

Africa after being accused of heresy in Andalusia. Much of his work was done in North

Africa and based on his experiences there. In the end, Andalusia showed its own cultural

blend primarily because of the relations with had with Christian courts in the North of

Spain and Byzantium, toleration of Jewish scholars, and access to Greek and some Latin

sources (Watt, 75).

Art

Artwork was also different in Andalusia. There, Muslims adopted the Visigothic

art of metal-working. Throughout the caliphate, traces of Umayyad art from Syria and

Baghdadian influences could be seen, much of which still remains. According to Watt,

“the period up to 976 AD was the [most] creative or formative period of Moorish art”

(76). While the Umayyads brought their own Arabic style with them, they also had a

tendency to incorporate much of the art styling of the local culture making Andalusian art

truly unique. Two main structures are of most importance to this culture: the Great

Mosque of Cordoba and the Palace-City of Medinat al-Zahra’.

The Great Mosque was begun by ‘Abd al-Rahman I and later enlarged by ‘Abd

al-Rahman II, al-Hakam II and al-Mansur, respectively. The Mosque incorporated the

[Visigothic] horse-shoe arch and the [Roman] doubling of the arches. The peak
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achievement was under al-Hakam II. During his caliphate, ornate arches and elaborate

decoration, especially around the mihrab, were added to the Mosque. The Palace-City of

Medinat al-Zahra’ was an expression of the self-confidence of the first caliph. Its walls

and decoration were of Roman and Byzantine origin. Not much else is known on this

structure as it was rendered uninhabitable in 1013 AD and only recently excavated

according to Watt.

Conclusion

Andalusia, under the rule of Muslims, saw much change in government, religion,

law, literature, and art. While much of the local culture was incorporated into literature

and art, there is a purely Islamic aura to government and religion. The Umayyad caliphate

came to an end in 1031 (Kennedy, 129). The primary reason given for this end was due in

part to [Sanchuelo] ‘Abd al-Rahman’s breaking away from the policies of his father and

brother (124) in that he was made heir apparent and relied heavily on the Berbers for

guidance. Other problems under his caliphate included raids on Christian lands and

imposing unjust taxes in cities under his control. Other peoples entering the Muslim

world at this time included the Mongols creating disturbances in the East and bringing an

end to the rule of the Caliphs of dar al-Islam.

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Works Cited

Jayyusi, Salma Khadra and Manuela Marin, editors. The legacy of Muslim Spain. New
York: E.J. Brill, 1992.

Kennedy, Hugh (Hugh N.). Muslim Spain and Portugal: a political history of al-Andalus.
New York: Longman, 1996.

Lapidus, Ira M. A History of Islamic Societies. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,

1988. Ch 15-16.

Safran, Janina M. The second Umayyad Caliphate: the articulation of caliphal legitimacy
in al-Andalus. Cambridge, Mass.: Distributed for the Center for Middle Eastern
Studies of Harvard University by Harvard University Press, c2000.

Watt, William Montgomery and Pierre Cachia. A History of Islamic Spain. New York:
Doubleday & Co, 1967, c1965.