Office Notes

Office Management Notes
UNIT I
INTRODUCTION TO OFFICE MANAGEMENT
INTRODUCTION:
Office is an administrative unit of an organization where all the actions and activities assigned to
or required or expected of a person or group to accomplish the professional working of an
organization. It is like a religious service which is to be performed everybody working in the
office as has been prescribed by the higher authorities.
An office is a room or area in which people work, but may also represent a position within an
organization with definite duties allotted to all those who are working in the office such as officer,
office-holder and other officials.
It is a place where clerks and officers work together by doing lot of table work and filing the same
in the systematic manner. It is a functional area of an organization where work is performed to
manage the entire functioning of the organization and its businesses. In modern world, office is
represented as the place to perform functions by the office staff. It performs the function of brain
of the organization, as it includes planning, organizing, co-coordinating, controlling and decision
making. Therefore, office has become the integral part of the business which requires adequate
skill and intelligence to perform the work effectively and efficiently. It is a unit where relevant
records for the purpose of control, planning and efficient management of the organization are
prepared, handled and preserved. Office provides facilities for internal and external
communication and co-ordinates of different departments of the organization.
Office is a place to perform confidential work that is related to the provision of office
management services to the various groups of people, without passing the services by other people.
People who are holding such office management positions conduct extraordinary studies and from
the results of these extraordinary studies, they develop information. Besides developing reports,
they also make available contribution to management on the growth of policies and procedures.
Office management may also provide paralegal support, and are able to outline communication
for organization, plan appointments, etc.
Source: Meaning-Office.aspx.htm
DEFINITION:
Organizing and administering the activities that normally occur in any day-to-day business office
environment. An office manager is one who has the administrative responsibilities of office
management.
Source: office-management.htm
CONCLUSION
Office is a place in which business, clerical, or professional activities are conducted. A duty or
function assigned to or assumed by someone. A position of authority, duty, or trust given to a
person, as in a government or corporation: the office of vice president.
Assorted notes from various sources Page 1 of 53

OFFICE FUNCTIONS
The functions of a modern office may be classified in two categories.
I Basic functions (or routine functions) and
II Administrative management functions.
l. Basic Functions
The basic functions of an office may be analyzed under the following headings:
1. Receiving information: information relating to the activities of an organization may be
received from a variety of sources, which may be internal sources or external sources.
From internal sources information may be received from various departments, sections or
divisions of the organization. From external sources, it may be received from suppliers,
customers, visitors, other organizations, government departments etc. examples the form
in which information is normally received are letters, telephone calls, orders, invoices and
reports on the various activities of a business. In addition to receiving such information as
may come into the business, the office has the duty of obtaining any further information
which the management may require.
2. Recording Information: The object of keeping records is to make information readily
available to the management, whenever required. For this purpose, the information that is
received is converted into some form of written record. the records normally kept in a
business office include financial and cost accounts, orders, progress of work, hours worked
by employees, Correspondence, etc. While some records are required to be kept by law,
some others should be kept to meet the needs of the management in planning and
controlling the business. The records so maintained by the office serve as a reference
library for future use.
3. Arranging information: information accumulated by an office is rarely in the form in
which it is given out; facts have to be gathered from various sources and calculations,
tabulations etc., may have to be made. An office is responsible for supplying information
in the form which best serves the purpose of the management and this is a function of the
highest importance and which must be carried out by a properly trained staff. Examples of
arranging information are: preparing invoices payrolls cost accountings statements,
statistical statements, and report,
4. Giving Information: An n office furnishes information from its records as and when it is
required by the management. The information required by the management may be of a
routine nature or of a special nature, and may be supplied verbally or in writing. Examples
of giving information are orders, estimates, invoices, progress reports, statistical and
financials statements and instructions issued on behalf of the management. All this work
involves typing, duplicating, telephoning, mailing, teleprinting etc.
ll. Administrative Management Functions:

Apart from the basic functions of an office, there are certain administrative management functions
which have to be performed for a smooth functioning of the office. These functions are outlined
below:
1. Management Functions: For the efficient functioning of an office, the management

functions include:
a) Planning;
b) Organizing;
c) Staffing;
d) Directing;
e) Communicating;

f) Controlling;
g) Co-ordinating;
h) Motivating.
Office work has to be properly planned and then organized and executed according to the
plan. A proper control must be exercised over office activities, and the affairs of the
different individuals and departments in the organization must be coordinated.
2. Public Relations Function: an office has not only to maintain cordial relations with other
departments in the organization but also with outsiders. It has therefore to perform public
relations function as well. Good public relations enhance the reputation and goodwill of
the organization. Public relations include the reception service, the liaison service, etc.,
provided by the organization.
3. Instituting Office Systems and Routines: systems and routines indicate a planned and
systematic approach to the problem of management. A system may be regarded as a
planned approach to the attainment of desired objectives. An office routine may be defined
as a series of steps in the performance of office work, each step in the series being
performed in the same order and in the same way every time. A procedure is a planned
sequence of operations for the handling of recurring business transactions uniformly and
consistently. Office routines, systems and procedures, etc should be developed to ensure
an uninterrupted and smooth flow of office work so that it may be efficiently performed
4. Retention of Records: Office records include correspondence, letters, invoices, orders.
Financial and cost records, reports, statistical records, minutes etc. These records have to
be retained for future reference. Apart from maintaining records, which is a basic function,
an office has to perform functions like those of filing and indexing, and the preservations
and destruction of outdated records.
5. Safeguarding Assets: It is the function of an office to safeguard the assets of the
organization, which mat be fixed or movable assets. Vital records such as major contracts
must be properly protected, cash must be held in safety or banked; stock record must be
properly maintained and deficiencies may be immediately brought to the notice of the
management, fixed assets should be protected against hazards of fire and theft by taking
out suitable insurance policies and by other means.
6. Form Designing and Control: Since office work is mostly paper work, office forms are
extensively used to perform the recording function of the office.' A form is a standardized
record which is used to accumulate and transmit information for reference purposes".
Office forms serve as a store-house of information. It is the task of the management to
design, standardize, produce and control the forms to be used in the office as well as the
other departments of the organization.
7. Stationery and Supplies Control: Office work requires the supply of office stationery of
suitable quality and in adequate quantity. lt is the duty of the office to carefully procure
and maintain an adequate supply of stationery items. Since stationery is a very costly item
these days, it should be bought at competitive prices in economic order quantities,
reasonable levels of stock must be maintained and made available at all times; and it
should be issued only against authorized requisitions and stored scientifically to avoid
damage, loss or deterioration.
8. Selection and Purchase of Office Appliances: Office work also requires adequate
equipment and machines- furniture, fixtures, telephones, intercom systems, Dictaphones,
calculators accounting machines filing cabinets and drawers, typewriters duplicators etc. lt
is the duty of the office manager to purchase the right type of machines, equipment or
furniture and also to maintain these in efficient working order.
The principles which should be followed in the selection of office appliances include:
a) Full and proper use;
b) Suitability for the purpose for which purchased;

c) Simplicity of operation and maintenance;
d) Flexibility and adaptability to different uses and
e) Analysis of cost and benefit. Appliances should be purchased keeping in view the
financial resources of the organization.
9. Personnel Function: the efficiency of an office depends on the personnel manning it. The
personnel should bee scientifically recruited and trained, and assigned work after a proper
appraisal. The personnel function is performed by the personnel department, which is
generally assisted by the office. The office manager must make a provision of adequate
and trained staff to ensure the systematic, timely and efficient performance of office work.
Job evaluation and merit ratings should be periodically done; the staff should receive
reasonable remuneration and should be properly motivated to attain the best performance.
Opportunities for betterment and promotion should be made available to the office staff.
10. Controlling Office Costs: With the adoption of scientific methods for office management,
a modern office is further supposed to discharge the function of controlling office costs. "T his
may be done by:
(a) Mechanization of the office;
(b) Adopting time and labour saving devices in the office'
(c) Using better forms;
(d) Analyzing the existing office routines and adopting improved ones.
Source: R.K.chopra & Ankita chopra (office management)
Importance if office management
Production Marketing
OFFICE
Collecting,
Processing,
Storing and
Distributing
Information
Finance Personnel
The importance of an office to a business enterprise may be further studied with the help of the
following points:

1. Office as information Centre: An office may be described as the information centre of a
business. It collects information from all sources, internal and external records, it arranges
and analyses it and provides it to the management when required. The information
furnished by an office helps the management to forecast and plan its operations well. An
office is also called a "storehouse of information or a "memory centre of an organization.
2. Office as an intermediary: An office connects different departments with the outsiders
and vice versa. It is office that links the business organization with its suppliers, customers
the government and the general public. It is, in short, responsible for:
i. Attending to enquiries, orders and complaints of its customers and suppliers;
ii. Creating a good image of the organization in the minds of people and
iii. Maintaining liaison with the Government and other institutions.
3. Office as a Co-ordinator: processing of information in a modern office may be grouped
under four headings: namely communications, written and oral, computing and
summarizing operating results, record keeping through accounting and filing records and
systematization and cost reduction- through systems and procedures analyses. These four
activities are necessary for the efficient co-ordination of production, distribution and
financing of the merchandise or services in a business concern. It keeps contact with all
the other departments and provides necessary information and knowledge for the Co-
ordination of the various activities of the organization.
4. Office as a Service Centre: Since an office is the focal point in a business organization
for the co-ordination of the work of production, distribution finance and personnel, its
activities are in the nature of services to all the other departments and to the business as a
single unit. Frequently an office is referred to as the office services department. It exists to
provide clerical and other services to the various departments divisions sections 'or
branches of the organization and cannot operate apart from them.
5. Office as an Administrative Nerve Centre: As an inclusive executive function, an office
acts as a administrative nerve centre. It helps in making the decisions about the products to
be manufactured and sold, when to purchase materials, what reports to prepare, and a
variety of similar activities. It becomes the heart of all business activity, t through which
circulates information on purchases, sales, finances and communication.\
6. Office as Control Centre: An office also acts as a control centre of the organization,
since it helps the management to take decisions and implement them. lt prepares and
presents all the necessary data information and plans to the management so that it might
take decisions. It is the office where all the policy decisions originate, and it is from there
that the activities of the organization are controlled and remedial or corrective action taken
to ensure that the objectives of the organization are accomplished
Source: R.K.chopra & Ankita chopra (office management)
OFFICE MANAGER
Office manager is a profession related to office supervisory positions.

People that hold office management positions conduct special studies and based on the results of
these special studies, they develop reports. Apart from developing reports, they also provide input
to management on the development of policies and procedures. Office management may also
provide paralegal support, and may draft correspondence for management, schedule appointments,
etc.

An office manager is an employee charged with the general administrative responsibilities of any
given office of a corporation. In small and medium sized companies the task is often given to the
corporation's accountant. In large companies there will often be several offices in several
geographical areas, and each one will have an office manager.
Office managers supervise administrative support workers, such as office clerks and secretaries,
and coordinate administrative support activities. They work in all types of business and
government offices. Office managers may head the entire office in a small firm or administrative
support operations in a department of a large company. In either case the manager is responsible
for directing workers and seeing that their jobs are done efficiently.
Office managers often decide what administrative support duties are needed in their department or
company. Office managers decide what qualifications are necessary to perform the job. For
instance, an office manager in an accounting firm may decide that an applicant requires a
bachelor's degree to fill the job of accounting clerk. In many offices the manager helps to hire
administrative support staff and is in control of promotions. Office managers devise training
programs for new workers. Some are also responsible for determining salaries and working
conditions. Managers make sure that job duties are not unnecessarily duplicated in the office.
Managers often redefine duties in order to achieve maximum efficiency. They may devise a new
job or eliminate an existing job. For instance, if a receptionist has too much filing to do, another
person may be hired to file. Then the receptionist is free to answer telephones and greet visitors.
Office managers decide how much time it should take to do each job. Much of a manager's time is
spent planning and developing work schedules. If new equipment would make a process more
efficient, the manager orders the necessary machinery. For example, a faster copying machine
might be ordered to reduce the time it takes employees to make copies.
Office managers are responsible for reporting to higher management and acting as liaisons
between administrative support and the senior management.
Source: Office%20management%20%20Wikipedia,%20the%20free%20encyclopedia.htm
FUNCTIONS OF OFFICE MANAGER
The office manager is the coordinator of the work system. An office manager is responsible for
planning, organization, and controlling the clerical aspect of the organization, including the
preparation, communication, coordination and storage of data to support production and other
important operations of an industrial establishment. Often he also engages in marketing. Her tasks
are to monitor the work processes and to evaluate the outcome. The outcomes of work are
intended for what can be called the final receiving system, as for instance, client, customer, and
other departments.
Their role is to coordinate on the front and by giving assignment. An office manager usually leads
or manages a team of secretaries or administrative clerks. She/He takes care of the assignment of
tasks inside the department whereby the more complex tasks come to his account.
Positions allocated to usual classification perform a combination of the following office

management functions:

