CME340CAD/CAM

UNIT–I BASICSOFDESIGNS
Understanding of Projections, Scales, units, GD & T; its 14 symbols, Special characteristics,
TitleBlockreadings.Revision/ECNstatusofdrawings–Customer Specific requirements–Drawing Gridreading

UNIT–II 2DDRAFTING
Projection views –Orthographicview,Axillary view,Full& Half Section views, Broken
Sectionview,Offset Sectionview – Title Block creation – BOM Creation – Notes creation –Ballooning of 2D
drawingand itsfeaturesfor Inspectionreporting

UNIT–III 3DMODELING
Conversion of Views – 2D to 3D & 3D to 2D – Parametric and Non-Parametric Modeling –
Treefeaturesof3DModelinganditsadvantages–SurfaceModeling–BIW(BodyInWhite)–
SolidModeling,BooleanoperationslikeUnites, Subtraction,Intersect,etc.

UNIT–IV ASSEMBLYMODELING
Basics of Assembly modeling, Purpose ofAssembly modeling & amp; its advantages – Top to Down
&BottomUp modeling approaches – Analysis of Clearances – Undercuts – Interferences – Stack up
analysis –Cumulativeeffectof Tolerancesin after assemblyconditions.-motionanalysis
UNIT–V CAM
Basics of CNC Machining – 3, 4 & 5 Axis machines - CNC and Part Programing, CAM programing
2D& 3D. Elements of CAM Orientation, Boundary Creation, Cutter PathSelection, Cutter Compensation
–Machining Stocks, Roughing,Re-roughing, Semi Finishing & Finishing - Tool Path Generation, Isl
andMilling Programing. Machining program simulation, integration of program with machine; Estimation
ofCNCCycletime.–Post ProcessNCCode conversion andSetup SheetPreparation.

TOTAL:45PERIODS
 UnitI

UNIT–IBASICSOFDESIGNS

CADdrafting Significance:
 QualityofDesign:The CADsoftware hasdifferenttoolstocreatedrawingsaccuratelyaspertherequirement.The
qualityof theCADisbetter compared to Manual drafting.
 Easy forDocumentation: Formanualdrafting,wehaveto maintain a lotof documents.Handling andmaintaining
the document is a very difficult process in manual drafting. But, in CAD drafting, saving andsharingthe
documentsisveryeasy.Documentscanbe saved inthelocalstorage orin the cloudstorage.
 Modify and Reproduce Faster: Modifying the existing drawing and reproducing the drawing is very easy
inCADdrafting.It isverycomplicated inthe Manual draftingprocess.
 Ability to Create a Drawing from 3D Models: In CAD drafting you can directly import any 3D CAD
modelyoucan create different viewslikeFront,Side&Top, etc.in CADdrafting.
 Following the Standards: Different standards are available in CAD drafting. Based on the standard which
youare selecting the views and annotations are automatically added. But, In Manual drafting, you have to
knowaboutall thestandards. Onlythenyou cancreate proper drafting.
 Time Consumption: The time consumption in CAD drafting is very less compared to manual drafting.
Sincemostof theprocessisautomated bytoolsCADdraftingwill takeverylesstime.

1.UnderstandingofProjections
As an object, it has three dimensions length, width and height. The shapes and size of the object to
berepresentedonasheet, which hasonlyatwo-dimensional plane.
For obtaining the image of an object, various points on the contour of the object are projected on the
drawingsheet by means of straight lines and curves. The figure formed by joining various points thus obtained
on theplane istheimageof theobjectand iscalled Projection.

UseofProjectionsinDrafting:
 Projectionisusedtorepresentthe Complex3Dobjectinthe 2Ddrawingsheet.
 Projectionisusedtoshowthe Shape andSize ofthe objectinthe DrawingorDraftingsheet.

A three-dimensional object can be represented in a single plane, such as on a sheet of paper, using
projectinglines and planes. All projection theory is based on two variables: line of sight (projecting lines) and
plane ofprojection.

A line of sight (LOS) is an imaginary line between an observer’s eye and an object. A plane of
projection(i.e.,animageorpictureplane)isanimaginaryflatplaneuponwhichtheimageisprojected.Theprojectionis
produced by connecting the points where the lines of sight pierce the projection plane. As a result, the
3Dobjectistransformedintoa2Dview.

If the distance from the observer to the object is infinite, then the projection lines are assumed to be
parallel,and the projection is called a parallel projection. Parallel projection is orthographic if the plane of
projectionisplacedbetweenthe observerandthe object,andthe planeisperpendiculartothe parallellinesofsight.
 You can use parallel projection technique to create both multiview and pictorial (isometric and
oblique)views.

1. Inmultivieworthographicprojection(seedetailsbelow),theobjectsurfaceandtheprojectionplaneareparallel,
and you can seeonlytwo dimensions.

2. In isometric view (orthographic) the surface is no longer parallel to the projection plane, but the latter
isperpendicularto thelinesofsight, with threedimensionsbeingseen.

3. Inobliqueprojection(non-
orthographic)theobjectsurfaceandtheprojectionplanearealsoparallel,butthelinesofsightsare
notperpendiculartotheprojection plane,andyoucansee againthree dimensions.
Ifthedistancefromtheobservertotheobjectisfinite,thentheprojectionlinesarenotparallel(sincealllinesof sight start
at a single point), and the drawing is classified as a perspective projection. In perspective viewthe object
surfaceandprojection planecan be also parallel.

Multiviewprojection
By changing position of the object relative to the line of sight you can create different views of the
sameobject. Drawing more than one face of an object by rotating the object relative to your line of sight helps
inunderstandingthe3Dform.Havingseveralviewsononedrawingyouusetheconceptof multi-
viewprojection,whichisbasedontheorthographic (parallel) projectiontechnique where
 Planeofprojectionispositionedbetweentheobserverandtheobject, 

 Planeofprojectionisperpendiculartotheparallellinesofsight,and 

 Objectisorientedsuchthatonlytwoof itsdimensionsare shown. 

Four Quadrants/AnglesofProjection
2. Scales,units
Ascaleisdefinedastheratioofthelineardimensionsoftheobjectasrepresentedinadrawingtotheactualdim
ensionsofthesame.
UNITS
3. GD &T;its14symbols
Fundamentally, engineers design a part with perfect geometry in CAD, but
manufacturedparts are never perfect. Proper use of GD&T can improve quality and reduce
time and cost ofdelivery. It accomplishes this by providing a common language to accurately
express designintentandfocusingon functionalinterfaces totoleranceapart.

ThesearethemainbenefitsofusingGeometricDimensioningandTolerancing(GD&T):
 Standardizeddesign language
 Clear,preciseandconsistentcommunicationbetweencustomers,suppliers,andproductionteam
s
 Methodforcalculatingtheworst-casematinglimits
 Repeatableproductionandinspectionprocesses
 Assemblyisassuredfromqualifiedproductionparts

Understanding the GD&T terminology and learning the best application techniques is
keyto obtaining top-quality manufactured parts. There is a lot to learn when it comes to
masteringGD&T, so this post will serve as a starting point to help you understand the most
importantGD&Tbasics andconcepts,including:
 CNCmachiningtolerances
 TheDatumReferenceFrame
 BasicDimensions
 InterpretingGD&TSymbols
 Applying GeometricSymbolstoEngineeringDrawings
 MaterialConditionModifiers
 TheFeatureControlFrame
4. Specialcharacteristics&TitleBlockreadings

A characteristic is a dimensionor a physical, chemical,electrical,mechanical,or visualfeature

of a part defined by design data. Therefore a characteristic must be measurable,
eitherdirectlyor indirectly,andeithervariableorattributedata types.
Therearethreetypesofcharacteristicsexplainedbelow:

 KeyCharacteristics
 SignificantCharacteristics(SC)
 CriticalCharacteristics(CC)
Key Characteristics
This characteristic is nothing but the dimension of part, material, process, or
assembly.SothevariationofaKeyCharacteristicleadstoaneffectonproductfitment,
assemblyperformance,service life,ormanufacturabilityofcomponent.
SignificantCharacteristics(SC)
ASignificantCharacteristic(SC)isalsothedimensionofpart, material,process,orassembly.
Butitisusuallyobservedatthelowerassemblylevels.
Itisveryimportantforthenext/finalassemblypartfitment,performance,servicelife,and/ormanufacturabil
ity.
SignificantcharacteristicsareidentifiedanddefinedinDFMEAandPFMEAandhavearelation
withthecauseandeffectof potentialfailuremodes.
CriticalCharacteristic(CC)
ACriticalCharacteristic(CC)isthedimension/featureofamaterialprocess,part,orassemblies.TheC
CCharacteristicsismainlygivenforregulatoryrequirement(safety,regulation/Legal,or
environmental)purpose.
Therefore, If there is a missing or not conforming to design, not as per the quality
requirementwillresultinunsafeconditionsforeveryone.Andalsonon-
compliancewithregulatoryrequirements.
 The title space should be within the drawing space. The title block is a recommended space
ofsize 185 mm x 65 mm and should be placed at the right hand bottom corner of the sheet.
Thetitleblock isanimportantfeature,becauseitcontainsthefollowinginformation:

 Nameof titleof drawing.

 Drawingandsheetnumber.
 Scaleused.
 Symbolsdenotingthemethod ofprojection.
 Nameofthefirm.
 Datedinitials of staffdesigning,drawing,checkingforstandardsandapproving.
 Thematerialfromwhich thepartismadeand itfinish.
5. Revision/ECNstatusofdrawings

6. CustomerSpecificrequirements
Customer Specific Requirements (CSRs) are the requirements created or provided by
thecustomer in agreement with the supplier or manufacturer. These guide organizations in
theautomotiveindustryinensuringcustomersatisfaction.It’simportanttounderstandthatcustomer-
specificrequirementsareanessentialcomponentoftheQualityManagementSystem (QMS)
standard created by the International Automotive Task Force (IATF) for
theautomotiveindustrycalledtheIATF16949.

