applied
sciences
Article
A Fast Approach to Optimize Tread Pattern Shape for Tire
Noise Reduction
Bin Zhu 1 , Debin Hu 1,2 , Fagen Liao 2 , Jiali Chen 1 , Benlong Su 1,3 , Jian Wu 1,3
Citation: Zhu, B.; Hu, D.; Liao, F.;
Chen, J.; Su, B.; Wu, J.; Wang, Y. A
Fast Approach to Optimize Tread
Pattern Shape for Tire Noise
Reduction. Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, 10256.
https://doi.org/10.3390/app131810256
Academic Editor: Suchao Xie
Received: 17 August 2023
Revised: 4 September 2023
Accepted: 8 September 2023
Published: 13 September 2023
Copyright: © 2023 by the authors.
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
This article is an open access article
distributed under the terms and
conditions of the Creative Commons
Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/
4.0/).
Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, 10256. https://doi.org/10.3390/app131810256
and Youshan Wang 1, *
1 National Key Laboratory of Science and Technology on Advanced Composites in Special Environments,
Harbin Institute of Technology, Harbin 150001, China
2 Zhongce Rubber Group Co., Ltd., Hangzhou 310008, China
3 National Key Laboratory of Science and Technology on Advanced Composites in Special Environments,
Harbin Institute of Technology, Weihai 264209, China
* Correspondence: wangys@hit.edu.cn
Abstract: Impact force induced by tread pattern is one of the major mechanisms of tire noise; thus,
how to reduce tire impact noise has been an important issue in regard to tire technology. In this paper,
the mechanism of tire–pavement interaction noise is briefly described, and a prediction model for
pattern noise is proposed. The prediction model was validated with indoor semi-anechoic chamber
and pass-by noise experiments. Then, an optimization method for the tread pattern was proposed
by using the basis vector method, and the synthetic pattern shape was generated through a linear
combination of basis shape vectors. Finally, a novel multi-objective function was proposed, aimed at
minimizing the impact noise generated by the tire pattern, and the weight factors of the basis vectors
were optimized with a genetic algorithm. The method proposed in this paper can be used to evaluate
or improve pattern performance and reduce trial and error in the pattern design stage.
Keywords: tread pattern; pattern structure design; tire pattern noise; basis vector method;
genetic algorithm
1. Introduction
In the context of modern urbanization, an intricate transportation network serves as
a symbol of progress. Convenient transportation options have greatly enriched people’s
daily lives. However, noise from the road traffic network spreads throughout the city and
seriously affects people’s work, lives, and physical and mental health. According to esti-
mates from Environment Australia, road traffic contributes to over 70% of environmental
noise pollution. Tire noise serves as a major contributor to vehicle noise and is a significant
source of urban noise pollution, especially at speeds exceeding 50 km/h. According to
statistics presented in [1], tire–pavement noise accounts for 75% to 90% of the total noise
generated by passenger cars. In recent years, with the development of electric vehicles,
people have higher requirements regarding the comfort and silence of vehicles. In the
development of low-noise cars, tires are the most important because tire noise accounts for
a large part of the total noise [2]. In particular, tire labels institutionalized in the EU show
that tire noise is important because it can amplify overall noise levels [3,4].
Tire noise, or tire–pavement interaction noise, is a complex phenomenon influenced
by a range of factors [5], such as tread materials, tire structures [6], vehicle dynamics, road
conditions, etc. Tire noise is generated by various mechanisms, which can be categorized
into two main groups [7]: aero-acoustic and vibration-induced noise. In the former, the
sound pressure fluctuation is caused by aerodynamic noise sources, such as aerodynamic
effects. In the latter, the sound pressure fluctuation is caused by the vibration of the
structure and the interaction with the surrounding air. In general, tire vibrations are
regarded as the primary mechanism for generating tire–pavement noise over low- and mid-
frequency ranges. These vibrations are induced by time-varying contact forces resulting
https://www.mdpi.com/journal/applsci
Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, 10256 2 of 20