 Budget development and implementation
 Purchasing
 Human resources
 Accounting
 Printing
 Records management
 Forms management
 Payroll
 Facilities management
 Space management
 Risk management
 Grants administration
 Affirmative action and equal employment opportunity
 Information technology and telecommunications
 Monitoring the management of health and safety in the company office
 Assisting senior managers in identifying health and safety needs in their departments
 Responsibility for the day to day running of the office
 Liaising with senior managers to ensure that staff in the division have
appropriate information technology equipment
 Managing a range of budgets including accommodation, health & safety for company
 Plan, consult and manage office moves for the division and other units within
the department
Source: Office%20management%20%20Wikipedia,%20the%20free%20encyclopedia.htm
He has to control his office. The office manager is important for the smooth running of the
organization. He is in-charge of the public relations. He helps other departments to achieve their
goals. He has complete control over the work done in the office. He has to select (he persons-right
persons for the right jobs. He will have to work and carefully to see the polices laid down by the
management are implemented. He is the connecting link between the top management and the
workers. Workers approach him for their grievances and difficulties and manager has to redress
them. If he is not able to do the needful, he must place it before the management.
He has to work and safeguard the firm, where he is an office manager; his primary duty is to the
management and secondary duty to the workers. He must please both the parties; if each one of
the parties is annoyed or neglected, he will be regarded as a bad manager. He has to select the
right person for the right job for that he invites applications, conducts interviews and selects
personnel.
Discipline in the office depends upon him. The rules and principles of the management should be
followed by the subordinates. He must have ability to speak. New methods cannot be accepted,
unless full explanation is followed. He has to convince others about the fact findings.
Source: file:///off%20mgr/of%20mgr.htm
PLANNING
Concept
Planning involves setting objectives and deciding in advance the appropriate course of action to
achieve these objectives so planning is setting up of objectives and targets and formulating an

action plan to achieve them .Another important ingredient of planning is time. Plans are always
developed for a fixed time period as no business can go on planning endlessly.
Meaning:
Planning is deciding what needs to be done, when and how it needs to be done, and who is to do it.
It is process through which managers determine goals and devise ways of accomplishing them. It
is concerned with ends(what is to be done) as well as means (how it is to be done). It bridges the
gap from where we are to where we want to go.
Definitions:
Koontz and O’Donnell, “Planning is an intellectually demanding process; it requires the

conscious determination of courses of action and the basing of decisions on purpose, knowledge
and considered estimates.”
Tansik & Chase” Planning is the process of setting a course of action designed to accomplish
given goals in the predicted environment.”
Characteristic of Planning:
 Primary task of Management

 Intellectual Process
 Future Oriented
 Decision Oriented
 Goal Oriented
 Forecasting is the essence planning
 Continuous and Dynamic activity
 Planning is the basis of control
 Planning has a time dimension
Importance of Planning:
 Focuses attention on objectives of the company: Planning function begins with the setting
up of the objectives, policies, procedures, when employee follows these plans they are leading
towards the achievement of objectives.
 Planning offsets uncertainties: Planning helps the manager to face the uncertainty because
planners try to foresee the future by making some assumptions regarding future
 Improves efficiency and leads to economical operations: The predetermination of action
avoids confusion and clashes and wastage of resources.
 Established coordinated efforts: Without planning, departments could be working at cross-
purposes and preventing the organizations from moving efficiently toward its objectives.
 It facilitates Decision-making: Planning helps the managers to take various decisions These
predictions and goals help the manager to take fast decisions.
 Encourages innovation and creativity: Planning process forces managers to think differently
and assume the future conditions. So, it makes the managers innovative and creative.
 Facilitating control: The function of controlling is based on comparison between the planned
goals and the actual performance of subordinates. There is no way to measure control without
plans to use as standards.

 Planning provides direction: Controlling means comparison, between planned and actual
output and if there is variation between both then find out the reasons for such deviations and
taking measures to match the actual output with the planned.
Planning Process
Setting up Developing Listing the

Selecting an
of the premises for various
objectives each alternatives Alternative
alternative
Follow up Implement
Formulation of
supportive plan
 Setting up of the objectives: The managers set up very clearly the objectives of the company
keeping in mind the goals of the company and the physical and financial resources of the
company. Managers prefer to set up goals which can be achieved quickly and in specific limit
 Developing premises for each alternative: Premises means making assumptions regarding
future whenever the managers are listing out the alternative ways of reaching the objective.
For each alternative manager make some assumptions.
 Listing the various alternatives for achieving the objectives: After making the list of various
alternatives along with the assumptions supporting them, the manager starts evaluating each
and every alternative and notes down the positive and negative aspects of every alternative.
 Selecting an Alternative: A manager usually finds that the premises on which some of the
alternatives are based are unreasonable and can therefore be excluded from further
consideration. This elimination process helps determining which alternative would be best to
accomplish organizational objectives.
 Formulation of supportive or derivative plans: After preparing the main plan, the
organization has to make number of small plans to support the main plan. These plans are
related to performance of routine jobs in the organisation.
 Put the plan into action or implement the plan: Once plans have been developed, they are
ready to be put into action. The plans should furnish the organizations with both long range
and short range direction for activity.
 Follow up: Once a plan is put into action as per schedule, its monitoring is equally important.
In course implementation, many adjustments may be required to achieve the given objectives.
For example, if the sales target of an engineering company is to sell 1,200 refrigerators per
year, then the company will see it that at least 100 units are sold per month to achieve the
yearly target on time.
Source: GS Sudha

ORGANISING OFFICE
MEANING OF ORGANISATION
Organizing is co-ordinating the efforts of different individuals working in an enterprise to achieve

its goal. It integrates the various jobs in the enterprise into effective organization system for
achieving firm’s objectives.
Definition:
“An identified group of people contributing their efforts towards the attainment of goals is called
an organization.”
“It is the process of identifying and grouping activities assigning duties, delegating authority,
establishing relationships among members and allocating resources for accomplishing specific
objectives.”
Organization Structure
Characteristics of the organization:

 It is a group of persons
 Attainment of common objective.
 It is a deliberate creation
 It is a continuous process
 Division of work is done.

The Organizational Process
This process involves determining what work is needed to accomplish the goal,
assigning those tasks to individuals, and arranging those individuals in a decision-
making framework The end result of the organizing process is an organization — a
whole consisting of unified parts acting in harmony to execute tasks to achieve goals,
both effectively and efficiently.
1. Review plans and objectives.- Objectives are the specific activities that must be
completed to achieve goals. Managers must examine plans initially and continue to
do so as plans change and new goals are developed.
2. Determine the work activities necessary to accomplish objectives. -Managers
simply list and analyze all the tasks that need to be accomplished in order to reach
organizational goals.
3. Classify and group the necessary work activities into manageable units. -A
manager can group activities based on four models of departmentalization:
functional, geographical, product, and customer.
4. Assign activities and delegate authority.- Managers assign the defined work
activities to specific individuals. Also, they give each individual the authority (right)
to carry out the assigned tasks.
5. Design a hierarchy of relationships. -A manager should determine the vertical
(decision-making) and horizontal (coordinating) relationships of the organization as
a whole. Next, using the organizational chart, a manager should diagram the
relationships.
AUTHORITY AND RESPONSIBILITY

Authority is the formal right of a manager to make decisions, issue orders, and allocate
resources to achieve organizationally desired outcomes. A manager's authority is defined in
his or her job description.
Organizational authority has three important underlying principles:
 Authority is based on the organizational position, and anyone in the same position has
the same authority.
 Authority is accepted by subordinates. Subordinates comply because they believe that
managers have a legitimate right to issue orders.
 Authority flows down the vertical hierarchy. Positions at the top of the hierarchy are
vested with more formal authority than are positions at the bottom.
In addition, authority comes in three types:
 Line authority -Line managers are always in charge of essential activities such as
sales, and they are authorized to issue orders to subordinates down the chain of
command.
 Staff authority supports line authority by advising, servicing, and assisting, but this
type of authority is typically limited. For example, the assistant to the department
head has staff authority because he or she acts as an extension of that authority.
 Functional authority is authority delegated to an individual or department over specific
activities undertaken by personnel in other departments. Staff managers may have
functional authority, meaning that they can issue orders down the chain of command
within the very narrow limits of their authority.
Delegation of authority:
Delegation is the downward transfer of authority from a manager to a subordinate.
Delegation leads to empowerment, in that people have the freedom to contribute ideas and do
their jobs in the best possible ways. Without delegation, managers do all the work themselves
and underutilize their workers. Managers need to take four steps if they want to successfully
delegate responsibilities to their teams.
Responsibility:
“It is the duty to which a person is bound by reason of his status or task. Such responsibility
implies compliance with directives of the person making the initial delegation. In another
sense it is an obligation of a person to perform activities and duties which are assigned to him.
Span of control (sometimes called span of management) refers to the number of workers
who report to one manager. A wide span of management exists when a manager has a large
number of subordinates.
Generally, the span of control may be wide when
 The manager and the subordinates are very competent.

 The organization has a well-established set of standard operating procedures.
 Few new problems are anticipated.

A narrow span of management exists when the manager has only a few subordinates. The
span should be narrow when
 Workers are located far from one another physically.

 The manager has a lot of work to do in addition to supervising workers.
 A great deal of interaction is required between supervisor and workers.
 New problems arise frequently.
Centralization and Decentralization / Departmentalization

Allen has defined these terms as- “Centralization is the systematic and consistent reservation
of authority at Central points within the organization.
Decentralization applies to the systematic delegation of authority in the organization-wide
context.”
Decentralization / Departmentalization
It refers to the dispersion of organization functions into separate autonomous units for eg.
production, marketing, Finance, etc.
It can be
 Geographic decentralization
 Functional decentralization.
Degree of decentralization depends on:

 Size of organization
 History of organization
 Management philosophy
 Availability of managers
 Control technique
 Rate of change in the organization
Centralization refers to the reservation of authority at top level of the organization i.e. all powers
are with the top management.
A variety of factors can influence the extent to which a firm is centralized or decentralized.
The following is a list of possible determinants:

 The external environment in which the firm operates. The more complex and
unpredictable this environment, the more likely it is that top management will let low-
level managers make important decisions.
 The nature of the decision itself. The riskier or the more important the decision, the
greater the tendency to centralize decision making.
 The abilities of low-level managers. If these managers do not have strong decision-
making skills, top managers will be reluctant to decentralize. Strong low-level
decision-making skills encourage decentralization.
 The organization's tradition of management. An organization that has traditionally
practiced centralization or decentralization is likely to maintain that posture in the future.
Source: C.A.Module

Location of Office
Every office manager should give a full and proper consideration to a suitable location for his
office. It is an important consideration because an unsuitable location may result in a waste of
resources and efforts and loss of time inconvenience to office staff as well as to the persons
dealing with it. The problem of location arises under the following conditions:
1. At the time of starting business
2. At the time of expansion and diversification
3. The lease of the office premise has expired.
4. Shifting of the business.
Principles of location:
1. When office staff is small, the office may be located in the same building where the other
activities like manufacturing, sales etc. are carried out.
2. When office staff is large, the office should be located in a separate building.
3. When all the business functions are carried on at one location, it is better that the office
should be in the same location so that it may serve all the functions of the business.
Choosing office location

There are 5 choices where the office can be located:
1. When all the business functions are carried on at one location, it is better that the office
should be in the same location.
2. Which function of the business does the office serve most? If financial, then the office
would be near the financial head.
3. If the office serves the sales function, then the office would be near the sales head quarters.
4. If the office serves production or manufacturing function, then the office would be near
that function.
5. Decision as to its location may depend as to its location may depend upon factors like
neighbourhood, daylight available, transportation, fresh air, cleanliness, rent etc.
Urban or suburban location

The important points to be considered in the location of an office are where it should be situated-
in an urban area or- in a suburban area.
Urban location:
Merits:
i. Nearness to related trade
ii. Nearness to service facilities like banks and post offices
iii. Easy access to customers
iv. Availability of communication facilities
v. Better transport facilities
vi. Abundance of recreational and municipal facilities
Demerits:
i. High rent, rates and taxes
ii. Traffic congestion and overcrowding
iii. More noise, dust and fumes

iv. Less scope for expansion
v. High cost of living for employees
vi. Polluted and unhygienic environment.
Suburban area:
Merits:
i. Accessibility to customers
ii. Nearness to main transport routes
iii. Low rents and taxes
iv. Less congestion and less crowding
v. Quiet and hygienic environment
vi. Much scope for future expansion and modernization
vii. Lower cost of living
Demerits:
i. Lack of communication facilities
ii. Lack of service facilities
iii. Lack of adequate facilities
iv. Lack of recreational and municipal facilities
Factors affecting location:

