Cold War ‘What is Cold War? ~ period of hostility and high tension between states, which stop just short of war o 1945-1991 o USSR & USA = emerging 2 powers following the Nazi Germany in 1945 - direct conflict due to mass power was unthinkable - 45y of ideological conflict, conventional and nuclear arms race and proxy wars © economical rivalry, espionage networks - Lippman — popularized term Cold War ‘Communism x Capitalism - key difference, uncapable of coexisting Economy ~ west - individuals should be able to compete with each other with a minimum of state interference and make as much money ©. capitalism © individuals are encouraged to work hard with the promise of individual reward ~ east - capitalism creates divisions between rich and poor all businesses and farms should be owned by the state on behalf of the people © communism © goods will be distributed to individuals by the state, thus everyone gets what is needed and everyone will be working for the collective good Politics - west - individuals choose the government through voting ©. range of political parties © individuals have certain rights, such as freedom of speech and freedom of the press © liberal democracy ~ east - no need for a range of political parties co Communist Party truly represents the views of all the workers and rules on behalf of the people © individual freedoms valued by the West are not necessary © one-party state. Increasing tension priort to WW II. ~ intervention of West in the Russian Civil War (1918-1922) © support of conservative forces to overthrow Bolshevik gov - USSR wasn’t diplomatically recognized by the League of Nations until 1934 appeasment of Hitler in 1930°s © fear of Communism greater than of German fascism Non-Aggression Pact (Nazi-Soviet Pact) — 1939 © allowing Hitler to attack on the WestWhat elements of self-interest lay behind each country’s ideals? USA - The need to establish markets and open doors to free trade - The desire to avoid another economic crisis of the magnitude of 1929 - President Truman and most of the post-war US administration’s belief that what was good for America was good for the world USSR - The need to secure borders - The need to recover from the effects of World War Two - The need to regain strength as the ‘nursery of Communism” - Stalin’s belief that what was good for the USSR was good for workers of the world Significance of Stalin concrete leader by late 1920's © collectivization of all farms, five-year industrial plans © Great Terror — purges of political opponents ~ gulags the dominance of Stalin over the party, and the party over state institutions a powerful state security machine the ruthless maintenance of power by the elimination of opposing leaders, groups, or entire sections of the population the development of a regime associated with paranoia and violence Why superpowers? Military To defeat Germany, the USA had become the number-one air-force power in the world. To defeat Germany, the USSR had become the number-one land-force power in the world. France’s and Britain’s inability to defeat Germany had changed the balance of power. They had become ‘second-rank’ powers. # ‘The USSR now lacked any strong military neighbours. This made it the regional power. Economic ‘The USA’s economy was strengthened by the war. It was now able to out-produce all the other powers put together. ‘The USA was committed to more ‘open trade’. Its politicians and businesspeople wanted to ensure liberal trade, and market competition flourished. The United States was willing to play an active role in avoiding the re-emergence of the disastrous prewar patter of trade blocs and tariffs. The USA had the economic strength to prevent a return to instability in Europe.~The small Eastern European countries that had been created after World War One were not economically viable on their own, so they needed the support of a stronger neighbour, and the USSR could replace Germany in this role. Political - For the West, the outcome of World War Two showed that the ideals of democracy and international collaboration had triumphed over fascism. Thus the political system of the USA was the right path for the future. - For the Soviet Union, it was Communism that had triumphed over fascism. Indeed, ‘Communism had gained widespread respect in Europe because of its part in resisting the Germans. - The USSR’s huge losses, and the role of the Red Army in defeating the Nazis, gave Stalin a claim to great influence in forming the post-war world. ~The USSR had the political (as well as military) strength to prevent a return to instability in Eastern Europe. Communism could fill the political vacuum there.& Break down of the Great Alliance ~ 1945 —Elba Meeting, defeat of Germany due to collaboration of USA and Allies in Great Alliance - late 1949 — Europe dividied into 2 spheres of influence 0 9.1949 — FRG ~ West Germany = following the Berlin Blockade © 10.1949 — GDR —East Germany ~ steps that led to division: erin Bckade Dae 1988 [ceeh Coun Feary 18 ed Amy Occupation of Easter Europe 1945-1947 Maral Pan. Jane 197 ‘roman Decne March 1547 and Cominarm October 1947 ‘Char cllwon Catt speech a Fon Masour Mach 986 [enn Long Team February 196 Werte coerce Teron HR aka 145 Pio 1S 1939 - German invasion of Poland: Britain and France declare war on Germany - Beginning of Winter War between USSR and Finland 1940 - Hitler's blitzkrieg through Europe: takeover of Norway, Denmark, the Netherlands, Belgium, and France ~ Battle of Britain1941 - Germany begins ‘Operation Barbarossa’ and invasion of USSR. ~ Britain and USA sign Atlantic Charter Pearl Harbor attack by Japan brings USA into the war 1942 - German assault on Stalingrad - German defeat at El Alamein in North Africa 1943 - German defeat at Stalingrad - Allied invasion of Italy - Tehran Conference 1944 - D-Day landings by Western Allies begin in Normandy - Rome falls to allied forces 1945 - Warsaw falls to Soviet troops - Yalta Conference ~ Russian forces enter Berlin ~ President Roosevelt dies and is replaced by Truman - United Nations meets for the first time in San Francisco - Germany surrenders ~ Potsdam Conference - Nuclear bombs dropped on Hiroshima and Nagasaki Japan surrenders 1946 ~ Kennan’s Long Telegram ~ Iran crisis, - Churchill's ‘Iron Curtain’ speech at Fulton, Missouri 1947 - Announcement of Truman Doctrine: aid sent to Greece and Turkey - Marshall Plan for economic recovery of Europe proposed ~ Creation of Cominform 1948 ~ Czechoslovakian Coup ~ Marshall Plan passed by Congress - Berlin airlift 1949 - COMECON established - NATO established - Berlin Blockade ends ~ USSR explodes its first atomic bomb - FRG/GDR established Breakdown ~ begun in 1941 when Churchill and Roosvelt send