Social media influencer (SMI) as a human

brand – a need fulfillment perspective

Aaminah Zaman Malik
Department of Marketing, G. Brint Ryan College of Business, University of North Texas, Denton, TX, USA
Sajani Thapa
Department of Marketing and Business Analytics, San Jose State University, San Jose, CA, USA, and
Audhesh K. Paswan
Department of Marketing, G. Brint Ryan College of Business, University of North Texas, Denton, TX, USA

Abstract
Purpose – Social media influencers (SMIs) are becoming a powerful force within the marketing and branding landscape, with several leading brands
opting to use SMI endorsements for their products and brands. Extant SMI literature has primarily focused on the influence mechanism exerted by
SMIs on their followers. Less is known about how followers view their favorite SMIs. This study aims to explore the SMI–follower relationship from
the follower’s perspective and examine the underlying attachment mechanism.
Design/methodology/approach – First, a qualitative study was conducted to explore the attributes that individuals consider following an SMI and
ensure that it is consistent with the literature review. This was followed by a survey-based quantitative study where a structural equation modeling
technique was used to test the hypotheses using 508 SMI followers.
Findings – Followers find the SMI as a source to fulfill their intrinsic needs, that is, need to escape or self- improvement. The findings of this study
suggest that followers attribute glamor, fun and connectedness to the SMIs driven by their need for self-improvement and fun with their need to
escape. Finally, these attributions influence the overall perceived image of the SMI in followers’ minds.
Originality/value – This study uses qualitative and quantitative approaches to picture SMIs as human brands from a follower’s need fulfillment
perspective.
Keywords Social media influencers, Attachment theory, Escape, Self-improvement, Human brand theory
Paper type Research paper

Introduction celebrities (DMI, 2018) and 53% of women made purchases

With the proliferation of social media (e.g. Facebook, YouTube,
Instagram, Pinterest, Snapchat, Twitter, etc.), a new breed of
consumer influencers has emerged – social media influencers
(SMIs). A social media influencer is someone who has a vast
social media network of followers because of their online content
and thereby gained the power to exercise their influence over their
followers (Ki and Kim, 2019). These SMIs present themselves
through their ideas, expertise and, often, sponsored products to
their followers (Varsamis, 2018). This has resulted in several
leading brands jumping onto the new bandwagon of SMI
endorsement marketing to enhance their brand awareness and
eventually sales (Delbaere et al., 2021; Lou and Yuan, 2019;
Woodroof et al., 2020). Some estimates put the size of the social
media influencer marketing industry to be around $15bn in 2022,
up from $8bn in 2019 (Bailis, 2019; Insider, 2021). One of the
primary reasons for such significant growth is their strong
influence on the followers as relatable and accessible experts.
Statistics show that 70% of teens trust SMIs more than traditional
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based on SMIs recommendations (Morrison, 2016). So, why do
consumers follow and listen to these SMIs? Especially when the
followers may not even know the actual identity of SMIs.
SMIs usually establish themselves as specialists in a niche. For
example, Huda Kattan, a make-up and beauty influencer, has
47.9 million followers on Instagram. Known for her tutorials on
make-up and beauty tips, Huda owns her successful brands such
as Huda beauty and Wishful skin. Her rise to becoming a
valuable influencer was built on her personal and unique beauty
tips to her millions of followers. Likewise, Chiara Ferragni, an
entrepreneur and fashion blogger, has over 22.5 million followers
on Instagram. She owns her brand and has been sponsored by
several respected brands such as Bulgari and Hermes. While
these influencers have a huge follower base and several brands
seek their endorsement, it is essential to understand what
motivates consumers to follow a particular SMI. Do they follow
Huda just because she is a make-up artist? Do they follow her
because they want to learn make-up? Or are there any other
attributes or reasons that make them follow her irrespective of
whether they are interested in make-up or not? All this led to two
main questions that are addressed in this study:

Received 5 July 2021

Journal of Product & Brand Management
Revised 8 February 2022
32/2 (2023) 173–190 31 May 2022
© Emerald Publishing Limited [ISSN 1061-0421] 30 July 2022
[DOI 10.1108/JPBM-07-2021-3546] Accepted 1 August 2022