from the road roughness and tread pattern. Two primary sources of noise can be identified:
The first is related to tread pattern grooves and is known as the air pump mechanism,
which arises from the variation in groove volume within the contact patch. The second
is related to tread blocks and is known as the vibration mechanism, which is caused by
the impact and release of tread blocks entering and leaving the contact patch. For the
pattern impact mechanism, the local vibration is dominant in the attachment portion of
the contact area between the tread and road surface. Evaluating and predicting tire noise
has always been a challenge. Indoor and outdoor tire noise experiments, including the
pass-by noise experiment, have been considered the most direct methods for investigating
tire noise. However, the evaluation of tire noise through experiments is not only costly and
time-consuming but also fails to provide sufficient information to the designer at the design
stage [8]. In such situations, there is a preference to predict tire noise through efficient
numerical analysis methods during the design stage. Analytical approaches or numerical
techniques, such as the Finite Element Method [9], boundary element method [10], or
computational fluid dynamics method, have become the primary means for tire noise
prediction. To achieve an accurate simulation of tire noise, complex tread pattern modeling
is necessary, and the simulation calculation takes a long time [11]. The tread model
needs to be rebuilt every time the tread pattern is modified, which greatly increases the
modeling cost.
The potential health benefits of noise abatement can be found in the literature [12]. In
general, tire-noise-reduction strategies can be separated into three categories [13]: noise
control at the noise source, along the transmission path, and at the receiver. To mitigate
tire noise, numerous attempts have been made to reduce tire–pavement interaction noise
at the source and to ensure a lasting effect [14–18], including the implementation of noise
barriers or shields and quiet pavement [19,20]. The former reduces noise mainly through
sound absorption and sound insulation, and the latter mainly reduces noise by reducing the
reflection and propagation of sound on the pavement, as well as by reducing the generation
of sound. Compared with noise barriers or shields, quiet pavement might not be a viable
option to mitigate traffic noise because the pavement can wear out and become louder
with time [14]. Furthermore, the construction and maintenance costs of pavement are also
quite expensive. Thus, controlling tire–pavement interaction noise at its source, i.e., quiet
tires, can be a more economical and effective approach. In the tire industry, a number of
design concepts to reduce tire noise have been considered [21–23], including tire tread [24],
tread pattern, tire cavity [25], tire structure, and rims [26]. However, sound-absorbing
materials attached inside the tire cavity to reduce the cavity resonance noise might be
the most successful so far. Among all of the strategies for reducing tire noise, the tread
pattern is considered to be the easiest to modify [27]. In the literature [28], two approaches
have been proposed to reduce the tire noise related to the tread pattern. One is meant
to disperse tire noise energy over a broad frequency range, which can be achieved by
using variable pitches and randomly arranging them around the tire [16,29,30]. The second
method reduces the exciting force caused by the discontinuity of the tread block in the
direction of tire rotation. In this case, engineers have to modify the pattern’s geometric
design. Nevertheless, the automatic generation of a pattern that fulfills the performance
requirements poses a significant challenge.
The mathematical representation of the tread pattern is challenging due to its complex
structure. In [31], a method was developed to parameterize the pattern geometry, involving
over 11 parameters to describe the pattern in detail. Recently, researchers have explored
the interaction between the optimal tire profile and tread pattern design by employing the
basis vector method [32]. An advantage of the basis vector method lies in its capability to
effectively describe complex geometric structures using only a few parameters. Another
advantage of this method is that the design engineers can incorporate their design ideas
into the basis vector shape [33]. The capability to predict and reduce tread pattern noise
will help improve tread pattern design. The contribution of this study is the development
of a new optimization method related to tread patterns for tire noise reduction.
 parameters. Another advantage of this method is that the design engineers can incorpo-
rate their design ideas into the basis vector shape [33]. The capability to predict and reduce
tread pattern noise will help improve tread pattern design. The contribution of this study
Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, 10256 is the development of a new optimization method related to tread patterns for tire noise 3 of 20
reduction.
The rest of this paper is organized as follows: Section 2 reviews the mechanism of tire
noise, and
The arest
pattern
of thisimpact
paper noise prediction
is organized model based
as follows: on2pitch
Section noise
reviews thetheory [34] is of
mechanism
established. Section 3 describes the details of the synthesis method of
tire noise, and a pattern impact noise prediction model based on pitch noise theory pattern shape based[34]
onisthe basis vector
established. method.
Section Section 4 the
3 describes outlines theofoptimization
details the synthesisprocess
method based on theshape
of pattern ge-
netic algorithm.
based The prediction
on the basis method
vector method. is verified
Section by semi-anechoic
4 outlines chamber
the optimization and pass-by
process based on
noise experiments.
the genetic Then,The
algorithm. the prediction
optimization resultsis of
method the tread
verified pattern and leading
by semi-anechoic chamber edgeand
arepass-by
discussed inexperiments.
noise Section 5. Section
Then,6 the
concludes the paper.
optimization results of the tread pattern and leading
edge are discussed in Section 5. Section 6 concludes the paper.
2. Tire–Pavement Interaction Noise
2. Mechanism
2.1. Tire–Pavement
of TireInteraction
Pattern NoiseNoise
2.1. Mechanism of Tire Pattern Noise
When a patterned tire rolls on a flat surface, the impact and release of the tread blocks
on the When a patterned
pavement cause the tirevibration
rolls on aofflat
thesurface, theand
tire belt impact
treadand releasegenerating
surface, of the tread blocks
noise.
Dueontothe
thepavement causeofthe
high damping thevibration of the tire
rubber material, beltvibrational
these and tread waves
surface, generating
primarily noise.
remain
Due to the high damping of the rubber material, these vibrational waves primarily remain
concentrated near the impact area and do not propagate far. Consequently, acoustic
concentrated near the impact area and do not propagate far. Consequently, acoustic sources
sources located near the contact path are then amplified by the tire–pavement geometry,
located near the contact path are then amplified by the tire–pavement geometry, resulting
resulting in far-field noise, as shown in Figure 1. Finally, it is transmitted to the human
in far-field noise, as shown in Figure 1. Finally, it is transmitted to the human ear through
ear through the air, resulting in perceptible noise.
the air, resulting in perceptible noise.

Figure 1. Mechanism of tire noise generation.

Figure 1. Mechanism of tire noise generation.
Tire noise is generated by various mechanisms, including tire surface vibration and
theTire
noisenoise is generated
associated by various mechanisms,
with aerodynamics, includingintire
which are discussed surface
[35]. vibration
In general, and
tire surface
thevibration
noise associated with aerodynamics,
can be explained which are
by the excitation discussed
force, transferinfunction,
[35]. In general, tire sur-
and acoustic field.
face
Thevibration
former iscan be explained
primarily affectedby
bythe
theexcitation force,
tread pattern transfer
design, whilefunction, and function
the transfer acoustic is
field. Thetoformer
related is primarily
tire structure, affected
material, by the tread
and boundary pattern design,
conditions. whilefunction
The transfer the transfer
can be
mathematically represented as follows:

Xij ( f )
Hij ( f ) = (1)
Fij ( f )
Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, 10256 4 of 20

where Hij (f ) is the vibration response transfer function in the frequency domain, being
related to the tire structural design and material composition. Fij (f ) and Xij (f ) are the inputs
of the exciting force and the response of vibration, respectively. Generally, Xij (f ) can be the
displacement, velocity, or acceleration of the vibration. For a patterned tire, Fij is mainly
influenced by the tread pattern geometry and distribution on the tread. If we ignore the
transfer characteristics of tires, that is, Hij is constant, and Equation (1) can be simplified as:
 
X p ij
  = const (2)
Fp ij

where [Xp ] and [Fp ] are the vibration response of the tread surface and exciting force on the
tread pattern. Equation (2) shows that the vibration response of the tread surface is directly
proportional to the input force.

2.2. Prediction Model of Tire Pattern Noise

Tire pattern noise is mainly generated by the interaction between the tread pattern
and the road surface. The leading and trailing edges play a significant role in tread noise
generation. At the leading edge, noise is mainly generated due to the impact between the
tread blocks and road surface when the blocks enter the contact patch, and the vibrations
are excited by time-varying impact forces. The vibration wave does not propagate very
far because of tread rubber’s high damping property. For the trailing edge, the noise
generation mechanism is similar to that at the leading edge. These patterns located in the
contact area cause minimal vibration due to their strong adhesion to the road surface. In
this study, the vibration caused by the adhesion between these blocks and the road surface
is negligible.
As described in Section 2.1, the relationship between sound pressure and impact force
can be expressed as [36]:
p∝a∝F (3)
where a is the acceleration of the tread element, and it relates to the tread impact force at the
leading edge, which is necessary for predicting tire noise. Here, the impact force (forcing
function) is derived from the discrete impact of each tread element on the pavement. These
repeated impacts induce vibrations, which propagate through the air and surrounding
structure, resulting in noise. However, accurately calculating the impact force for an actual
commercial patterned tire is a significant challenge. Therefore, it is assumed that a pulse
is generated when the tread blocks make contact with the road surface. On the contrary,
no force is generated by the tread voids or grooves. Accordingly, the force function can be
described as follows:
F ( x, y) = γ( x, y)δ( x, y) (4)
where γ( x, y) is the amplitude of the exciting force on the tire tread surface, represented by
x, y, and it is related to the tire structure, material, etc. δ is the Dirac delta function, which
is written as: 
0 for groove
δ( x, y) = (5)
1 for block
Integrating Equation (4) along the meridian direction of the tire tread, the impact force
between the tire and road surface during rolling can be expressed as:
Z
F ( ϕ) = γ( x, ϕ) · δ( x, ϕ)d x for all ϕ= 0 . . . 2π (6)
leading

The spectrum of sound pressure in the frequency domain can be expressed as:
∞
a0
F (t) = + ∑ ( an cos nωt + bn sin nωt) (7)
2 n =1
Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, 10256 5 of 20

where ω = 2π/T is the frequency, T is the cycle of rotation, and an and bn can be
expressed by:
N
2
an = T ∑ F (t) cos nωti
i =1
(8)
N
2
bn = T ∑ F (t) sin nωti
i =1
q
cn = a2n + bn2 (9)
where cn is the amplitude for the n-th harmonics calculated using the Fourier transform of
the exciting force in Equation (7).