WhatistheDifferenceBetweenCustomerRequirementsandCustomerSpecificRequirements?
AccordingtotheInternationalAutomotiveOversightBureau(IAOB),customerrequirements
refer to those that focus on or are specific to the order or product, whether ornotrelated tothe
IATF16949standard,andthatareonlyspecific toacustomer.
Onthe otherhand,customer-specificrequirementsare those thatcome
fromOriginalEquipmentManufacturers(OEMs)asawaytosupplementtheIATF16949standar
dorany requirement or clause stated therein. Hence, customer-specific requirements are a part
ofcustomerrequirements ingeneral.
 Advance Product Quality Planning (APQP) – Used to guide suppliers in building
productquality plans, APQP is important when developing new products, especially those that
aresafety-critical,andminimizingrisks.
 FailureModesandEffectAnalysis(FMEA) –RegularlyconductingFMEAsofmanufacturing
parts is encouraged at least every year. This is where suppliers can spot issuesand
committoaddressingthem. 
 StatisticalProcessControl(SPC) –Forprocesscontroland
continuousimprovement,supplierscan usestatisticalmethodsto ensurequalityin
implementingCSRs.
 MeasurementSystemsAnalysis(MSA) –Measurement processesmust beanalyzedbysuppliers
using MSA, an experimental and mathematical method, to identify their amount ofvariation. 
 Production Part Approval Process (PPAP) – The PPAP is an 18-step guideline for
OEMsandsuppliersthat helpthemensurethey
understandCSRsandthattheirmanufacturingprocessproduces conformingparts
atthequotedproduction rate.

7. DrawingGridreading.
Gridsareaseriesofdotsorlinesthatdisplayand overlaytheGraphicwindowin arectangularorsquareshapesimilarto
overlaying a paper drawing with grid paper. Grids do not plot and are not part of the drawing’s database, they
aresimplyadrawingaid.

The grid can be set to display using dots or lines. See Figures 28-1 and 28-2. The grid’s density can be adjusted
andtheir display can be enabled or disabled, when required. The horizontal and vertical spacing between the grid dots
orlinescanbedifferent,butbydefaultareequal.The grid displaycanbetoggledwiththeF7key,theiconontheStatusbar, with
the GRID command, or by using the Drafting Settings dialogue box. The size of the rectangle that the gridfills can be
set to the size of the drawing limits or it can be set to fill Model space. Grids can also be displayed in
alayoutinPaperspace.
AGridUsingaDottedGrid A GridUsingaLinedGrid
 UnitII-2DDRAFTING

2Ddraftinginvolvescreatingdetailedtechnicaldrawingsofobjects,structures,orplansusingtwo-
dimensionalrepresentations.These drawingsarecommonly
usedinvariousfieldssuchasengineering,architecture,anddesign.Here are some
keypointsandstepstoconsiderwhenworkingon2Ddrafting:

1.ToolsandSoftware: Choose the appropriate tools and software for your drafting needs. Commonly
usedsoftwareincludesAutoCAD,DraftSight,andvariousvectorgraphicsoftwarelikeAdobeIllustratororCorelDRA
W.

2.UnderstandtheRequirements: Clearlyunderstandtherequirementsofthedrawingyouneedtocreate.
Thiscouldbeafloorplan,elevation,mechanicalpart,circuitdiagram,oranyothertechnicalrepresentation.

3.ScaleandUnits:Determinethescaleofthedrawing,whichdefinestheratiobetweenthesizeofthe
drawingandtheactualsizeoftheobject.Chooseappropriateunitsofmeasurement
(e.g.,millimeters,inches)tomaintainaccuracy.

4.Layers: Organizeyourdrawingusinglayers.Eachlayercancontainspecificelements(lines,text,dimensio
ns)and can beturned onor off tosimplifythedrawing.

5.LineTypesandWeights: Usedifferentlinetypes(continuous,dashed,dotted)todistinguishbetweendifferentpartso
fthe drawing.Adjustlineweightstohighlightimportantelementsorprovidevisualhierarchy.

6.DrawingElements: Usebasicdrawingelementssuchaslines,arcs,circles,rectangles,andpolygonstorepresentthevari
ouscomponentsofyourdesign.
 7.TextandAnnotations: Addtextforlabels,dimensions,andotherannotations.Ensurethatthetextislegible and
appropriatelyplaced.

8.Dimensions: Includeaccuratedimensionstoconveythesizeandpositioningoftheobjectsinthedrawing.
Useappropriatedimensionstylesandunits.

9.SymbolsandNotations: Incorporatestandardsymbolsandnotationsrelevanttoyourfield.Thesecanconveyspecifici
nformation efficiently.

10.AccuracyandConsistency: Maintainaccuracyinyourdrawings,especiallyiftheywillbeusedforconstructionorma
nufacturing.Ensurethatallelementsarealigned,properlyscaled,and consistent.

11.PrintingandSharing: Onceyourdraftingiscomplete,youcanprintitoutorshareitelectronicallywithothers.M
akesure thedrawingisinaformatthat canbeeasilyaccessedand understood.

12.PracticeandLearning: 2Ddraftingrequirespracticeandfamiliaritywiththesoftwareyou'reusing.
Therearenumeroustutorialsandresourcesavailable onlinetohelpyouimproveyourdraftingskills.

Remember that the specific steps and considerations might vary based on the type of drawing you're
creatingand the industry you're working in. Always follow industry standards and best practices to ensure
your 2Ddraftsareaccurateand effective.

Projectionviews
Projection views are a fundamental concept in 2D drafting, particularly in fields such as engineering
andarchitecture. They are used to represent three-dimensional objects on a two-dimensional plane, providing
acomprehensive understanding of the object's shape, size, and features from different perspectives.
Projectionviews are crucial for communicating design and manufacturing information accurately. Here's an
overview ofprojectionviewsin 2Ddrafting:

1.OrthographicProjection: Orthographic projection is the basis for creating projection views. It

involvesprojecting an object onto two or more planes (usually perpendicular) to represent its various sides.
The sixstandardorthographicviewsare:
 Frontview
 Backview
 Topview
 Bottomview
 Left-side view
 Right-sideview

2.CreatingProjectionViews: To create projection views, you start with the primary view, which
typicallyshows the front or main face of the object. Then, additional views are drawn based on the orientation
of theobject.Each viewisprojected orthogonallyfrom theprimaryview.

3.ProjectionLinesandReferenceLines: Projectionlines,alsoknownasprojectionrays,connectcorrespon
ding points on the object in different views. These lines help maintain consistency between viewsand ensure
accurate representation. Reference lines, such as centerlines and dimension lines, aid in
indicatingkeyfeaturesand dimensions.

4.HiddenLines: In projection views, hidden lines are used to represent edges or features that are not
visiblein a particular view due to obstruction by other parts of the object. Dashed or dotted lines are
commonly usedforhidden lines.
5. SectionViews: Sectionviewsareprojectionviewsthatshowanobjectasifithasbeencutorslicedalongaspecifiedc
uttingplane.Thisrevealsinternaldetailsthatwouldn'tbe visible inregularviews.

6.AuxiliaryViews: Auxiliary views are used to represent inclined or non-orthogonal surfaces that can't
beadequatelyshowninthestandardorthographicviews.Theseviewsprovideatrue-
sizeandshaperepresentationofthefeature.

7.IsometricViews: Isometric views are not true projection views but are used to show a 3D object in
asimplified, three-dimensional representation. They provide a better understanding of the object's overall
shapeand proportions.

8.DetailViews: Detailviewsareusedtomagnifyaspecificportionofanobjecttoshowintricatefeatures.
Theyare typicallyenlargedviewsofa smallsectionofthe primaryview.

9.ScaleandDimensions: Projectionviewsshouldbedrawntoaconsistentscale,anddimensionsshouldbeaccurate.Thise
nsuresthat the drawingaccuratelyrepresentstheobject'ssizeand proportions.

10.AnnotationsandLabels: Annotations,suchaslabels,notes,anddimensions,playacrucialroleinclarifyingthedraw
ingandconveyingimportantinformationabouttheobject'sfeaturesandmeasurements.

Mastering projection views requires practice and a solid understanding of the principles of
orthographicprojection. It's important to adhere to industry standards and practices to create accurate and
comprehensibleprojectionviewsinyour 2Ddraftingwork.

Orthographicview

Orthographic views are a foundational concept in technical and engineering drawings, commonly used in
2Ddrafting to represent three-dimensional objects accurately and comprehensively on a two-dimensional
plane.Orthographic views provide a clear and detailed depiction of an object's various sides and features
fromdifferentperspectives.Let'sdelve deeper intothe concept oforthographicviews:

1.OrthographicProjection: Orthographicprojectionisasystematicmethodofrepresentingathree-
dimensional object by projecting it onto a series of mutually perpendicular planes (usually, three
principalplanes are used: front, top, and side). These projection planes are positioned in such a way that they
providedistinctviewsof theobject'svarioussides.

2.StandardOrthographic Views: Thesixstandardorthographicviewsare:

 Front View:Thisviewshowsthe objectasit appearswhenfacingitsprimaryfrontside. 
 BackView:The backviewshowstheside oppositetothe frontview. 
 TopView:Thisviewprovidesa lookdownontheobjectfromabove. 
 BottomView:Thebottomviewistheviewlookingupattheobjectfrombelow. 
 Left-SideView:This viewshowstheobjectfromtheleftside. 
 Right-SideView:Thisviewdisplaystheobjectfromtherightside. 

3.DrawingOrthographicViews: To create orthographic views, you start with one of the principal
views(usually the front view) and then project lines perpendicular to the other principal planes to construct
theremaining views. The projected lines indicate corresponding points on the object and help maintain
accuracybetweenviews.

4.ProjectionLinesandHiddenLines: Projection lines, also known as projection rays, are used to

transferthepointsfromoneviewtoanother.Theyformthebasisforconstructingorthographicviews.Hiddenlinesare
used to represent features that are not visible in a particular view due to obstruction by other parts of
theobject.

5.ConsistencyandAccuracy: Maintaining consistency and accuracy between orthographic views is

crucial.Corresponding points in different views must line up properly, and dimensions should be consistent
acrossviews.

6.ScaleandDimensions: Orthographicviewsareusuallydrawntoaconsistentscale.Dimensionsandannotationsaread
ded toconveytheobject'ssize, shape, andkeymeasurementsaccurately.