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 Social media influencer
Aaminah Zaman Malik, Sajani Thapa and Audhesh K. Paswan
Q1. Is there any need fulfillment motive behind the SMI–
follower relationship from followers’ perspective?
Q2. What are the attributes social media followers want to
see in an SMI to fulfill their intrinsic needs?
Literature shows that much academic research attention has
been given to identifying the traits that allow SMIs to exert
influence over their followers (Arora et al., 2019; Audrezet
et al., 2020; Ki and Kim, 2019). In a recent literature review
based on 154 peer-reviewed publications, Hudders et al. (2020)
summarize several of these characteristics that are important to
be a successful SMI. These persona or content-driven
characteristics include ambitious, smart, productive, poised,
beauty, unique, humor (Djafarova and Trofimenko, 2019;
Freberg et al., 2011), useful, entertaining, enjoyable (Barbe
et al., 2020), trustworthy, honest and similar, (Coates and
Boyland, 2021; Kastanakis and Balabanis, 2012;
Konstantopoulou et al., 2019; Woodroof et al., 2020). Out of
these 154 peer-reviewed papers, only 15 studies discuss SMIs
from followers’ perspective, relying primarily on qualitative
research (e.g. interviews and focus groups) with a few using
survey methodology. These studies examine the attributes that
individuals look for in SMIs to connect with them. Few of these
attributes include trust, honesty (Balaban and Must
at ea, 2019;
Coates and Boyland, 2021; Konstantopoulou et al., 2019),
entertainment and usefulness (Barbe et al., 2020). In addition,
these studies discuss evoked envy through social comparison
processes amongst women (Chae, 2017) and the factors that
harm the perception of trust, credibility and genuineness of
SMIs amongst the followers when they promote sponsored
products (Dwidienawati et al., 2019; Folkvord et al., 2019;
Konstantopoulou et al., 2019). With the existing literature
primarily focuses on the influencer characteristics and source
effects in the success of SMIs (Breves et al., 2019; Casal
o et al.,
2020; Evans et al., 2017; Hudders et al., 2020; Jin and Phua,
2014; Jun and Yi, 2020; Taillon et al., 2020), recent attention
given to the motivations behind influencer–follower
relationship (Choi and Rifon, 2012; Croes and Bartels, 2021;
Lee et al., 2021; Morton, 2020) encourages more investigation
to study followers need-based motivations to build SMI–
follower relationship.
Given that social media platforms were initially designed to
facilitate personal connections and bonding (Lim and
Kumar, 2019), this study investigates the attachment
mechanism that followers build with the SMIs as “human
brands” (Thomson, 2006). Recently Ki et al. (2020)
emphasize the importance of followers’ need fulfillment by
showing the need for relatedness, ideality and connectedness
as the underlying mechanism in the SMI–follower
attachment. In this study, the focus is on the need for self-
improvement and the need to escape as intrinsic needs, the
fulfillment of which brings the followers to feel attached to the
SMIs. As the prevalence and use of social media networks
grow, so does the need for a better understanding of social
relationships in a digital environment from followers’
perspective, as they are the final consumers of the social
media and the products and services endorsed by the SMIs.
Toward this goal, the SMI literature is reviewed next.
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Theoretical background
Social media influencers as human brands and
followers’ need fulfillment
Human brand theory (Thomson, 2006) provides the theoretical
lens to explain the underlying attachment mechanism in the SMI–
follower relationship when a media persona develops into a human
brand. According to the theory, a human brand is a person with
brandable features who creates a strong relationship with the
followers by fulfilling their intrinsic needs and creating successful
marketing effects (Thomson, 2006). The value of this human
brand depends upon the attributes it carries, creating an overall
image in followers’ minds. Followers develop relationships with
the human brands that evince many of the exact expectations,
cognitions, emotions and behaviors seen in normal interpersonal
relationships. These similarities may extend to the point where an
individual might view a human brand as a pleasant companion,
good friend or romantic mate (Cole and Leets, 1999). It is not
uncommon to see such relationship between humans and human-
brand in various contexts (Ilicic and Webster, 2016; Walsh and
Williams, 2017). For instance, past studies indicate celebrities
(Moulard et al., 2015), idols (Huang et al., 2015) and athletes
(Carlson and Donavan, 2013) as human brands and describe
audiences’ attachments to them. Taking this line of thinking one
step further, one could argue that based on the basic assumptions
of the human brand theory, followers make attachments with
SMIs as they see them as human brands, attributing specific
characteristics based on fulfilling their distinct intrinsic needs.
Literature indicates that people gravitate toward relationships to
the extent that the relationships provide opportunities for their
basic need fulfillment (Guardia et al., 2000). In the Marketing
context, one way to provide such an opportunity is when the
consumers see their ideal self in congruence with the brand image,
which elicits brand attachment based on their need for ideality
(Japutra et al., 2014). Similarly, consumers feel attached to the
brand that fulfills their need for competence (Proksch et al., 2015),
autonomy and need for relatedness (Thomson, 2006). Applying
this line of thinking to SMIs, this study argues that individuals feel
an attachment to an SMI when the focal SMI possesses certain
attributes which they feel will help them fulfill their distinct needs.
Creating emotional attachment between a consumer and a
brand has long been an important branding challenge (Malär et al.,
2011). To understand it in the human brand (SMI)–follower
relationship, Attachment theory (Ainsworth and Bowlby, 1991)
provides the theoretical support. Attachment theory is rooted in a
parent-infant relationship where a child seeks protection and, in
response, builds an emotional bond with people who are
responsive to his needs (Bowlby, 1979). The theory widely applies
in adulthood as well when an entity is responsive to one’s specific
needs; a satisfied and committed relationship is then built
(Thomson, 2006). While the original attachment theory stresses
close and intimate relationships, scholars from consumer
psychology extend it to attachment in marketing contexts. In
marketing literature, the attachment target can be a firm,
employee, a specific brand, a human brand or even a place
(Moussa and Touzani, 2017; Park et al., 2010; Vlachos et al.,
2010; Wan et al., 2017). This study examines the attachment
between the human brand persona of SMIs and their followers.
With the growth of SMIs, followers might not necessarily follow
blogs; they follow the human brands behind those blogs because of
 Social media influencer
Aaminah Zaman Malik, Sajani Thapa and Audhesh K. Paswan
the desired attributes they possess. The presence or absence of
these attributes collectively creates the perception of that SMI as a
human brand. This study introduces it as “overall perceived
image” of the SMIs in followers’ minds and define it as the
personal psychological manifestation of perceptions, feelings and
overall cognition toward the SMIs. In other words, it is the total of
perceptions among social media users where they elevate the SMI
persona to the status of a human brand. Therefore, following the
human brand theory suggestion that SMIs can create strong
relationships with their followers by fulfilling their needs when they
possess desired attributes (Thomson, 2006), this study focuses on
two key reasons for followers’ gravitating toward SMI – the need to
escape and self-improvement. Further, it is argued that these need-
based motivations will drive attributions toward SMIs, which in
turn would lead to the overall brand image of SMI.
Social media influencers and followers’ need for self-
improvement
Self-improvement involves a desirable change in oneself from one
time to another (O’Brien and Kardas, 2017; Sedikides and Hepper,
2009). The motivation to improve oneself is reflected in ones’
conscious desires (Sedikides and Hepper, 2009) which may involve
becoming stronger and a better person, gaining confidence or any
other change in one’s characteristics. Individuals’ self-view that
keeps on changing, plays an essential role in it (Gao et al., 2009).
People feel the need for self-improvement when they find a
discrepancy in their self-view, i.e. the gap between the current
perception of themselves and the aspired perception of self
(Mandel et al., 2017). The concept of self-improvement is widely
seen and encompass several products and services including well-
being apps (millennials spending twice as much as baby boomers),
self-growth literature (e.g. the UK sees 20% increase in
self-improvement literature), personal coaching (second
fastest growing industry worldwide) and motivational speakers
($1bn US market) (LaRosa, 2018; Uț
a, 2019).
In the consumption context also, one can witness this desire
in several choice options that enable individuals to improve
different facets of their self, e.g. starting a tough work-out
routine, learning a new language or a skill. Research also
indicates that consumers use brands that fulfill their self-needs
including their need for self-improvement (Escalas and
Bettman, 2003) which is associated with the increase in
product upgrade intention for self-connected brands (Dagogo-
Jack and Forehand, 2018). Similarly, SMI literature also shows
that followers desire to mimic SMIs because they view them as
taste and opinion leaders (Ki and Kim, 2019). Indeed, people
follow their role models, believing that they will support their
self-enhancement (Lockwood and Kunda, 1999). Therefore,
based on the basic underlying assumptions of the attachment
theory that individuals tend to link themselves with people who
are considered as responsive to their needs (Aron et al., 1989),
this study suggests that an individual will generate attachment
toward an SMI whose human brand persona will have relevant
attributes to improve different facets of their lives.
Social media influencers and followers’ need to escape
Escapism is defined as a diversion of the mind to purely
imaginative activity to get away from reality or routine
(Merriam-Webster, 2022). As an escape mechanism,
individuals limit their exposure to noxious stimuli during
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stressful situations by disengaging themselves from them and
diverting their attention to wishful thinking and fantasies
(Tobin et al., 1989). To escape, people may also turn to close
others (Thapa et al., 2022). Research indicates that seeking
social support helps individuals more effectively with long-term
health benefits and psychological well-being (Gurung et al.,
1997; Malik and Paswan, 2022; Pierce et al., 1996). Escapism
or the self-selected detachment from one’s immediate world
through the consumption of social media resources (Dolan
et al., 2016; Eisenbeiss et al., 2012; Whiting and Williams,
2013) such as text messaging (Grellhesl and Punyanunt-
Carter, 2012), gaming (Billieux et al., 2015; Kuss and Griffiths,
2012), storytelling (Lund et al., 2018), gambling (Griffiths
et al., 2010) and celebrity following (Maltby et al., 2001;
McCutcheon et al., 2002; Reeves et al., 2012) has long been a
popular topic in consumer research. These consumers require
avenues presumably as an escape from the unpleasant results of
introspection and resort to behaviors as a source of gratification
to make up for their shortcomings.
Marketing literature also discusses escapism in several
consumption contexts and provides evidence for shopping as
an escape mechanism (Csikszentmihalyi, 2000). Using escape
theory, Heatherton and Baumeister (1991) also show that self-
awareness of a problem causes so much pain that consumers
indulge in self-destructive and immediate activities like binge
eating or compulsive buying. Such activities employ all their
attention and cognitive resources that help them not to think of
their problems (Heatherton and Baumeister, 1991). While
escape has been shown as an important motivation to several
consumption behaviors, it could also encourage followers to
build a relationship with the SMIs as an excellent way to fulfill
their escape-related needs. Recent reports also support this
relationship shown by a significant increase in SMIs going live
as followers wanted to escape from the isolation they faced
during COVID-19 (Tietjen, 2020). Although the link between
social support and important personal outcomes is well
documented, it is unclear if followers consider SMIs as social
support and an outlet to fulfill their need to escape. Therefore,
extending this escape-seeking mechanism to the SMI–follower
relationship, this study suggests that individuals develop
attachments with these human brands when they find them as