3. Basis Vector Method for Shape Generation

During the early stage of low-noise tire pattern design, tire designers often resort to
trial and error to refine the design schemes, which is very time-consuming. Optimization is
a highly effective approach for mitigating tire noise and can be considered a viable method.
Various structural optimization methods, such as size, shape, and topology optimization,
are available for consideration. Because of a tire’s complex geometric structure, which
includes ribs, lugs, sipes, and other elements, it is difficult to represent the tread pattern
shape mathematically. This study aims to propose a valuable means of designing a tread
pattern. The basis vector method [32,37] may be suitable because the optimized shape
could be determined by finding the best possible combination of basis vectors. When using
the basis vector method, it is necessary to use several slightly different shapes, called basis
vectors. The synthetic shape is generated in terms of a linear combination of vectors as
follows [33,37]:
n
G = G0 + ∑ wi ( Gi − G0 ) (10)
i =1

where G and G0
Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW are the synthetic and original shapes, respectively, Gi is the i-th basis
6 of 21vector,
and wi is the weighting factor. Different shapes and their weighting factors are illustrated
in Figure 2b.

An
Figure2.2.An
Figure example
example of of shape
shape generation
generation process
process by basis
by basis vector
vector method.method. (a) Original
(a) Original shapeshape
and and
basis
basisvectors,
vectors,(b)
(b)synthetic
syntheticshape atat
shape different weighting
different factors.
weighting I, II,
factors. III III
I, II, areare
three shape
three change
shape vec-
change vectors.
tors.

As illustrated in Figure 2, the principle of the basis vector method is elucidated. Fig-
ure 2a shows the original shape and the basis vector. As the initial shape is a rectangle,
base shape I is generated by offsetting the upper edge by 1/2 in the lateral direction, and
Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, 10256 6 of 20

As illustrated in Figure 2, the principle of the basis vector method is elucidated.

Figure 2a shows the original shape and the basis vector. As the initial shape is a rectangle,
base shape I is generated by offsetting the upper edge by 1/2 in the lateral direction, and
base shape II is generated by offsetting the left node of the upper boundary along the lateral
direction. By reducing the upper-end edge of the shape by one-half along the symmetry
axis, base shape III is generated.
Subsequently, the coordinates of the four shapes are arranged in the same order,
represented by vectors G0 , G1 , G2 , and G3 . G0 is the original vector, while G1 , G2 , and G3
are the three basis vectors. To generate a new shape, each coordinate of the shape change
vector, G1 − G0 , G2 − G0 , and G3 − G0 , is multiplied by a weighting factor: w1 , w2 , and w3 .
The new node coordinate vector is then determined as follows:

G = G0 + w1 ( G1 − G0 ) + w2 ( G2 − G0 ) + w3 ( G3 − G0 ) (11)

By changing the design variables w1 , w2 , and w3 , the corresponding node coordinates

of the new shape can be calculated directly using Equation (11). Considering that the
design variables w1 , w2 , and w3 are continuous, the number of shapes can be imagined
to be infinite. In general, the process of basis vector generation involves the following
three steps:
(1) Create a basis vector Gi based on the original design shape G0 .
(2) Evaluate the correlation between the two shape change vectors vi and vj . Once the
base vector is determined, the MAC (Modal Assurance Criterion) value should be
calculated [37]:
2
(v T v j )
MAC (vi , v j ) = T i T (12)
(vi v j )(vi v j )
where vi is the shape change vectors of two shapes: vi = Gi − G0 . The MAC represents
a normalized vector dot product with values between 0 and 1. If the MAC = 1, this
indicates no correlation between the two vectors. If the MAC = 0, this means that there is a
proportional relation, vi = Kvj , between the shape change vectors vi and vj , which suggests
that the basis vector needs further modification.
(3) To obtain a linear combination of vectors, the synthetic shape is derived from Equation (11).

4. Genetic Optimization Algorithm

The genetic algorithm [38] is used to obtain the weighting factors of the basis vector.
According to [39], the genetic algorithm is a widely popular search and optimization
method for resolving highly intricate problems, which has the capability of producing
good-quality solutions. This section presents a novel approach for applying the genetic
algorithm to determine the optimal geometry of one tire pitch for low-impact noise. Figure 3
illustrates a flowchart detailing the implementation of the genetic algorithm throughout
this study.
Once an initial population of genomes is generated, the genetic evolution of the
genome population undergoes a series that includes fitness tests, selection, reproduction,
crossover, and mutation [40]. In the optimization algorithm, the optimization results are
significantly affected by the objective function. Typically, the optimization problem is
defined as follows:

Minimize : F ( X ) = ( f 1 ( X ), f 1 ( X ), . . . , f n ( x )) T
Subject to :
g j ( X ) ≤ g j0 j = 1, 2, . . . , m (13)
XiL ≤ Xi ≤ XiU i = 1, 2, . . . , n
X = { X1 , X2 , . . . , X n }
 normalized vector dot product with values between 0 and 1. If the MAC = 1, this indicates
no correlation between the two vectors. If the MAC = 0, this means that there is a propor-
tional relation, vi = Kvj, between the shape change vectors vi and vj, which suggests that the
basis vector needs further modification.
• To obtain a linear combination of vectors, the synthetic shape is derived from Equa-
Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, 10256 7 of 20
tion (11).