7.DetailandSectionViews: In more complex objects, certain parts might require detail views or
sectionviews to provide a closer look or to show internal details. Detail views zoom in on specific areas,
whilesectionviewsshowtheinteriorstructurebycuttingthe objectalongaspecifiedplane.

8.IsometricViews: Though not true orthographic views, isometric views are often included
alongsideorthographic views to give a three-dimensional representation of the object. Isometric views are
created usingspecificanglesandareusedtoprovideamoreintuitive understandingof the object'soverallform.

Orthographicviewsareafundamentaltoolforcommunicatingdesignandmanufacturinginformationaccurately.Mas
teryofcreatingandinterpretingorthographicviewsisessentialforprofessionalsinfieldssuchasengineering,
architecture, manufacturing, and more.
 Axillaryview

Anauxiliary view isatypeof projection view used in technicaland engineering drawings to representthetrue
size and shape of an inclined or non-orthogonal surface of an object. Let's explore the concept of
anauxiliaryview:

AuxiliaryView: An auxiliary view is a drawing projection that is used to show an object in true size
andshape as it appears when viewed along a specific plane that is not one of the primary orthographic
projectionplanes (front, top, side). It is particularly useful when trying to depict surfaces or features that are
not paralleltoanyof thestandard projection planes.

CreatinganAuxiliaryView: To create an auxiliary view, you choose a plane of projection that

intersectsthe object along the desired feature or surface. This plane is typically inclined relative to the
principal planes.The auxiliaryviewisthen projectedontothe plane ofprojection
usingperpendicularprojectionlines.

KeyPointsaboutAuxiliary Views:
1. Non-OrthogonalFeatures: Auxiliaryviewsareusedtoaccuratelyrepresentsurfacesorfeaturesthatareinclinedor
non-orthogonal to theprimaryprojection planes.
2. TrueSizeandShape: Unlikestandardorthographicviewsthatmightdistortinclinedsurfaces,anauxiliaryviewpro
videsatrue sizeand shaperepresentationof thefeature.
3. ReferencetoPrincipalViews: Theauxiliaryviewistypicallyalignedwiththeprimaryviewstomaintainconsisten
cyand help viewersrelatethefeaturetotheobject asawhole.
4. ProjectionLines: Projectionlinesconnectcorrespondingpointsontheobjectintheprincipalviewandtheauxiliaryv
iew. Theselineshelpestablish accuracy.
5. HiddenLines: Justlikeinstandardprojectionviews,hiddenlinesareusedtorepresentedgesorfeaturesthatare not
visibleintheauxiliaryviewdueto obstruction.
6. ScaleandDimensions: Auxiliaryviewsaredrawntoscale,anddimensionsareaddedtoconveyaccuratemeasurem
entsof theinclined feature.

ExampleUseCases:
 ObliqueSurfaces: Ifanobjecthasaninclinedsurface,anauxiliaryviewcanshowthatsurface'strueshape
andsize.
 Non-PerpendicularFeatures: Forobjectswithfeaturesthatareneitherparallelnorperpendiculartothe
primaryplanes,anauxiliaryviewhelpsrepresentthemaccurately.
 ComplexObjects: Incomplexobjects,auxiliaryviewscanbeusedtoaccuratelydepictintricatedetailsthatcannotbe
effectivelyshown in standard views.
 Mastering the creation and interpretation of auxiliary views is important in technical drafting, especially
whendealing with objects that have complex geometry or inclined surfaces. It's an essential skill
forprofessionalsinfieldssuch asengineering,architecture,and manufacturing.

Fullview

A "full view" generally refers to a complete and comprehensive representation of an object or structure in
atechnical drawing. In various fields like engineering, architecture, manufacturing, and design, creating a
fullview is essential to communicate the complete design or structure accurately. Here's more information
aboutwhatafull viewentails:

DefinitionofFullView: A full view is a drawing that presents an object, component, or structure in

itsentirety, providing a complete understanding of its shape, size, and features. It typically shows all
relevantdetailsand dimensionsnecessaryfor understandingand reproducingtheobject.

CharacteristicsofaFullView:
 ComprehensiveRepresentation: Afullviewshouldcapturethecompleteobject,showingallitsrelevant
sides,surfaces,andfeatures.
 AccurateDimensions: Accuratedimensions areessential to convey theobject'struesize. Dimensions
aretypicallylabeled on thedrawingtoprovidemeasurement information. 
 DetailClarity: Thedrawingshouldhaveenoughdetailclaritytoshowkeyfeatures,includingintricateshapes,surfa
ces, holes, andmore.
 AnnotationsandLabels: Textannotations,labels,notes,andsymbolsareoftenaddedtoindicatespecificelements,
materials, tolerances, andother importantinformation.
 Scale: Drawingsaretypicallycreatedtoaspecifiedscale,indicatingtheratiobetweenthedrawingsizeandthe actual
sizeoftheobject.

CreatingaFullView: Creatingafullviewinvolveschoosingtheappropriateprojection(suchasorthographic,
isometric, or perspective) and then accurately representing the object based on that projection.Thisincludes:
 SelectingProjectionType: Decide whether you will use orthographic, isometric, or other projection
typesbasedon the purposeof the drawingand the information you needto convey. 
 CapturingAllViews: If using orthographic projection, ensure that you include the front, back, top,
bottom,left-side,and right-sideviews. 
 IsometricRepresentation: Ifusingisometricprojection,capturetheobjectfromananglethatshowsallthree
dimensions(length, width, height)equally. 
 AddingDetails: Includeallnecessarydetails,includingshapes,dimensions,andfeatures.Hiddenlinesandcenterlin
esmaybeused to representobscured featuresor symmetrylines. 
 AnnotationsandLabels: Addtextannotations,dimensionlines,notes,
andlabelstoindicatemeasurements,materials,and other relevant information. 
 Consistency: Maintainconsistencyintermsofscale,linestyles,andsymbolsthroughoutthedrawing. 

Importance: A well-executed full view is crucial for accurate communication, design, manufacturing,
andconstruction. It serves as a visual guide for various stakeholders involved in a project, ensuring that
everyonehasaclear understandingof theobject'sdesignand specifications.

Whether you're working on architectural plans, engineering drawings, or other technical

documentation,creating a detailed and accurate full view is fundamental for effective communication and
successful projectexecution.

HalfSectionviews

A "half section view" is a specific type of drawing view commonly used in technical and
engineeringdrawings to represent the internal structure of an object. It's a combination of an external view and
a sectionalview that allows you to show the internal details of one half of an object while still displaying the
externalfeatures of the other half. Half section views are particularly useful for objects with symmetrical
shapes.Here'samoredetailedexplanation of halfsection views:

Purposeof HalfSectionViews: The primary purpose of a half section view is to display the internal
featuresof an object in a way that maintains the symmetry of the external appearance. It's a compromise
betweenshowingthe entire object (externalview)and revealingitsinternaldetails(fullsectionview).
 CreatingaHalf SectionView: Tocreateahalfsectionview,followthesesteps:
1. IdentifythePlane: Determinetheplanealongwhichyouwanttocreatethesection.Thisplaneistypicallychosentop
assthroughthe centerline of the object,dividingitintotwo symmetricalhalves.
2. DrawtheSectionLine: Drawasectionlineontheexternalviewoftheobject,indicatingthelocationandorientation
of theplaneof thesection.
3. CreatetheSection View: Ononesideofthesectionline,createafullexternalview.Ontheothersideofthesectionline
,createa sectionalviewthatdisplaystheinternaldetailsof thathalf.
4. ApplyHatchPatterns: Applyhatchpatterns(diagonallines)tothesectionalareatodifferentiateitfromtheexternal
view.

KeyPoints:
 Thehalfsectionviewallowsyoutoseetheinternalfeaturesofonehalfoftheobjectwhilestillmaintaining 
thesymmetryof theexternalappearance.
 The otherhalfofthe object remainsunchangedinitsexternal appearance. 
 Hiddenlinesareusedtorepresentfeaturesthatarenotvisibleinthe sectionedhalf. 
 Dimensionlines,labels,andannotationsareaddedtoconveyimportantmeasurementsandinformation. 

Advantages ofHalfSectionViews:
 Clarity: Halfsectionviewsprovideaclearunderstandingofinternalfeatureswhileretainingtheoverallexternal
shape.
 Symmetry: Theseviewsareparticularlyusefulforobjectswithsymmetricaldesignsbecausetheymaintainthesymm
etryof theexternalappearance.
 Space-Saving: Halfsectionviewsareoftenmorespace-efficientthanfullsectionviews,making themsuitable for
smaller drawings.

Usage: Half section views are commonly used in engineering drawings, architectural plans,
manufacturingblueprints, and other technical documentation. They provide a balanced way to communicate
both externaland internal details of an object.When creating a half section view, make sure to follow the
appropriatedraftingstandardsand practicesfor accurate communicationand clarity.
 BrokenSection view

A "broken section view" is a specialized type of section view used in technical drawings to reveal the
interiorfeatures of an object without the need to cut the object completely in half. It's particularly useful when
theobject is large and a full section would obscure too much of its exterior details. In a broken section view,
onlya portion of the object is cut and then "broken" apart to expose the internal features while still retaining a
clearviewof theexternal shape.
Here'showa broken sectionviewistypicallycreated:
Identifythe Section Plane:Determine the plane along which you want to create the section. This
planeshouldpassthroughthe areasofinterestwhere youwanttorevealthe internal details.
1. DrawtheSectionLine: Draw a section line on the external view of the object, indicating the location
andorientationof theplaneof thesection.
2. CreatetheSection View: On one side of the section line, create a full external view. On the other side of
thesection line, instead of drawing a full sectional view, draw a "break" symbol, which consists of a jagged
linebreakingthrough thesectioned portion oftheobject.
3. BreaktheObject: The break symbol represents the object being "broken" open along the section line.
Theendsofthebreaksymbolshouldalignwiththesectionlineonbothsides.Thisvisuallyconveysthattheobjectisbeing
pulled apartto revealtheinternal features.
4. ShowInternalDetails: In the broken sectioned area, you can display the internal details that you want
toreveal.Hidden linesaretypicallyused torepresent featuresthatarenotvisibleinthebrokenportion.
5. ApplyHatchPatterns: Apply hatch patterns to the sectioned area to differentiate it from the external
viewandindicatethatit'sacutawayview.
6. DimensionandAnnotate: Adddimensionlines,labels,andannotationstoconvey
measurementsandimportantinformationabout theinternal features.