someone who can help them fulfill their need to escape.
Given that the personal characteristics and traits are essential
for a human brand to attract and retain its followers (Gannon
and Prothero, 2016), this study discusses the characteristics
followers attribute to their favorite SMI and their associations
with the intrinsic needs, i.e. need to escape and for self-
improvement, along with the appropriate rationale.
Hypothesis development
Qualities attributed by social media followers’ toward
social media influencers
Based on the existing literature, this study focuses on three
main characteristics, i.e. fun, glamor and connectivity as key
attributes that followers associate with SMIs for their intrinsic
need fulfillment. These attributes, in one form or the other,
have been used in existing SMI literature (Barry and Gironda,
2018; De Veirman et al., 2019; Duffy and Wissinger, 2017;
Kim et al., 2021; Lou and Yuan, 2019). In addition, these three
 Social media influencer
Aaminah Zaman Malik, Sajani Thapa and Audhesh K. Paswan
global attributes also emerged as dominant themes associated
with SMIs in the qualitative study (Study 1 – detail in the
method section). Finally, the overall image of SMI is used as
the final outcome construct.
Fun
According to the Oxford English Dictionary, fun is defined as
“light-hearted pleasure, enjoyment, or amusement; boisterous
joviality or merrymaking; entertainment” (Oh and Pham, 2021).
Fun plays an important role in one’s life in several ways. In fact,
the importance of consumption and fun experiences prompted
the formation of a variety of marketplace actors, including pubs,
dance halls, circuses, travel fairs and sports venues, whose
businesses centered around satisfying the consumption demands
of fun-seekers (Clarke and Critchener, 1985). People also feel
close to and interact with pleasant and fun people (Reis et al.,
2017b). This phenomenon also exists in the online and social
media contexts (Lewis et al., 2014; Quan-Haase and Young,
2010; Reinecke et al., 2014). For example, people feel that SMIs
who are funny and friendly are more approachable (Barry and
Gironda, 2018; Duffy and Wissinger, 2017; Kim et al., 2021;
Lou and Yuan, 2019). Thus, it can be argued that an SMI whose
human brand persona is entertaining, funny, hilarious and thus
enjoyable will make followers perceive his/her image as very
positive. An individual will feel more attached to these SMIs to
fulfill their needs to escape and self-improvement.
While self-improvement is often thought of as a serious
matter, pairing this need with fun may make this journey of self-
improvement easy. A growing body of literature shows that fun
involved in teaching makes it easier to learn something to
improve oneself, e.g. employees are more likely to learn and try
new things when training involves fun aspects (Tews et al.,
2017). These results are not just confined to formal learning
but non-structured informal settings too (Tews et al., 2017).
Fun helps and motivates individuals to explore and engage in
self-development as it increases the meaningfulness of learning
and improving oneself. The pleasant and joyful experiences
encourage creativity by promoting brain development
(Panksepp, 1998) and encourage exploration, which
contributes to the development of knowledge and intellectual
complexity (Fredrickson and Cohn, 2008).
On the other hand, people also find fun as a way to escape
from their sorrows. In tourism literature, support is found for
fun and motivation to escape in selecting leisure destinations
(Jang and Cai, 2002). Travelers feel inclined to select places
with fun activities because they consider fun as an experience of
liberating engagement – a temporary release from psychological
restriction via a hedonically engaging activity (Oh and Pham,
2021). Fun has also been discussed in the context of human-
computer interaction such as gaming where the author looks at
the phenomenon of fun and its vitality in any game (Koster,
2013). A recent study by Oh and Pham (2021) shows that the
experience of fun through these activities rests on the
perception of freedom from something, termed as liberation.
Their findings show that hedonic engagement and a sense of
liberation work together to have a genuine fun experience. In
addition, fun is mostly experienced in activities where people
feel socially connected (Oh and Pham, 2021). Based on the
discussed literature, this study suggests that the SMI–follower
relationship may also be considered as a consumption context
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where followers’ motivation to feel liberated or get an escape
encourages them to come closer to funny SMIs considering
them as a good line of defense against stressful life events. Such
socially connected experiences are amplified by the feelings of
synchronicity with others and they feel attached (Pham and
Sun, 2020). For instance, Baddie Winkle is known well as a
hilarious granny and garnered more than 3.5 million followers
by entertaining her followers with her humor. This study thus
posits that an SMI whose human brand persona is funny will
attract followers who want to fulfill their intrinsic need for
escape and self-improvement. Further, an SMI with a funny,
humorous and entertaining persona will have a higher overall
image. This leads to the following hypotheses:
H1a. Attribution of fun (to SMI) is positively associated with
the follower’s escape need fulfillment.
H1b. Attribution of fun (to SMI) is positively associated with
the follower’s self-improvement need fulfillment.
H1c. Attribution of fun (to SMI) is positively associated with
the overall image of SMI.
H1d. Attribution of fun (to SMI) mediates the relationship
betweenneed to escape and the overall image of SMI
and self-improvement need fulfillment and the overall
image of SMI.
Glamor
Postrel (2013) describes glamor as an “edited version of reality”
or “an illusion. . .that distorts our perceptions” and is
accomplished through stimulating projection and longing in the
viewer. Virginia Postrel (2013) writes in her book “The power of
glamor” that glamor should not be confused with style or beauty.
It is not something people, objects or places possess, but rather
something inherent in our perception. When a person is
characterized as glamorous, people ascribe to that person’s
esthetic properties radiating through his/her imagination and
personal character. Research shows that individuals inspire to
follow an SMI who offers esthetically pleasing content. esthetic
experiences can benefit people psychologically by enriching their
imagination (Dennis et al., 2014; Pearce et al., 2016). In other
words, when people consume esthetically appealing designs or
products, their consumption patterns make them appear more
desirable to others. Researchers in the SMI domain, such as De
Veirman et al. (2019) and Duffy and Wissinger (2017), also
alluded to such a phenomenon.
glamor literature (Dyhouse, 2013; Gundle, 2019; Postrel,
2013) promises escape and transformation as the two main
reasons for glamorous life or objects. Postrel (2013) points out
that glamor is linked with transformation or self-improvement
that is not just limited to material objects as it requires the
imagination of something better and different in any sphere.
For instance, the analysis of the top three highest circulated
fashion magazines targeted to young girls shows that they
approach the topic of self-improvement through fashion,
glamor and physical beautification (Evans et al., 1991).
Similarly, Martin and Gentry (1997) show that the self-
evaluation against the glamorous images and ideas in
advertising with the motivation of self-improvement leads to
self-esteem and self-confidence. Therefore, it can be argued if
 Social media influencer
Aaminah Zaman Malik, Sajani Thapa and Audhesh K. Paswan
an individual’s motive is to satisfy the need for self-
improvement, he/she would feel attached to a glamourous
SMI, considering it an inspiration for a better self.
Similarly, individuals who feel the need to escape may be
attracted toward glamor, considering it as a way to rejuvenate
and recover from the trials of real life. When the need to escape
is dominant, the glamorous SMI might be a way of forgetting
reality and immersing oneself in the imaginative or illusionary
world of the SMI. According to Postrel (2013), todays’
advertisement world uses the contemporary definition of
glamor which is about the ability to relax and escape to a
tranquil setting. Glamor provides an imaginative refuge and its
idealism and comfort allow people to escape the confines of
their existence (Postrel, 2005). While no empirical work
discussing escapism and glamor was found, one can argue that
followers with a high need to escape are more likely to feel
attached to an SMI whose human brand aura carries a
glamorous appeal. In addition, one could argue that the glamor
appeal is likely to increase the overall positive image of SMI as a
brand. This leads to following hypotheses:
H2a. Attribution of glamor (to SMI) is positively associated
with the follower’s escape need fulfillment.
H2b. Attribution of glamor (to SMI) is positively associated
with the follower’s self-improvement need fulfillment.
H2c. Attribution of glamor (to SMI) is positively associated
with the overall image of SMI.
H2d. Attribution of glamor (to SMI) mediates the
relationship between need to escape and the overall
image of SMI and need to self-improve and the overall
image of SMI.
Connectivity
Many people use social media to feel close and connected
(Ladhari et al., 2020). These individuals desire to feel socially
connected and maintain meaningful relationships with others
(Lin et al., 2016; Ryan and Deci, 2000). This connection may
be based on the similarities that followers find in the SMIs or
the inspiration to be like them. The notion of similarity or
connection has been identified as a key factor in building a
follower–SMI relationship (De Veirman et al., 2019; Kim et al.,
2021). For instance, when SMIs share personally relevant or
similar matters with others, followers may feel closer and more
attached to them. This, in turn, makes them feel connected
(Parks and Floyd, 1996; Reis et al., 2017a). Kywe et al. (2012)
show that people tend to like and follow SMIs with whom they
find similarities and a greater sense of connection.
This sense of connection may help these followers develop the
relation with these SMIs in fulfilling their intrinsic needs.
According to social psychology studies, when people seek self-
improvement they selectively process self-relevant information
throughout the self-evaluation process (Sedikides and Strube,
1997). They improve their self-concept by using information in
such a manner that maximizes their positive self-concept and
minimizes their negative self-concept (Sedikides and Hepper,
2009). Similarly, people like and imitate role models and
celebrities whose behaviors and attitudes are sufficiently inspiring
to induce them to improve their own (Ruvio et al., 2013).
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Therefore, this study suggests that the SMI–follower relationship
also adopts the same mechanism where followers acquire
information through surveillance or browsing different
influencers to improve themselves and be competent (Dunne
et al., 2010; Karapanos et al., 2016; Urista et al., 2009).
Followers may feel connected to the SMIs based on their
expertise when finding their expert opinion to improve their
knowledge and information about the available choices. For
instance, Ki and Kim (2019) show that SMIs’ content serves as
an important source of information for other social media users
in their product choices or purchase decisions.
Similarly, if followers feel a sense of connection with the
SMI, they may use the time spent following the SMI’s content
to escape from their reality. Literature indicates that people
participate in social networking sites (Orchard et al., 2014)
especially students (Cha, 2010) with a significantly positive
relationship between their time spent on the internet and their
escapism motivation (Korgaonkar and Wolin, 1999). They see
their own experiences in the content shared by others, which
creates an emotional connection (King, 2015). For instance,
when people go through romantic breakups, they follow SMIs
with whom they feel connected because of their inspirational
and motivational persona shown by them on social media when
they went through the same situation. Or, in some situations,
people start following SMIs who have the expertise to share
how to cope with stressful situations. Hence, one could argue
that an SMI whose human brand persona is similar to the
followers, i.e. creates a sense of connection, is likely to attract
the followers to satisfy the need to escape and self-
improvement. This leads to the last set of hypotheses:
H3a. Attribution of connectivity (to SMI) is positively
associated with the follower’s escape need fulfillment.
H3b. Attribution of connectivity (to SMI) is positively
associated with the follower’s self-improvement need
fulfillment.
H3c. Attribution of connectivity (to SMI) is positively
associated with the overall image of SMI.