4. Genetic Optimization Algorithm

whereThe Fi (X) and galgorithm
genetic i (X) are the objective
[38] is used and constraint
to obtain functions.
the weighting XiL and
factors XiU basis
of the are the lower
vector.
and upper bound,
According to [39],respectively, of each design
the genetic algorithm variable.
is a widely Duringsearch
popular the pattern design stage,
and optimization
the objective
method function may
for resolving beintricate
highly defined problems,
as the contact
which pressure
has thevariance,
capabilitypattern stiffness,
of producing
or another relevant factor. Generally, F and g
good-quality solutions. This section presents a novel approach for applying the Element
can be computed using the Finite genetic
Method
algorithm (FEM). However,
to determine thethe directgeometry
optimal application of numerical
of one optimization
tire pitch for with the
low-impact noise. FEM
Figure
demands multiple analyses. The objective function is calculated using the method
3 illustrates a flowchart detailing the implementation of the genetic algorithm throughout described
inthis
Section
study.2.

Figure 3. Flowchart of tread pattern shape optimization.

Figure 3. Flowchart of tread pattern shape optimization.
5. Results and Conclusions
Once an initial
5.1. Semi-Anechoic population
Chamber Noiseof genomes is generated, the genetic evolution of the ge-
Experiment
nome To evaluate the prediction results that
population undergoes a series includes
of tire noise, afitness tests,
tire noise selection, was
experiment reproduction,
conducted
in a semi-anechoic chamber following the measurement standard GB/T 23789-2016 [41].
The test parameters could be controlled in this chamber, minimizing the impact of external
factors on the results. Before testing, the tire was mounted to the rim and was left in the
laboratory for over one hour. Then, the tire was installed on the test equipment for the
experiment. The M2 microphone was positioned at a distance of 1 m from the tire center
and 0.2 m above the ground, as shown in Figure 4b.
 in a semi-anechoic chamber following the measurement standard GB/T 23789-2016 [41].
The test parameters could be controlled in this chamber, minimizing the impact of exter-
nal factors on the results. Before testing, the tire was mounted to the rim and was left in
the laboratory for over one hour. Then, the tire was installed on the test equipment for the
experiment. The M2 microphone was positioned at a distance of 1 m from the tire center
Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, 10256 8 of 20
and 0.2 m above the ground, as shown in Figure 4b.

Figure 4.
Figure 4. Tire
Tire noise
noise test
test in
in aa semi-anechoic
semi-anechoic chamber.
chamber. (a)
(a)Front
Frontview;
view;(b)
(b)side
sideview;
view;(c)(c)the
thetest
testtire;
tire;
(d) experimental setup in semi-anechoic chamber.
(d) experimental setup in semi-anechoic chamber.

In this
In this experiment,
experiment,aaradial
radialpassage
passagecar cartire
tirewith
withaasize
sizeof
of225/60R18
225/60R18 was
was selected.
selected. The
The
testing
testing
Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW conditions
conditions were an internal tire pressure of 230 kPa and a vertical load of 9 of 21N.
4640
The geometric
The geometric shape
shape of
of each
each pitch
pitch is
is illustrated
illustrated in
in Figure
Figure 5a.
5a. There
There were
were four
four pitches,
pitches, and
and
the pitch length and pitch numbers are listed in Table
the pitch length and pitch numbers are listed in Table 1. 1.

Figure 5. Pattern shape and pitch arrangement of test tire. (a) Pattern geometry of different pitches;
(b) pitch
Figure sequence
5. Pattern around
shape the tire.
and pitch A, B, C, and
arrangement of D represent
test tire. (a) four different
Pattern pitches.
geometry of different pitches;
(b) pitch sequence around the tire. A, B, C, and D represent four different pitches.
Table 1. Parameters of pitch sequence.
Table 1. Parameters of pitch sequence.
Pitch Type Pitch Len. (mm) Pitch No. Pitch Sequence
Pitch Type Pitch Len. (mm) Pitch No. Pitch Sequence
A 45.23 10 DCDDC AABBC
A 45.23 10
B 51.85 10 ABDDC ABCDB
B 51.85 10 DCDDC AABBC ABDDC ABCDB AABAA
C 58.47 10 AABAA BDDCD
C D 58.47 65.08 10 BDDCD
11 BDCBC CAACB D
BDCBC CAACB D
D 65.08 11

After
After thetest,
the test,the
thetire
tirenoise
noisedata
datafrom
frommicrophone
microphoneM2 M2were
werecollected
collectedunder
undervarious
various
rolling speed conditions: 60 km/h, 80 km/h, 100 km/h, and 120 km/h;
rolling speed conditions: 60 km/h, 80 km/h, 100 km/h, and 120 km/h; then, the 1/3-octave-then, the 1/3-
octave-band sound pressure levels (dB(A)) were
band sound pressure levels (dB(A)) were calculated [42]. calculated [42].
Figure6 illustrates
Figure 6 illustrates thethe 1/3-octave-band
1/3-octave-band soundsound pressure
pressure levellevel (dB(A)).
(dB(A)). ThereThere is a
is a sig-
significant correlation with velocity when the frequency is over 800 Hz. The
nificant correlation with velocity when the frequency is over 800 Hz. The tire noise mainly tire noise
mainly
comes comes
from the from
tread the
blocktread blockcontact
impact, impact,area
contact area
block block
slip, andslip,
pumpandnoise
pump noise
due due
to the
to the grooves. With the increase in speed, the impact force increases, which results in a
grooves. With the increase in speed, the impact force increases, which results in a higher
noise emission. When the frequency is below 800 Hz, the tire noise is mainly caused by
structural vibration, including of the carcass cavity and sidewall; this is related to the tire
vibration characteristics and exciting force, and there is no obvious correlation between
tire velocity and tire noise.
 After the test, the tire noise data from microphone M2 were collected under various
rolling speed conditions: 60 km/h, 80 km/h, 100 km/h, and 120 km/h; then, the 1/3-octave-
band sound pressure levels (dB(A)) were calculated [42].
Figure 6 illustrates the 1/3-octave-band sound pressure level (dB(A)). There is a sig-
Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, 10256 nificant correlation with velocity when the frequency is over 800 Hz. The tire noise mainly 9 of 20
comes from the tread block impact, contact area block slip, and pump noise due to the
grooves. With the increase in speed, the impact force increases, which results in a higher
noise emission. When the frequency is below 800 Hz, the tire noise is mainly caused by
higher noise emission. When the frequency is below 800 Hz, the tire noise is mainly caused
structural vibration, including of the carcass cavity and sidewall; this is related to the tire
by structural vibration, including of the carcass cavity and sidewall; this is related to the
vibration characteristics and exciting force, and there is no obvious correlation between
tire vibration characteristics and exciting force, and there is no obvious correlation between
tire velocity and tire noise.
tire velocity and tire noise.

Figure 6. Measured 1/3-octave-band sound pressure levels at various velocities.