1. Proximity to related trade: it is desirable to have an office near other offices which are
engaged in the same line of trade or near the centre of general business activities. Eg.
Share and stock brokers firms are grouped around stock exchanges.
2. Proximity to other departments: when all the functions of a business are carried on at
one location, the office should be located in the same location. But when different
functions are carried on at different places, the office should be either located at some
central place or at the location of the main function of the business so that it may
function in a better and more effective way.
3. Nearness to service facilities: the office building should be located near such service
facilities as banks, posts and telegraph offices, railway stations, markets, trade or stock
exchanges etc. when an office handles large amount of cash, it may be located near a
bank. Similarly an office engaged in mail order business should be located near a post
office. Office should be located at such a place which does not get dust, noise, fumes and
is not overcrowded.
4. Nearness to transport facilities: the locality in which an office is situated must be
adequately served by transport services of all kinds. This is necessary for the
convenience of the office staff and customers dealing with the office as well as for the
smooth operation of the business. The location of an office near a railway station or a
port or a bus or air terminal is of special advantage to the business.
5. Accessibility to factory or warehouse: many industrial houses set up factories outside the
town so as to secure:
i) raw material in nearby places
ii) other essential conditions
iii) cheap land
iv) freedom from restrictions
In such a case, those sections of the office which are engaged in production and dispatch,
designing, processing, accounting and costing should be maintained near factories or
warehouses, while the sales offices may be maintained in urban areas.
6. Availability of labour: large offices generally employ different types of personnel like,
supervisors, stenographers, typists, cashiers, clerks, computer programmers, etc. when

specialized labour is required and when such labour is mobile, an office may be located
near the source of such labour. However in most cases, because of large scale
unemployment and underemployment in the country, this factor does not play any
significant role in the determination of an office location.
7. Building Restrictions: if the purchase of a building for the office is contemplated, the
office managers must ascertain before hand whether there are any restrictions on
building or the use to which the building may be put, either in conveyance deed or in any
local municipal rules & regulations or in any state or central legislative enactments. In
the presence of any restrictions, the decision of the office location may have to be
changed.
OFFICE LAYOUT
After acquiring the building for the office, the next important task before the office manager is
office space planning or office layout.
Acc. To Littlefield: “office layout may be defined as the arrangement of equipment within the
available floor space.” It can be described as the arrangement of different departments, equipment
and men within a given floor space with a view to make optimum utilization of space and ensure
maximum efficiency of the office.
The object of the office layout is to make arrangements for the placing of men, materials,
machines, furniture and equipment within the available floor space of the office in such a way that
everything can be utilized in the best possible manner. An office layout involves:
i. The determination of the correct amount of space for each employee and for machinery
and equipment they use.
ii. The correct arrangement of furniture, equipment and machinery
iii. The best possible environmental conditions.
Objectives of Layout
1. the space should be used to the greatest extent
2. service should be available where needed
3. good working conditions should be provided
4. the supervisor should be able to see the staff at work
5. communication & work flow should be facilitated
6. movement of clerks between desks, filing cabinets etc., should be mad easy
7. noisy & distracting operations should be segregated
8. Mutual interference between clerks should be avoided
9. privacy & security should be provided
Principles of Office Layout

ln order to reap the advantages of an efficient layout, an office manager should bear in mind the
following principles:
1. Location of Departments: He should identify the various departments in the organization
and their relations with one another. Each department should be allotted a convenient
taking into consideration the possibilities of its expansion. Departments which are closely
inter-related should be placed adjacent to each other. Office services should be located in a

place which is equidistant from the departments that are served by them. The following
point may be noted:
a. The general office, which provides services to other departments, should be located
at the central place.
b. Departments dealing with the public should be located near the entrance.
c. The cash department should be kept separate.
d. The accounts department, drawing office, designing department should be separate
from general office.
e. All the departments using noisy equipments should be grouped together.
2. Flow of work: the layout should be in the form of straight line, a circle or a U shape. The
layout should ensure a continuous flow of office work, equipments man should be
arranged that work will not require any backward moment.
3. Space Requirement for staff & equipment: Each employee should be allotted sufficient
space to handle his work efficiently. The amount of space required by each employees
should be determined by :
a. Nature of his work
b. Size & shape of desk
c. Space between desk
d. Placement of windows & doors
e. Space required for storage of files, stationary & other items.
f. No. of pvt. Offices
g. General facilities & amenities.
4. Number of Private Offices: These are separate rooms, cabins which are partitioned off
from the other parts of the office. Provision for private offices shuld be discouraged and
restricted as far as possible. They require more space and increase the expenses on lighting,
ventilation, heating etc.Private offices are generally provided for high officials or
executives and for the following reasons:
a. As a matter of prestige or status of the executives
b. For the performance of work of a confidential nature
c. For work requiring mental concentration
d. For visitors who come to see the executives
The modern trend is to reduce the no of pvt. Offices & to provide more open space for office work.
5. Use of Partitions: The use of partitions is becoming more popular these days, for they
Provide flexible substitutes, for private offices. they offer the following advantages:
They do not cause waste of space
They provide privacy without any interruption in flow of work
They facilitate supervision
They do not create problems of lighting and ventilation
6. Special Purpose Rooms: All good offices provide for a reception room and a conference'
room. A reception room should be attractive and well-decorated and should be located
near the entrance or the main gate. The conference room should be provided for business
executive to hold Meetings for group discussions conduct interviews, etc. Such rooms
should be located either on the top floor or at some distance from the general office
7. Safety: A good office layout should eliminate office hazards. It should provide adequate
no. of exits
8. Provisions for amenities: Office layout should have the provision of telephone, lifts,
washing room, toilets, rest room, drinking water, canteen etc.
9. Flexibility & expansion: Office layout should be adjustable & be capable of expansion
according to organization requirement.

Preparing the Layout
After the above principles and factors of layout have been studied and analyzed, a scaled
Model of the floor plan should be prepared to show the details of the office layout. The followings
steps should be taken while preparing a drawing of an office layout:
1. Drawing or blueprint of the available area should be prepared.
2. The areas of the main work should be determined.
3. The inter-relationships between equipment, information and personnel in the flow of work
should be determined.
4. A plan of flow of work, office systems & procedures and hierarchical relationships
between individuals should be prepared.
5. Space for reception room, conference room and private offices should be allotted.
6. Lighting, heating, ventilation and air-conditioning schemes should be shown.
7. The type of furniture & equipment schemes & future expansion plans should be indicated.
Re-layout
Re-layout means changing the existing planning the layout afresh. A re-layout may become
necessary for the purpose of improving the existing layout or adjusting it to the changed
environment. Dartnell has mentioned the circumstances 'in which the present layout should be
reviewed:
 when there is an increase or decrease in personnel
 When the flow of work is changed by new procedures;
 When more work space is required
 When work piles up at one station while others wait
 When work is lost in transit
 When employees complaint of bad lighting or ventilation
 When employees appear to have difficulty in moving about the office;
 When overcrowding of personnel & record room is apparent;
 When buying mew equipments or replacing old equipment
 When there is a change in the organization structure.
 When alterations to the space are to be made;
 Where there are lease difficulties;
 When functions have been added or deducted
 When the balance of the sexes changes radically;
 When some persons have been promoted
Layout checklist
 Avoiding overcrowding.
 Ease of daily cleaning
 Staff not facing directly into light
 Proximity of cloakroom & toilet
 Comfortable furniture.
 Non-slip floors and stairs.
 Fencing any exposed moving parts of office machines.
 Minimizing staff movements.
 Place filing cabinets near staff using them.
 Group together staff with related activities.
 Adequate space between desks
 Positioning supervisors at appropriate points.

 Separate noisy machines from staff who are engaged in work requiring high concentration.
 Put close work near to natural lights
 M minimize paper movement by designing according to work flow.
 Adequate space for main aisles and sideways.
Advantages of Good Layout

A good office layout offers the following advantages:
1. Increase in Efficiency
2. Reduction in Cost
3. Effective supervision
4. Optimum use of Machines and Equipment
5. Better and Speedy Inter-Communication
6. Lesser Costs of Office Systems
7. Better Morale:
8. Improves goodwill
Source: R.K. Chopra, Ankita Chopra (office management)

UNIT II
OFFICE MACHINERY AND EQUIPMENT
INTRODUCTION:
No office is possible without machines and equipments. Machines and equipments are introduced
with a view to speeding up the administrative process, increase accuracy and relieve employees
from monotonous work. Eg. Photocopy machines, calculators, typewriters, printers, computers,
fax machines etc.
Objects of Mechanization:
Machines should not be installed to tackle the volume of work or to bring about distinctive
improvement in results or to perform a new type of work which is either impossible or
economically prohibitive, if manually performed. Specifically, the following objects are important
in assembling the desirability of mechanizing office tasks:
1. labour savings
2. Time savings
3. Accuracy
4. Minimization of frauds
5. Effects on personnel
Advantages of Mechanization:
1. Better quality of work
2. Lower operating cost
3. Improved efficiency
4. Facilitates control
5. Greater accuracy
6. Relieves Monotony
7. Facilitates standardization
Dis-advantages of Mechanization:
1. Worker’s resistance
2. High cost
3. uneconomical
4. Require Special skills
5. Less flexibility
6. Risk of Obsolescence
7. Surplus staff
8. Dominance of machines
Criteria for selection of office machines:

Following are the factors that should be kept in mind while selecting an office machine:
1. Ease in operations
2. Flexibility
3. Durability
4. Portability
5. Adaptability
6. Service
7. Operating cost
8. Reputation of the supplier
9. styling
10. Cost
Leasing versus purchasing office equipments:

A trend that seems to be gaining ground these days is to lease capital equipment- office building,
office furniture and machines etc. the advantages of leasing over purchasing are:
1. Reduced Capital Outlay on Equipment: Less working capital is tied up in the business &
the outlay on capital account is less than on outright purchase. The same capital invested
in merchandise or in other projects would bring higher returns.
2. Cost plus contracts: leasing is practical for Cost plus contracts, which necessitates a strict
allocation of expenses.
3. Temporary or fill in needs: leasing is advantageous for companies whose future needs are
uncertain, equipment needed at the moment may not be permanently useful
4. Tax Benefits: It is a new way of writing off expenses for tax purposes.
5. Up-to-date Equipment: Under leasing, there is n need to retain obsolescent equipment.
6. Production Advantage: leasing offers production advantages in, the sense that it provides
some degree of protection against technological obsolescence.
7. Flexibility: Leasing provides flexibility in operations. The company that leases rather than,
owns a machine is often in a better position to avail itself of the latest technological
advances.
8. Trial Use: Suppliers may offer free trial of certain types of equipment or short periods. For
equipment not available for trail, or for equipment justifying longer and more intensive
trial before purchase, leasing arrangements may be available.
9. Servicing Provided: Leasing arrangements usually provide for servicing the equipment
leased.
Types of machines and equipments

1. Typewriter
a. Standard typewriter
b. Portable typewriter
c. Noiseless typewriters
d. Electric typewriters
e. Automatic typewriters
f. Variable typewriters
g. Typewriters with additional attachments
h. Special purpose typewriters
i. Electronic typewriters
j. Electronic typewriters with spell check
k. Standardizing the typewriters
2. Stenographic machines
3. Dictating machines
4. Duplicators or Duplicating machines
a. Gelatine duplicators
b. Spirit duplicators
c. Stencil duplicators
d. Electronic Stencil duplicators
e. Off set Litho machines
f. Type set duplicators
5. Photocopying machines: methods of photocopying:
a. Reflex methods
b. Diffusion transfer

c. Gelatine transfer
d. Direct positive
e. Dye-line
f. Electrostat
g. Thermal process
h. Dual spectrum
i. Microphotograph or microfilming
6. Accounting & tabulating machines
a. Adding machines
a. Adding listing machines
b. Non-listing adding machines
b. Calculating machines
a. Printing calculators
b. Key driven calculators
c. Rotary calculators
d. Automatic calculators
e. Electronic calculators
f. Slide rules
c. Cash registers
d. Coin hadling machines
e. Accounting machines
f. Tabulating machines
g. Billing machines
h. Payroll machines
7. Punched card machines
a. Punching machine
b. Punched card
c. Verifiers
d. Reproducing punches
e. Sorting machines
f. Interpreter
g. Collators
h. Tabulators
8. Addressing and mailing machines
a. Addressing machine
a. Metal plate machines
b. Film stencil machine
c. Spirit master process
b. Franking machine
c. Mailing machine
a. Letter opening machine
b. Paper folding machines
c. Inserting machines
d. Envelope sealing machine
9. Office computers
10. Desktop Publishing System
11. Latest innovations in computers
a. Premium business PC
b. Innovative pointing devices (mouse)
c. Tablet PC
d. Convertible tablet PC

e. Latest PC companions
f. Pen drives
g. PC note taker
12. Other Miscellaneous Machines
a. Time recording clocks
b. Payroll machines
c. Cheque writing machines
d. Cheque signing machines
e. Numbering machines
f. Impression machines
g. Laminators
h. Shredding machine
Source: R.K. Chopra, Ankita Chopra (office management)
COMMUNICATION
Communication is derived from a Latin word ‘communicare ‘that means to share, to make
common.
“Any act by which one person gives to or receives from another person information about that
person’s needs, desires, perceptions, knowledge, or affective states. Communication may be
intentional or unintentional; it may involve conventional or unconventional signals, may take
linguistic or non-linguistic forms, and may occur through spoken or other modes.”
Or in simple words;
Communication is the exchange of ideas, opinions and information through written or spoken
words, symbols or actions.
Communication is a dialogue, not a monologue. In fact, communication is more concerned with

a dual listening process. For communication to be effective, the message must mean the same
thing to both the sender and the receiver..
DEFINITION
Communication is sharing or exchange of meaning
1. The thing should be shared with someone.