H3d. Attribution of connectivity (to SMI) mediates the
relationship between (i) need to escape and the overall
image of SMI and (ii) self-improvement need
fulfillment and the overall image of SMI.
These hypothesized relationships are presented in Figure 1.
Research methodology
Study I
An inductive study (Study I) was first conducted to ensure that
the attributes identified through the review of extant literature
on SMI characteristics are relevant in this study context. For
this study, an open-ended survey was used in face-to-face
interview settings to collect data from social media users
residing in a large Southwestern US city. A convenience
sampling method was used and the respondents were contacted
using personal contacts of students in a market research class
(at a large university) who were involved in this study as a class
project. The respondents were provided with the definition of a
social media influencer as “a person, who has established a
 Social media influencer
Aaminah Zaman Malik, Sajani Thapa and Audhesh K. Paswan
Figure 1 Hypothesized model – follower needs and influencer characteristics
H1a Fun
H1b
Escape
H2a
Glamorous
H2b
Self-
Improvement H3a
Connecvity
H3b
Notes: H1d–H3d reflect the mediated effects between escape and overall image and
self-improvement and overall image. The direct effect of escape (ESC) and self-improvement
(SELFI) on overall image (OVER) is not hypothesized. However, it is tested in the post hoc
model (Model 2)
sizable network of people following them on social media (De
Veirman et al., 2019) and then asked if they follow any social
media influencers. Only respondents who answered “yes” were
then asked to name an SMI they follow on social media most of
their time. Then they were asked to provide three reasons
(words or simple phrases) why they follow their favorite SMI?
This resulted in valid responses from 81 respondents.
The resultant words and phrases were analyzed using an
inductive approach which involved two researchers’ carefully
sorting the collected pool of descriptive terms into meaningful
themes that capture the reasons for following SMIs (Bitner
et al., 1990). During this process, care was taken to ensure that
both researchers agree on the themes and their labels. This
procedure generated several themes. Of these, fun (associated
words included fun, entertainment, humorous, entertaining,
interesting, funny, etc.), connectivity (associated words
included similar, speak out for me, sharing, interactive, same as
me, etc.) and glamorous (associated words included beautiful,
pretty, fashionable, glamorous, good looking, etc.) emerged the
strongest in terms of frequency, i.e. fun (14.4%.), connectivity
(25.37%) and glamorous (13.66%). These, i.e. fun/
entertainment, connectivity and glamorous, are consistent with
the attributes investigated in the SMI literature (Barry and
Gironda, 2018; De Veirman et al., 2019; Duffy and Wissinger,
2017; Kim et al., 2021; Lou and Yuan, 2019). This indicates
that the present study context is consistent with the contexts
used in the existing literature in terms of key SMI
characteristics. Other themes that emerged included
professionalism, skillful, real-time, convenient, free, exploring,
different and unpredictability. These received less than 10% of
mention in the word association. Further, these are associated
with specific areas or skills, knowledge or growth followers seek
or deal with access to technology and hence were not explored
further in this study. For example, professionalism and skill are
often related to a specific profession or field and the current
study’s focus is on the follower’s perceptions of SMI’s in
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H1c
Overall
Perceived
H2c Image
H3c
general and not in any one specific field or industry. Hence,
these were not included in this study.
Study II
The aim of Study II was to empirically test the attachment
mechanism between SMIs and their followers and the overall
SMI brand image captured in the three sets of hypotheses. The
respondents for this study were residents at a large southwest
metroplex in the USA and were contacted through personal
contacts on social media and a filter question was used to ensure
that the respondents were familiar with SMIs. This snowball
sampling method (personal contacts) was used to enhance the
efficiency of the sampling process. Personal contacts of students
in a marketing research class at a large Southwestern university
was used to contact the respondents. This process resulted in
responses from only people who were familiar with SMI and not
from people unfamiliar with SMIs. Because this study’s goal was
to test the model among followers of SMIs, this process enhanced
the yield from the data collection efforts. A pure random
sampling procedure would have resulted in responses from
people familiar and unfamiliar with SMIs. The survey was
administered online. After removing incomplete and suspicious
responses, the final sample size was 508. The sample
demographic distribution is presented in Appendix 1.
Respondents were evenly distributed across gender, and almost
95% were below the age of 30 years. Most of the respondents
(73%) had finished high school (27% had finished college),
worked part or full-time jobs (78%) and were single (85%). A
large majority (58.4%) spent 3–6 h per day using the internet
(with 31.8% spent more than 7 h per day). Following an internet
celebrity – 67.3% said they did follow an SMI, while everyone
said they were familiar with the SMI phenomenon (it was a filter
question). Together, these suggest that the sample in this study
represents the prime target for social media influencers as existing
research indicate that 84% of US adults 18–29 years of age, 81%
of 30–49 years of age, 73% of 50%–64% and only 45% of
 Social media influencer
Aaminah Zaman Malik, Sajani Thapa and Audhesh K. Paswan
65 year of age and above are active social media users; and 49%
trust digital influencers on social media (Han and Chen, 2021;
Mohsin, 2021).
A filter question was asked – “Are you familiar with at least
one SMI (not necessarily loyal followers)?” Only those who said
“yes” were allowed to fill out the online survey. Given the
penetration of social media and SMIs in this age group (below
30 years of age) it was felt that both loyal followers and people
who are aware of SMIs would have the same needs (self-
improvement and escape) and would look at SMIs in the same
manner. After the filter question, the respondents answered
questions measuring focal constructs. Scale items for
measuring the focal constructs (attributions of glamor, fun and
connectivity; intrinsic need to escape and improve oneself; and
the overall image of SMI) were adapted from the existing
literature. Scale items for measuring attributions of
connectivity to SMI were adapted from literature on self-brand
congruence and similarity (Malär et al., 2011; Sirgy et al., 1991,
1997; Sirgy and Su, 2000). Measures for attribution of glamor
to SMI were adapted from the works of Aw and Chuah (2021),
Duffy and Wissinger (2017) and Ki and Kim (2019); and
attribution of fun from the works of Barry and Gironda (2018),
Duffy and Wissinger (2017), Kim et al. (2021) and Lou and
Yuan (2019). Scale items for measuring the need for self-
improvement were adapted from the works of Breines and
Chen (2012), Ki and Kim (2019), Lockwood and Kunda
( and1999) and Wolf et al. (2020); and need to escape from the
work of Paswan et al. (2015). Finally, the scale items for
measuring the overall image of SMI were adapted from the
works of Arora et al. (2019), Audrezet et al. (2020), Hudders
et al. (2020), Ki and Kim (2019) and Spears and Singh (2004).
The final set of adapted scale items was pre-tested using a small
sample of 75 respondents familiar with SMI. After minor
modifications, mostly cosmetics to suit the SMI–follower
context, the final scale items were used to collect data from the
respondents. This data was first subjected to the exploratory
factor analysis (EFA) to check if the items loaded on the right
factors. Rotated (Varimax) factor structure along with the
Cronbach’s Alpha scores are presented in Appendix 2. All the
rotated factor loadings are above 0.55 and all Alpha scores are
above 0.86. Next, the inter-item correlations were examined
and it was found that all within construct inter-item
correlations are higher than across construct inter-item
correlations. Together, these indicate acceptable levels of
reliability and discriminant and convergent validity (Churchill,
1979; Nunnally, 1978).
Next, the data were subjected to confirmatory factor analysis
(CFA), and the results are presented in Table 1, along with the
AVE and C.R. scores (and Cronbach’s alpha scores). Table 2
presents the inter-construct correlation (f) and the square root
of AVE along the diagonal. All the ls are significant, AVEs are
above 0.59, C.R.s are above 0.88. Further, all the square roots
of AVE are greater than f estimates. Together, these suggest
that the measures for all constructs have acceptable levels of
reliability and discriminant and convergent validity (Anderson
and Gerbing, 1988; Bagozzi and Yi, 1988; Fornell and Larcker,
1981; Hair et al., 2010).
The issue related to common method bias (CMV) is
addressed in two ways. First, all scale items used were adapted
from existing literature and the respondent’s identity was kept
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anonymous (Chang et al., 2010; Podsakoff et al., 2003). In
addition, Harman’s single-factor test was used to check for
common method variance (Homburg et al., 2011; Podsakoff
et al., 2003). The result shows that the first factor accounts for
17% of the total variance, and the one-factor solution did not
explain the majority of the variance (it is less than 50%).
Together these indicate that CMV is not a problem in this
study (Jarvis et al., 2003).
Finally, the SEM procedure (using LISREL) was used to test
the hypothesized relationships presented in Figure 1 (Anderson
and Gerbing, 1988; Bagozzi and Yi, 1988; Bentler and Chou,
1987). The results for the hypothesized model estimations are
presented in Table 3 (Model 1). These provide support for
H1a–H1c, H2b,H2c and H3b, H3c; but not for H2a and H3a.
These suggest that the need to escape is only associated with
SMI attributes of fun (H1a – std. path coefficient = 0.19), but
not with glamor and connectivity; the need for self-
improvement is positively associated with SMI attributes of
fun, glamor and connectivity (H1b – std. path coefficient =
0.35, H2b – std. path coefficient = 0.45 and H3b – std. path
coefficient = 0.70); and overall image of SMI is associated with
all three SMI attributions – fun, glamorous and connectivity
(H1c–H3c – std. path coefficient = 0.27, 0.26 and 0.34,
respectively). In addition, the indirect relationship between the
need to escape and overall SMI image is significant (std. path
coefficient = 0.05; t-stats = 2.1) and the indirect relationship
between the need for self-improvement and overall SMI image
is also positive and significant (std. path coefficient = 0.34,
t-stats = 8.37).
To find support for the mediated relationships, i.e. H1d(i,ii),
H2d(i,ii) and H3d(i,ii), Hayes PROCESS Model 4 (Preacher
et al., 2007) was used in this study. The specification for the
analysis was 5,000 bootstrap samples and 95% bias corrected
confidence interval (CI). The results provide support for H1d
(i,ii), H2d(i,ii) and H3d(i), but not for H3d(ii). The results
show that H1d(i) – the effect of need to escape on overall image
of SMI mediated by attribution of fun is significant (b = 0.12;
95% CI = [0.08–0.16] and so is the H1d(ii) – the effect of self-
improvement need on overall image of SMI mediated by
attribution of fun (b = 0.13; 95% CI = [0.09–0.18]. Similarly,
H2d(i) – the effect of need to escape on overall image of SMI
mediated by attribution of glamor is significant (b = 0.07; 95%
CI = [0.04 to0.11]) as well as H2d(ii) – the effect of self-
improvement need on overall image of SMI mediated by
attribution of glamor (b = 0.11; 95% CI = [0.07–0.15]).
Finally, H3d(i) – the effect of need to escape on overall image of
SMI mediated by attribution of connectivity is significant (b =
0.09; 95% CI = [0.05–0.15]), however, H3d(ii) – the effect of
self-improvement need on overall image of SMI mediated by
attribution of connectivity is not significant (b = 0.06; 95%
CI = [
0.04–0.14]). The results for the mediation test are
demonstrated in Table 4. In addition, all the direct effects, i.e.
between overall image of SMI and both the needs- to escape
and for self-improvement were significant in all the models.
Finally, to get a more complete picture of the follower–SMI
relationship, a post hoc analysis was conducted by adding the
direct effects of needs for self-improvement and to escape on
the overall SMI image (Model 2 in Table 3). The direct effects
of both needs (to escape and for self-improvement) on overall
SMI image are positive and significant. Further, the results of
 Social media influencer Journal of Product & Brand Management
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Table 1 CFA for Follower needs and influencer characteristics