troops to aid Soviets © tealtions tense mainly with UK — distrust - Soviets demanded more support 0 opeing Second Front in the East= partially agreed, built if it was the right time = postponing to permanently weaken USSR I. Wartime Conferences ~ decision of Grand Allience determined the territiorial and political changes in Europe ~ key points: © state of war © status of DE, PL, Eastern Europe, JP o UN Tehran Conference - 11,1943, Stalin, Roosvelt, Churchill State of the war © 1943 start of winning by Allies, following by the turning-point © pushing Germany into Eastern front = W—drawing Germany from North Africa and invaded Italy (Mussol.) = W~still not making front © Germany — different views on post-war, failure of Treaty of Versialles = no agreement over DE’s furture © agreed on goal of unconditional surrender © support of Operation Overlord (Allied invasion of nFR begun on D-Day, 66.1944) © Poland ~ concer over security and borders = Stalin wanted to gain the territory of PL — agreement over seized parts in 1939 * ensuring hostility with Germany & Poland (due to given border) = puppet regime = increased tensions over Katyn Massacre * Soviets blamed Germans Eastern Europe ~ Soviets demanded siezed teritories = control over Baltic States, Romania = W agreed to such annexation * against Atlantic Charter (agreement, UK x USA) © Japan — UK & USA wanted USSR to enter war with JP = wanted stalin to open second front in Asia © UN~wanted to replace League of Nations = again designed to collective security Conclusion ~ agreement on a new international organization ~ agreement on the need for a weak post-war Germany Yalta Conference - 1945 ~ Stalin’s strong diplomatic position due to occupation of most Eastern Europe © Due to strong presence, USSR was ready to invade Germany itself © Germany heavily attacked aerialy, and from both fronts- Germany — demilitarized, de-Nazified, divided in 4 zones of occupation (temporary) © Allied Control Council (ACC) ~ set up to govern Germany © reparations set out - Poland — borders set out by Curzon Line © Poles were giving German teritory as compensation as well as more democratic gov, following , free elections* © Lublin Committee communist dominated post-war gov © Stalin didn’t paymuch attention to PL = Katyn Massacre, lack of support for the Warsaw Uprising this helped eradicating Poles in favor of free PL - Eastern Europe — Staling agreed to general free elections © percieved as vicotry by W - Japan — promised to enter war as soon as war was over © Soviets demanded JP’s teritory - United Nations — Stalin agreed to join UN © agreement on 5 permanent members of Security Council ~ each veto = demanded all Soviet Repblics to have seat in General Assembly Conclusion ~ agreement on the United Nations - Soviet agreement to join the war in the Pacific against Japan - the Big Three signing a ‘Declaration on Liberated Europe’ pledging their support for democratic governments based on free elections in all European countries, including those in Eastern Europe. Developments between Yalta & Potsdam Conference - radical changes in atmosphere: © President Roosevelt died in April 1945 and was replaced by Truman, who was to adopt a more hardline, or ‘get tough’, policy towards the Soviets © Germany finally surrendered unconditionally on 7 May 1945 © Winston Churchill's Conservative Party lost the July 1945 UK general election and Churchill was succeeded as prime minister by the Labour Party leader, Clement Attlee ©. As the war in Europe ended, the Soviet Red Army occupied territory as far west as deep inside Germany © On 17 July 1945, the day after the Potsdam Conference began, the United States successfully tested its first atomic bomb Potsdam Conference - 1945, Potsdam, Germany - Stalin, Truman, Attlee State of war ~ 75.1945 — Germany surendered © War in pacific still raged, USA poised to invade JP - Germany — agreement of de-Nazification, demiltarization, division= incapabe to agree how to carry this out © agreed uponindependent approach in their zones, German economy run as a whole , yet limited to dome: agriculture - Poland —Truman not sattsified over agreements © establishement of new frontier and reorganisation of gov © didn’t feel the elections were free - Eastern Europe - Truman unhappy about Percentage Agreement (bilateral agreements between Stalin & Churchill) — sphere of influence according to percentage Truman didn’t want Eastern Europe under Sovit influence had little impact - Japan — 68.1945 — Hiroshima & Nagasaki — unconitional surrender - UN-~San Francisco, 1945, 50 nations signed UN Charter o USSR - only communis power in Big Five © Stalin used veto if something against soviet interest industry and Conclusion - agreement for the immediate, practical control of the defeated Germany - the establishment of the United Nations Key developments 1946-1947 Salami Tacties - increase ofinfluence in Eastern Block ~ Rakosi, Hungarian Communist leader, commenting on Communist control in Europe — like slicing off salami, piece by piece ©. Stage 1: the Soviets supervised the organization of governments in the Easter European states, initially establishing a broad alliance of ‘anti-fascists’. ©. Stage 2: each of the parties was ‘sliced off’, one after the other. co. Stage 3: the Communist ‘core’ was left, and then ultimately the local ‘Communists were replaced (if need be) with Moscow-trained people ~ Baggage Train leaders — trustworthy figure who fought in wars returned to countries, © they would ensure the post-war gov would be dominated by Moscow-backed, Stalinist Communists - _ ,free elections‘ — 19.1.1947 © promised at Yalta Conference © preceeded by mass murders, censorship, intimidation © 50k deported Case study — Poland = during election: © 246 candidates from Polish Peasant Party disqulified © I million take of electoral register ~ Donnelly ‘In these appalling circumstances of intimidation, it was not surprising that Bierut's Communists secured complete control in Poland’ ~ Whad different out look and took it as braching of agreement, E seen it as erradicating western expansionism‘~ this tactics was also used in other countries and persured by the invading Red Troops Iran - after the war USSR wanted to increase their sphere of incluence ~ Teheran Conforence - UK & USSR agreed that after war they'd withdraw from Iran © Stalin - 30,000 troops = encouraging Communist Uprising * Allies demanded to withdraw immediately (another breaching) = 1.1.1946 — refused = US suspected the invasion of Turkey & Black Sea Straits Instability in Greece & Turkey ~ _anti-imperialist, nationalist, atmosphere © support of pro-Communism - W believed that rebellions were supported by the USSR Churchill enraged due to