AdvantagesofBrokenSectionViews:
 ClearVisualization: Brokensectionviewsofferaclearvisualizationofinternalfeatureswithoutobscuringthe
entireexterior of theobject.
 PreservedExternalDetails: Externaldetailsandfeaturesoftheobjectremainvisibleonbothsidesofthesectionline
.
 LessObstruction: Brokensectionviewsareusefulforlargerobjectswhereafullsectionviewmightobstructtoo
much of theobject'sexterior.

Usage: Brokensectionviewsarecommonlyusedinengineeringdrawings,technicalillustrations,andmanufacturin
gdocumentation.Theyprovideawaytocommunicateinternaldetailseffectivelywhilemaintainingabalancebetween
internaland external views.

When creating a broken section view, ensure that the break symbol is clear and aligned with the section
line,and that the hatch patterns and hidden lines accurately represent the internal features you are
highlighting.Followingdraftingstandardsand practiceswill helpensure accuracyand clarityinyour drawings.

OffsetSectionview

An"offset section view" is avariation of a section view used in technical drawings to show the internaldetails
of an object that are slightly offset from the primary projection plane. This type of section view
ishelpfulwhenyouwanttohighlightspecificfeaturesorprovideaclearerrepresentationofinternalcomponentsthat
arenotaligned with anyofthestandard projectionplanes.

Here'showyoucancreateanoffsetsectionview:
1. IdentifytheOffsetPlane: Determinethe planealongwhichyouwanttocreatethe
offsetsection.Thisplaneshouldpassthrough theareasof interest that youwant to reveal.
2. Drawthe Offset SectionLine: Drawasectionlineontheexternalviewoftheobject,indicatingthelocationandorie
ntation oftheoffset section plane.
3. CreatetheSection View: Ononesideofthesectionline,createafullexternalview.Ontheothersideofthesectionline
,drawthe offsetsectionviewbyprojectingthe internalfeaturesontotheoffsetsectionplane.
4. ShowInternalDetails: Intheoffsetsectionview,displaytheinternaldetailsthatyouwanttoreveal.Usehiddenlines
torepresent featuresthatarenotvisibleintheoffset section.
5. ApplyHatchPatterns: Applyhatchpatternstotheoffsetsectionedareatodifferentiateitfromtheexternalviewand
indicatethat it'sacutawayview.
6. DimensionandAnnotate: Adddimensionlines,labels,andannotationstoconveymeasurementsandimportanti
nformationabout theinternal features.
 AdvantagesofOffsetSectionViews:
 HighlightSpecificFeatures: Offsetsectionviewsareusefulforhighlightinginternalfeaturesthatarenotalignedwi
th theprimaryprojection planes.
 ClearVisualization: Theyprovideaclearervisualizationofinternalcomponentsthatmightbehiddenordistortedin
astandard view. 
 EnhancedClarity: Offsetsectionviewscanhelpsimplifycomplexgeometrybyprovidingamorestraightforwardr
epresentation.

Usage: Offsetsectionviewsarecommonlyusedinengineeringdrawings,technicalillustrations,andmanufacturing
documentation. They are particularly helpful when dealing with objects that have non-
standardfeatures,complexshapes,orcomponentsthataren'talignedwiththe standardprojectionplanes.

When creating an offset section view, ensure that the offset section plane is accurately represented, and
thatthe hatch patterns, hidden lines, and annotations correctly convey the internal features you want to
highlight.Adheringto draftingstandardsandpracticeswill helpensureaccuracyand clarityinyour drawings.

TitleBlockcreation

Creating a title block is an essential part of preparing technical drawings, such as engineering
drawings,architectural plans, and other design documents. A title block provides important information about
thedrawing, including details abouttheproject, theauthor, revision history, and more. Here's astep-by-
stepguide to creatingatitleblock:

1.DeterminetheRequiredInformation: Identifytheinformationthatneedstobeincludedinthetitle
block.Commonelementsinclude:
 Titleofthedrawing
 Drawingnumber orreference 
 Dateofcreation
 Author'snameoridentification
 Companyor organization name
 Projectname
 Scaleofthe drawing
 Revisionhistory(revisionnumber,date,descriptionofchanges) 
 Notesordisclaimers

2.DecideonaLayout: Decidewhereyouwanttopositionthetitleblockonthedrawingsheet.Themostcommonplaceme
ntisusuallyatthebottomrightcornerofthedrawing,butitcanvarybasedonyour
organization'sstandards.

3.OpentheDrawingSoftware: Useyourchosendrawingsoftware(e.g.,AutoCAD,SolidWorks,Illustrator)
to openthedrawingwhereyouwantto create thetitleblock.

4.Create aBorder: Draw arectangularorothersuitableshapetoserveastheborderforthetitleblock.Thisborderwill

containalltheinformation.

5.AddTextFields: Addtextfieldswithintheborderforeachpieceofinformationyouidentifiedearlier.
Mostdrawingsoftwareallows youtocreatetextboxesortextfields.

6.IncludeLogoorGraphics: Ifapplicable,includethelogoorgraphicsofyourorganizationinthetitleblock.Ensu
rethat it'sproperlysized and placed.

7.UseLineWork: Youcanuselinestoseparatedifferentsectionsofthetitleblockandtocreateaprofessionalappearance.

8.FormattheText: Formatthetextforclarityandconsistency.Usealegiblefont,appropriatefontsize,andboldor
italicsfor emphasis.

9.AddDynamicFields(ifavailable): Some software allows you to add dynamic fields that

automaticallyupdate. For example, you can add fields that display the current date, author's name, or other
project-relatedinformation.

10.CheckforAccuracy: Reviewalltheinformationtomakesureit'saccurateandup-to-date.Typosanderrorsin
thetitleblockcanleadto confusionor misinterpretation.

11.SavetheTitle Block: Onceyou'vecreatedthetitleblock, saveitasaseparatefileor templatesoyoucaneasilyadd

it to futuredrawingswithoutrecreatingit fromscratch.

12.TestandReview: Printorviewthedrawingwiththetitleblocktoensurethatalltheinformationislegibleand
properlyplaced.

Creating a well-designed title block ensures that your technical drawings are professional and convey all
thenecessary information. It also helps maintain consistency across your drawings, making it easier for others
tounderstand and work with your documentation.

BOMCreation

A "Bill of Materials" (BOM) is a comprehensive list of all the components, parts, materials, and
assembliesrequired to build or manufacture a product. BOMs are crucial in various industries, including
manufacturing,engineering, construction, and electronics, as they provide a detailed breakdown of what is
needed to create afinalproduct. Here'sastep-by-stepguideto creatingaBOM:
 1.IdentifytheProduct: Clearlydefinetheproductforwhichyou'recreatingtheBOM.Understanditspurpose,design,
and anyvariationsor configurations.

2.GatherInformation: Collectallrelevantinformationabouttheproduct,includingtechnicaldrawings,specifications,
assemblyinstructions, andanyother documentation.

3.ListComponents: Createalistofallthecomponents,parts,andmaterialsrequiredtoassembletheproduct.Includeboth
purchased itemsanditemsthat areproduced in-house.

4.OrganizetheBOM: Structure the BOM in a hierarchical manner, with higher-level assemblies at the
topandindividualcomponentslistedunderneath.Thishierarchyhelpsvisualizetherelationshipsbetweendifferentpar
ts.

5.IncludeInformation: Foreachcomponent,includethefollowinginformationintheBOM:
 Part number 
 Part nameordescription
 Quantityrequired
 Unitofmeasurement
 Manufacturerandvendorinformation(ifapplicable) 
 Partspecifications(size,material,color,etc.)
 Referencedesignators(toindicate whereeachpartisused)

6.GroupSubassemblies: Iftheproductincludessubassemblies,grouprelatedcomponentstogetherwithintheirres
pectivesubassembly.

7.IndicatePartRelationships: Usearrows,lines,orindentationstoshowtherelationshipbetweencomponents
and subassembliesintheBOM. Thishelpsclarifyhowtheyareassembled.

8.AddQuantities: Indicatethequantitiesneededforeachcomponentbasedontheproduct'sdesignandthenumberof
unitsto beproduced.

9.CalculateTotalQuantities: Sumupthequantitiesofeachcomponenttocalculatethetotalquantityofeachpart
required for theentireproduct.

10.ReviewandVerify: ThoroughlyreviewtheBOMforaccuracy,completeness,andconsistencywiththeproduct'sdesi
gn and specifications.

11.SaveandMaintain: SavetheBOM inaformatthatcanbeeasilyupdatedandshared.It's

commontousespreadsheetsoftware (Excel,Google Sheets) orspecializedBOMmanagement software.

12.UpdateasNeeded:Astheproductevolves,bepreparedtoupdatetheBOMtoreflectanydesign
changes,newcomponents,orimprovements.

13.IntegratewithProcesses: IntegratetheBOMwithotherprocesseslikeprocurement,productionplanning,a
nd inventorymanagement. Ensure thatthe BOMisaccessibletorelevant teams.

A well-structured and accurate BOM streamlines production processes, reduces errors, and helps in
effectivecommunication between teams involved in designing, manufacturing, and assembling the product.
It's afundamentaltoolfor managingcomplex productsandensuringconsistentqualityacrossproduction batches.

Notescreation
Creatingclearandinformativenotesisessentialinvariouscontexts,whetherit'sfortechnicaldrawings,
projectdocumentation,presentations,oranyformofcommunication.Well-
craftednotesensurethatinformationisconveyed accuratelyandeffectively.Here'sa guidetocreatingeffective
notes:

1.DeterminethePurpose: Understandwhyyou'recreatingthenotes.Aretheyforprovidinginstructions,explanations,r
eferences,orannotations?Knowingthe purpose helpsyoutailorthecontentappropriately.

2.KeepitConcise: Brevity
iskey.Conveyyourmessageusingconciseandpreciselanguage.Avoidunnecessarywordsor jargon that might
confusethereader.

