Tarikh-bin-Ziyat was the Berber general who served the Umayyad caliphate and who led

the Muslim conquest of Al-Andalus (Spain). He passed the strait Of Gibraltar in 711. He
captured areas of Aragon, Leon, and his commander Musa occupied Zaragoza. But in 714,
both were called back to Arabia. Later newer areas towards Pyreneans mountains were
captured.
In 756 Abd-al-Rahman I (756-788) came and established Umayyad caliphate in Al-Andalus.
He gathered support from Ifriqiya (Eastern Algeria). During his period of rule, he had to face
many problems. Later He was finally proclaimed as the leader. Al-Andalus became an
independent kingdom and served as a new exile home for Umayyads. His reign lasted for 32
years. He also built the Jama Mosque at Cordoba (capital city of Umayyad). He ensured a
patriarchal rule with sovereign powers.

Abd-al-Rahman I nominated his youngest son Hisham I (788-796) as his successor. His
reign was marked by several rebellions which he crushed successfully. His reign was a rather
peaceful one. He was a man if piety and character and invited many intellectuals and learned
men to his court. Like his father, he also addressed himself as Amir. He was succeeded by
his son Al-Hakam.

Al-Hakam ruled from 796-822. His was a turbulent period marked by conspiracy and
tyranny. He created a professional army and recruited several negroes. Continuous
rebellions had kept the Amir in a state of permanent mental anxiety which tolled severely
upon his health. He reigned for 26 years and was succeeded by his son Abd-al-Rahman II.

Abd-al-Rahman II (822-852) contributed much towards the cultural development of Spain

and made it one of the most civilised countries of the then world, despite of the internal and
frontier troubles. The state administration was organised on the lines of the Abbasid estate,
the mint was re-established and an official seal was introduced. Many Greek and scientific
philosophical woks were translated during his reign.

He was succeeded by Muhammad I (852-886). His reign was marked by a series of

domestic troubles which despite his firm policies, continued to increase. He dismissed many
Christian officials and soldiers. It was short lived reign and there were no major
developments.

Al-Mundhir (886-888) ascended the throne at Cordoba. A large portion of Spanish people
were always ready to rebel. Some independent principalities were also carved out. He was
poisoned by his physician at the instigation of his brother Abd-Allah and died after ruling for
only two years.

Abd-Allah (888-912) was succeeded by the most important Umayyad caliph in Spain Abd-
al-Rahman III.
Abd-al-Rahman III (912-961) became the Amir at 20 years of age. During this time the
empire was on the verge of destruction, civil wars were going on and authority of the central
government had weakened. Agriculture was ruined, industry was at a standstill and trade was
almost non-existent. In order to consolidate his position, he put an end to the rebellions,
neutralised the influence of the powerful Arab aristocracy and maintained the frontiers of
Muslim Spain. Historians write of him as a ‘gifted person.’ He portrayed excellent
statesmanship, and thus was able to overcome the threats and brought Al-Andalus to a
height of greatness. The city of Cordoba attains glory and height of civilization. He
reclaimed the Caliphate ship (which his family lost 200 years ago). He embarked on a
virtual re-conquest of the peninsula and finally secured control over the heart of Al-Andalus.

In Jan 929, at a mosque in Cordoba, he proclaimed the title of ‘Amir-al-Mominin’

(commander of the faithful). It was the proclamation of the rightful rulership of Al-
Andalus. He became the spiritual and temporal leader. Court ceremonies and rituals now
took place under the authority of the caliph.

The long reign of Abd-al-Rahman III constitutes one of the most brilliant periods in the
history of Muslim Spain. He abolished illegal taxes imposed in the previous reign; this
stabilised his economy. 1/3rd of the state revenue was spent on the public buildings
constructed throughout his empire. Hospitals for the sick, rest houses for the destitute and
orphanages for the orphans were constructed. Thus, Al-Andalus became the centre of high
culture in Western Europe. New arts of Agriculture and horticulture were introduced for
better production of crops. Along with agriculture, Industry was encouraged and developed.
Cordoba became a city of industry and commerce. Commerce flourished to such an extent
that import and export duties provided a large part of the national income. Rahman III
patronised literature and science and spent 1/3rd of the revenue on the advancement of
learning and culture.

Abd-al-Rahman III was succeeded by Al-Hakam II (971-976). It was a continuation of the

peaceful legacy of Abd-al-Rahman III. Hakam II dies in 976. He was now succeeded by Al-
Hisham II who was only 11 at that time.

Finally in 1031, Caliphate ship was abolished.

There was enactment of rituals like Taslim: which was a formal salutation to the caliph and it
was a symbolic legitimising action. They tried to portray themselves as religious as well as
political rulers.

Office of Hajib (door-keeper) was the most important officer and was the supervisor of the
entire civil administration, also called as the office of the prime minister. He was the only
link between the caliph and the administration. Ibn Khaldun calls it the person who guarded
caliph from entourage and common public.

Next was the Chief Department ‘Kitaba’ (chancery/secretariat). It was headed by a wazir
titled Katib (the one who writes). Caliphs had their own secretaries who would write
farmans.

Next was the Khizanat-al-mal (treasury), manned by an official called Sahib-al-Makhzan

who was generally an Arab. The estates levied taxed (illegal and legal) on commodities as
well. Ushr (land tax) was imposed on cultivable land (18-20% of the total produce),
applicable to both Muslims and non-Muslims.
Zakat was imposed on Muslims (10% of total income). Christians and Jews paid Jaziyah,
levied on male members of the community.
The caliphs arranged the core of Al-Andalus into 5 administrative regions: Galicia and
Lusitania; Castille and Leon; Aragon and Catalonia and Septimonia. By the time of
Rahman III, provincial administration was divided into 21 provinces. System of Municipia
(municipalities) was controlled by officials appointed from the centre. The provincial
governors were responsible for the collection of tributes.
Will of the god was binding on law and justice. Quran was an infallible source of law.
Other official was Qazi of Cordoba, he was the most learned of the jurists, a man of high
moral standing, of simple habits who would maintain his independence in pronouncing
judgements of law, without the interference from the sovereign. The court was located at the
corner of the mosque. Sahib-al-Mazalib (lord of injustices) corrected the abuses of power
and position of officials on the common people. Sahib-al-Shurta (prefect of police) was
appointed to punish and summon people to bring order in society and check powers. Sahib-
al-Shuq (Inspector of markets) looked after market prices, weights, etc.