breaching Percentage Agreements ~ Stalin wanted to ensure the international control of Straits of Constantiopole rather than Turkish control ‘Communist Parties — Italy & France = post-war influence grew © growth of membership due to economic deprivation, hardship experience, .. - further suspections of Moscow enouragement Kennan’s Long Telegram — 2.1946 ~ US diplomat in Moscow, telegram do US State Department about the nature of Soviet conduct and foreign policy © lasting influence on State Department - _ ,Soviet system boyed on the threat of a hostile world outside of borders* ©. highly sesitive to the logic of force’ - Kennan argued: ©. the USSR’s view of the world was a traditional one of insecurity © the Soviets wanted to advance Muscovite Stalinist ideology (not simply ‘Marxism’) © the Soviet regime was cruel and repressive and justifi ed this by perceiving nothing but evil in the outside world. That view of a hostile outside environment would sustain the internal Stalinist system ©. the USSR was fanatically hostile to the West — but it was not ‘suicidal” ~ logic of force‘ — driving force behind the policy of containment silimar telegram by Novikov © both suggest the suspicion against each other ‘Churchill's ,Iron Curtain‘ speech ~ 5.3.1946 - one of the defining moment of Cold WarBasis of this speech = reaction to Communist domunated Eastern Europe (Hungary, Poland, Romania, Bulgaria) © im spite of , free elections - other not directly linked communist countries ~ Yuglsolavia, Albania o East Germany, Czechslovakia — upcoming years - remarks made on basis of Red troops present Soviet Reaction - quick, Stalin comparing Churchill to Hitler ©. they withdrew from the International Monetary Fund (IMF) ©. they stepped up the tone and intensity of anti-Western propaganda © they initiated a new five-year economic plan of self-strengthening, - lead to hardening of discontent Confronation & Containment ~ _ intensification of confronation in every aspect (political, economic, ...) ‘Truman Doctrine ~ 123.1947 - put forward idea that US had to support free people, resisting the subjugation by armed minitoties - Foreign policy whose stated purpose was to counter Soviet geopolitical expansion during the Cold War. Stated purpose was not to expand American political and financial interests, although this is of course going to happen - radical shifting US policies ~ from isolationalist to containment © responsed to unstable Greece and Turkey "UK established monarchy in GR, yet communist guerrillas in rular area © UK unable to support US in fear of spreading Communism, passed on this aid ~ mutually seen as a sign of spreading influence - LaFeber - ,The Truman Doctrine was a milestone in American history ... the doctrine became an ideological shield behind which the United States marched to rebuild the Western political and economic system and counter the radical left. From 1947 on, therefore, any threats to that Western system could be easily explained as Communist inspired, not as problems which arose from difficulties within the system itself. That was the most lasting and tragic result of the Truman Doctrine. ‘ Marshall Plan - 1.1947 ~ with new US Secretary of State - General G. Marshall — believed that Wester Europe economies needed econimic help from the USA © seemed to follow on quite naturally from the Truman Doctrine ~ it was the economic extension of the ideas outlined by the presidentDollar Imperialism? Marshall Plan — providing help to EU asap ~ set out strict rules whether Soviet countries can apply Marshall Plan aid were to: © revive European economies so that political and social stability could ensue © safeguard the future of the US economy - 17b dollars ~ passed in 3.1948 © succes mailny due to Czech Coup 2.1948 Soviet Reaction to Marshall Plan ~ rejection due to allowing to see into financial records © example of Dollar Imperialim Soviets felt the USA was establishing a European empire, and that its method was economic domination and dependence, which would ultimately give it political control - _ Vyshinsky, Soviet Foreign Minister — openly criticized both for being ,superpower oriented’, ignoring the basics of UN - prior US had attempted to unite the W with economic tactics © now building military unity Molotoy Plan - reaction to Marshall Plan ~ bilateral trade agreements aimedto tie Soviet economies of Easter Block and USSR 0 resulted in COMECON — 1.1949 (Council for Mutual Economic Assistance) © designed to stimulate and control economic development, support collectivization and development of heavy industry Cominform (Communist Information Bureau) ~ 9.1947 ~ instrument to increase Stalin’s controlover parties © originally comprised of USSR, Yugoslavia, CSR, ... = W feared it could spread Communism in the W Stalin’s ‘two camps? doctrine - Stalin wanted to divide Europe into two camps even before the Churchill's speech - Andrei Zhdanov, Cominform delegate o He stated that the Americans had organized an ‘anti-Soviet’ bloc of countries that were economically dependent upon them — not only those in Western Europe, but also in South America and China © The ‘second camp’ was the USSR and the ‘new democracies’ in Eastern Europe * He also included countries he deemed ‘associated’ or ‘sympathetic’ to their cause ~ Indonesia, Vietnam, India, Egypt, and Syria = “two camps’ doctrine was very similar to the ‘new world order’ outlined by Truman Red Army occupation of Eastern Europe, 1945-1947 - USSR was becoming a satellite empire© coutries ket separate legal identities "yet they were tied to Moscow in: © Soviet military power (later formalized in the Warsaw Pact in 1955) salami tactics which transferred the machinery of government into the hands of obedient, pro-Soviet Communists state police and security/spy networks * COMECON last country ~CSR = Stalin presented coup as necessary to oust the non.communist leaders = Soviet military power (later formalized in the Warsaw Pact in 1955) = salami tactics which transferred the machinery of government into the hands of obedient, pro-Soviet Communists ‘state police and security/spy networks = COMECON by the end of 1948 satellit states were under contorl of USSR. = W saw this a breach of agreements (Yalta, Potsdam) «evidence of socialist expansionism ‘The Czechoslovakian Coup — 2.1948 - CSR seen as more W leaning © experssing ideas of acceptingmarshal plan - sentiment and anger towards USSR due to Munich Agreement (annexation of part of CSR to Nazi Germany, 1938) = 2.1948 — Stalin’s organization of ressure on gov © 12 forced to resign - under threats of USSR and slight military action Edvard Bene agreed toformation of communist-led gov © Masaryk, Czech foreign minister, found dead - Truman