3.OrganizeInformation: Structureyournoteslogically.Usebulletpoints,numberedlists,headings,orparagraphstogro
uprelatedinformationtogether.Clearorganizationmakesiteasiertounderstandandfollow.

4.UseClearLanguage: Useplainandsimplelanguagethatyourintendedaudiencecaneasilyunderstand.
Avoid usingoverlytechnicaltermsunlesstheyarenecessaryandwell-defined.

5.BeSpecific: Providespecificdetails,measurements,names,dates,andotherrelevantinformation.Vaguenotesca
n lead tomisunderstandings.

6. PrioritizeInformation: Placethemostimportantinformationatthebeginningorinaprominentposition.
Thisensuresthatthemainpointsareseenimmediately.

7.Formatting: Use formatting to emphasize important information. You can use bold or italics for
emphasis,underline for highlighting, andvaryingfont sizesfor headings.

8.VisualAids: Ifappropriate,includediagrams,images,tables,orchartstosupportyournotes.Visualaidscanmakec
omplexinformation easier to grasp.

9.AvoidRedundancy: Avoidrepeatingthesameinformationindifferentnotes.Ensurethateachnoteprovidesuniquean
d relevant details.

10.Proofread: Beforefinalizingyournotes,proofreadthemfor spelling,grammar,

andfactualerrors.Typosandmistakescan undermine thecredibilityofyournotes.

11.ConsiderYourAudience: Tailoryournotestoyourtargetaudience'sknowledgelevelandexpectations.
Useterminologythattheyarefamiliarwith.

12.Contextualize: Providecontextwhennecessary.Ifyournotesrefertoaspecificpartofaproject,drawing,or document,

makesure tomention it forclarity.

13.ReviewandRevise: Regularlyreviewandupdateyournotesasneeded.Changesincircumstancesornewinfor
mation might requireadjustments.

14.DocumentReferences: Ifyournotesreferenceexternalsources,provideclearcitationsorlinkstothosesources.Thisad
dscredibilitytoyour information.

15.TitleandDate: Considerincludingatitleanddateonyournotes.Thishelpswithorganizationandtrackingchangesov
er time.

Creating effective notes is a skill that improves with practice. Whether you're writing technical notes,
meetingminutes, or any other form of communication, focusing on clarity, accuracy, and relevance will
ensure yournotesservetheir intended purpose.
 Ballooningof2DdrawinganditsfeaturesforInspectionreporting

"Ballooning"isatermusedinengineering andmanufacturing toannotatespecificpoints,features,orcomponents on

a 2D drawing for inspection, quality control, or reporting purposes. The annotations aretypically represented
by circles, called "balloons," which are connected to the corresponding callouts or notesthat provide
additional information about the feature being inspected. This process is crucial for ensuring thatthe correct
components are checked during inspection and that any discrepancies or issues are accuratelycommunicated.
Here'showballooningworksand itskeyfeatures:

BallooningProcess:
1. IdentifyInspectionPoints: Determinewhichspecificpoints,dimensions,features,orcomponentsofthe
drawingneedtobeinspected.
2. PlaceBalloons: Add balloons (circles with unique numbers or letters) to the drawing at the locations of
theinspectionpoints. Each balloon correspondsto aspecificfeature.
3. AddCalloutsorNotes: Create a table or list that associates each balloon number or letter with
detailedinformationaboutthefeaturebeinginspected.Thismightincludedimensions,tolerances,specificrequireme
nts, andanyother relevant information.
4. ConnectBalloonsandCallouts: Use lines or leader lines to connect the balloons with their
correspondingcallouts or notes. The leader lines ensure clarity and prevent confusion about which feature the
balloon refersto.

FeaturesandBenefitsofBallooningforInspectionReporting:
 Accuracy: Ballooninghelps ensurethatthecorrectfeatures areinspectedbyprovidingclearvisualindicatorsand
detailedannotations.
 Efficiency: Inspectorscaneasilyidentifyandrefertothefeaturestheyneedtoexamine,streamliningtheinspectionpr
ocess.
 Documentation: Theassociatedcallouts
ornotesprovideadocumentedreferencefortheinspectionprocess,ensuringconsistencyand traceability. 
 Communication: Ballooninghelpsbridgethecommunicationgapbetweendesignengineersandinspectorsbyprovi
dingclear referencesto specificfeatures.
 Reporting: Theballooneddrawingcanserveaspartoftheinspectionreport,enhancingtheclarityandcomprehensive
nessof thereport.
 QualityControl: Ballooningaidsinqualitycontrolbymakingiteasiertoidentifydiscrepancies,defects,orvariation
sfromthedesign intent.
 Standardization: Ballooningfollowsastandardizedapproach,makingiteasierfordifferentteamsandinspectorsto
understand and followtheprocessconsistently. 
 VisualRepresentation: Theuseofballoonsprovidesaclearvisualrepresentationofinspectionpoints,reducingthe
chancesof oversight.
 Traceability: Byassociatingeachballoonwithdetailedinformation,youcreateacleartrailofwhatwasinspected,ho
w, and why. 

Ballooning is commonly used in industries like manufacturing, aerospace, automotive, and

more,whereprecise inspection and quality control are critical. Modern software tools often offer features to
automate andsimplifytheballooningprocess, makingiteven moreefficient and accurate.
 UNITIII
Conversion of Views–2Dto3D

Converting 2D views into 3D models in Computer-Aided Design (CAD) software is a

processknown as 2D to 3D conversion or 2D to 3D modeling. This can be useful when you
have 2Ddrawings or plans and need to create a 3D representation of the object or structure.
Here arethegeneralsteps involvedinthis process:

1. Import2DDrawings: Startbyimportingthe2D drawingsor viewsintoyourCAD software.

Thesedrawingsmayincludefloorplans,elevations,sections,oranyother2Drepresentationoftheobj
ector structure.
2. Createa3DFramework:Beginbycreatingabasic3Dframeworkor skeletonoftheobjectusing
the information from the 2D drawings. This typically involves drawing basic
shapessuchaslines,arcs,circles,andrectanglestorepresentthemajorfeaturesoftheobject.
3. Extrude and Revolve: Use extrusion and revolve commands to convert 2D shapes into
3Dsolids. For example, if you have a 2D floor plan, you can extrude it to create walls,
andrevolve ittocreatecolumns.
4. Add Detailing: Gradually add more detail to the 3D model by extruding, revolving,
orsweeping2D shapestorepresentadditionalfeaturessuchasdoors, windows,
andotherarchitecturalelements.
5. Modify and Edit: As you work on the 3D model, you may need to make adjustments
toensureaccuracyandconsistencywiththe2Ddrawings.Thismayinvolvestretching,moving,orrot
atingelements as needed.
6. Assign Materials and Textures: Apply materials and textures to the 3D model to make
itmorerealistic.
CADsoftwareoftenallowsyoutoassigndifferentmaterialstodifferentpartsofthemodel.
7. CheckforAccuracy:Continuously checkthe3Dmodelagainstthe
original2Ddrawingstoensurethatitaccuratelyrepresentsthedesignintent.
8. Add Lighting and Rendering: To visualize the 3D model realistically, you can add
lightingandrenderingeffects. Thishelpsincreatingpresentationsorvisualizationsofthedesign.
9. Finalizeand
Review:Onceyouaresatisfiedwiththe3Dmodelanditmatchesthe2Ddrawings,reviewitcar
efullytoensureitmeetsallprojectrequirements.
10. Exportand Share:Exportthe3Dmodelin asuitableformat,suchas.STL or.DWG,
dependingonyourneeds. Youcanthensharethe3D modelwithcolleagues,clients,
oruseitforfurther designandanalysis.

KeepinmindthatthespecificstepsandtoolsmayvarydependingontheCADsoftwareyouare using.
Popular CAD software packages like AutoCAD, SolidWorks, Rhino, and Revitoffer various
tools and features for 2D to 3D conversion. It's essential to familiarize
yourselfwiththecapabilitiesofyourchosensoftwaretoefficientlyperformthisconversion.
 Conversion ofViews–3Dto2D

Converting 3D views into 2D representations in Computer-Aided Design (CAD) software is

acommon task, especially when you need to create 2D drawings, plans, or elevations from a
3Dmodel.Herearethegeneralstepsinvolvedin 3Dto2Dconversion:

1. Openthe 3DModel:Startbyopeningthe3Dmodelthatyou
wanttoconvertinto2DviewsinyourCADsoftware.Ensurethatthe3Dmodeliscompleteand
accurate.
2. SelecttheDesired View: Choosethespecificview orperspectiveofthe3D modelthatyouwant
to convert to 2D. This could be a top-down view, front view, side view, or any otherangle
thatrepresents theinformationyouneed.
3. SetUp theView: Configuretheviewsettingstomatchyourrequirements.Thisincludesadjus
tingtheviewangle, perspective, andzoomleveltocapturethedesiredinformation.
4. Generate2DDrawings: DependingonyourCAD software,
thereareseveralwaystocreate2Ddrawings fromthe3Dview:
a. OrthographicProjection:UsetheorthographicprojectiontoolsinyourCAD
softwaretogenerate 2D views such as plan views, elevations, and sections. These views are
typicallyperpendiculartotheviewingdirection.
b. ViewportandLayouts: SomeCAD programsallowyoutosetupmultipleviewports
within a layout. You can create a 3D view in one viewport and then create 2D views
inseparate viewports,adjustingthescaleand orientation as needed.
c. Renderto2D: Youcan userenderingtoolstocreatea high-quality2Dimageofthe3D
view, whichcanthenbesavedasa2Dimagefile.
5. Add Annotations and Dimensions: After creating the 2D views, add any
necessaryannotations,dimensions,labels,
andotherdetailstomakethedrawingsclearandinformative.
6. ReviewandValidate: Carefully review the 2D drawings to ensure accuracy
andcompleteness. Verifythat allnecessaryinformationfromthe3D
viewhasbeenaccuratelytransferred tothe2Drepresentations.
7. Export andSave: Export the 2D drawings to the desired file format, such as
DWG(AutoCAD), DXF, or PDF, depending on your project requirements and the software
you areusing.
8. OrganizeandDocument: Organize the 2D drawings in a logical manner, create
drawingsheetsif needed,anddocumentthemproperlywithtitles,
revisionhistory,andotherrelevantinformation.
9. ShareandDistribute: Sharethe2D drawingswithteammembers,clients,
orstakeholdersasrequired fordesign documentation,construction,oranyotherpurposes.