5.2. The Validation of the Tire Noise Prediction Method

In this research, to calculate the tire noise accurately, the footprint profile was cal-
culated using FE software ABAQUS 6.14. The simplified tread pattern was modeled,
which has sufficient accuracy in analyzing the tire’s steady state [43]. The tire reinforce-
ment was modeled by the rebar layer, the rubber material was modeled as incompressible
hyperelasticity, and the Yeoh constitutive model was used in this simulation. The tire
three-dimensional model was generated with symmetrical model generation technology,
and the load and inflation pressure are consistent with those of the noise test.
Figure 7b shows the footprint profile of a 225/60 R18 tire at a speed of 60 km/h. In
this study, the leading edge of the footprint profile was used. We assume that each pattern
element produces a unit pulse, resulting in a weight function that remains constant along
the tread meridian direction. Thus, the γ can be simplified to 1.0. The excitation force
was obtained by moving the leading edge along the tread pattern, resulting in a total of
2048 data points. The predicted and measured 1/3-octave sound pressure levels (dB(A))
are shown in Figure 8.
It is clear from Figure 8 that the predicted result is in good agreement with the
measured noise for frequencies over 800 Hz. In this range, the tire/road noise is primarily
determined by the local deformations occurring at the leading and trailing edges of the
tire’s footprint; these local deformations arise due to the impact of tread blocks during tire
rotation. In contrast to the urban road traffic noise experiment [44], and to further validate
the correlation between the experiment results and our prediction of external noise, our
study followed the pass-by noise testing process outlined in ECE R117 [45]. During this
test, the vehicle was driven along a designated test track following the centerline denoted
as C-C in Figure 9, and two target microphones were placed on both sides of the track to
measure the noise levels. These microphones were placed in the middle of the track 7.5 m
away from the vehicle’s centerline at a height of 1.2 m. Subsequently, the maximum sound
pressure level was recorded while the test vehicle was coasting. To obtain the final result
for a reference speed, we conducted a linear regression analysis. If the discrepancy between
the measurements from the left and right microphones exceeded 1 dB (a), the test result
was deemed invalid and necessitated retesting. Finally, the sound pressure level (dB(A)) at
a velocity of 80 km/h was calculated.

Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, 10256
Figure 7b shows the footprint profile of a 225/60 R18 tire at a speed of 60 km/h. In this
study, the leading edge of the footprint profile was used. We assume that each pattern
element produces a unit pulse, resulting in a weight function that remains constant along
the tread meridian direction. Thus, the 𝛾 can be simplified to 1.0. The excitation force was
obtained by moving the leading edge along the tread pattern, resulting in a total of 2048
data points. The predicted and measured 1/3-octave sound pressure levels (dB(A)) are10 of 20
shown in Figure 8.

Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 11 of 21

for a reference speed, we conducted a linear regression analysis. If the discrepancy be-
tween
Figure the measurements
7. Simulation from
results thefootprint
of tire left and right
profile.microphones exceeded
(a) Process of 1 dBexcitation
calculating (a), the test
force of
Figure
result7.was
Simulation
deemed results of tire
invalid and footprint profile.retesting.
necessitated (a) Process of calculating
Finally, the excitation
sound forcelevel
pressure of
pattern; (b) footprint of 225/60 R18 at a velocity of 60 km/h on drum; (c) footprint of 205/60 R16 at a
pattern; (b) footprint of 225/60 R18 at a velocity of 60 km/h on drum; (c) footprint of 205/60 R16 at a
(dB(A)) at
velocity a velocity
of 80 km/h onofa80flatkm/h was calculated.
surface.
velocity of 80 km/h on a flat surface.

It is clear from Figure 8 that the predicted result is in good agreement with the meas-
ured noise for frequencies over 800 Hz. In this range, the tire/road noise is primarily de-
termined by the local deformations occurring at the leading and trailing edges of the tire’s
footprint; these local deformations arise due to the impact of tread blocks during tire ro-
tation. In contrast to the urban road traffic noise experiment [44], and to further validate
the correlation between the experiment results and our prediction of external noise, our
study followed the pass-by noise testing process outlined in ECE R117 [45]. During this
test, the vehicle was driven along a designated test track following the centerline denoted
as C-C in Figure 9, and two target microphones were placed on both sides of the track to
measure the noise levels. These microphones were placed in the middle of the track 7.5 m
away from the vehicle’s centerline at a height of 1.2 m. Subsequently, the maximum sound
pressure level was recorded while the test vehicle was coasting. To obtain the final result

Figure
Figure 8.
8.Comparison
Comparisonofofpredicted
predictedand
andmeasured
measured1/3-octave sound
1/3-octave pressure
sound (dB(A))
pressure at a velocity
(dB(A)) of of
at a velocity
60 km/h.
60 km/h.

Four different tread patterns, denoted as A, B, C, and D, were selected for the experi-
ment, while the tire size and structural design of 205/60 R16 were kept the same. Figure 7c
shows the contact patch at a speed of 80 km/h. The evaluation results of the pass-by
noise experiment are presented in Figure 10 where the predicted results are compared
with the measured results. In this analysis, the predicted results were calculated using the
1/3-octave dB(A) range from 800–2000 Hz, which specifically covers the pattern impact
Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, 10256 11 of 20

noise range. The predicted values agree well with the test noise in terms of overall trends.
This level of agreement is highly advantageous, as it facilitates the initial evaluation of
pattern design. While the specific values may not match perfectly, this is mainly due to the
test results of the pass-by noise experiment being influenced by environmental factors [46],
road conditions, and the motion state of vehicles [47]. It is important to note that these
measurement outcomes are a culmination of the combination of various mechanisms. In ad-
dition, our prediction model does not consider the radiation characteristics [48–50] of noise.
This could be a plausible explanation for why the predicted value exceeds the observed
test value. Nevertheless, the overall trend alignment demonstrates the effectiveness of the
prediction model. In order to improve the prediction accuracy, the spatial noise radiation
Figure 8. Comparisonof of predicted andthe
measured 1/3-octave sound pressure (dB(A)) at a velocity of and tire
Appl. Sci. 2023,characteristics the tire and acoustic interaction between the tread pattern
6013,km/h.
x FOR PEER REVIEW 12 of 21
body should be considered.