usedsuch event to pass on the bill of Marshall Plan - _ bloddy purges of disloyal communist occured thorughout the Easter Block ‘The Berlin Crisis - 1948 - 4 zones of occupation, administered by ACC (Allied Control Council) = intention to treat as one economic unit and that it would emerge as an independent state - 1949 —divided in 2 separate states Why did they fail to reunify Germany? Strategic position and different aims of main powers = geography and potential economic strength © USSR didn’t want united DE — posing threat ~ similarly FR ‘= wanted to get much from reparation © USA seen the best for peace of EU to economically recover DE = similar to eradicated socialist influence by using US aid© UK endorsed this (bankrupt, in favor of aid) - lack of trust between W x E © mntual suspicion "both concerned about the rise of Germany © US promises to DE that it would not be divided economically © promise to keep US troops in EU and stand against USSR ~ _in-German post-war disputes ©. division intensified due to: = economic conflict © reparations © USSR - 25% of industry in return for food, raw material = due to increase of refuge © secretive about what they took from zone; insufficient ‘= thus stopping UK & US to supply Soviet zone «USSR wanted to mine coal, yet US wanted to use it for economic growth © early 1947 — Bizonia — merging US & UK zone = from 4.6.1945 USSR wanted to seize reunified Germany * donevia use of Red Army and the increasing support of the Communist Party of Germany (KPD) in other zones 4.1946 ~ merging of Communist and Social Democratic party © Socialist Unity Party (SED) © incapable of winning over the West Germans = Germans unlikely to vote for socialist parties which although might unify Germany, but wouldn’t provide economical support (compared to Marshall Plan) and no democracy *W started considering unifying occupation zones and est provisional gov * London Conference of Ministers — 1947 © was supposed to consider German peace treaty © yet ended in rectiminations * London Conference ~ 1948 © drawing new constitution for Western Germany © coming to existence in 1949 also considering currency reform # devaluated new currency © Germany as a barter community = Stalin saw this as est of ‘new Germany’ forcing out W out of Berlin Berlin Blockade - 1948 - 4 occupation zones - Berlin in the E zone, sealed off from the rest in 1946 © W Berlin relied on W Zones to provide them with supplies - 3.1948 — Stalin started putting transport restrictions,- with currency reform put on full blockade (23-24.6.1948) © any communication 0 supply of energy from East to West was cut USSR left the ACC in 3.1948 ~ first crisis of Col War and military confrontation © W didn’t use force, but supplied W Berlin with supplies via air = 200,000 flights in 320 day for 2.2 mil. Berliners * threat of Soviet military response ©. by early 1949, Stalin was failing - end by 5.1949 ‘Outcomes of Berlin Blockade - 1948 = first time was was a possibility since 1945 ©. certain any agreement wasn’t possible - results: ©. the division of Germany ©. the continuation of four-power control in Berlin othe formation of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) Division of Germany - failure of blockade meant division was innevitable 0 W-FGR - Federal Republic of Germany = 9.1949 = 10.1949 — Adenauer, first chancellor 0 _E~GDR - German Democratic Republic ~ both sides didn’t want united DE, because of the possiblity of DE as a whole becoming an ally © W_- divided DE protected by the USA was more favorable than neutral united DE = EU divided economically, politically - Berlin still remained a divided city © 4 powers withing GDR = Berlin as the major source of friction Formation of NATO - Wester suspicion was reinforced by the Berlin Airlift, Czech Coup o this emphasiszed the need US defence of EU - 4.1949 — USA, CA, Brussels Pact, Norway, DK, Iceland, IT, PT ~ at the same time US Congress a proved plan of military assistance to build up Europe’s armed forces © major military presence of US in EU *" cleary departing from previous US foreign policy - Paris Pacts © West Germany into NATO * confirming USSR’s danger ‘Warsaw Pact - 1955all states of Eastern Europe under single military command lack of organaisation © initially more pollitican than military alliance «dividing EU economically, militairly and politically Situation by the end of 1949 Europe was now clearly divided along political, economic, and military lines Germany was not to be reunited as had been the original aim of the Allies at the end of World War Two. There were now two clear states, although neither side was prepared to recognize the existence of the other (until Ostpolitik in the 1970s). ‘The USA had abandoned its peacetime policy of avoiding commitments and was now involved economically (through the Marshall Plan) and militarily (through NATO) in Europe. No peace treaty had actually been signed with Germany, which meant that the borders of central Europe were not formalized. This was particularly worrying for Poland, as it now included territory taken from Germany in 1945. (This was not finally resolved until 1975.) ‘Western countries had developed a greater sense of unity due to the Soviet threat. How this impacted the international relations beyond EU? From this time on, many conflicts, wherever they were in the world, would be seen as part of the struggle between Communism and Capitalism. ‘The USA’s policy of containment, which had been developed to fight Communism in Europe, was to lead the USA into resisting Communism anywhere in the world that it perceived Communism was a threat. This would involve the USA fighting in both the Korean War and the Vietnam War. ‘The United Nations was never to play the role envisioned in the original discussions between Roosevelt and Churchill at the time of its foundation. With the USA and the USSR now opposing each other and able to use their respective vetoes, the UN could not act effectively to resolve international conflicts.How can we explain the breakdown of the Grand Alliance? Role of ideology - _incompatable idologies that could coexist, 0 Red Scare ~ resentment towards communists in US after the Bolshevik Rev. = distrust was entrenched even in the domestic US policies by 1945 ~ to US it seemed like USSR wanted to spread communism worldwide © Salami tactics after 1945, the Czech Coup and the Berlin Blockade appeared to be motivated by a desire to spread Communism in Eastern Europe. © The newly established Cominform was seen as an organization which was designed to promote worldwide revolution. © The rise of Communist parties in France and Italy after World War Two and the civil war in Greece were all seen as being encouraged and