2. What is shared should be meaningful.
If any of the above factors are absent, the process cannot be called communication.
Communication is an entire process. A process is a systematic series of actions.

Similarly in communication there are a systematic series of actions.
Communication Process
It is a two way process which takes place in the relationship between a sender and a receiver. The
communication process has following components:-

Sender: Sender is a person with ideas, intentions, information, and a purpose for communicating.
He is the source of the communication.
Message: The sender encodes meaning into a message that can be transmitted. The message
represents the source is trying to convey.
Encoding: The function of encoding is to provide a form in which ideas and purposes can be
expressed as a message.
Decoding: Decoding is the process by which the receiver interprets the message and translates it
into meaningful information.
Receiver: The receiver is the individual whose senses perceive the sender’s message.
SENDER ►► ENCODING ►► MESSAGE ►► DECODING ►►RECEIVER
FEATURES OF COMMUNICATION
1. It is a social process
In comm. process, individuals share thoughts, feelings, and facts and figures with others.
It all happens in a society.
2. It should be meaningful
If comm. is not meaningful it is useless. Therefore firstly, words must make sense and the
speaker must be clear about what he wants to explain.
3. Communication is conventional
Comm. has to be made in a definite language following the rules of grammar. Then it
must also follow the norms and culture of the organization.
For e.g. while flying an aero plane, the pilot has to tell the exact height in meters .If he
talks about approximate height it will not work.
4. Communication should be appropriate
It should be appropriate depending upon the relationship with the receiver and the
circumstances of the case .As for e.g. the tone, style and choice of changes depending upon
the person to whom we are talking.
5. All communication is interact ional
Communication is a two way process, therefore it is interact ional .At least two persons are
needed to complete the communication process.
6. All communication is structured
In written communication generally same words are used for a particular piece of
information. As for e.g. If a job application is rejected, then we usually start it as ‘we are
sorry to inform you that your application has not been accepted….’
7. Communication is conversational
Communication is needed not only to begin conversation but also to continue it.
Phrases like anyway, by the way, as a matter of fact are used to initiate conversation with an
unknown person.
Barriers to Effective Communication

An effective communication barrier is one of the problems faced by many organizations. Many
social psychologists opine that there is 50% to 70% loss of meaning while conveying the

messages from a sender to a receiver. They estimate there are four basic places where
communication could be interpreted wrongly. A few barriers of effective communication in an
organization are given below.
1. Physical Barriers –
One of the major barriers of communication in a workplace is the physical barrier. Physical
barriers in an organization include large working areas that are physically separated from
others. Other distractions that could cause a physical barrier in an organization are the
environment, background noise
2. Language –
Inability to converse in a language that is known by both the sender and receiver is the
greatest barrier to effective communication. When a person uses inappropriate words while
conversing or writing, it could lead to misunderstanding between the sender and a receiver.
3. Emotions –
Your emotions could be a barrier to communication if you are engrossed in your emotions for
some reason. In such cases, you tend to have trouble listening to others or understanding the
message conveyed to you. A few of the emotional interferences include hostility, anger,
resentfulness and fear.
4. Lack of Subject Knowledge –
If a person who sends a message lacks subject knowledge then he may not be able to convey
his message clearly. The receiver could misunderstand his message, and this could lead to a
barrier to effective communication.
5. Stress –
One of the major communication barriers faced by employees in most of the organization is
stress. When a person is under immense stress, he may find it difficult to understand the
message, leading to communication distortion. At the time of stress, our psychological frame
of mind depends on our beliefs, experiences, goals and values. Thus, we fail to realize the
essence of communication.
6. Psychological factors
the present state of mind. We all tend to feel happier and more receptive to information when
the sun shines. Equally, if someone has personal problems like worries about their health or
marriage, then this will probably affect them.
7. Individual linguistic ability
The use of difficult or inappropriate words in communication can prevent people from
understanding the message. Poorly explained or misunderstood messages can also result in
confusion. We can all think of situations where we have listened to something explained
which we just could not grasp
8. Physiological barriers
They result from individuals' personal discomfort, caused, for example, by ill health, poor
eyesight or hearing difficulties. In a situation where there are cultural barriers to enjoying
effective communication, overcoming the problem can involve learning more about acceptable
forms of communicating and listening in your partner's culture.
9. Poor Listening
You can prevent barriers stemming from miscommunication by listening more actively.
Paraphrase the message to be sure you understand and ask questions for clarity. When

delivering a message, keep your body open and available in order to strengthen a message
communicating this.
10. Lack of planning
When you have to give a speech, prepare what you'll say beforehand in order to prevent
talking in circles because lack of planning can create a barrier.
11. Cultural Barriers: -

Age, education, gender, social status, economic position, cultural background, temperament,
health, beauty, popularity, religion, political belief, ethics, values, motives, assumptions,
aspirations, rules/regulations, standards, priorities can separate one person from another and
create a barrier
12. Individual Barrier: -

It may be a result of an individual's perceptual and personal discomfort. Even when two
persons have experienced the same event their mental perception may/may not be identical
which acts as a barrier. Style, selective perception, halo effect, poor attention and retention,
defensiveness, close mindedness, insufficient filtration are the Individual or Psychological
barrier
13. Organizational Barrier: -
It includes Poor Organization's culture, climate, stringent rules, regulations, status,

relationship, complexity, inadequate facilities/ opportunities of growth and improvement;
whereas; the nature of the internal and external environment like large working areas
physically separated from others, poor lightening, staff shortage, outdated equipments and
background noise are Physical Organizational Barrier.
14. Interpersonal Barrier
Barriers from Employers are :- Lack of Trust in employees; Lack of Knowledge of non-verbal
clues like facial expression, body language, gestures, postures, eye contact; different
experiences; shortage of time for employees; no consideration for employee needs; wish to
capture authority; fear of losing power of control; bypassing and informational overloading,
while Barriers from Employees includes Lack of Motivation, lack of co-operation, trust, fear
of penalty and poor relationship with the employer.
DO'S FOR BREAKING THE BARRIER:
- Allow employees access to resources, self-expression and idea generation.

- Express your expectations to others.
- Use less of absolute words such as "never", "always", "forever", etc.
- Be a good, attentive and active listener.
- Filter the information correctly before passing on to someone else.
- Try to establish one communication channel and eliminate the intermediaries.
- Use specific and accurate words, which audiences can easily understand.
- Try and view the situations through the eyes of the speaker.
- The "you" attitude must be used on all occasions.
- Maintain eye contact with the speaker and make him comfortable.
- Write the instructions if the information is very detailed or complicated.
- Oral communication must be clear and not heavily accented.
- Avoid miscommunication of words and semantic noise.
- Ask for clarifications, repetition where necessary.
- Make the organizational structure more flexible, dynamic and transparent.
- Foster congenial relationship which strengths coordination between superior and subordinate.
- Focus on purposeful and well-focused communication.
- The message of communication should be clear and practical.
- Get Proper Feedback.
DO NOT’S FOR BREAKING THE BARRIER:
- Be a Selective Listener, this is when a person hears another but selects not to hear what
is being said by choice or desires to hear some other message.
- Be a "Fixer", a fixer is a person that tries to find other person's fault.
- Be a daydreamer.
- Use long chain of command for communication.
- Use too many technical jargons.
- Jump to conclusions immediately.
- Interrupt the speakers and distract him by asking too many irrelevant questions.
R.K.chopra & Ankita chopra (office management)
OTHER OFFICE SERVICES
Introduction
Office services are the specialized activities which are performed by employees and are also
known as office operations. In a large organization, various functional departments like
production, purchase personnel marketing etc, may have sectional offices providing only the
required clerical services to the corresponding departments. In such cases, the services provided
by each sectional office may be different.
These office services include

1. Communication- internal and external;
2. Typing and stenographic services;
3. Correspondence;
4. Reproduction (Duplicating);
5. Provision of stationery and supplies
6. Records management (filing and indexing)
7. Forms Design and Control;
8. Provision of office furniture and machines;
9. Collection of data and reporting to management;
10. Personnel services (employment and training of office employees);
11. Reception services;
12. Secretarial and clerical services;
13. Postal and messenger services
14. Data Processing;
15. Financial and accounting services;
16. Maintenance services

CENTRALIZATION AND DECENTRALIZATION OF OFFICE SERVICES

The office of large organizations is usually divided into a number of departmental offices, each
servicing a particular functional department, viz., production, purchases, sales personnel, etc. In
all these departmental offices, there are certain services $which are common e,g., correspondence,
typing duplicating filing indexing, etc. A typical problem before an office-manage is to decide
whether these services should be performed in separate departmental offices or whether they
should be centralized in a separate department.
Centralization: centralization of office services refers to the physical concentration of the

common office services in one department known as the Gentral office under the control and
supervision of the Office manager. Under this system, it is the duty of the General Office to
provide the common services to all departments as and when they are required by them. Theses
services are not, therefore provided in departmental offices. Following services are common to
different functional departments and that they should be centralized for reasons of economy and
efficiency
1. Mail: incoming, outgoing and inter-office;

2. Telephone telegraph and telex;
3. Reception of visitors;
4. Messenger service;
5. Duplicating service;
6. General clerical service;
7. Filing and indexing service;
8. Stenographic and typing service;
9. Computer service;
10. Stationery and office supplies;
11. Control of forms
12. Office cleaning and maintenance;
13. Clerical employment, training and supervision;
14. Attendance records and discipline;
15. Office employee services;
16. Library service;
17. Equipment maintenance and repairs service]
Advantages of centralization:
1. Better administrative control
2. relief to other departments
3. Facilitates Specialization
4. Flexibility
5. Facilitates standardization
6. Avoids duplication
7. Savings in cost
8. Improved quality of work
9. Facilitates Graduation of employees
10. More continuous services
Disadvantages of centralization:
1. delay in work
2. Secrecy not possible
3. Absence of departmental loyalty
Factors determining the feasibility of centralization

1. Nature of organization
2. Size of organization
3. Diversification of organization
4. Quality of personnel
5. Geographical set up of the organization
6. Attitude of personnel
Decentralization / Departmentalization: It refers to the dispersion of organization

functions into separate autonomous units for eg. Production, marketing, Finance, etc.
It can be
 Geographic decentralization
 Functional decentralization.
Degree of decentralization depends on:

 Size of organization
 History of organization
 Management philosophy
 Availability of managers
 Control technique
 Rate of change in the organization
Advantages of De-centralization:
1. Better Supervision
2. Departmental loyalty
3. Secrecy
4. Greater efficiency at lower cost
5. Savings in time
Dis-advantages of De-centralization:
1. heavy expenditure
2. Uniformity in policies and practices not achieved
3. Problem of Co-ordination occurs
4. Not flexible to changes
5. Absence of an adequate no. of specialize and technical personnel
Types of office services

1. Office Forms- controlling
2. Office Forms- Designing
3. Records Management
4. Office stationery & supplies
5. Office Correspondence
6. Mail service
I. Office Forms- Controlling

Office Forms

According to Leffingwell, “forms are printed sheets of paper or cardboard used to collect and
transmit information. “They are the basic tools of all office work and they assist in the
fundamental functions of receiving, recording, arranging and giving information in the office.
Denyer defines an office form as "'a printed piece of paper or card on which entries are usually
made against marked headings”
By using forms, every essential information required for an efficient conduct of the business is
recorded, arranged and transmitted in a systematic way. Moreover, the use of forms leads to a
considerable savings in time and energy, for they reduce the amount of manual or machine writing
To sum up “An office form is a printed piece of paper which provide sPace for entering records,
information or instruction which are to be conveyed to other individuals, departments or
enterprises.
Advantages of using forms:-

1) Simplify systems and routines.
2) Reduce cost of Office Operations
3) Facilitates Operations.
4) Preservations of Records
5) Fixation of responsibility
6) Facilitate Data Processing
Types of office forms

1. Single copy forms,
2. Multiple Copy Forms
3. Internal Office Forms
4. External contact forms
Forms Control
All Office forms are handled Thrice ,Someone has to put the Information on the Form,
Someone has to read and understand it after the information has been written down, and many
a times ,Someone has to copy the information than after everybody has seen it ,the forms are
filed, bound into book form or destroyed.
In view of this fact, careful attention should be paid to the design, proper use and effective
control of the form for that would ensure appreciable savings to any office.
If too much emphasis is laid on the use of forms, the result would be that the number and the
types of forms may increase more than is actually necessary and office work would
multiply .Instead of improving efficiency ,the usage of forms may adversely affect it and set
up the cost of office operation.
Objective of Forms Control:-
1) To Retain and use only those forms that are really necessary.
2) Ensure that the necessary forms are designed most efficiently and render the best
possible service at the lowest cost.
3) To produce forms by the most appropriate and economical method.
4) To provide copies of forms only to those who have a justifiable reason for having them.
5) To study whether the introduction of new forms, or the revision of old Forms is
essential
6) To review periodically all the forms in use.
7) To evaluate form design, on the basis of time required to use the forms.
II FORM DESIGNING
The Designing of Form is the important function of Office management .Since forms are the basic
tools of office System and routines, it is necessary that they should be well designs and complete
in all respects.
Disadvantages of badly designed forms:-
1) It hinders the working of the entire organization.