Four different tread patterns, denoted as A, B, C, and D, were selected for the exper-
iment, while the tire size and structural design of 205/60 R16 were kept the same. Figure
7c shows the contact patch at a speed of 80 km/h. The evaluation results of the pass-by
noise experiment are presented in Figure 10 where the predicted results are compared
with the measured results. In this analysis, the predicted results were calculated using the
1/3-octave dB(A) range from 800–2000 Hz, which specifically covers the pattern impact
noise range. The predicted values agree well with the test noise in terms of overall trends.
This level of agreement is highly advantageous, as it facilitates the initial evaluation of
pattern design. While the specific values may not match perfectly, this is mainly due to
the test results of the pass-by noise experiment being influenced by environmental factors
[46], road conditions, and the motion state of vehicles [47]. It is important to note that these
measurement outcomes are a culmination of the combination of various mechanisms. In
addition, our prediction model does not consider the radiation characteristics [48–50] of
noise. This could be a plausible explanation for why the predicted value exceeds the ob-
served test value. Nevertheless, the overall trend alignment demonstrates the effective-
ness of the prediction model. In order to improve the prediction accuracy, the spatial noise
radiation characteristics of the tire and the acoustic interaction between the tread pattern
and
Figure 9. Schematic tire body
diagram should be
of pass-by considered.
noise experiment.
Figure 9. Schematic diagram of pass-by noise experiment.

Figure 10. Pass-byFigure

noise 10. Pass-by noise
experiment andexperiment
predictionand prediction
results results tread
of different of different tread patterns.
patterns.

5.3. GA Optimization of Tread Pattern

5.3.1. Computational Condition
The proposed designs of the basis vector shapes are presented in Figure 11. Con-
straint conditions for the optimization process are listed in Table 2, which involve the
Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, 10256 12 of 20

5.3. GA Optimization of Tread Pattern

5.3.1. Computational Condition
The proposed designs of the basis vector shapes are presented in Figure 11. Constraint
conditions for the optimization process are listed in Table 2, which involve the weighting
Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 13 o
factors of Base 1, Base 2, Base 3, and Base 4. The design variables for the i-th shape are
defined as wi .

Figure 11. Basis vector shapes

Figure for tread
11. Basis pattern
vector optimization.
shapes Tread ribs
for tread pattern are highlighted
optimization. Treadby different
ribs colors. by diff
are highlighted
ent colors.
Table 2. Constraint conditions.
Table 2. Constraint conditions.
Design variable Base 1 Base 2 Base 3 Base 4
Range of design Design variable Base 1 Base 2 Base 3 Base 4
− 0.4~2.0 −0.5~4.0
Range of design variables (wi) − 2.0~2.0
−0.4~2.0 −0.5~4.0 −0.8~1.2
−2.0~2.0 −0.8~1.
variables (wi )

In general, the leading edge can be defined by a straight line, two arcs [31], or a
perelliptic equation [51]. For simplicity, the leading edge is described by the parab
equation:

x 2 = −2 py (p > 0) (
 Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, 10256 13 of 20

Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 14 of 21

In general, the leading edge can be defined by a straight line, two arcs [31], or a hyperel-
liptic equation [51]. For simplicity, the leading edge is described by the parabolic equation:

x2 = −2py ( p > 0 ) (14)

where x and y are the coordinate values along the tread meridian and longitudinal direc-
tion,where
the parameter p can
x and y are the be obtained
coordinate values from
along the right-end
the tread point
meridian andof the leading
longitudinal edge, and
direction,
the the
maximum
parameterwidth
p canisbe
FW. Figurefrom
obtained 12 shows the leading
the right-end point edges of different
of the leading c values.
edge,Yand the In
the process
maximum of width
shapeisoptimization,
FW. Figure 12we set the
shows theleading
leadingedge
edgestoofhave Yc = 25
different Yc mm andInFW =
values.
the
190.5 process of shape optimization, we set the leading edge to have Yc = 25 mm and
mm.
FW = 190.5 mm.

Figure 12. The shapes of the leading edge are described by the parabola equation.
Figure 12. The shapes of the leading edge are described by the parabola equation.
5.3.2. The Objective Function
The objective function plays a crucial role in determining the optimization result.
5.3.2. The Objective Function
According to the literature [52], any reduction in Hij (f ) can reduce the radiated noise. An ex-
The objective
citing function
force between plays
the tread a crucial
pattern role
and the in that
road determining themean
is around its optimization result.
value will lead to Ac-
cording to acoustic
similar the literature
pressure[52], any reduction
variations inside thein Hij(f) can
vehicle. reducetothe
According the radiated noise. An ex-
literature [28,42,53],
citing force between the tread pattern and the road that is around its mean value
a simple measure to quantify this change is the standard deviation; the standard will lead
deviation
of the tread impact force function is considered to be a measure of the sound
to similar acoustic pressure variations inside the vehicle. According to the literature pressure level
inside the
[28,42,53], vehicle:measure to quantify
a simple s this change is the standard deviation; the stand-
Z 2π
ard deviation of the tread impact force 2
FeSTD = function
( Fe( ϕis) considered
− Femean ) to be a measure of the(15)
sound
pressure level inside the vehicle: 0

where Fmean is the average value of the exciting force. Furthermore, during the collision,
2π
the tread block impacts the road FSTDand= pulsive( Fnoise
  (ϕ ) −is F
 ) 2 due to the deformation (15)
generated
mean
of the tread surface in the radial direction.0 Acoustic sources located near the contact path
are then amplified by the tire–pavement geometry, resulting in far-field noise, which is
where Fmean is the average value of the exciting force. Furthermore, during the collision, the
then perceived by humans. The sound pressure level (SPL) experienced by pedestrians is
tread block impacts
important the road
[54]. Here, and pulsive
we define noise issound
the 1/3-octave generated duelevel
pressure to the deformation
curve, of the
as shown in
tread surface
Figure 13. in the radial direction. Acoustic sources located near the contact path are then
amplified by the tire–pavement geometry, resulting in far-field noise, which is then per-
ceived by humans. The sound pressure level (SPL) experienced by pedestrians is important
[54]. Here, we define the 1/3-octave sound pressure level curve, as shown in Figure 13.
 Appl.Sci.
Appl. Sci.2023,
2023,13,
13,10256
x FOR PEER REVIEW 15 21
14 of 20

Figure13.
Figure 13.The
Theobjective
objectivefunction
functionof
ofnoise
noiseoptimization.
optimization.