funded by the Soviets. © Soviet activity in Iran reinforced the belief that Stalin wanted influence outside of Eastern Europe. - USSR seen US as wanting to encircle USSR and overthrow the gov: © The Marshall Plan was seen as an example of ‘dollar imperialism’ and an attempt to extend influence over Europe and lure East European states away from the Soviet Union. © US economic power, and its drive to establish free trade across the globe and keep markets favourable to US interests, seemed to indicate the possibility of US global economic domination © US actions in Germany, particularly its introduction of the new currency in ‘Western zones, appeared to be an attempt to spread US influence. - in both case spropaganda was widely used to undermine eachother Role of Great Power rivaly - quesitonable importance ~ some argue that it was due to traditional Great Power rivalries - Walter LaFeber and Louis Halle both see the USA and the USSR as expansionist powers. Therefore, the hostility that followed 1945 was a continuation of policies they had respectively pursued since the 19th century - WWIL exasterbated this because it tured them into superpowers © natural decline of power of other states and naturla want to expand theri sphere of influences Role of economic interest ~ both set up opposite economy systems within EU © signifying economic interest ~ post-war devastated EU made easy for them to impose this - US ~est of open markets to preven the return of inter-war economic problems © stting up of Bretton Woods system = included Internationa Momentary Fund, World Bank * USSR cooperated whoever the tough anti-communist application for loand cause a great dispute over the US and USSR- the emphasis on free market Capitalism cause USSR to withdraw o dollar imperialism" ~ USSR = US set up economic aims according to capitalism, promting their influence and appeal © Marshall Plan had similar effect = stronly idological purpose to stop bankrupted EU from supporting Communism ~ as aresponse COMECON © financial assistance to Easter Europe = this also helped to impose its regiemes in E.EU ~ thus both superpowers used similar economic measures to secure ideological aims - economic interest cause also ifferent views upon DE © USA— seen as important tu support DE for general EU recovery as well as a possible exporter and importer, possible E front = Marshall Plan © USSR — wanted to keep DE weak, so it doesn’t pose a threat = dismantling of E.DE to weaken ~ these different economic view were relfected in: ©. the Berlin Blockade (1948) - USSR. © currency reforms — USA - different economic interests cause major tensions How did actions of USSR & USA cause breakdown? ~ still large dispute among historians © despite different idologies Cold War was not inevitable USSR = Roosevelt avised at Yalta that he didn’t want to remain in occupation of DE for more than 2y - US also expected for USSR to remain in Bretton Woods and the new economic structure © Tony Judt ~ the mutual benefi ts 10 be had from an increase in international commerce and fi nancial stability would eventually overcome national traditions and political mistrust’ ~ US supprised to withdraw from Bretton Woods system © yet they believed before incidents listed below that cooperation was possible = Stalin did not keep to the agreement made at Yalta regarding Poland. He also did not keep to his agreement to allow free elections in the other East European countries that the Red Army had liberated. Using “salami tactics’, all of these countries were under Communist control by the end of 1948, which meant a Stalinist-style oneparty state with no individual freedoms. Thus his actions were perceived by the West as aggressive and expansionist. = The Soviets exploited wartime agreements to retain a military presence in northern Iran after the war until they were forced to leave in 1946.USA "The Berlin Blockade was ill-conceived and seen by the West as a prelude to a possible attack on West Germany. = The establishment of Cominform was an attempt to control Communist parties throughout Europe, which was also a sign that Stalin wanted to spread Soviet-style Communism. = Stalin's suspicious approach to the West meant that he interpreted all actions as deliberate attempts to weaken the USSR. His policies inside the Soviet Union indicate that he was not a leader who would support ‘compromise and conciliation; in fact, he promoted hostility to the West within the USSR in order to get support for his policies. ‘Churchill’s speech and Kennan’s Long Telegram that highlited Stalin’s intentions © leading to Truman act of 1947 — containment of Communism we can also argue that Stalin because it was US’s overreaction and the pursuit of ideology and economic interest USSR experienced hostility since 1917 (Bolshevik Revolution) ‘WW IL. — huge causalties, economic impact est of Easter European communist countries serving as a Buffer Zone not supporting Greck Communist ~ fake accusations by USA © yet breached the Percentage Agreement = recognized Greece as UK sphere of influence therefore we can see setting-up of Stalinist gov, Berline Blockade as the effect of Cold ‘War not cause, stemming from: © The dropping of the atom bomb, which, it could be argued, was designed to make clear to Stalin the military superiority of the US. © The US’s determination to impose its own ideas for a new world order after 1945 through open markets, self-determination, democracy and collective security = Increasingly, this was seen as ‘dollar diplomacy’ ~ the US imposing its ‘own values and advancing its own interests. © The US’s failure to take account of Soviet anxiety and insecurity, which stemmed from its previous encounters with the West and the immense losses, incurred during the war = The US failed to sce that Stalin’s actions were not about spreading ‘Communism but were about defending the Soviet Union. © Truman’s exaggeration of the threat of Communism in his speech to Congress = to gain support aid for Greece and Turkey. © The US’s determination after 1947 to interpret all actions of the Soviet Union as being ideological = this made the Americans ignore evidence to the contrary © seen particularly with regard to China becoming Communist © USSR was blamed when it was clear (also to US offecials on the ground in China in 1949) that Mao’s victory had little to do with Stalin© Marshall Plan = seen by the Soviet Union as ‘Capitalist interference” ©. The introduction of a new currency into Berlin provocative, and indicated to Stalin that the West was trying to establish an anti-Soviet state on his borders. © The West’s establishment of NATO, which was an aggressive action against the security of the Soviet Union - USSR actions as