Item no. Constructs and scale items Std l t-stats AVE CR Alpha
Glamorous (GLM) 0.79 0.95 0.95
A1 He/she is beautiful 0.98 l set to 100
A2 He/she is pretty 0.98 72.96
A3 He/she is good looking 0.96 60.12
A7 He/she is glamorous 0.75 24.89
A17 He/she is fashionable 0.73 23.25
Fun (FUN) 0.71 0.88 0.86
A4 He/she is funny 0.92 29.64
A5 He/she is humorous 0.94 l set to 100
A6 He/she is interesting 0.64 16.72
Connectivity (CNCT) 0.59 0.85 0.84
A14 He/she speaks my language 0.69 16.84
A15 He/she is like one of us 0.84 l set to 100
A16 He/she is like me 0.85 21.90
A24 He/she represents me 0.67 16.15
Escape (ESC) 0.72 0.89 0.89
B2 He/she makes me escape my reality 0.86 24.62
B4 He/she makes me forget my problems 0.89 l set to 100
B8 He/she is a good escape mechanism 0.80 21.96
Self-Improvement (SELFI) 0.68 0.91 0.91
B10 He/she offers helpful tips 0.74 20.22
B11 He/she helps me become more confident 0.86 26.66
B12 He/she helps me become better 0.88 l set to 100
B13 I learn a lot from my favorite celebrity 0.81 23.63
B14 He/she gives a comfortable feeling 0.82 24.21
Overall (OVER) 0.64 0.90 0.90
O1 SMI leads an exciting life 0.83 22.01
O2 SMI has so much fun 0.84 l set to 100
O4 SMI is fun to follow 0.82 21.86
O5 SMI adds excitement to my life 0.75 19.20
O6 SMI is an inspiration to me 0.76 19.59