ffss and f ee are

are the
the start
start and end frequencies, and S is the difference
and end difference between
between the
the area
areaofof
the
theoriginal
originalcurvecurveand andthat
thatofof
the optimized
the optimized curve. The
curve. objective
The function
objective cancan
function be defined as:
be defined
as:
Fespl = max(S) (16)
Fspl = max( S ) (16)
When taking both objectives into account, the problem transforms into a multi-
When
objective taking both objectives
optimization problem. into account,two
Generally, the methods
problem transforms
can be used into
toasolve
multi-objec-
multi-
tive optimization
objective optimization problem. Generally,
problems: two methods
the Pareto canthe
method and be scalarization
used to solvemethod
multi-objective
[55]. In
this study, NSGA-II
optimization was applied
problems: [56].method and the scalarization method [55]. In this
the Pareto
study, NSGA-II was applied [56].
5.3.3. Computational Results
5.3.3.Based
Computational Results
on the optimization method proposed above, the experimental tire pattern
was optimized.
Based on the optimization method proposed above, the experimental tire pattern was
optimized. 14 shows the original and optimized results where the noise has been signifi-
Figure
cantlyFigure
reduced in the target
14 shows frequency
the original and range.
optimizedIt can be seen
results fromthe
where thenoise
results
hasthat thesignifi-
been tread
pattern shape optimization is effective at reducing noise above 500 Hz. The low-frequency
cantly reduced in the target frequency range. It can be seen from the results that the tread
component
pattern shapeof the pattern impact
optimization is mainly
is effective transmitted
at reducing to the
noise interior
above of the
500 Hz. Thevehicle through
low-frequency
the
component of the pattern impact is mainly transmitted to the interior of the this
suspension system, which causes the vibration of the vehicle structures. In pa-
vehicle
Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 16 of 21
per,
through the suspension system, which causes the vibration of the vehicle structures.by
only pattern noise was considered, and low-frequency components were reduced In
modifying the objective function.
this paper, only pattern noise was considered, and low-frequency components were re-
duced by modifying the objective function.
The reduced values at each target frequency are 6.4 dB(A), 9.22 dB(A), 9.08 dB(A),
7.79 dB(A), and 6.55 dB(A), and the maximum reduction rate is 12.1% at the frequency of
1250 Hz. These specific values may differ from those of the experiment. This is mainly
because the acoustic radiation characteristics and the coupling effect between the pattern
blocks and tire body are not considered in our prediction model. However, these values
can provide us with a reference to improve our design sketch in the pattern design stage.
In terms of optimization time, it takes only 5.5 s to obtain the first optimization solu-
tion and only 76 s to produce the final result. Different from regression methods, which
include the support vector machine (SVM), relevance vector machine (RVM), ANN [57],
and convolutional neural network (CNN) [58] (the RVM, ANN, and CNN take 66,297,
32,428, and 205,694 s for data training [59]), the optimization method proposed in this
paper does not need to collect and train data. In addition, there are fewer parameters for
pattern parameterization [31]. Last but not least, engineers’ design ideas can be integrated
into the design of basis vector shapes.

Figure14.
Figure 14.Results
Resultsof
ofpattern
patternshape
shapeoptimization
optimizationatatdifferent
differenttimes
timesand
andatataavelocity
velocityofof60
60km/h.
km/h.

The optimized pattern shapes are shown in Figure 15. The standard deviations of the
exciting force of the original and optimized patterns are 2.62, 2.03, 2.00, and 1.99. The op-
timized pattern has lower variance and a better Sound Quality Preference Index [53]. Com-
pared with other methods presented in the literature [31], the proposed method, which is
Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, 10256 15 of 20

The reduced values at each target frequency are 6.4 dB(A), 9.22 dB(A), 9.08 dB(A),
7.79 dB(A), and 6.55 dB(A), and the maximum reduction rate is 12.1% at the frequency of
1250 Hz. These specific values may differ from those of the experiment. This is mainly
because the acoustic radiation characteristics and the coupling effect between the pattern
blocks and tire body are not considered in our prediction model. However, these values
can provide us with a reference to improve our design sketch in the pattern design stage.
In terms of optimization time, it takes only 5.5 s to obtain the first optimization
solution and only 76 s to produce the final result. Different from regression methods, which
include the support vector machine (SVM), relevance vector machine (RVM), ANN [57],
and convolutional neural network (CNN) [58] (the RVM, ANN, and CNN take 66,297,
32,428, and 205,694 s for data training [59]), the optimization method proposed in this
paper does not need to collect and train data. In addition, there are fewer parameters for
Figure 14.
pattern Results of pattern[31].
parameterization shapeLast
optimization at different
but not least, timesdesign
engineers’ and at aideas
velocity
canofbe60integrated
km/h.
into the design of basis vector shapes.
The
The optimized
optimizedpattern
patternshapes
shapesare areshown
shownininFigure
Figure 15.15.
TheThe
standard
standard deviations
deviationsof the
of
exciting force of the original and optimized patterns are 2.62, 2.03, 2.00, and 1.99.
the exciting force of the original and optimized patterns are 2.62, 2.03, 2.00, and 1.99. The The op-
timized
optimizedpattern hashas
pattern lower variance
lower and aand
variance better Sound
a better Quality
Sound Preference
Quality Index [53].
Preference IndexCom-
[53].
pared with other methods presented in the literature [31], the proposed
Compared with other methods presented in the literature [31], the proposed method, method, which
which is
based on the linear combination of the basis vector shapes, has fewer optimization
is based on the linear combination of the basis vector shapes, has fewer optimization param-
eters when needing
parameters to change
when needing the pattern
to change shape.shape.
the pattern

Figure 15.
Figure Optimized tread
15. Optimized tread pattern
pattern images
images at
at various
various weighting
weighting factors.
factors.

5.4. Optimization of Footprint Leading Edge

5.4. Optimization of Footprint Leading Edge
5.4.1. The Process for Optimization of Leading Edge
5.4.1.The
Thetire–pavement
Process for Optimization of Leading
noise is influenced notEdge
only by the exciting force from the tread
Thebut
pattern tire–pavement noiseby
also significantly is the
influenced
shape ofnot theonly by the
leading exciting
edge [22]. Inforce fromof
the stage the tread
pattern
pattern
design, abut also significantly
well-designed patternbyshould
the shape of the
exhibit leading
superior edge [22]. In
performance thevarious
over stage offootprint
pattern
design,
contours,a well-designed pattern should
which is a challenging task. Onceexhibit superiordesign
the pattern performance
scheme over various foot-
is determined, the
print
most contours, which patch
suitable contact is a challenging
should be task. Once the pattern design scheme is determined,
determined.
the most
The suitable contact
contact patch canpatch should beby
be controlled determined.
the tire structure [60]. In this subsection, we
Thediscuss
further contactthe
patch can be controlled
optimization by theedge
of the leading tire structure
to reduce[60]. In this
pattern subsection,
noise. The leadingwe
further
edge is discuss theinoptimization
described the same way of as
theinleading
Sectionedge
5.3.1towhere
reducethepattern noise.
equation The leading
coefficients are
determined
edge by thein
is described Ycthe
coordinate
same way onastheinright end.5.3.1
Section In the optimization
where process,
the equation the leading
coefficients are
edge where Yc = −25 mm was selected as the original design scheme. The design variable
was the y coordinate on the right end of the leading edge, which ranges from −50 mm to
0 mm.