an attempt to defend itself as anti-Soviet actions ©. every action Stalin took in response to the West, to defend the USSR, was seen by the West as further evidence of Soviet aggression Role of suspicion and fear FEAR USA ~ links to view that idology was the driver and that USA’s reactions were due to fear of Communism - although we can argue that Stalin’s actions were defense to USA, we can also argue that actions take by the USA were the result of USA fearing the communism examsionism if not contained - Kennan’s long telegram put forward that USSR wanted to presue world revolution o Red Scare = thereby increasin US actions thus when Czech Coup occured this was taken as the last straw to passing Marshall Plan = Berlin Blockade seen as an act of expansion = Comintern as well © 1949 —first Soviet atomic bomb increased the threat = 1949 — start of nuclear and arms race = 1949 —est NATO © when China became communist and North Korea invaded South Korea, USA scared of Asian expansion of USSR USSR ~ fear of dollar imperialism © to win over E.EU states via financial aid ~ USSR economically weakend and USA booming ~ aggressive action according to USSR © open trade policies © Marshall Plan © currency reforms in W.DE o NATO ~ fear of deliberate underminig of the USSR © use of superior - Gaddis — highlight that fear dictated Stalin's actions and suspicious natureHistorians interpretations of Cold War - POV usually determined by the era nal (Orthodox) - USSR as responsible = between 1950-1960 ~ general suspicion that USSR as expansionist according to Marxism = thus Stalin breached Yalta & Potsdam - US asin defence - e.g.—MeNéill, Feis jonist = flourished when consensus over US foreign policies crumbled - USA responsible - Appleman Williams ~ explained in terms of dollar diplomacy = sees USA as in need forforeign policies oof Capitalism © containment driven by the requirement of secure market, free trade, ... Post-Revisio - between these ideas - John Lewis Gaddis and Walter LaFeber Post-Cold War historians ~ after the fall down © nocensorship, ~ Mastny — following Stalin's role in origin of Cold War European and Soviet Persepctives Role of Europeans ~ many gov in distress due to post-war era - some argue that european elite played a role in Cold War © locking USA to military and economic support - UK ~dida lotto raise the red threat © Churchill’s speech - arguing the undersetimation of US foreign policies Soviet Perspective = most historians W © parallel ~ in initial stages most convinced in dollar imperialism = Molotov — Problems of Foreign Policy (book) © accusuing US for wanting to take over the EU © USSR wanting to find securityKorean War 1947 Official division of Korea on 38" parallel line 1949 Sept - USSR gets the A-bomb Dec - Communist victory in Chinese Civil War 1950 April - US National Security Council produces NSC-68 June - North Korea invades South Korea Sept - US troops land at Inchon Nov - Chinese launch counter-offensive Dec - UN troops fall back to 38th parallel 1951 Feb - UN condemns China as aggressor in Korea April - Eisenhower dismisses MacArthur July Truce talks start in Korea Sept - USA and Japan sign mutual security pact Oct - Greece and Turkey join NATO 1952 March - USSR proposes a neutral Germany Nov - Eisenhower elected US president 1953 March - Death of Stalin July - Military armistice to end Korean hostilities signed US Foreign Policy — 1949-1950 - with the emergence of NATO, US was optimistic in eradicating communist expansion o Truman Doctrine & NATO - NATO's power rested on atomic power © no other expenses, demobilized army = USSR had not © thuse ach had its own advantage USSR ~ Atomic Bomb — 8.1949 - USA’s advantage shattered after the announcement, China falls under Communism ~ US had given little support in Chinese Civil War (1945-1949) to natonalists Chiang Kai-shek and under Mao Zedong’s guerrilla warfare fell into communism - White Paper report states that USA couldn’t change the outcome of the war Kai-shek was unpopular with Chinese = rather a nationalist collapse than communist win © percieved differently from Moscow = Secretaryof State, Acheson: inadequacy of American aid* in 1949 the American experts in Asia believed that they had done what they could in ChinaRed Scare, McCarthyism, Anti-Communist crusade in America = Red Scare exasturbated by McCarthy, proposing that communist sympathizers were placed into powerful position in USA © leading into purges and show trials affecting every level of society © some executed - 1950's strong anti-communist beliefs - Mc Carthy, calling for purges of State Department © eg. all American liberals were comsymps - Truman called soft on communists“ ~ this led to reviewing of White Paper and claimed Mao under full influence of Moscow © all but two of the State Department advisers on China who had said that the ‘Guomindang was ‘not worth saving’ lost their job ~ also cause reviewing of US Foreign & defence policies as the result of Chinese win and USSR’s atomic bomb © possiblity to be engaged in 2 front and atomic war - Truman refused to recoginize the new Chinese gov NSC-68: ‘Total Commitment? - report of US National Security Council of 1950 0 LaFeber ~,one of key documents of Cold War* - warned how every communist activity is linked to Moscow © all dev had a global scheme and were the result of USSR expansion = monolithic © warning about indefinitie period and danger calling US gov to be ready at all times © increasing military strength ©. it encouraged military and economic aid to be given to any country perceived by the USA to be resisting Communism ~ _criziczed for being not concrete North Korea invades South Korea - 1950 - Truman had difficult elections (Democratic Party) © wanted to recognize China, commitment in Asia and post-pone NSC-68 ~ 25.5.1950 — 90,000 N Korean troops launched attack © seen as expansionism = mirror the USA’s monolithic belief of single communist bloc © thouth that the lack of action would seem as a failure of defence = underminig USA‘ credibility, encouraging communist domino effect - similar containemnt approach. = drawing UN into the conflict ~ 276.1950 -China has gained a separate seat at the Security Council (similairly boycotting as USSR) ~ 1.7.1950 — US troops arrived © soon joined by 15 UN commandersWhy did North Korea attach South Korea — 1950? shot war", only conflict of Cold War (confrontation) Background Japan annexed Korea — 1910 © still occupied parts of Korea o Korean nationalists of 1945 (including many communists) USSR & US took part in erradicatin JP inflence separation on 38th parallel line o N-USSR o S-USA agreement upon provision gov © short-term supervision, leading to full independence difficulties: © Asthe Cold