2) It inherits mistakes in clerical works.
3) It increases the manual Labour required.
4) It may have an adverse impact on the good will and reputation.
5) It may have a Physiological effect on the people using it.
Principles of Forms Design
1. Principle of Purpose: The purpose for which a form is required should be ascertained
before it is introduced. The general purpose of a form is to make clerical work easier than
would be possible if a blank sheet is used. W hen a plain sheet of paper can serve the
purpose. There is no need to introduce a form. The form designer should obtain answers to
the following questions, before introducing a new form:
a. What is the purpose of the form
b. If the form has more than one purpose, which is the most important?
c. Will the purpose of the form be fully accomplished by its use
d. Is there another form, for the same, or a similar purpose, now in use elsewhere in
the office?
A form should be used:

1) To record something;
2) When recording is done repetitively;
3) When it is necessary to record all relevant information at one place;
4) When it is desirable to fix the responsibility for the work done on individuals by
providing spaces for their initials on the form.
2. Principle of Standardization: According to this principle, the size of the form, the quality
of paper, the method of reproduction etc, should be standardized so that the maximum
economy in cost of forms may be achieved.
3. Paper and paper size: standard paper sizes should always be used where possible & the
forms should fit in available filing equipment. The size of the form should be the smallest
that will accommodate the information required. Paper quality should be in keeping with
the forms intended use.
4. Principle of centralized control: The process of designing, use, replacement, elimination,
etc of forms should be centrally controlled. Duplication of forms & retention of outdated
or forms & wastage in the use of forms can be avoided by having a centralized control of
forms under one executive who would be responsible for their design, printing etc.
Factors affecting form design

1. Purpose: forms should suit the pupose for which they are designed.

2. Ease in Use: forms should be so designed that they are easy to use. A form which is to
be used on typewriter or on a book keeping billing or adding machines should be so
designed that there is a minimum number of starting places for the typist, because each
new starting position on the form requires an extra operation in setting the machine.
3. Simplicity: forms should be simply designed so that everyone may easily learn their
use.
4. Title and Numbering: Every form should have a name and number. A name is more
easily remembered than a number. The usual practice is to give both on a form. To
avoid confusion all such names should be standardized and printed on the form
5. Proper size: No form should be longer or bigger than is necessary to ensure that what
is to be written on it is entered in a readable form.
6. Proper Type Face or Printing: The form should be easily readable.
7. Use of Proper paper: the quality of paper which is used should be appropriate to the
purpose, having regard to the extent to which it will be handled and the methods pf
making entries on it.
8. Provision for punching, scoring, and perforation: Forms should aloe for the
operations of punching, scoring and perforating. If forms are to be punched for filing
standard spaces for holes should be provided. Scoring refers to the drawing of a line to
indicate the place at which a form is to be folded for the purpose of filing, storing, etc.
perforating refers to row of small holes, as on a sheet of postage stamps, or to a series
of short dashes which cut partially through the paper. Most printers are equipped with
perforating machinery, but the exact place for perforation should be indicated by the
form designer.
9. Other Elements in Forms Design: Apart from all these factors the following points
should be borne in mind when designing forms:
 Company titles should not be used on internal forms.
 A place for signature should be provided at the bottom right hand side of the
form.
 Instructions on filing in the form should as far as possible be placed at the top
of form.
 In designing a form, a ballot box type design should be encouraged so that only
the requisite data are recorded.
 Thickness of ruled lines should determine.
 Wherever possible, the form should be designed to accommodate the minimum
data
III RECORD MANAGEMENT
Meaning of records
The term record includes all forms of information processing media used by business.
They may be classified into the following categories:
1. Correspondence Records
2. Accounting Records
3. Personnel records
4. Legal records
5. Other business records
Introduction to Records management

Records management includes, the activities designed to control the life cycle of a record from its
creation to its ultimate disposition. The life cycle of record refers to the stages through which it
passes, including the following: creation, utilization, storage, retrieval and disposition.
Purpose of Records Management

According to Leffingwell and Robinson there are five main purposes of records. They are:
1. To keep an orderly Account of Progress
2. Facilitate preparation of statement of true condition
3. To facilitates comparisons
4. To detect errors and waste
5. Legal formalities
FILING
Filing is the form of record keeping. Documents are filed in order that they may be available for
use at some future date that is the precise purpose of making records.
Filing is the process of so arranging & sorting original records or copies of them, that they can be
readily located when required
Filing is the systematic arrangement and keeping of business correspondence and records so that
they may be found and delivered when needed for reference.
Filing has the following major objectives:

1. Proper arrangement of records
2. Proper sorting of records
3. Easy availability of records.
Record keeping versus filing: Record keeping in an office mainly consists of:
1. Maintenance of the books of accounts
2. Maintenance of statistical books;
3. Filing and indexing documents and written records
Planning the filing system:

1. Determining Period of Storage: All types of records and documents to be stored should
be listed, and their period of storage should be determined in consultation with different
functional departmental heads of the organization,
2. Acquiring Storage Space: Depending upon the needs of the organization & the available
funds for storage facilities, the storage space should be acquired and its layout planned.
3. Panning Storage Arrangements: The office manager should decide upon the storage
arrangements on the basis of the frequency of use of documents & the officer who will
need them.
4. Deciding Where to Store: The office manager should take into account the time available
for locating any file or record. This will help him to determine whether valuable
documents should be stored in the office or kept in safe custody with the bank.
5. Determining Equipment Needs: The filing equipment required should be properly
estimated & the necessary almirahs, filing cabinets, drawers etc should be procured.
6. Protection of Records: what arrangements should be made for protecting the records
from loss or damage should be decided upon.
7. Determining system of classification: A proper system of classification of records should
be selected.
8. Training the Staff: Proper arrangements should be made to train the staff handling the
files. Accuracy should be especially stressed.

INDEXING
An indexing is anything that points out or indicates. It is a ready guide to the location of the
required file record. It is the process of determining the documents which are to be filed. It is an
important aid to filing and finding because when a large number of files are maintained for
various purposes, they can be located or indicated by some sort of a guide which is known as the
index. It is a reference list for locating a particular document in the life.
Indexing Vs. Classification: The term indexing should not be confused with Classification.
Classification is a method of filing, while indexing is basically a reference to the matter filed.
Self Indexing: The index may either be kept apart from the records to which it refers, or the
record themselves may be so arranged as to be self indexing. If the files are arranged
alphabetically, chronologically or geographically in an alphabetical order, there is no need for the
separate index for the order of the files is self indexing?
When a separate index is employed, two steps are necessary to reach the record, firstly, the index
should be consulted and secondly, the record should be located. When, however, a record is self
indexing, only one reference is necessary.
Advantages of Indexing: A good system of indexing offers the following advantages:

1. Indexing helps the filing clerk to locate easily the documents and letters concerning a
particular correspondent. Thus it facilitates location.
2. A good system of indexing ensures cross-reference and so saves time & efforts
3. Indexing improves the efficiency of the records administration
In order to achieve these benefits, a good system of indexing should be:

 Simple to operate and use
 Economical in operation
 Flexible to allow for expansion when required
 should go well with the system of filing in the organization
Steps in Filing and Finding Records

Following are the steps needed to be taken to filing the record:
1. Consulting The Index: The first step is to find out from the index the description and
location of the folder concerning that document or record. When files are arranged
alphabetically; a separate index is required. In such a case, only the files have to be
referred.
2. Fling the Document: lf a file folder is there, the document shall be placed there on top of
the other letters since in the folders, documents are filed chronologically
3. Making New Folder: If there is no file folder, a new one has to be opened for future
needs where the document is not an important one & a new folder need not be opened, it
may be placed in miscellaneous file in the alphabetical order.
4. Cross-Referencing: lf cross-referencing is required, t he document may either be filed at
the chief place and reference to it is made at other places or is copied out and a copy is
fixed at each place of reference
5. Placement of Folder: After filing the document, the file folder is placed in its proper
place in the filing cabinet.
Following are the steps needed to be taken to filing the record:

1. Tracing out the Fire Folder: The first step again is to consult the index and locate the particular
file folder or document now needed. Instead of index, files are directly referred in case of
alphabetical classification.
2. Removing the file: when the file folder is traced out, it hall be removed from filing
cabinet and an out guide card inserted in its place to indicate the destination, if the file is
sent to a particular person.
3. Miscellaneous File: Where the document is in a miscellaneous file, the file should not be
removed. Instead only the document shall be removed and an out guide card placed in the
appropriate point. The document shall be placed in a temporary file and sent to the person
who wants it.
4. Rifling: When the concerned file, folder or document is returned to the filing section after
reference to it has been made, the file or document should again be placed at its
appropriate point by removing the out guide card placed there earlier.
IV OFFICE STATIONERY & SUPPLIES

Office stationery & supplies are described as those expendable items which are consumed in daily
operations and are usually thought of as items obtained from the stationer. It includes paper,
carbon papers, fax rolls, computer sheets and rolls, paper clips, rubber bands, staplers etc.
Importance of stationery
Arrangement for adequate and proper stationery and other office supplies is necessary to enable
the office staff to perform their work efficiently and effectively. The amount of money spent on
stationery and office supplies varies from office to office and would largely depend upon nature
and size of the business. The expenses on these items would be more in an insurance company, a
bank or a big business house and less in a steel mill, a handicraft emporium or a small undertaking.
On an average in terms of costs, stationery and offices supplies rank next to the cost of personnel
in an office.
Reasons to control office stationery & supplies

1. Avoidance of Losses: the loss of office stationery and supplies may originate in a number
of ways:
a. Careless handing of stationery articles
b. Overstocking of articles
c. Defectives storekeeping & careless use
d. Deterioration in stationery items
e. Defective purchase and supply of sub-standard materials
2. Cost: Stationery and supplies are a costly item; they cost a lot in terms of purchase price,
proper storage and proper issue. The cost of office supplies not only comprises the cost of
these items but also the following:
a. The cost of space occupied including the cost of lighting, ventilation and heating;
b. Depreciation of storage equipment and handling equipment, e.g., cabinets trolleys
and ladders;
c. Interest on capital tied up in stationery stocks
d. Labour cost of keeping and issuing stationery stocks.
3. Right Type: The right type of stationery and supplies should be bought. Poor quality
paper, carbons or envelopes of an improper size results in lot of wastage& create a poor
impression on those who receive them. Proper care should therefore be exercised in

selecting the various items of stationery for office use. This necessitates control over
stationery and supplies.
4. Availability: Stationery and supplies should be available in an adequate quantity & at all
times. If they are purchased in abundance.
a. Bigger capital will be blocked with no returns

b. Extra storage space will be required
c. There will be the risk of obsolescence
On the other hand, a short supply of such items will create an out of stock position leading to
numerous difficulties.
Selection of supplies:
The selection of supplies precedes their purchase. Selection is the process of choosing the right
type of supplies which suit the purpose for which they are required. Supplies may be classified in
two main categories: standard branded products and non-standard products. The difference is
usually in the quality. The guidelines should be checked for the following things:
1) Paper
2) Carbon paper
3) Typewriter Ribbon
4) Staplers
5) Pencils, pens & ball pens
Standardization of office supplies

Standardization of office supplies is an important job in any big office. It means that stationery
items should be identical in terms of quality, size & description. Standards can be laid down for
almost every kind of stationery. The process of standardization involves the laying down of exact
size, quality, dimensions and other specification of each item of supplies.
Purchasing supplies
There are 6 principles for purchasing of stationery & office supplies:
1. Purchasing of the right quantity;
2. Purchasing of the right quality
3. Purchasing from the right source
4. Purchasing at the right time.
5. Purchasing at the right place
6. Purchasing at the right price
Purchase Procedure
Whether the purchasing is centralized or decentralized, it is necessary to have a scientific
procedure for the purchase of office stationery and supplies. The standard purchase procedure,
which may be usefully employed by different types of organizations, may be followed:
1. Purchase requisition: The first step in the purchase procedure is the origination of a
requisition in the department needing the stationery items. When storage and purchase are
decentralized, the department needing stationery sends the purchase requisition to its local
purchase section. But when they are centralized, the department sends a requisition to the
centralized department's 'storekeeper, who in turn, issues a purchase requisition for items
which have reached their minimum level.