Remember that the specific steps and tools may vary depending on the CAD software you
areusing.Familiarizeyourselfwiththecapabilitiesofyourchosensoftwaretoefficientlyperformthe3
Dto2Dconversion,asdifferentCADprogramsmayhavedifferentworkflowsand
 featuresforthistask.

ParametricandNon-parametricCurves
The data storage ofthe curve can be representedby the array ofcoordinates or in the form of the analyticalequation.
But the storage of data points in the form of array occupylargespaceanddoesnot provide theexact shapeof the curve as
graphical manipulation is not exact, whereas the analytical equation provides all the information
aboutthecurvebehaviour,continuitybetweenthecurveetc.
Curvesarecategorizedintotwoforms:
i)Non-parametricform ii)Parametricform
i) Non-parametric form : Non-parametric form represents the curve in form of
coordinatewiththereferenceframe.Itcanbeclassifiedsas:
 Explicitnon-parametricform
 Implicitnon-parametricform
 Explicitform:Inexplicitformanytwopointsofthecoordinatescanbeexpressedintheformofthethirdvariable. 
Fore.g.ycanbeexpressedintheformofxtoform2Dcurve.P=[xy]
P=[xf(x)]
similarlyfor3Dcurvethecoordinateofyandzwillbeexpressedintheformsofx.P=[xyz]
P=[xf(x)g(x)]
 Implicitform:Itisrepresentedbytheintersectionof twosurface
whichcanbegivenasf(x,y,z)=0
g(x,y,z)=0
wherethevalueofyandzcanbecomputedforsomevalueofx.

Disadvantagesofnon-parametricrepresentation
1. Toobtainasmoothcurveweneedtochecktheslopeatpointtoensurethatit
shouldnottendtoinfinitywhichisdifficulttodealwithcomputer.
2. Non-parametriccurvesrequireslargecalculationpart.
3. Thesecurvesareindependentofcoordinatesystem.
ii) Parametricform:Itcanovercomethedifficultiesfacedinnon-
parametricform.Inparametricformallthethreedimensionsareexpressedinonesingleparameterwhichactsasaglobalcoordinate
forthepointsonthecurve.
Thusexpressingthecartesiancoordinatesastheparameterofu.ConsideringpointP(x,y,z).Intheparametricfromitcanbewrittena
s
P(u)=[x y z]=[x(u)y(u)z(u)]Umin≤U≤Umax
Itestablishesonetoonemappingbetweentheparametricandthecartesianspace which is shown in theFig. 2.4.1below.
y x

umax
umin
 u
0 umin umax

z y
Cartesianform

0 u
u

0 u
u

Fig.2.4.1

Treefeaturesof3DModelinganditsadvantages

3D modeling is a digital representation of three-dimensional objects or environments created

usingcomputer software. There are various features and advantages associated with 3D
modeling,makingitapowerfultoolinvariousindustries.Hereare threekeyfeaturesandtheiradvantages:

1.RealismandVisualization:

Feature: 3Dmodelingallowsyou tocreatehighlyrealisticrepresentationsof objects, structures,or

environments.You canapplytextures,materials,lighting,andshadingtomakethemodellooklikethereal-
worldcounterpart.

Advantages:

 ImprovedVisualization: 3Dmodelsoffer amoreintuitiveandlifelikewaytovisualizecomplexdesigns,

architecturalplans,or products.Thishelpsstakeholdersbetterunderstandthefinalresult.
  DesignValidation: Realistic3Dmodels enabledesignersandengineers toassesshowaproductorstructure
willlookand functionbeforeit'sbuilt,reducingerrorsandcostlymodifications.
 ClientPresentations:Architects,
designers,andproductdeveloperscanuse3Dmodelstopresenttheirideastoclientsorinvestors,makingiteasier
togainapprovalorfunding.

MethodsofGeometricModeling

Therearebasicallythreedifferentmethodstorepresentsthegeometricmodeling.
1. Wireframemodeling
2. Surfacemodeling
3. Solidmodeling
Surfacemodeling:Itisusedtorepresentthe
complexobjectthatcannotberepresentedbythewireframemodeling.Itprovidesmoreandlessambiguousrepresentation.
Surfacerepresentationcanbedoneinbothparametricandnon-
parametricform.SurfacesavailableintheCAD/CAMsystemsareBeziersurface,B-
splinesurface,planesurface,coonspath,surfaceofrevolution,etc.

Control
polygon

Controlpoint

Fig.2.2.2Surfacemodeling

Solidmodeling:Itprovidesthecompleteinformationoftheobjectascomparedwiththesurfacemodeling.Itstoresthegeometricd
ataandtopologicalinformationoftheobject

2.1 SurfaceModeling
 Itisamathematicalmethodusedbythecomputer-aideddesignapplicationsfordisplayingsolidappearingobjects.
 Surfacemodelingisapopulartechniqueforarchitecturaldesignandrendering.
 Surfacemodelsarepreferredfortherepresentationofcomplexobjectssuchascar,ship,aircraftand casting.
 Surfacemodelshelpsthedesignerstoobtaingoodvisualizationoftheentiresurface.
 TheadvancedsurfacemodelscanbeusedforgeneratingNCtoolpath.
 Itonlystoresthegeometryoftheobjectandnotitstopology.Thesurfaceisgenerated byconnectingthe
 pointsofthe*wireframe.
 CADusesthetwobasicmethodforthecreationofsurfaces.Thefirstbeginswiththeconstructioncurvesfromwhich3Dsurfaceiss
wept.
 Thesecondmethodisdirectcreationofthesurfacewithmanipulationofthesurfacepolesorcontrolpoints.

2.1.1 ClassificationofSurfacesinGeometricModeling
 Dataisrequiredforthecreationofdifferentsurfaceswhichdependsontheapplication.
 Tocreatearuledsurfaceweneedtwoboundarieswhiletocreatethesurfaceofrevolutionweneedoneentity.
 Thesurfacescanbeeitheranalyticalorsyntheticsomeoftheanalyticalsurfacesare:
1. Planesurface:Itisoneofthesimplestformoftheanalyticalsurfacewhichrequirethreenon-
coincidentpointstodefinetheplaneasshownintheFig.2.11.1.
2. Loafedsurface:Itisalinearsurfacewhichisformedbyinterpolatingbetweentheboundaries.Itneedstwoboundariestodefinerul
edoraloafedsurfaceasshownintheFig.2.11.2.
 Boundary1

Fig.2.11.1Planesurface

3. Edgesurfaces:Itisanextensiontotheruledsurfaceasinthisthesurfaceisbeenpatchedbetweentheboundariesasshow
nintheFig.2.11.3.
Boundary1

Boundary3

Boundary4

Boundary2
Fig.2.11.3Edgesurfaces
4. Surfaceofrevolution :Itis used foraxisymmetricobjectwhich canbe
revolvedaroundtheaxistoformthesurface.TherevolutioncanbecontrolledbycontrollingtheangleofrevolutionasshownintheF
ig.2.11.4.

Axisofrevolution

Generatorcurve

Generatedpart
Fig.2.11.4Surfaceofrevolution
 5. Tabulatedsurface:Itisusedtogeneratethesurfacebyextendingtheplanarcurve
ineitherdirectionasrequiredintheobject.Thismethodissuitableforidenticalcurvedcross-sectionasshownintheFig. 2.11.5.

Fig.2.11.5Tabulatedsurface
6. Coonspatch:Thissurfaceisformed bycurveswhichformtheclosed boundaries.Hence,werequireddifferentformsof cur

2.1.2 BlendingFunction
BlendingfunctionsarealsoknownasBasisfunctionwhichisanelementfroma
particularbasisforafunctionspace.Aseveryvectorinavectorspacecanberepresented P(u)
P0 P3
asalinearcombinationofbasicvector.
Blendingfunctiondeterminehowthecontrolpointsinfluencetheshapeofthegivencurveforvalues
oftheparametersuovertherangefrom 0to1.
Fore.g.:In
Beziersplinecurvewehavetwopointsandtwotangentswhichareusedtoplotthegraphwhoseparametri
crangevaries

u=0
 from0to1.TheequationofBeziercurveisgivenby
P(u)=P0(1–u)3+3P1u(1–u)2+3P2u2(1–u)+P3u3
Put,u=0
P(0)=P0 P(u)

Put,u=1 P1 P2

P(1)=P3Whosegraphscanbeplotted asshowninFig.2.11.7.
Nowbydifferentiatingthe
aboveequationwegetthetangentvectorwhichcanbegivenassh
owninFig.2.11.8. u=0

2.2 ParametrizationofSurfacePatch ☞[AU:May-18,Dec.-18]

Theparametrizationofthesurface is viewedy as aone-to-onemappingfromthesurfacetoasuitable
domain.Theparameterdomainitselfwillbeasurfaceandconstructingaparametrizationmeansmappingonesurfaceintoanother.
Parametrizationhasmanyapplicationinthefieldofscienceandengineering,CADmodel, computer
graphics to v= vmax
enhancethevisualquality,3D rv
z
scanning,surfaceapproximation.CAD/CAMsystemprefer u=umin r(x,y,z) ru

parametric form of surface representation. Avector r(u,vv) isvd=esccornisbted in two varui=abulmeasxi.e.