War developed, the USA and the USSR became less willing to co- operate. © Despite the Moscow Agreement, separate administrations emerged on either side of the 38th parallel = S~the US military government put forward as leader the elderly Syngman Rhee, a rebel who had fought against the Japanese and spent much of his life in exile + N~ Soviets supported the Communists and backed a faction headed by Kim Il Sung, a young Russian-trained Korean Communist who had been a guerrilla fighter against the Japanese. = Although were very different, they had much in common: # both were Korean nationalists, both wanted to end the division of Korea * cach saw himself as the leader of a united Korea. election have decided into the division © ROK ~ Republic of Korea ~ Syngman Rhee ~ 5.1948 0 DPRK ~ Democratic People’s Republic of Korea — Kim Tl Sung 9.1948 USA supported Syngman Rhee (economic and military aid) o withdraw troops mid-1949 USSR troops withdraw 1948 US considered EU as the most important in the Cold War, but decided to maintain a line of off-shore strong points, stretching from Japan to the Philippines, rather than involve themselves in expensive military commitments on the mainland © made clear in Dean Acheson’s ‘perimeter’ speech of 1.1950, in which both South Korea and Taiwan were publicly excluded from the American defensive perimeter in the Western Pacific Why did the get involved? ortodox and revisionist views~ Bruce Cumings ~ ‘that Soviet control over the DPRK was ‘flimsy’ and that Kim IL Sung could have acted independently of the Soviets since the DPRK was by no means solely reliant on Soviet arms” Role of Kim Il Sung - both Kim Il Sung and Syngman Rhee wanted to unify country © thus civil war was inevitable even without superpowers = therefore they needed superpower backing in order to unify it © Stalin intially had no interest in the attack on South, thus it’s clear that impetus for war came from Korea, not Moscow Role of Stalin in Korean War - although initially unwilling, he gave approval of 1950 - several possibilities why he changed his mind: © Stalin may have been more hopeful about the chances of world revolution "The fact that the Communists had won the Chinese Civil War, that the Soviets now had the atomic bomb, and that the West was facing economic difficulties, might have convinced Stalin that now was the time to push forward with spreading Soviet influence in Asia. © The United States’ role in Japan could have been an impetus to gain influence specifically in Korea. Stalin knew that the United States had changed its policy in Japan and was now turning Japan into a strong anti-Communist base = if he could gain control of South Korea, this could secure the Soviet position in northeast Asia. 0 Historian John Lewis Gaddis points out Stalin's opportunism as another possible factor — his tendency to advance himself in situations where he thought he could do so without provoking too strong a response. Acheson's perimeter speech could have provided Stalin with a ‘tempting opportunity’ - _ still remained cautious © warned Korea becaue he had other importan bussines that he will not 100% support © Kim Il Sung also hadto gain Mao’s approval Importance of Mao Zedong in Korean War ~ sceptical about the successes, yet approved due to Stalin’s enthusiasm © Mao planning invasionof Taiwan and needed USSR’s support © asked iff he needed Chinese troops on Chinese borders ~ afterwards Mao paid little attention - planning to win quickly, tank attacks from N © aggressive nature of this triggered USCourse of the war several dramatic changes in the first months, followed by a stalemate situation lasting until armistice of 1953 The initial push by the North Koreans took them deep into South Korea, leaving only a corner of the peninsula out of their control © South Korean and American troops were pushed back into a small area around Pusan (now called Busan) General MacArthur led the UN forces in an amphibious landing at Inchon, to bypass the Korean troops and cut them off o Within a month he had retaken Seoul and driven the North Koreans back to the 38th parallel. Encouraged by this success, the United States then redefined its war aims, and, rather than just concentrating on ‘containment’, now decided on a policy of ‘roll-back’ Liberating the North Koreans from Communist rule and reuniting Korea © UN forces crossed the 38th parallel into North Korean territory and began a rapid advance northwards, capturing Pyongyang, the capital of the North, in October. ‘The march towards the Yalu river, however, made China concerned about its own security © On27 November 1950, a force of 200 000 Chinese joined 150 000 North Koreans and sent the UN troops into a rapid retreat. © Pyongyang was recaptured in December, and by the end of 1950 the North Koreans and their allies had retaken all land up to the 38th parallel 0 There were heavy American casualties A stalemate then developed around the 38th parallel. ‘Truman now realized that the United States needed to go back to the original aim of containing Communism above the 38th parallel. MacArthur disagreed and was subsequently relieved of his command. Peace talks started in 1951 with a focus on the repat (POWs). ‘The war continued for another two years, during which time fighting continued, causing serious casualties (over 40 per cent of American casualties occurred in this period). The United States put pressure on China by threatening to use atomic weapons. A military armistice was finally signed at Panmunjom in July 1953. jon of prisoners of war Results of the Korean War Actions of USA fearing further Soviet agression, these ations were taken: © NSC-68's recommendation to triple the defence budget was implemented. © US land forces in Europe were greatly strengthened. o NATO was strengthened. Greece and Turkey were brought into NATO and military bases were set up in Turkey (which had a border with the USSR). © The need for West Germany to become armed and integrated into NATO was given top priority. any of thesse were already in consideration, but were exasterbated- in Asia, US to contain Communism: co The Treaty of San Francisco with Japan was signed in 1952 = enabling the United States to maintain military bases in Japan + US focused on building up Japan economically to make it a bulwark against Communism © Taiwan had to be defended = At the start of the Korean War, the US Seventh Fleet had already been sent to the Taiwan Strait to defend the island against possible ‘Communist invasion. Following the Korean War, the USA supported ‘Taiwan’s Jiang Jieshi with military and economic aid and continued to recognize Taiwan as the only official Chinese state until as late as 1971 © China isolated by