Notes: Chi-Square = 1,028.15; df = 260; p-value = 0.00; GFI = 0.86; AGFI = 0.83; NFI = 0.96; NNFI = 0.97; CFI = 0.97; IFI = 0.97; RFI = 0.96; RMSEA =
0.076; Std. RMR = 0.071; N = 508 (583 initial)

Table 2 Convergent and discriminant validity

Variable names GLM FUN CNCT ESC SELFI OVER AVE CR Alpha
Glamorous (GLM) 0.89 0.79 0.95 0.95
Fun (FUN) 0.35 0.84 0.71 0.88 0.86
Connectivity (CNCT) 0.32 0.57 0.77 0.59 0.85 0.84
Escape (ESC) 0.22 0.40 0.47 0.85 0.72 0.89 0.89
Self-improvement (SELFI) 0.42 0.43 0.72 0.60 0.82 0.68 0.91 0.91
Overall (OVER) 0.40 0.45 0.39 0.42 0.49 0.80 0.64 0.90 0.90

Notes: Diagonal elements are square root of AVE; Off-diagonal elements are inter-construct correlation (w) estimates

the post hoc analysis confirm the results found in Model 1,
except for H3c. The positive relationship between connectivity
and overall image (H3c) becomes insignificant. In addition, the
indirect effects of both the need to escape and self-
improvement on the overall SMI image becomes insignificant.
Discussion
The rise of SMIs is changing the landscape of marketing and
branding. As SMIs have a significant influence on their
followers, brands are approaching SMIs to promote their
products and services. However, the reason these followers
view and follow their favorite SMIs is still unclear. This lack of
understanding of how followers view SMIs is critical for
marketers as it may hinder endorsement effectiveness.
Therefore, this study adds to the literature by investigating the
SMI–follower relationship from the followers’ need fulfillment
perspective. Following the basic assumptions of human brand
theory and attachment theory (Ainsworth and Bowlby, 1991;
Thomson, 2006), a conceptual model that explains the factors

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Table 3 SEM results of hypotheses testing–follower needs and influencer characteristics

Models Model 1 (hypothesized model) Model 2 (post hoc model)
Exo. Endo. Std. Path
Exo. Constr. Endo. Constr. Std. Path Coeff. t-stats Constr. Constr. Coeff. t-stats
Hypotheses Direct effect Direct effect
H1a ESC FUN 0.19 3.4 S ESC FUN 0.19 3.31 S
H1b SELFI FUN 0.35 6.2 S SELFI FUN 0.35 6.19 S
H1c FUN OVER 0.27 5.84 S FUN OVER 0.23 4.77 S
H2a ESC GLM
0.04
0.73 NS ESC GLM
0.04
0.75 NS
H2b SELFI GLM 0.45 7.93 S SELFI GLM 0.45 7.92 S
H2c GLM OVER 0.26 5.85 S GLM OVER 0.2 4.52 S
H3a ESC CNCT 0.06 1.22 NS ESC CNCT 0.05 1.08 NS
H3b SELFI CNCT 0.7 12.81 S SELFI CNCT 0.7 12.73 S
H3c CNCT OVER 0.18 3.71 S CNCT OVER
0.08
1.21 NS
H1d–H3d Indirect (mediated) effects Indirect (mediated) effects
(i and ii) ESC OVER 0.05 2.1 S ESC OVER 0.03 1.48 NS
reflect the SELFI OVER 0.34 8.37 S SELFI OVER 0.11 1.93 NS
mediated Direct effects
effects ESC OVER 0.16 2.91 S
SELFI OVER 0.28 3.4 S
v2 1,104.68 1,069.17
df 265 263
p-value 0 0
GFI 0.84 0.85
AGFI 0.81 0.81
NFI 0.96 0.96
NNFI 0.96 0.96
CFI 0.97 0.97
IFI 0.97 0.97
RFI 0.95 0.95
RMSEA 0.082 0.08
StdRMR 0.095 0.087