u=
uandv.ItcanberepresentedasfollowsintheFig.2.12.1.
u constv= vmin
r(u,v)=[xyz]
x
=[x(u,v)y(u,v)z(u,v)]
When umin≤u≤umax
vmin≤v≤vmax
2.2.1 BicubicPatches
 Itisgeneratedbythefourboundarycurveswhichareofbicubicpolynomial.
 Thepatchisdefinedbythe16controlpointsi.e.4controlpointsofeachcurve.
 Thebicubicpatchcanbewrittenas,
「q
| 1
3 (u) ù q(
P(u,v)=(V V2 | | 2
u) V1) M
|
||q(u)|
q3 4 (u) |
L ]
whereM=Matrixthatdescribethecubiccurve
q1(u),q2(u),q3(u),q4(u)=Controlpointswhichpassesthroughthecurves.ThevalueofVvariesbetween0to1.
u=0,v=0

u=0 u=1
v=1 v=0

Increasingv Increasingu

Fig.2.12.2Bicubicsurfacepatch

2.3 BezierSurface ☞[AU:May-18]

Bezier surfaces are guaranted by using Bezier curve as shown in the Fig. 2.13.1. The surfaceisnotnecessarilypass
fromall the control pointsasitwasthere in the Bezier curve. The surface can be twisted by using
differentcontrolpoints.Thesurfacecanbecontrolledgloballynotlocally.
CharacteristicsofBeziersurface:
1. Thesurfacegenerallyfollowstheshapeofthedefiningpolygonnet.
2. Thesurfaceiscontainedintheconvexhullofthepolygonnet.
3. EachoftheboundarycurveinthiscaseisaBeziercurve.
4. Thedegreeofthesurfaceineachpolynomialdirectionisonelessthanthenumberofdefiningpolygonverticalinthatdirection.
5. Thecontinuityofthesurfaceineachparametricdirectionistoolessthanthenumberofdefiningpolygonvertices.
 (a) (b)

Fig.2.13.1Beziersurfaces

2.4 B-splineSurface

ThesurfacewhichisformedbyusingB-splinecurveareknownasB-splinesurface.Itsnotnecessaryto passthesurface

CharacteristicsofB-splinesurface:
1. Thesurfaceisinvarianttoanaffinetransformation.

2. IfthenumberofpolygonverticesisequaltotheorderofbasisinthatdirectionandiftherearenointeriorKnotvalues,thenB-
splinesurfacereducestoaBezier surface.

3. Thehighestorderinparametricdirectionislimitedtothenumberofdefiningpolygonverticesinthatdirection.
2.5 BooleanOperation
Itisimportantforadvanced3Dmodelinginmechanicalandarchitecturaldesign.TherearethreeBooleanoperationswhichare
basicallyusedtoformthecomplexgeometryi.e.
i) Union,
ii) Subtract,
iii) Intersect.
i) Union operation: This operationfuses solidsor region togetherintoone object.It
isusedwhenweneedtojointmechanicalassemblies.
Foreg.:

Afterperformingunionoperationtheresultingobjectwillbe

ii) Subtract operation:In thisprocess oneobjectget subtractedout fromtheother toformtheresultantobject.Itis

mostfrequentlyusedtoformholesorremoveanymaterial.
Intheaboveexampleifsubtractoperationwasdonethenresultingobjectwillbe
 iii) Intersectoperation:Itcreatesthenewshape.Outoftheoverlappingpartsbetweenthegiventwoprimitivestogetthed
esiredobject.
IntheaboveexampleifintersectoperationwasdonethentheresultingobjectwillbeasshowninFigure.

2.6 SolidModeling
Fordesigning3-
DimensionalsolidgeometryweusedsolidmodellingtechniquewhichareoftenknownasPrimitiveInstancing.Someofth
eprimitiveswhichisbeenutilizedbythesolid modulesareshownbelow.
y
y

z x
z

Block Cylinder

y
y

y z

R2

R1
x

z
R1
0 x

Wedge Torus

Fig.2.16.1Solidmodellingprimitives
 By using these primitiveswe can obtain differentgeometricobjects by adding or subtracting the primitives.Toform
the complex solid geometry we can use the Boolean
operatorsuchasunion,intersection,differencecanbeperformedtoobtainthedifferent
object.Buttoformthesolidmodelweshouldhavegeometricdatai.e.thecoordinate position oftheobject
inspaceandtheconnectivity or topologicaldatathatrelates the object with eachother.
Fore.g.:PerformingdifferentBooleanoperationonthepartsAandB.

i) UnionbetweenAandB(AuB):

ii) IntersectionbetweenAandB(AnB):

iii) DifferenceofAfromB(A–B):
 iv) DifferenceofBfromA(B–A):

2.7 ConstructiveSolidGeometry ☞[AU:May-17,Dec.-18]

CSGmethodisalsoknownasbuildingblockapproach.Inthismethodweneedtoselectthesetofsolidprimitivestobuild
themodelsuchassphere,cylinder,cone, rectangularblock, etc.
 Itisthepopularmethodforconstructingcomplexsolidsbydividingthecomplex
objectintothesetofprimitiveandcombiningtheseprimitivesbyusingthesetsofbooleanoperationtoformtherequiredobject.

A+B A–B B–A AnB

Resultingsolids

Fig.2.17.1

 ConsidertwosolidsAandBasshownintheFig.2.17.1onpreviouspageand the resultant solids

afterperformingthebooleanoperation.
 By using CSG method it is easy to construct the complex model just by adding, subtracting, performing
intersectionoperation.
 CSGmodelisbeenrepresentedintheformofbinarytreewhichgivesthecompleteinformationaboutthemodelandthenumberofbo
olean operation requiredtoconstruct the binary treeasshowntheFig.2.17.2on previouspage.
 S3=S2+D

A B
S2=S1+C
D

C
C
S=
1 A– B
D
A B

Fig.2.17.2Unbalancedtree
 Theabovebinarytreeisanunbalancedtreewhichrequiremorecomputationhenceitisfeasibletoobtainthebalancedbinarytreewh
oseleftandrightsubtreeshavealmostequalnumberofnodes.

S3=S1+S2

S1 =A–B S2=C+D

A B C D

Fig.2.17.3Balancedtree
 UNITIV
BasicsofAssemblymodeling
Assembly modeling is a fundamental concept in computer-aided design (CAD) and computer-
aidedengineering (CAE). It involves creating and managing complex structures composed of
individualcomponents or parts to represent a larger, more intricate object or system. Assembly modeling is
commonlyusedin industriessuch asmanufacturing, automotive, aerospace,and architecture.

Purpose ofAssemblymodeling&itsadvantages

Assembly modeling serves several important purposes in the field of computer-aided design (CAD)
andengineering. Its advantages include facilitating the design and development process, enhancing
visualization,enablingcollaboration,andensuringaccuracy.Here'sa closerlookatthepurpose
andadvantagesofassemblymodeling:

PurposeofAssemblyModeling:

1. Represent Complex Systems: Assembly modeling allows designers and engineers to represent
complexsystems or products by breaking them down into individual components or parts. This
representation iscrucialfor understandinghowvariouspartscometogetherto form acomplete system.
2. EvaluateInteractions: It enables the evaluation of how individual components interact with each
otherwithintheassembly.Engineerscananalyzehowpartsmove,fit,andfunctiontogether,identifyingpotentialint
erferencesor issuesearlyin thedesignphase.
3. DesignValidation: Assemblymodelingsupportsdesignvalidationandtesting.Engineerscansimulatethebehav
ior of the assembly, assess performance, and detect problems before physical prototypes are
built,reducingdevelopmenttimeand costs.
4. Documentation: Assembly models provide a basis for generating detailed documentation,
includingassemblydrawings,billsofmaterials(BOMs),andmanufacturinginstructions.Thesedocumentsareessent
ialfor manufacturingand assemblyprocesses.
5. Visualization: Assemblymodelsoffer3Dvisualization,makingiteasiertounderstandandcommunicatecompl
exdesigns.Visualizationaidsindesignreviews,presentations,andmarketingmaterials.
6. Collaboration: Assembly modeling facilitates collaboration among designers, engineers, and
otherstakeholders.Multipleteammemberscanworkondifferentpartsoftheassemblysimultaneously,andch
angesmadebyoneteam member are reflected in real-timefor otherstosee.
7. ComponentReuse: It promotes component reuse. Engineers can create libraries of standard parts or sub-
assembliesthatcan be usedin multiple designs,improvingefficiencyand consistency.
8. CostEstimation: Assembly modeling supports cost estimation by providing a clear breakdown
ofcomponentsandmaterials,helpingorganizationscalculatemanufacturingandassemblycostsaccurately.Ad
vantagesof AssemblyModeling:

1. Efficiency: Assemblymodelingstreamlinesthedesignprocessbyallowingdesignerstoworkonindividual
componentsinparallel,savingtimeandreducingerrors.
2. Accuracy:Bysimulatinghowpartsfittogetherandinteractwithintheassembly,assemblymodelinghelpsensure
designaccuracyandfunctionality,reducingthe needforcostlydesign changeslaterinthe process.
3. CostSavings:Detectingandresolvingdesignissuesearlyinthe processreducesthe
costofreworkandphysicalprototyping.
4. ImprovedCommunication:3Dvisualizationandassemblyanimationsmakeiteasiertocommunicatedesign
intent to teammembers, clients, and manufacturingpartners.
5. Design Reusability: Standardized components and sub-assemblies can be reused across multiple
projects,enhancingdesign consistencyand efficiency.
6. DesignVariations: Assemblymodelingallowsfor the explorationof designvariationsandwhat-if scenarios,
facilitatingdesignoptimization.
7. Design Optimization: Engineers can use assembly models to perform analysis and simulations to
optimizeperformance,durability, and efficiency.
8. Product Lifecycle Management (PLM): Assembly models are a key component of PLM systems,
whichhelporganizationsmanage the entire lifecycleofa product,fromdesignanddevelopmenttomanufacturing
andmaintenance.
In summary, assembly modeling is a critical tool in the design and development process, offering
numerousadvantagesthatleadtomoreefficient,accurate,andcost-
effectiveproductdevelopment,alongwithimproved
communicationandcollaborationamongdesignteams.