2. Determining Purchase Quantities: After receiving the purchase requisition, the office
buyer determines the quantities of the various items to be purchased. Large quantities
generally bring quantity discount. However it may not be prudent to buy large quantities at
a time. For one reason, certain items deteriorate when they are held in stock for a long
period. Carbon paper and typewriter ribbons dry out, white paper turns yellowish, and
erasers harden and liquids evaporate. Besides new products may be available which may
be preferred to those held in stock.
The quantity to be purchased should be determined after a careful consideration of the
following factors:
a) The exact quantity in hand
b) The average rate of consumption;
c) The storage space available;
d) he cost of storage including capital equipment;
e) The saving to be effected by bulk purchasing;
f) The possibilities of change;
g) The minimum and maximum quantities to be held in stock;
h) The time needed to get the supplies; and
i) The risk of deterioration, obsolescence etc.
To determine the quantities, the heads of departments using them should always be
contacted. The suggestions of the users of stationery should be considered and
incorporated in the policy governing the procurement of supplies.
3. Selecting the Source of Supply: After determining the quantities, next step is to select the
source of supply. Different methods of purchasing may be used in different situations. The
purchasing department should maintain a file containing information about the sources of
supply, quotations, price lists, catalogues, etc. Samples of various items of different
manufacturers should also be retained. Efforts should be made to discover new source of
supplies. Dependence on old suppliers should be avoided, for it restricts the firm’s choice.
Wherever possible, orders for sufficiently large quantities should be placed directly with
the manufacturers or with their local office.
4. Negotiating the Price: Once a supplier has been selected, the next step is to with him
most favorable price, terms and conditions of supplies. Sometimes it is better to negotiate
with more than one supplier.
5. Placing the Order: A purchase order is placed with the selected supplier which should
contain a detailed description of the supplies, the specifications of materials, the rates
settled and the terms and conditions as agreed upon by the parties. Big firms generally
have printed order forms of which are used when placing an order. The orders should
indicate the mode of delivery, the terms of payment and the delivery date. It is generally
signed by the purchase officer or the purchase manager. In organized offices, four (or even
more) copies of the purchase order are prepared- one copy each is sent to the supplier, the
storekeeper and the requisitioning department, and one is retained by the Purchase
department itself for purpose of record.
6. Cancellation, Duplication etc., of Order: In certain circumstances, for instance, when the
supplier does not supply the ordered items on or before the delivery date - the order may
have to be cancelled. In such a case, a fresh order has to be placed with some other source
of supply so that supplies may be received before the stock-out position is reached. Again
when some more purchase requisitions have been received after the placement of the order

of those items, the ordered quantity may be increased by sending a duplicate order for the
same or more or less quantity.
7. Follow-up of Order: Once an order has been placed, it would be proper to follow it up so
that supplies are received in time. Follow-up action includes sending reminders, visiting
the supplier’s place personally or through some authorized person and ensuring the
dispatch of the goods in time. lf the supplier fails to send the supplies in time, the follow-
up action would involve an immediate search for an alternate source of supply. The names
of defaulting suppliers should be struck off the list of suppliers
8. Receipt and Inspection of Goods: On the receipt of goods, a Goods Received Note is
prepared, which should show the following:
 Date
 Purchase order Number
 Goods Received note Number
 Supplier’s name and Address
 Mode of Transport
 Complete description of goods received.
 Condition of Material received.
 Discrepancies in quality, quantity etc ,with remarks
 Space for signature of receiving official.
Issue of stationery and supplies

Procedure
When stores are centralized, and more particularly in large offices, the following procedure for
issue of st stationery and other supplies may be adopted:
1. Written Requisition: A stationery stock should be issued only upon a written requisition
which should be signed only by specified persons; otherwise it should not be honored. In
no circumstances should supplies be issued at personal requests.
2. Time of issues: T he issue of stock should take place only at specified times and on
specified days
3. Place of Delivery: Stocks should preferably be delivered to the person making the
requisition rather than requesting him to call for them. This should reduce the loss of
working time. The storekeeper should have his own arrangements for delivery at the place
of work.
4. Unit of issue: The issues ought to be made in specified unit, e.g., a dozen pencils; six
refills 100 sheets of paper, etc. The items should be kept in unit pecks so that prompt
counting, handling and issue may be facilitated.
5. Record of issue: The issues should be properly recorded in the Stationery and supplies
register and in the issue register. Different pages should be allotted to different items so
that the stock position of each may be easily determined. When items are issued against an
authorize requisition, the data of the requisition, particulars of quantity, the description of
the item, the name of requisition or department etc. should be entered in the Register.
6. Preparing Purchase Requisitions: Whenever the balances stock of any item a pre-
determined level the storekeepers should prepare a purchase requisition and forward it to
the appropriate authority. Is so authorized, he may also prepare a purchase order.
Control of Consumption
The following procedure may be followed to control & regulate the consumption of stationery
supplies:

1) Fixing responsibility
2) Charging the Cost
3) Packing of items
4) Careful selection of items
V OFFICE CORRESPONDANCE
Correspondence means communication in writing as between individuals and institutions on
matters of common interest.
Office Correspondence may be internally or externally. Internal correspondence refers to
Correspondence between 2 individuals, department or branches of the same office, or of any 1 of
them with the head office of the organization & vice versa. External correspondence refers to the
correspondence of the office with outside individuals, business firms, companies & other
organizations.
ORGANISING CORRESPONDENCE
Correspondence may be centralized by creating a separate correspondence section or department
or it may be decentralized, that is, it may be carried on by each of the department individually.
Centralized correspondence
In a centralized correspondence section, a correspondence supervisor should be appointed to look
after all the correspondence. But even in case, separate secretaries of top executives may be
appointed to handle their own specialized correspondence.
Advantages: the advantages of a centralized system of correspondence are:

1) Correspondence is specialized. As a result there is greater proficiency & high standard of
work.
2) Centralized correspondence facilitates effective follow-up & leads to better results by
ensuring better continuity in correspondence.
3) Correspondence staff can be adequately and quite, easily trained. The cost of training is
fairly low.
4) Specialization of the correspondence activity tends to increase the rate -of-output as well.
Disadvantages: The disadvantages of a centralized system of correspondence are:

1) Delays may be caused because draft correspondence, may be sent back and forth- from the
correspondence department to a functional department.
2) Centralized correspondences section may lack adequate technical and specialized
knowledge of a particular functional department and vice versa.
3) The work of functional department may be interrupted because ff frequent visits, inquiries,
collection of information, etc., by employees of the centralized correspondence section.
Decentralized correspondence
Under the decentralized correspondence system, each functional department makes it own
arrangements for correspondence.
Advantage

1) There is no interruption in the work under the decentralized correspondence system. As a
result, there is a smooth flow of work which increases efficiency.
2) Departmental correspondence takes care of the technical and specialized needs of different
functional departments.
3) The sense of departmental loyalty on the part of the correspondence staff tends to result in
better quality work.
Since correspondence is based on departmental information and facts, the correspondence staffs
possess better knowledge.
Disadvantages
1) Departmental correspondence staff may lack proficiency in the art of correspondence
2) Under a decentralized system, the correspondence staff may not be adequately trained.
3) There may be lack of co-ordination between different departments on policy matters
VI MAILING SERVICE
Mail may be described as the written communication that passes through the messenger service or
the post office. Every business house maintains continuous contacts with its customers, suppliers,
branches & departments, and government agencies and this is done by written communications of
various types. Every business office therefore receives and sends a large volume of mail every
day.
Business mail is of three distinct types:
1) Incoming or inwards mail;
2) Outgoing or outwards mail; and
3) Inter-departmental mail.
These three types of mail may be in the form of letters, documents, packets, parcels, telegrams,
orders, remittances, etc.
Efficiency of Mailing Services

1) An efficient mailing service offers the following advantages:
2) It ensures continuous contacts with outsiders
3) It creates a lasting impression on outsiders.
4) It improves inter-departmental relation and efficiency.
5) It supplements the efforts of the correspondence & records management departments etc.
6) In mail order houses, mailing is a costly affair. The efficiency of the mailings service may
make this a less costly job.
7) The training of juniors usually begins in the mailing department. Here, they learn and get
acquainted with, mailing routines. The organizational set up & levels of authority &
responsibility.
HANDLNG AND DISPOSAL OF MAIL

To ensure prompt and correct handling of mail, the mailings services should be planned &
organized properly. A proper planning of mailing service involves the following.
1) Providing facilities for the mail service;
2) Organizing the mailing department
3) Making arrangements with the post office;
4) Establishing mail routines
5) Mechanizing the mail service.

I. FACILITIES FOR MAIL SIRVICE

The type and the extent of facilities to be provided for the handling of the mail service depend
upon the volume of mail to be handled. For instance the space and the number of mailroom staff
depend upon the volume of the work and the extent to which mechanical equipment is used. A
proper mail service facility should be provided for at the time of formulating the layout plans for
the office so that he mailing service is integrated with the activities of the whole organization and
serves it in the best possible manner.
II. ORGANISATION OF THE MAILING DEPARTMENT

A proper organization of the mailing department is essential for it ensures an efficient and
economical performance of the mailing service. An unorganized mailing service results in
mistakes and delays, increases cost and adversely affects the working of different departments by
interrupting and. holding up their work. The necessary organization should cover the following
four phases of work:
1) Opening, sorting and distribution of inward mail
2) Collection of information replies
3) Dictation, typing and signing of replies
4) Making up and dispatching the outward mail
III. ARRANGEMENT WITH THE POST OFFICE

Small business houses often prefer to have their inward mail dropped into their letter boxes twice
or thrice daily by the postman on his round; and they drop their outward mail in the nearest post
box at the nearest post office. But big business houses usually make special arrangements with the
postal authorities. These are;
1) Post boxes
2) Post bags
IV. ESTABLISHING MAIL ROUTINES

The establishment of efficient procedures and routines for the handling of incoming and outgoing mail is an
important aspect of planning an efficient mailing service for they make a favorable impact on outsiders and reflect the
general efficiency of an organization.
Handling Incoming Mail

1) Receiving the mail
2) Sorting the mail
3) Opening the mail
4) Scrutiny of contents
5) Stamping the mail
6) Recording the mail
7) Distributing the mail
8) Follow up
Handling Outgoing Mail

1) Production
2) Signature & Reference
3) Collection of Outward mail
4) Entering mail in outward mail register
5) Folding letters
6) Preparing the envelope

7) Sealing & Stamping
8) Posting
V. MECHANISING MAIL SERVICES

Advantages of using machines
1) Eliminates wastages o
2) Increase speed of operations
3) Ensure accuracy
4) Avoid misuse of postage
5) Speed up the delivery of letters
Devices used in mailing department:

1) Letter opening machine
2) time recording machine
3) Addressing machine
4) Folding machines
5) Sealing machine
6) Inserting machine
7) Tape moistening machine
8) Franking machine
9) Sealing cum stamping machine
10) Mailing scales
11) Bundling equipments
12) Other equipments
VI. SUPERVISING THE MAILING SERVICE

A constant supervision of the mailing service is essential for its efficient performance. Where the
mailing service is centralized an efficient and experienced supervisor who posses a thorough
knowledge of the routines of the mailing operations and the current rules of the Posts and
Telegraphs Department should be employed, who should supervise, guide and allocate the work
among the different employees of the mailing department. He should be responsible for getting
the work done most efficiently and economically. The mailing routines should be periodically
reviewed by him, and improvements or changes should be made in them according to the changed
circumstances.
Souce: R.K.chopra & Ankita chopra (office management)
DATA PROCESSING SYSTEM

Computer data processing is any process that uses a computer program to enter data and
summaries, analyze or otherwise convert data into usable information. The process may be
automated and run on a computer. It involves recording, analyzing, sorting, summarizing,
calculating, disseminating and storing data. Because data are most useful when well-presented and
actually informative, data-processing systems are often referred to as information systems.
Nevertheless, the terms are roughly synonymous, performing similar conversions; data-processing
systems typically manipulate raw data into information, and likewise information systems
typically take raw data as input to produce information as output.