Notes: S = significant/supported at p-value <0.05; NS = not-significant/not-supported

Table 4 Indirect effects results (Hayes PROCESS Model 4)

Indirect effects b LLCI ULCI
Escape fi Fun fi Overall Image 0.117 0.078 0.162
Self-improvement fi Fun fi Overall Image 0.132 0.087 0.184
Escape fi Glamorous fi Overall Image 0.073 0.041 0.109
Self-improvement fi Glamorous fi Overall Image 0.109 0.070 0.153
Escape fi Connectivity fi Overall Image 0.094 0.052 0.145
Self-improvement fi Connectivity fi Overall Image 0.060
0.014 0.139

that followers attribute to SMIs based on their intrinsic needs is
built and examined. Specifically, this study suggests that
individuals follow their favorite SMIs because they help them
fulfill their intrinsic needs, i.e. the need to escape and improve
themselves. In this SMI–follower attachment process, based on
the intrinsic need fulfillment, i.e. escape and/or self-
improvement, followers attribute fun, glamor and connectivity
to these SMIs, leading to the overall positive SMI brand image.
Specifically, when followers are motivated to fulfill their need
for self-improvement they feel attached to the SMIs whose
human brand persona is funny, glamorous and connecting.
These findings extend the prior literature which shows that
SMIs who are esthetically pleasing can benefit individuals by
enriching their imagination and fulfilling their need for ideality
(Ki et al., 2020). Because, esthetics have evolutionary benefits
(Dutton, 2003) and brands with good design and esthetics are
linked with consumer’s sense of self (Townsend and Sood,
2012), the findings of this study show that the esthetic
dimension of SMIs’ human brand persona is also associated
with one’s need to self-improve. Similarly, the followers’
perception of SMIs as humorous and relatable helps them feel
attached to these SMIs, which in turn contributes to their need
for self-improvement. Though self-improvement is often
considered a difficult and serious domain, the fun can make this
journey easy. Humor impacts the inspirational facet of
transformational leadership in formal as well as informal

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 Social media influencer
Aaminah Zaman Malik, Sajani Thapa and Audhesh K. Paswan
settings, as it increases the meaningfulness of the learning
(Tews et al., 2017). According to a review of LinkedIn
recommendations for the top 100 social media experts,
reputation for being lighthearted is one of the main
characteristics that distinguish them from others (Barry and
Gironda, 2018). Given this power of humor and fun, the
findings from this study are consistent with the literature that
fun is associated with one’s development and SMIs funny
human brand persona can play its role in the followers’ journey
of self-improvement.
In contrast, the findings suggest that if the followers are
motivated to fulfill their need to escape, they only attribute fun
or entertainment to the SMI. Literature in marketing shows
several consumption contexts acting as a way to escape
consumers from the worries of their everyday lives
(Csikszentmihalyi, 2000; Heatherton and Baumeister, 1991;
Holmqvist et al., 2020). This paper extends this literature by
linking followers’ need to escape to their relationship with SMIs
in the digital age. Because people use the online platform to
have an escape from everyday life to the more imaginary and
illusionary life (Korgaonkar and Wolin, 1999; Orchard et al.,
2014), this study demonstrates fun to be an important
dimension of the SMI human brand persona that facilitates this
channel of escapism. However, glamor and connectivity are not
significantly associated with one’s need to escape. A possible
explanation could be that glamor and connectivity require
effort and hard work and cannot be taken lightly. While glamor
and the fashion industry are serious businesses, building
connections requires being open, vulnerable and effort. When a
person is trying to escape his/her life’s drudgery, the last thing
they want to add is more work or effort.
Interestingly, when the mediated effects of attribution of fun,
glamor and connectivity on the relationship between overall
image of SMI and need to escape and for self-improvement are
examined, all indirect effects are significant except for the
relationship between self-improvement and overall image of
SMI mediated by connectivity. It seems that when followers
feel to fulfill their need to escape and self-improvement, they
attribute fun and glamor to SMI which in turn results in overall
image. However, connectivity is only attributed when need to
escape is dominant and not when self-improvement is the need.
Finally, in the post hoc model (Table 3) when the direct effect
between the two intrinsic needs (escape and self-improvement)
and overall image are added, the association between
connectivity and overall image and the indirect effects of the
need to escape and self-improvement on the overall image
becomes insignificant. A possible explanation could be that if a
person views their favorite SMI as an effective escape
mechanism, they are enamored by the SMI, and there is no
need for any attribution as a mediator. In addition, it is possible
that connectivity and self-improvement are strongly correlated,
and the presence of direct effect of self-improvement on overall
image dominates the effect of connectivity on overall image.
Theoretical and practical implications
With the recent trend of companies using SMIs endorsements
to enhance their product and brand image, the findings of this
study have important theoretical as well as managerial
implications. From a theoretical standpoint, this study adds to
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the SMI literature by extending the nomological network of
why followers follow SMIs and how it influences their overall
perception of the SMI as a human brand. While the extant
literature focuses on the SMIs traits that influence their
followers (Arora et al., 2019; Audrezet et al., 2020; Ki and Kim,
2019), only a few discuss SMI–follower relationship from
followers’ standpoint (Balaban and Must
at ea, 2019; Coates
and Boyland, 2021; Konstantopoulou et al., 2019). The
current study contributes to the literature by examining the
followers’ need fulfillment as an important motivational factor
to develop SMI–follower need-based attachment relationship.
The notion of intrinsic need fulfillment through the SMI–
follower relationship delivers a parsimonious yet powerful
explanation of the mental foundation of an otherwise elusive
phenomenon. For example, the present study’s findings explain
why not all attributes associated with the successful SMIs are
necessarily related to the specific need fulfillment, even if those
attributes carry an influence on the followers in several other
ways. This is because not all attributes that are important for a
successful SMI are intended to either satisfy all needs at all or
any specific need. It would be interesting to dig deeper into the
possible reasons why connectivity is not attributed when
followers need to self-improve themselves.
Moreover, this study contributes by integrating the human brand
theory with attachment theory to show how the human brand
persona of SMIs influences the same way as contemporary brands
do. In line with these theories, this study shows that followers feel
attached to those SMIs whom they see as a source of fulfilling their
intrinsic needs (escape and self-improvement). While literature
discusses the role of SMIs in fulfilling followers’ need for ideality,
need for relatedness and need for competence (Ki et al., 2020), the
current study extends the literature by adding two more intrinsic
needs i.e. need to self-improve and need to escape. Moreover, this
study also demonstrates the factors that are associated with the
fulfillment of these needs.
In addition, while the psychology of fun is not consumption-
specific, this study contributes by examining fun and escapism
between consumers and human brands. According to the
distinction between “escaping from” and “escaping to”,
consumers escape “from” everyday social settings when the
primary motive is to get away and escape “into” something
where the purpose is the immersion into an alternative reality or
imagined experiential context (Cova et al., 2018). Based on this
premise coupled with the notion that social connectedness
amplifies the fun experience through freedom from something
or escapism (Oh and Pham, 2021), this study successfully
demonstrate that followers find an escape from their daily life
stresses and get escape into the funny persona of the SMIs.
The findings of this study have important implications for
SMIs as well as marketers looking to partner with SMIs. The
significant relationship between follower’s self-improvement
need and attributions such as glamor, fun and connectivity
suggests that SMIs who are fashion influencers or who posts
humorous content should be sponsored by the brands that focus
on targeting young consumers who are more concerned about
themselves (Xu, 2008) and are on the hunt of self-improvement/
enhancement products. In addition, SMIs who are seen as funny
help followers escape their reality is an intuitive but important
finding for marketers. People, nowadays, are stressed out and are
continuously looking for ways to escape from their reality
 Social media influencer
Aaminah Zaman Malik, Sajani Thapa and Audhesh K. Paswan
(American Psychological Association, 2020). Therefore, helping
them escape their realities can be a winning strategy for brands to
gain consumers’ loyalty. Brands could approach SMIs who post
fun content to persuade these audience groups. It is also possible
for brands to find out these audiences through different
behavioral tracking software.
Marketers may take note of to whom to collaborate with to get
the highest benefit. For example, self-improvement product
marketers might enhance their SMIs marketing efforts by
collaborating with SMIs who demonstrate higher levels of
glamorous or funny sides. Last but not the least, the results of this
study also provide insights into SMIs during a time of crisis. During
the COVID-19 pandemic, people have been trying to escape the
realities of the world momentarily and were getting into several
activities such as gardening, cooking, baking and so on. Because fun
has the only significant relationship with escape, it can be noted that
SMIs should try to post content that brings smiles to followers’ faces
for them to help escape the worries of the pandemic.
Limitations and avenues for future research
Although the present study adds to the literature on SMIs by
examining the SMI–follower attachment, it is not without
limitations, which can provide future research avenues. To start
with, only two needs of followers – escape and self-improvement
are explored in this study. Future studies could explore other
needs of followers, such as the need to belong, self-esteem needs
and the associated SMIs’ attributes to fulfill these needs. Another
limitation of this study is the concern of generalizability. The data
was collected in the USA. Therefore, future research could
explore whether the results hold in other cultures and other
demographic groups. The collectivist culture might have more
people in their social circle and/or living with other family
members; therefore, they might attribute their need to escape and
self-improvement to different factors than what is found here.
While the findings of this study suggests that followers turn
to SMIs as an escape from aversive consequences of
introspection, or in pursuit of compensating for their
deficiencies, the overdependence on them may prove harmful
as well. Literature suggests that attachments with celebrities
(Giles and Maltby, 2004) may bring undesirable outcomes, as
deeper levels of such attachments appear to be pathological
(McCutcheon et al., 2002). Future research should include
additional variables to more carefully map degrees of intrinsic
needs fulfillment to assess both positive and negative or
pathological, aspects of relationships with SMIs. In addition,
individuals are likely to perceive other people, things and
services differently throughout their lifespan (Loureiro and
Roschk, 2014). Consequently, followers’ age might affect the
way they perceive SMIs as well. For example, older individuals
possess greater maturity and have higher emotional control,
and their decisions are driven by heuristic or schema-based
processing (Yoon, 1997). The way they escape the realities of
their life and enhance themselves might be different from
younger consumers. Future studies could also look at the
relationships tested in this study in different contexts. Further,
this study looks at SMIs in general, it is possible that SMIs may
play slightly different role and are evaluated differently when
the industry or area is more specialized. For example, will the
hypothesized model and the constructs used hold true in
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gambling sector or video gaming sector to name a few. Perhaps
other needs or attributes might become more salient. While
some of the themes or constructs found in the inductive study,
e.g. professional, skillful, real-time, convenient, free, exploring,
being different and unpredictable were not included in this
study, they may be relevant in different sectors that are more
skill or expertise based. Future studies could use qualitative
analyses tools to identify additional constructs to enrich our
understanding of the SMI phenomenon.
Although both qualitative and quantitative methods were used
in this study, to gain more insights on the studied relationships,
future research could employ experimental studies to examine
the hypothesized relationships. The variables – need to
escape and self-improvement could be manipulated to test the
robustness of the current study’s findings. Furthermore, all data
were self-reported, which makes the result susceptible to social
desirability bias. Measuring the actual behavior might be
something future researchers could use. In doing so, behavioral
tracking and the use of big data analytics can be helpful to gauge
followers’ motivation to build a relationship with SMIs. Research
shows that individuals are more likely to display their feelings on
social media (Mahoney et al., 2019). Thus, using social media
data, by scraping an online influencer and followers’ database, it
may be possible to measure the actual behavior of followers and
their overall perception toward SMIs (Tafesse and Wood, 2021).
Furthermore, future studies may examine the influence of
followers’ intrinsic need fulfillment through the SMI–follower
relationship on different outcomes such as happiness. Following
SMIs may help individuals escape the misery and reality
momentarily and can rejuvenate an individual, thereby reducing
stress and anxiety. Also, when individuals are self-improving, it
makes them happy (Sheldon and Lyubomirsky, 2009).
Therefore, while the findings of this study suggest that SMIs help
followers fulfill certain needs, it is important to study how their
need fulfillment influences different aspects of their lives. Despite
these limitations, this research enriches the understanding of
SMIs as human brands and the associated attributes from the
perspective of followers’ needs. Finally, it is hoped that the
findings of this study inspire more research attention into other
possible needs that enhance followers’ attachment to SMIs.
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Appendix 1

