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AI Question Bank
Q. Write a short note on statistical learning.
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Q. Explain Bayesian Learning with an example.

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Q. What is an EM algorithm? What are its steps?

The Expectation-Maximization (EM) algorithm is defined as the combination of various

unsupervised machine learning algorithms, which is used to determine the local
maximum likelihood estimates (MLE) or maximum a posteriori estimates
(MAP) for unobservable variables in statistical models. Further, it is a technique to find
maximum likelihood estimation when the latent variables are present. It is also referred
to as the latent variable model.

A latent variable model consists of both observable and unobservable variables where
observable can be predicted while unobserved are inferred from the observed variable.
These unobservable variables are known as latent variables.

o Expectation step (E - step): It involves the estimation (guess) of all missing

values in the dataset so that after completing this step, there should not be any
missing value.
o Maximization step (M - step): This step involves the use of estimated data in
the E-step and updating the parameters.
o Repeat E-step and M-step until the convergence of the values occurs.

The primary goal of the EM algorithm is to use the available observed data of the
dataset to estimate the missing data of the latent variables and then use that data to
update the values of the parameters in the M-step.

Steps in EM Algorithm

The EM algorithm is completed mainly in 4 steps, which include Initialization Step,

Expectation Step, Maximization Step, and convergence Step. These steps are
explained as follows:
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o 1st Step: The very first step is to initialize the parameter values. Further, the
system is provided with incomplete observed data with the assumption that
data is obtained from a specific model.

o 2nd Step: This step is known as Expectation or E-Step, which is used to estimate
or guess the values of the missing or incomplete data using the observed data.
Further, E-step primarily updates the variables.
o 3rd Step: This step is known as Maximization or M-step, where we use complete
data obtained from the 2nd step to update the parameter values. Further, M-
step primarily updates the hypothesis.
o 4th step: The last step is to check if the values of latent variables are converging
or not. If it gets "yes", then stop the process; else, repeat the process from step
2 until the convergence occurs.

Q. Explain Maximum-likelihood parameter learning for

Continuous models.
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Q. Write a short note on temporal difference learning.

1. Temporal difference (TD) learning is a class of model-free reinforcement

learning methods which learn by bootstrapping from the current estimate
of the value function. The name TD derives from its use of changes, or
differences, in predictions over successive time steps to drive the learning
process.
2. TD learning is a supervised learning process in which the training signal
for a prediction is a future prediction. In other words, TD learners learn by
comparing their current predictions to future predictions and adjusting
their predictions accordingly. This process is repeated until the learner's
predictions are accurate enough to be useful.
3. TD learning has been shown to be effective in a variety of tasks, including
learning to play Atari games, Go, and poker. It is also used in many other
applications, such as robotics, finance, and economics.
4. Here is a simple example of how TD learning works:
5. Imagine a robot that is trying to learn how to walk. The robot starts by
taking a random step. If the robot falls down, it receives a negative
reward. If the robot does not fall down, it receives a positive reward. The
robot then uses these rewards to update its estimate of the value of
taking a step in a given direction.
6. Over time, the robot learns to take steps that are more likely to lead to
positive rewards. This is because the robot's estimate of the value of
taking a step in a given direction is updated whenever the robot takes
that step and receives a reward.
7. TD learning is a powerful tool for reinforcement learning. It is able to learn
from experience and adapt to new situations. This makes it ideal for tasks
that are difficult or impossible to program explicitly.
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Q. Explain the concept of Reinforcement Learning.

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Q. Explain applications of Reinforcement Learning.

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Q. Write a short note on Passive Reinforcement Learning.

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Q. Write a note on Naive Bayes models.

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Q. Write a short note on the Hidden Markov Model.

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Q. Explain the concept of Unsupervised Learning.

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Q. What are hidden variables or Latent Variables? Explain with

examples.
Q. Describe adaptive Dynamic programming.
Q. Explain Q- Learning in detail.
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Q. What is Association rule mining?

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Q. What are the metrics used to evaluate the strength of

Association Rule Mining?
OR
Q. Explain the following with respect to Association Rule Mining:
a) Support
b) Confidence
c) Lift
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