Definition
Computerized system that performs mathematical operations (manipulations) on input-data to

transform it into the output (audio/video, graphic, numeric, or text) form desired by a system user.
Data Processor
In information processing, a Data Processing System is a system which processes data which has
been captured and encoded in a format recognizable by the data processing system or has been
created and stored by another unit of an information processing system.
A data entry is a specialized component or form of information processing (sub) system. Its chief
difference is that it tends to perform a dedicated function (i.e., its program is not readily
changeable). Its dedicated function is normally to perform some (intermediate) step of converting
input ('raw' or unprocessed) data, or semi-processed information, in one form into a further or
final form of information through a process called decoding / encoding or formatting or re-
formatting or translation or data conversion before the information can be output from the data
processor to a further step in the information processing system.
For the hardware data processing system, this information may be used to change the sequential
states of a (hardware) machine called a computer. In all essential aspects, the hardware data
processing unit is indistinguishable from a computer's central processing unit (CPU), i.e. the
hardware data processing unit is just a dedicated computer. However, the hardware data
processing unit is normally dedicated to the specific computer application of format translation.
A software code compiler (e.g., for FORTRAN or Algol) is an example of a software data
processing system. The software data processing system makes use of a (general purpose)
computer in order to complete its functions. A software data processing system is normally a
standalone unit of software, in that its output can be directed to any number of other (not
necessarily as yet identified) information processing (sub) systems.
Sourec: data processing system definition.htm
OFFICE TODAY AND TOMMORROW

Office work personally deals with the customers/visitors. There is no departmentalization of office
activities.
OFFICE TODAY: office activities have gone under vast changes. Today’s office is well planned
and organized.
 The scope has widened with the development in science and technology, due to this there
is expansion in scale of production and business activities.
 All the activities are performed by specialized clerk like receptionist, accountants, cashiers,
stenographers etc.

 Old bound register have been replaced by loose cleaf binders, wider use of machines like
calculators, typewriters, computers etc.
FUTURE OFFICE
Introduction:
An office is a place where work in connection with the preparing and furnishing of information is
done.
Office work is primarily concerned with making, processing and using records. Eg. Purchase
record, selling record, accounts and correspondence etc.
Office of future has to face variety of changes and challenges of social, political, economic with
increased mechanization of office activities and installation of sophisticated machines like
computers lead to automation.
With the increasing pace of industrialization, the need to employee more expert and specialists to
perform office activities have become essential leading to utilization of consultancy services to
great extent.
These developments call for a greater professionalization of management and increased
application of principles of management to office.
Future challenges to an office are:

1. Challenges of legal provisions.
2. Challenges of reducing office cost.
3. Challenges of reducing paper work.
SOHO (Small Office Home Office)

The modern concept of SOHO deals with that that kind of business which employees, a small no.
of employees.
In general, when a company reaches a no. of about 100 employees, it is called a small scale
industry but in SOHO the maximum limit is of 10 employees.
Before 19th century i.e., before industrial revolution, all offices worked as small because at that
time, cottage industries flourished. After industrial revolution, large industries came into existence.
During mid 90’s, computers came and the concept of SOHO came into existence.
The concept of SOHO is explained in the following lines:

1. Several range of products, such as communication system and other gadgets were designed
specially for SOHO
2. SOHO generally involves the set up of computerized working environment.
3. By small office we mean several computers working in different premises.
4. It includes devices like printers, fax machines etc.
5. The pre-requisite of successful home office is the computers and other devices must
function properly. Secondly, the employees must have convenient access to the internet, so
that they can get relevant information from various sources. Thirdly, all the computers
must be interlinked and there should be a well organized LAN.
6. Emphasis must also be paid in data security and security of system.
7. Employees must be technically trained and capable of working in such an environment eg.
Consultancies, real estate, agents, brokers, finance companies etc.

UNIT III
HUMAN ASPECT OF COMPUTERS
A computer is a multipurpose programmed able machine that accepts raw facts which processes
raw data into meaningful information. This information is used to take important decisions. Its
purpose is to speed up the problem solving which increased productivity and work efficiency.
In other words: computer is an electronic device that operates under the control of set of
instructions in its memory.
Elements of computer:

1. Hardware
2. Software
3. Users
4. Procedures
5. Data
Importance/uses of computers
1. Computers in manufacturing: computer aided designs (CAD) have enabled the
engineers to make and modify products with computer graphics.
2. Computers in automobile: in automobile industry, the entire manufacturing process is
computer dependent. Computers are not only used for assembling but they also help to
shorten the manufacturing cycle, lower the production cost and improve mileage.
3. Computers in trade: computers help in supplying up-to-date information about the
potential buyers, suppliers, govt. agencies etc.
As a result, paper work has reduced and the work has fastened.
4. Computers in delivery system: computer has proved very useful in wether forecasting
etc..
5. Computers in education system: following developments have made the computers a
dynamic force in education:
a. Rapid development of computer network.
b. Advancement in magnetic storage technology.
c. These have provided a new means of overcoming time and distance.
Computers can facilitate self learning through computer assisted instructions (CAI) with
integrated graphics, audio and video mechanisms.
Interactive audio and CD-Rom technologies have created a very good learning environment.
6. Computers in commerce
a. Data tracing: with the help of computer audit, it becomes easier for a company to
trace and track the facts and figures whenever necessary.
b. Accounting: the accounting process becomes easy with the use of computer
servive because details can be analyzed easily.
Security Aspects
Information Systems Security
The section discusses security threats to information systems before introducing methods to
protect information systems against these threats. A particular emphasis is placed on the areas of
computer viruses and threats to Internet services.
Security Threats to Information Systems
Controls upon information systems are based upon the two underlying principles of the need to
ensure the accuracy of the data held by the organisation and the need to protect against loss or
damage. The most common threats faced by organisational information systems can be placed
into the following categories of accidents, natural disasters, sabotage (industrial and individual),
vandalism, theft, unauthorised use (hacking) and computer viruses which will now be described.
1) Accidents

A number of estimates suggest that 40–65% of all damage caused to information systems or
corporate data arises as a result of human error. Some examples of the ways in which human
errors can occur include:
- Inaccurate data entry. As an example, consider a typical relational database management system,
where update queries are used to change records, tables and reports. If the contents of the query
are incorrect, errors might be produced within all of the data manipulated by the query. Although
extreme, significant problems might be caused by adding or removing even a single character to a
query.
- Attempts to carry out tasks beyond the ability of the employee. In smaller computer-based
information systems, a common cause of accidental damage involves users attempting to install
new hardware items or software applications. In the case of software applications, existing data
may be lost when the program is installed or the program may fail to operate as expected.
- Failure to comply with procedures for the use of organizational information systems.
Where organisational procedures are unclear or fail to anticipate potential problems, users may
often ignore established methods, act on their own initiative or perform tasks incorrectly.
- Failure to carry out backup procedures or verify data backups. In addition to carrying out
regular backups of important business data, it is also necessary to verify that any backup copies
made are accurate and free from errors.
2) Natural disasters
All information systems are susceptible to damage caused by natural phenomena, such as storms,
lightning strikes, floods and earthquakes. In Japan and the United States, for example, great care is
taken to protect critical information systems from the effects of earthquakes. Although such
hazards are of less concern in much of Europe, properly designed systems will make allowances
for unexpected natural disasters.
3) Sabotage
With regard to information systems, sabotage may be deliberate or unintentional and carried out
on an individual basis or as an act of industrial sabotage. Individual sabotage is typically carried
out by a disgruntled employee who wishes to exact some form of revenge upon their employer.
The logic bomb (sometimes known as a ‘time bomb’) is a well-known example of how an
employee may cause deliberate damage to the organization’s information systems. A logic bomb
is a destructive program that activates at a certain time or in reaction to a specific event. In most
cases, the logic bomb is activated some months after the employee has left the organization. This
tends to have the effect of drawing suspicion away from the employee. Another well-known
example is known as a back door. The back door is a section of program code that allows a user to
circumvent security procedures in order to gain full access to an information system. Although
back doors have legitimate uses, such as for program testing, they can also be used as an
instrument of sabotage. It should be noted, however, that individual sabotage is becoming more
infrequent due to legislation such as the Computer Misuse Act.
Industrial sabotage is considered rare, although there have been a number of well-publicized cases
over the past few years. Industrial sabotage tends to be carried out for some kind of competitive or
financial gain. The actions of those involved tend to be highly organized, targeted at specific areas
of a rival organization’s activities, and supported by access to a substantial resource base.
Industrial sabotage is considered more serious than individual sabotage since, although
occurrences are relatively few, the losses suffered tend to be extremely high. Intent to cause loss
or damage need not be present for sabotage to occur. Imagine the case of an organization
introducing a new information system at short notice and without proper consultation with staff.
Employees may feel threatened by the new system and may wish to avoid making use of it. A
typical reaction might be to enter data incorrectly in an attempt to discredit the new system.
Alternatively, the employee might continue to carry out tasks manually (or with the older system),
claiming that this is a more efficient way of working. In such cases, the employee’s primary

motivation is to safeguard their position the damage or loss caused to the organization’s
information systems is incidental to this goal.
4) Vandalism
Deliberate damage caused to hardware, software and data is considered a serious threat to
information systems security. The threat from vandalism lies in the fact that the organisation is
temporarily denied access to some of its resources. Even relatively minor damage to parts of a
system can have a significant effect on the organisation as a whole. In a small network system, for
example, damage to a server or shared storage device might effectively halt the work of all those
connected to the network. In larger systems, a reduced flow of work through one part of the
organisation can create bottlenecks, reducing the overall productivity of the entire organisation.
Damage or loss of data can have more severe effects since the organisation cannot make use of the
data until it has been replaced. The expense involved in replacing damaged or lost data can far
exceed any losses arising from damage to hardware or software. As an example, the delays caused
by the need to replace hardware or data might result in an organisation’s being unable to compete
for new business, harming the overall profitability of the company. In recent years, vandalism has
been extended to the Internet. A number of incidents have occurred where company web sites
have been defaced.
5) Theft
As with vandalism, the loss of important hardware, software or data can have significant effects
on an organization’s effectiveness. Theft can be divided into two basic categories: physical theft
and data theft. Physical theft, as the term implies, involves the theft of hardware and software.
Data theft normally involves making copies of important files without causing any harm to the
originals. However, if the original files are destroyed or damaged, then the value of the copied
data is automatically increased. Service organizations are particularly vulnerable to data theft
since their activities tend to rely heavily upon access to corporate databases. Imagine a competitor
gaining access to a customer list belonging to a sales organization. The immediate effect of such
an event would be to place both organizations on an essentially even footing.
However, in the long term, the first organization would no longer enjoy a competitive edge and
might, ultimately, cease to exist. Both data theft and physical theft can take a number of different
forms. As an example, there has been growing concern over the theft of customer information,
such as credit card details, from company web sites.
6)Unauthorized use
One of the most common security risks in relation to computerized information systems is the
danger of unauthorized access to confidential data. Contrary to the popular belief encouraged by
the media, the risk of hackers, gaining access to a corporate information system is relatively small.
Most security breaches involving confidential data can be attributed to the employees of the
organization. In many cases, breaches are accidental in that employees are unaware that particular
sets of information are restricted. Deliberate breaches are typically the result of an employee’s
wishing to gain some personal benefit from using the information obtained. However, we must
consider that the threat posed by hackers is starting to increase as more organizations make use of
the Internet for business purposes. In addition, it should be noted that even a relatively small
number of hacking incidents can account for significant losses to industry.
A hacker is a person who attempts to gain unauthorized access to computer-based information
system, usually via a telecommunications link. However, this is the popular use of this term and is
considered incorrect by many IT professionals. Traditionally, ‘hacking’ referred to the process of
writing program code, so hackers were nothing more than skilled computer programmers.
Even today, many people consider themselves to be ‘hackers’ of the traditional kind and dislike
being associated with the stereotype of a computer criminal. Furthermore, many people draw
distinctions between those who attempt to gain unauthorized access to computer-based
information systems for malicious reasons and those with other motivations. A person who gains
access to an information system for malicious reasons is often termed a cracker rather than a