Table A1 Sample demographic distribution

Variable Response options (%)
Gender Male 45.1
Female 54.9
Age <20 yrs 9.1
20–24 75.2
25–30 10.2
>30 yrs 5.5
Work Full time 20.9
Part-time 55.3
Do not work 23.8
Education status Finished high school 73.4
Finished undergraduate 26.6
Marital Status Single 85.0
Married or living together 13.8
Divorced/separated 1.2
Time spent on Internet/day <2 h 9.8
3–4 h 29.5
5–6 h 28.9
7–8 h 14.6
9–10 h 9.1
>10 h 8.1

Note: N = 508

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Appendix 2

Table A2 EFA results – rotated (Varimax) factor structure

Factors labels and scale items 1 2 3 4 5 6
Glamorous (GLM)
He/she is pretty 0.93
He/she is beautiful 0.93
He/she is good looking 0.91
He/she is glamorous 0.80
He/she is fashionable 0.77
Self-improvement (SELFI)
He/she helps me become better 0.85
He/she helps me become more confident 0.79
I learn a lot from my favorite celebrity 0.75
He/she gives a comfortable feeling 0.70
He/she offers helpful tips 0.67
Overall (OVER)
SMI leads an exciting life 0.84
SMI has so much fun 0.83
SMI is fun to follow 0.80
SMI adds excitement to my life 0.74
SMI is an inspiration to me 0.37 0.73
Connectivity (CNCT)
He/she is like one of us 0.79
He/she is like me 0.79
He/she speaks my language 0.69
He/she represents me 0.49 0.55
Escape (ESC)
He/she makes me escape my reality 0.88
He/she makes me forget my problems 0.82
He/she is a good escape mechanism 0.79
Fun (FUN)
He/she is funny 0.87
He/she is humorous 0.87
He/she is interesting 0.60
% Variance explained (total = 77.26) 17.00 15.79 14.56 10.26 10.12 9.53
Cronbach’s Alpha 0.95 0.91 0.9 0.84 0.89 0.86

Note: One factor variance explained = 40.77%

Corresponding author
Audhesh K. Paswan can be contacted at: Audhesh.
Paswan@unt.edu

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