Topto DownandBottomUpmodelingapproaches
 Analysisofclearance
Clearance analysis in Computer-Aided Design (CAD) refers to the process of evaluating the spaces or
gapsbetween two or more parts or components in a mechanical or engineering design. The purpose of
clearanceanalysisistoensurethatthereisenoughspacebetweenthesepartstoavoidinterferenceorcollisionsduringope
ration, assembly, or movement. Here's a step-by-step breakdown of how clearance analysis is
typicallyconductedinCAD:

1. ModelCreation: Thefirststepistocreate 3Dmodelsofthepartsorcomponentsinvolvedintheassembly.

ThesemodelscanbecreatedusingCAD softwarelikeSolidWorks,AutoCAD,CATIA,oranyothersuitabletool.
2. Assembly: Assemble the parts virtually within the CAD environment to represent their real-
worldinteraction.Thisinvolvespositioningandorientingthe
partsrelativetoeachother,astheywouldbeintheactualproduct or machine.
3. Clearance Definition: Define the clearance requirements based on design specifications, standards,
andtolerances.Thisinvolvesspecifyingtheminimumallowablegaporspaceneededbetweenpartstoensuretheydonot
interferewitheach otherduringoperation orassembly.
4. Analysis Tools: Most CAD software packages come with built-in clearance analysis tools or plugins that
canperform these evaluations automatically. These tools can calculate clearances in various ways,
includingminimum and maximum clearance, average clearance, and more. They can also consider different
types ofclearance,such asradial,axial, orangularclearance, dependingon the application.
5. AnalysisExecution:RuntheclearanceanalysistoolwithintheCADsoftware.Thetoolwillanalyzethe3Dmodelsan
d calculate theclearancesbetweenpartsbased onthedefined criteria.
6. Visualization: The CAD software will typically provide a visual representation of the clearance
analysisresults.Thiscaninclude color-codedmaps,reports,oranimationsthatshowareaswhere clearancesmeetor
exceedthespecifiedrequirementsandareaswhereinterferenceorinsufficientclearanceexists.
7. IterativeDesign: Basedontheresults,engineersanddesignerscanmakenecessaryadjustmentstotheparts
ortheirpositionswithintheassemblytoensure thatclearancesmeetthe designcriteria.
8. Documentation:Documenttheclearanceanalysisresults,includingthevaluesofclearancesatcriticalpointsand any
design changes made as a result of the analysis. This documentation is important for
designvalidationandforcommunicatingthedesignintent tootherteammembersorstakeholders.
9. Verification:Aftermakingdesignchanges,it'scrucialtoreruntheclearanceanalysistoverifythatthemodifica
tionshave indeed resolvedanyinterference orinsufficientclearance issues.
10. FinalDesign:Oncetheclearancesmeettherequiredspecificationsandstandards,thedesigncanbeconsider
edfinalizedand readyforfurther development, testing,and production.
Clearance analysis is a vital step in the product design process, especially in industries like
automotive,aerospace,andmanufacturing,wheretighttolerancesandprecisefitmentsarecritical.Ithelpsensurethatth
edesignedcomponentswillfunctionasintendedwithoutanyinterferenceoroperationalissues,ultimately
contributingtothe overallqualityandreliabilityofthe product.

Undercut
An undercut is a situation where material is removed from an area of a workpiece such that the
remainingmaterial forms a recessed or lower surface relative to the surrounding area. In other words, an
undercut is ashape thatiscreatedwhena cuttingtoolremovesmaterialfromanarea thatcan't be reachedfrom
above.
In the context of Computer-Aided Design (CAD), undercuts refer to features or geometries in a 3D model
thatmake it difficult or impossible to manufacture using certain manufacturing processes, particularly molding
orcasting processes. Understanding and identifying undercuts in CAD is crucial for design engineers
andmanufacturers to ensure that a part can be produced successfully without complications. Here's an
explanationofundercutsin CAD:

1. DefinitionofUndercuts: An undercut is a region on a 3D model where the draft angle (the angle of
taper)required for easy mold release or demolding in manufacturing processes is insufficient or in the
wrongdirection.Whenanundercutispresent,itpreventsthepartfrombeingremovedfromamoldordiesmoothly.
2. ImportanceofIdentifyingUndercuts: Failure to identify and address undercuts in a design can lead
tomanufacturingissues,increasedproductioncosts,andpotentiallyunworkableorscrappedparts.Recognizingund
ercutsearlyin thedesign processallowsfor necessarymodificationsto bemade.
3. CommonCausesofUndercuts: Undercutscanresultfromvariousdesignfeatures,including:
 Sharpcornersoroverhangsthatdonotallowfora draft angle.
 Complexgeometricshapeswithinward-facingsurfaces.
 Holesorrecessesthatintersectwithotherfeatures.
 Protrusionsorcomplexcurvesthatcreaterecesseswithinapart.4.
IdentifyingUndercutsinCAD:
 Visualization: CAD software often includes tools for analyzing and visualizing undercuts. These tools
canhighlightproblematicareasin the design where draftanglesareinsufficient.
 ManualInspection:Designersandengineerscanmanuallyinspectthe 3Dmodeltoidentifyregionswhere
itwouldbechallengingfor amoldor dietobepulledawaywithout interference.
 DraftAngleAnalysis:Checkingthedraftanglesonvarioussurfacesofthepart
isessential.Adequatedraftanglesensuresmooth removal frommoldsor dies.
5. AddressingUndercuts:
 Modify Geometry: To eliminate undercuts, you may need to modify the geometry of the part. This
couldinvolveaddingdraft angles,changingtheshape
ofcertainfeatures,orrepositioningcomponentstoallowforeasierdemolding.
 Splittingthe Part:Insome cases,particularlyforcomplexparts,designersmayopttosplit the part
intomultiple components that can be molded or cast separately. This can help avoid undercuts that
wouldotherwise beimpossibletoeliminate.
 ConsiderAlternateManufacturingMethods:Ifundercutscannotbereasonably
addressed,consideralternativemanufacturing methods, such as additive manufacturing (3D printing), which is
not as constrained byundercutsastraditional moldingor casting.
6. TestingandValidation: After making modifications to the design to address undercuts, it's essential
toperformtestingandvalidationtoensure
thatthemodifieddesignworksasintendedandcanbemanufacturedwithoutissues.

INTERFERENCE CHECKING is a feature in solid modeling that creates temporary solid

objects to highlight where two sets of objects intersect.
It can be used to compare two sets of objects or check all 3D solids and surfaces in a
drawing file.
Here are some steps for checking for interferences in a solid model in Autodesk:
1. Go to the Modeling tab
2. Select the Solid panel
3. Select Interference Checking
4. Select the first set of 3D solids and surfaces
5. Press Enter
6. Select the second set of 3D solids and surfaces
7. The Interference Checking dialog box will appear
8. Click Next or Previous to cycle through the interference objects
9. To keep the new interference objects, clear Delete Interference Objects Created on Close
10. Click Close
STACK UP ANALYSIS, also known as tolerance stack up analysis, is a method used to calculate the total
thickness, dimensions, and tolerances of a mechanical assembly.
It also assesses the interaction between the assembly's individual parts and the potential impact of their
tolerances on the assembly's overall functionality

THE PURPOSE OF STACK UP ANALYSIS is to establish the dimensional relationships within a part or
assembly.
This enables tolerances in the parts to be optimized while maintaining functionality and maximum part
interchangeability at a minimal manufacturing cost.
It also helps designers and engineers to ensure the proper fit and function of parts and assemblies, and to avoid
interference, gaps, or failures.

THERE ARE TWO MAIN METHODS USED FOR TOLERANCE STACK-UP ANALYSIS:
 Worst case
Calculates the maximum and minimum distance between two parts or attributes
 Statistical analysis (Root Sum Square/Root Mean Square)
Assumes the certainty of tolerance estimate and the arrangement of tolerances being considered

SOME TYPES OF STACK UP ANALYSIS INCLUDE:

 Dimensional (1D, 2D, 3D)

 Stack-up Behavior (Linear, Non-Linear)

 Analytical Method (Worst Case, Statistical)

 Variation Type (Numerical, Geometrical)

 Analysis Level (single component, Assembly)

 Material Situation (Rigid, Flexible)

CUMULATIVE EFFECT OF TOLERANCES IN AFTER ASSEMBLY CONDITIONS

 Tolerance stacking involves finding the cumulation of all individual tolerances of a component or assembly in
order to understand the potential range of final fits. Calculating your tolerance stack-up enables you to make sure
parts can be properly manufactured as effectively as possible for the least cost
 Tolerance stacking is the cumulative situation of geometric tolerances of features that are connected. It is a
core feature in the Geometric Dimensioning and Tolerancing (GD&T) system.
 Tolerance stacking can help you:

 Predict how your final component will look, function, and interact with other components

 Understand the consequences of tolerance stacking before you calculate your stack-up

 Consider post-manufacturing changes, such as deflection and normal wear-and-tear

Tolerance stack up can result in serious functional and manufacturing problems if it is not considered and
controlled.
  Tolerance stack-up is the cumulative effect of adding different tolerances to a mechanical assembly's
parts. It can also be described as the cumulative situation of geometric tolerances of features that are
connected.
 For example, if a part has a tolerance of +/- 0.1mm and it is assembled with another part with a tolerance
of +/- 0.2mm, the total tolerance stack up would be +/- 0.3mm.
 Tolerance stack-up can cause components of a product to skew towards the same side of the specification
limits. For example, drawings may be done at one location, but the fabrication and assembly take place at
fardistant places under conditions unknown to the designer.
 Tolerance stack-up analysis can help to identify potential issues in the design and manufacturing
process. It is used to ensure that the final product meets the required specifications.

MOTION ANALYSISis a feature in SOLIDWORKS that simulates and analyzes the motion of an assembly.
Motion analysis provides quantitative information on the kinematics (position, velocity, acceleration) and
dynamics (forces, moments) of the moving mechanism.
Motion analysis can incorporate the effects of Motion Study elements, such as:
Forces, Springs, Dampers, Friction, Gravity, Contact sets, Loads, and Motors.
Motion analysis uses computationally strong kinematic solvers, and accounts for material properties as well as
mass and inertia in the computations.
You can use Motion Analysis to:
 Plot simulation results for further analysis

 Create distributable, presentation-worthy animations depicting the motion of an assembly

 Analyze the motion and loads on a claw assembly

 Determine the forces on the gear arms when they collide as a result of the gears turning

We can use Motion Analysis (available with the SOLIDWORKS Motion add-in from SOLIDWORKS Premium)
to accurately simulate and analyze the motion of an assembly while incorporating the effects of Motion Study
elements (including forces, springs, dampers, and friction).