hacker. Similarly, many people claim to use hacking for ethical purposes, such as helping
companies to identify security flaws or assisting law enforcement agencies in apprehending
criminals. In general, most people consider hackers to fall into one of three categories of those
who wish to demonstrate their computer skills by outwitting the designers of a particular system,
those who wish to gain some form of benefit (usually financial) by stealing, altering or deleting
confidential information and those who wish to cause malicious damage to an information system,
perhaps as an act of revenge against a former employer.
Understandably, the most common crime committed by hackers involves telecommunications
fraud. Clearly, the first task carried out by most hackers is to obtain free telephone calls, so that
the time-consuming task of breaking into a given system can be carried out without incurring a
great deal of expense. However, the growth of digital communications technology means that it is
possible to implement countermeasures against hacking.
7) Computer viruses
There are several different types of computer virus. Some examples include:
- The link virus attaches itself to the directory structure of a disk. In this way, the virus is able to
manipulate file and directory information. Link viruses can be difficult to remove since they
become embedded within the affected data. Often, attempts to remove the virus can result in the
loss of the data concerned.
- Parasitic viruses insert copies of themselves into legitimate programs, such as operating system
files, often making little effort to disguise their presence. In this way, each time the program file is
run, so too is the virus. Additionally, the majority of viruses are created as terminate and stay
resident (TSR) programs. Once activated, the virus remains in the computer’s memory performing
various operations in the background. Such operations might range from creating additional
copies of itself to deleting files on a hard disk.
- Macro viruses are created using the high-level programming languages found in e-mail packages,
web browsers and applications software, such as word processors. Technically, such viruses are
extremely crude but are capable of causing a great deal of damage.
With the possible exception of anti-viruses (described in more detail later), all viruses must be
considered to be harmful. Even if a virus program does nothing more than reproduce itself, it may
still cause system crashes and data loss. In many cases, the damage caused by a computer virus
might be accidental, arising merely as the result of poor programming. There is also evidence to
suggest that viruses may be capable of causing physical damage to hardware components. It is
possible, for example, to construct a virus that instructs a disk controller to attempt to read a non-
existent track, causing immediate and irreparable damage to the hard disk drive. Until quite
recently, it was thought that computer viruses could not be attached to data files, such as word
processing documents or e-mail messages. However, the built-in programming languages featured
within many modern applications mean that data files may now be used to transmit viruses.
However, it remains true that viruses cannot be transmitted by a conventional email message. A
virus can only be transmitted as an attachment to a message, or if the e-mail package is being used
allows active content. Two other kinds of programs are related to computer viruses; worms and
Trojans. A worm is a small program that moves through a computer system randomly changing or
overwriting pieces of data as it moves. A Trojan appears as a legitimate program in order to gain
access to a computer system. Trojans are often used as delivery systems for computer viruses.
Reducing the Threat to Information Systems

In general, there are four major approaches that can be taken to ensure the integrity of an
information system. These are containment, deterrence, obfuscation and recovery. Although each
strategy is discussed separately, it is important to note that an effective security policy will draw
upon a variety of concepts and techniques.
1) Containment

The strategy of containment attempts to control access to an information system. One approach
involves making potential targets as unattractive as possible. This can be achieved in several ways
but a common method involves creating the impression that the target information system
contains data of little or no value. It would be pointless, for example, attempting to steal data that
had been encrypted the data would effectively be useless to anyone except the owner. A second
technique involves creating an effective series of defenses against potential threats. If the expense,
time and effort required gaining access to the information system is greater than any benefits
derived from gaining access, then intrusion becomes less likely. However, defenses must be
continually improved and upgraded in order to keep up with advances in technology and the
increasing sophistication of hackers. Thus, such as approach tends to be expensive in terms of
organizational resources. A third approach involves removing the target information system from
potential threats. Typical ways in which this might be achieved include distributing assets across a
large geographical area, distributing important data across the entire organization or isolating
important systems.
2) Deterrence
A strategy based upon deterrence uses the threat of punishment to discourage potential intruders.
The overall approach is one of anticipating and countering the motives of those most likely to
threaten the security of the system. A common method involves constantly advertising and
reinforcing the penalties for unauthorized access. It is not uncommon, for example, to dismiss an
employee for gaining access to confidential data. Similarly, it is not uncommon for organizations
to bring private prosecutions against those who have caused damage or loss to important
information systems. Attempts to breach the security of the information system are discouraged
by publicizing successful actions against employees or other parties. A second approach involves
attempting to detect potential threats as early as possible, for example by monitoring patterns of
information system usage and investigating all anomalies. However, although such a technique
can prevent some attacks and reduce the damage caused by others, it can be expensive in terms of
organizational resources. The third technique used commonly involves predicting likely areas of
attack and then implementing appropriate defenses or countermeasures. If an organization feels,
for example, that it is particularly vulnerable to computer viruses, it might install virus scanning
software across the entire organization.
3) Obfuscation
Obfuscation concerns itself with hiding or distributing assets so that any damage caused can be
limited. One means by which such a strategy can be implemented is by monitoring all of the
organization’s activities, not just those related to the use of its information systems. This provides
a more comprehensive approach to security than containment or deterrence since it also provides a
measure of protection against theft and other threats. A second method involves carrying out
regular audits of data, hardware, software and security measures. In this way, the organization has
a more complete overview of its information systems and can assess threats more accurately.
A regular software audit, for example, might result in a reduction in the use of illegal software. In
turn, this might reduce the number of virus infections suffered by the organization, avoid potential
litigation with software companies and detect illegal or unauthorized use of programs and data.
The dispersal of assets across several locations can be used to discourage potential intruders and
can also limit the damage caused by a successful attack. The use of other techniques, such as
backup procedures, can be used to reduce any threats further.
AUDIT MANAGEMENT SERVICES

Audit Trial: it is a chronological sequence audit records each of which contains evidence directly
pertaining to and resulting from the execution of a business process ar system function.

Functions of audit trial: it maintains the records of system activities by application process.
Benefits of computer audit: computer audit is helpful/ beneficial to different companies in the
following ways:
1. Business efficiency: efficiency of the company is ensured by instituting effective internal
control. It helps in getting the facts pertaining to effective decision making.
2. Security: it is necessary for many companies to have proper security measures to
safeguard their data.
Problems in computer auditing

1. Technical problem
2. Virus attack
3. System breakdown
4. Hackers
5. Other unfair means of using information.
EDI - Electronic Data Interchange

(Electronic Data Interchange) The electronic communication of business transactions, such as
orders, confirmations and invoices, between organizations. Third parties provide EDI services that
enable organizations with different equipment to connect. Although interactive access may be a
part of it, EDI implies direct computer-to-computer transactions into vendors' databases and
ordering systems.
What is EDI?
Electronic data interchange (EDI) is the inter-organizational exchange of business documents in

structured, machine process able form. Electronic data Interchange can be used to electronically
transmit documents such as purchase orders, invoices, shipping bills, receiving advices and other
standard business correspondence between trading partners. EDI can also be used to transmit
financial information and payments in electronic form. Payments carried out over EDI are usually
referred to as Electronic Funds Transfer (EFT).EDI should not be viewed as simply a way of
replacing paper documents and traditional methods of transmission such as mail, phone or in-
person delivery with electronic transmission. But it should be seen not as an "end" but as a means
to streamline procedures and improving efficiency and productivity.
Computers have speeded up the production of invoices, purchase orders, receiving tickets and the
like. When these documents are produced by high speed printers, however, they still must be
busted, inserted and distributed (usually mailed) and copies must be filed by the originating
organization. The originals must be physically transported to the addressee, opened, carried to the
appropriate individual within the addresses organization and processed, which actually means
manually keying the data into an MIS system.
In EDI, in the place of traditional methods for the transmission of for e.g. a purchase order
between a buyer and a seller, data is entered into the buyer's computer system; the same data is
electronically sent into the seller's computer without the need for reeking or reentry. This is
normally referred to as application -to-application EDI. When EDI is fully integrated with
application programs, not only does data flow electronically between trading partners without the

need for reeking, but data also flows electronically between internal applications of each of the
trading partners.
The use of EDI eliminates many of these problems associated with traditional information flow, as
listed below.
-The delays associated with handling, filing and transportation of paper documents are eliminated.
-Since data is keyed in only once the chances of error are reduced.
-Time required to re-enter data is saved.
-As data is not re-entered at each step in the process, labour costs can be reduced.
-Because time delays are reduced, there is more certainty in information flow. The other
advantage in the use of EDI is that it generates a functional acknowledgement whenever an EDI
message is received and it is electronically transmitted to the sender. This states that the message
has been received. Therefore the core concept of EDI is that data is transferred electronically in
machine process able form. EDI is often applied in the following situations when there are
-A large number of repetitive standard actions
-Very tight operating margins
-Strong competition requiring significant productivity improvements.
-Operational time constraints.
Electronic Data Interchange (EDI) refers to the structured transmission of data between
organizations by electronic means. It is used to transfer electronic documents from one computer
system to another, i.e. from one trading partner to another trading partner. It is more than mere E-
mail; for instance, organizations might replace bills of lading and even Cheques with appropriate
EDI messages. It also refers specifically to a family of standards, including the X12 series.
However, EDI also exhibits its pre-Internet roots, and the standards tend to focus on ASCII
(American Standard Code for Information Interchange)-formatted single messages rather than the
whole sequence of conditions and exchanges that make up an inter-organization business process.
The National Institute of Standards and Technology in a 1996 publication [1] defines Electronic
Data Interchange as "the computer-to-computer interchange of strictly formatted messages that
represent documents other than monetary instruments. EDI implies a sequence of messages
between two parties, either of whom may serve as originator or recipient. The formatted data
representing the documents may be transmitted from originator to recipient via
telecommunications or physically transported on electronic storage media.". It goes on further to
say that "In EDI, the usual processing of received messages is by computer only. Human
intervention in the processing of a received message is typically intended only for error conditions,
for quality review, and for special situations. For example, the transmission of binary or
textual data is not EDI as defined here unless the data are treated as one or more data
elements of an EDI message and are not normally intended for human interpretation as part
of online data processing." [1]

EDI can be formally defined as 'The transfer of structured data, by agreed message standards,
from one computer system to another without human intervention'. Most other definitions used are
variations on this theme. Even in this era of technologies such as XML web services, the Internet
and the World Wide Web, EDI is still the data format used by the vast majority of electronic
commerce transactions in the world.
Source: Introduction of EDI (Electronic Data Interchange).htm
SOME IMPORTANT QUESTIONS
Q1. What do you understand by office management? Describe the main objectives of OM.
Q2. How planning & organising is done for an office in hotel industry.
Q3. What are the important factors in selection of office site?
Q4. Discuss with eg. and illustration the office machinery & equipments.
Q5. How security of data is done in manual system and in computers.
Q6. Write a short note on:
1. EDI
2. Objectives of offce management
3. Audit management services
4. SOHO
5. Office layout.
Q7. Define office management & describe critically responsibilities for office work.
Q8. How the layput for a bank office can be done? Explain the importance of layout in office
management.
Q9. Discuss the need & importance of security of data in office management.

Office Notes

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Office Management Notes

Assorted notes from various sources Page 1 of 53

ll. Administrative Management Functions:

1. Management Functions: For the efficient functioning of an office, the management

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Source: R.K.chopra & Ankita chopra (office management)

Importance if office management

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Source: R.K.chopra & Ankita chopra (office management)

Office manager is a profession related to office supervisory positions.

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FUNCTIONS OF OFFICE MANAGER

Positions allocated to usual classification perform a combination of the following office

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Koontz and O’Donnell, “Planning is an intellectually demanding process; it requires the

 Primary task of Management

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Setting up Developing Listing the

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Organizing is co-ordinating the efforts of different individuals working in an enterprise to achieve

Characteristics of the organization:

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AUTHORITY AND RESPONSIBILITY

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Organizational authority has three important underlying principles:

In addition, authority comes in three types:

Generally, the span of control may be wide when

 The manager and the subordinates are very competent.

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 Workers are located far from one another physically.

Centralization and Decentralization / Departmentalization

Degree of decentralization depends on:

The following is a list of possible determinants:

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Choosing office location

Urban or suburban location

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Factors affecting location:

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Principles of Office Layout

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Advantages of Good Layout

Source: R.K. Chopra, Ankita Chopra (office management)

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OFFICE MACHINERY AND EQUIPMENT

Criteria for selection of office machines:

Leasing versus purchasing office equipments:

Types of machines and equipments

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Communication is a dialogue, not a monologue. In fact, communication is more concerned with

Communication is sharing or exchange of meaning

1. The thing should be shared with someone.

Communication is an entire process. A process is a systematic series of actions.

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SENDER ►► ENCODING ►► MESSAGE ►► DECODING ►►RECEIVER

Barriers to Effective Communication

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