5.4.2. Result of Optimization of Leading Edge

Figure 16 shows the 1/3-octave result of the optimized leading edges where a result
similar to that of the pattern optimization was obtained. The reduced values at each target
 was
0 mm.the y coordinate on the right end of the leading edge, which ranges from −50 mm to
0 mm.
5.4.2. Result of Optimization of Leading Edge
5.4.2.Figure
Result 16
of Optimization of Leading
shows the 1/3-octave Edge
result of the optimized leading edges where a resul
Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, 10256 Figure 16 shows the 1/3-octave resultwas
of the optimized 16 of 20 a resul
similar to that of the pattern optimization obtained. Theleading
reducededges
valueswhere
at each targe
similar to that
frequency of the
are 5.19 pattern
dB(A), 4.40optimization was obtained.
dB(A), 4.88 dB(A), Theand
4.56 dB(A), reduced values
3.01 dB(A) at each
within thetarge
opti
frequency are frequency
mized target 5.19 dB(A),of4.40 dB(A), 4.88
800–2000 dB(A),
Hz. The 4.56 dB(A),
maximum and 3.01rate
reduction dB(A) withinatthe
is 7.02% theopti
fre
frequency
mized are
quencytarget 5.19
of 800 dB(A),
frequency
Hz. Under 4.40 dB(A),
of 800–2000 4.88 dB(A), 4.56
Hz. conditions,
similar time dB(A),
The maximum and 3.01
reduction
the pattern dB(A) within the
rate optimization
shape is 7.02% at thehas fre
optimized target frequency of 800–2000 Hz. The maximum reduction rate is 7.02% at the
quency of 800 Hz.
higher reduction Under
effect andsimilar time
takes less conditions, the pattern shape optimization has a
time.
frequency of 800 Hz. Under similar time conditions, the pattern shape optimization has a
higher reduction effect and takes less time.
higher reduction effect and takes less time.

Figure 16. Results of leading-edge optimization at different times and at a velocity of 60 km/h.
Figure16.
Figure 16.Results
Resultsof of leading-edge
leading-edge optimization
optimization at different
at different times
times and at aand at a velocity
velocity of 60 km/h.
of 60 km/h.
The optimized shape of the leading edge is shown in Figure 17. It can be seen from
The
Theoptimized
the results that theshape
optimized shape
leadingof the
of
edgeleading
the has aedge
leading is shown
edge
significant in Figure
is effect
shown 17. It can
oninpattern
Figure 17.be
It seen
noise, from
canreported
as be seen infrom
th
the results that the leading edge has a significant effect on pattern noise, as reported in
the results[31],
literature that and
the leading
the changeedgeinhas a significant
footprint shapeeffect
may onhavepattern noise,on
an impact asother
reported
tire in the
prop
the literature [31], and the change in footprint shape may have an impact on other tire
literature
erties. [31],
This and thethat
suggests change
for aincertain
footprint shape
tread may have
pattern, the an impact
leading edgeonshould
other tire prop
maintain
properties. This suggests that for a certain tread pattern, the leading edge should maintain
erties.
minimal
minimal This suggests
change
change under
under that forconditions
various
various a conditions
certainfor
tread
a for pattern,
a better
better theperformance.
tire
tire noise leading
noise edge should maintain
performance.
minimal change under various conditions for a better tire noise performance.

Figure 17. The optimized shape of the leading edges at a velocity of 60 km/h.
Figure 17. The optimized shape of the leading edges at a velocity of 60 km/h.
6. Conclusions
Figure 17. The optimized shape of the leading edges at a velocity of 60 km/h.
This paper aimed to contribute to reducing tire pattern impact noise. The tire pattern
noise prediction method was introduced and validated through indoor anechoic chambers
and pass-by noise experiments. Then, the pattern shape optimization method was proposed,
and the pattern shape was generated using the basis vector method. Finally, the potential
of leading edge and pattern shape optimization to reduce pattern noise was discussed.
The main conclusions of this work are summarized below:
Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, 10256 17 of 20

1. A predictive model for tire–pavement interaction noise was developed, and noise
experiments were conducted in a semi-anechoic chamber by measuring pass-by noise.
The prediction results are in good agreement with the experiment results above
800 Hz.
2. The basis vector method was applied to generate complex tire pattern structures. The
new pattern shape was synthesized with linear weighting parameters among these
base shapes, and it was found that the optimization parameters can be reduced by
this method.
3. The novel multi-objective function that was proposed aims to minimize the impact
noise generated by the tire pattern. The optimization parameters were obtained using
a genetic algorithm. This method can be used to improve the design scheme at the
pattern design stage.
4. Noise can be reduced through optimization of the pattern shape or leading edge, but
changing the pattern may be a better choice when considering other performance factors.
In summary, the tire noise prediction and optimization method proposed in this paper
offers the potential to effectively reduce noise, minimize trial and error costs in the early
stage of pattern design, and significantly enhance development efficiency. However, low
noise is a tire design criterion that may conflict with other objectives [61], such as wet
traction, handling, hydroplaning, or safety. For example, when considering the wet skid
performance of a tire, the water flow characteristics around a tire are largely influenced by
lateral grooves [62]. The model proposed in [63] can be used to determine the parameters
of the tread pattern, such as the width and angle of the lateral groove, for better wet skid
performance. By keeping these parameters with minimal changes in each base shape vector,
the optimization tread pattern can combine maximum safety with the lowest noise level.
In addition, compared to traditional fuel vehicles, electric vehicles (Evs) have lower
engine noise and lower inlet and exhaust noise, and the tire–pavement interaction noise is
the main source of vehicle noise at higher velocities [64]. The motion states of Evs (i.e., the
constant speed state, the acceleration state, and the deceleration state) have a significant
influence on vehicle noise [47]. When considering the optimization of Ev noise, several
crucial steps must be followed. Firstly, it is essential to accurately determine the real leading
edge through experiments or Finite Element Method (FEM) simulations at various motion
states. Secondly, the obtained real leading edge should be used in the optimization process,
as demonstrated in Figure 3. Subsequently, the objective function for reducing electric
vehicle noise should be established by Equations (15) and (16) at each motion state. Finally,
the optimization process of Ev noise can be carried out by employing the method proposed
in this research.

Author Contributions: Methodology, B.Z.; data curation, D.H. and F.L.; software, B.Z. and J.C.;
writing—review and editing, B.Z., B.S. and J.W.; funding acquisition, Y.W. All authors have read and
agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This work was supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (52075119)
and the Major Program of the National Natural Science Foundation of China (51790502).
Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.
Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable.
Data Availability Statement: Not applicable.
Acknowledgments: Thanks to G. J. Kim and Zhibo Cui for their help and suggestions in the imple-
mentation of this study.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.
Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, 10256 18 of 20

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