the US = prevented from taking a seat in the UN Security Council © USA committed to support regimes in Asia that were resisting Communism. = involvement of Philippines and in Vietnam © SEATO (Southeast Asia Treaty Organization) was formed as an anti- ‘Communist containment bloc in the Asian area Impacts of Korean War on countries Korea ~ casualties, no hope for reunification ~ no longer a local issue ~ superpower issue o N.K. remained under communist rule - §.K—model capitalist with with American & Japanese investments - isolated yet reputation grew and became a major superpower - deteriorated aims from self recovery to war effort - unification with Taiwan was even more difficult ~ deterioration from USSR, relying more on themselves USSR - indirect cnflict with USA ~ fighting agauinst communism © even more emboriled than before 1953 Southeast Asia - monolithic thinking of USA involved whole SE.Asia into the conflict - harder for nationalist movements to restorefrom in the post-collonial era o However, it was only in Vietnam that the USA, the USSR, and China became directly involved in the fighting Effects of Korean War on Cold War - globalization of the superpower rivalry and confrontation © spreading conflicts ~ proxy warsgreater military commitments, exponentially increasing expenses (US ~ 10% of GNP, 1950's) EU —also increse, helping to economically develop © USSR ~ 2.8mil troops (1950) > 5.8mil troops (1955) Khrushchev — decreased the number of troops yet still invested into atomic armaments Warren I Cohen — ,Arming the North Koreans and agreeing to the invasion of South Korea proved to be Stalin's most disastrous Cold War gamble. It postponed a thaw in relations with the United States for twenty years. It intensified a confrontation that continued for forty years at enormous cost to the major antagonists. The war shifted the balance of forces within the United States, allowing them to divert the attention and energies of the American people from needed reform to the hunt of Communists at home and abroad ‘USA & Containment in Asia 1. Case Study - Korea - can be seen as the success of US containement, as communism was kept north of 38th © MacArthur went further north and attempted to roll-back communism = mutuliated success ~ huge casualities ~ impact on US foreign policy, with NSC-68 coming into force and thus the militarization and globalization of the Cold War, also needs to be considered when assessing if intervention in Korea can be considered a success ~ contained in Korea but great costs © casualties, economic losses, impact on future US policy 2. Case Study - Japan - more clearly a success - US occupied JP after defeat in 1945 - MacArthur — Supreme Comander of the Allied Powers © devising and executing policies © aim to create pacifist and weak JP this changed due to its strategic location in Asia (vital in containment) © initial task to demilitarize country, bring war criminals to trial, new constitution © including of the Bill of Rights - new constitution wasn’t as widely used as the SCAP and was more effective - favorable economic laws impacting the powerful elite in Japan © need for new anti-communist, capitalist ally to counterballance stron, communist influence ~ IP had to be able to protect and neutralize any aommunist influence in any surrounding countries banning of some trade unions = red purges ~ rethinking of JP’s defence © no longer seeking weak and pacifist JP ‘after the outbreak of Korean War (6.1950) JP was permitted to created self-defence force* ~ 75,000 troops = US military influence remained even after 1952 ~ Treaty of San Francisco = the American— Japanese Security Treaty (1951) © JPasaneffect military protectorate of the US = retention of military bases, allowing USA to use them whenever it would contribute to peace - Was it successful? © wanted to use JP as a tool again communism in the Asia © rapid ecnomy development © gov in strong consensus for economic dev = thus communism never a threat © historians argue thatit wasn’t onyl SCAP motivated (inner motive) © US wanted large military force for JP= IP resisted this o JP wanted economy, US force in self-interest 3. Case Study - Taiwan ~ seen as a success - US policy towatds Taiwan changed with breakout of Korean War © formally no interest, bet during Korean War Truman offered US Fleet to protect nationalists from the Communist Chinese the only US recognized China - US provided essential economic and military aid - 1953 —Bisenhower withdrew the Seventh Fleet to ‘unleash’ Taiwan's Nationalist leader, Jiang Jieshi, and allow him to attack China. Nationalists raided © Tater excuse by the Chinese to bombard the islands of Quemoy and Matsu and invade the Tachen Islands © another asian pressure on the USSR (there is a lot of bullshit no one’s gonna remember) © when China attacked, the 7th Fleet came back to help (1958) - Was it a success? © despite the dangers of crises pver islands, brinkmanship worked = Taiwan remained independant and was supported by US 4. Case Study — USA & Containment in Vietnam - failure, where N. Vietnamese communists weren’t contained longitudinal, causualties, expenses, demaging public appeal - USA pulled out of Vietnam in 1973 - US fear of Asian countries falling like dominoes under communism o Cambodia & Laos — 1975 - first French Colony, taken over by JP © nationalist movement led by Ho Chi Minh (Vietminh) that was veryactive agains JP = after WW IL. and defeat of JP, Ho declared independence of Democratic Republic of Viemam © hostility VIET x FR = Roosevelt told FR to chill ~ opinion on Vietnam on Ho hardened once Trumanbecame the president © due to developing situation in EU after 1949 o Ho's communist, rather tan nationaist, credentials were emphasised and again the though of neotilic (driven by Moscow) - 3.1950 military aid sent to FR to defeat FR - domino culture has started beinfg entrenched © Vietnam as the key element to Laos and Cambodia, Thailand, Myanmar, ... - although US funded 80% of the war, it didn’t personaly intervene o FR defeated — 1954 ~ peacement agreement - Geneva Accords © The French would withdraw from Indochina © There would be a temporary division of Vietnam at the 17th parallel * Ho Chi Minh would control the north of the country © There would be ‘free elections’ to unite Vietnam in 1956 ©. There were to be no foreign bases© Laos and Cambodia would be recognized as independent and neutral states © USA didn’t sign as an attempt to strengthen their position in Indochina o SEATO = countries signed were to meet together if attacked © Ngo Diem backed the US to lead the gov = claimed to establish Republic of Vietnam with him as peresident + million aids * US military involvment © training of the army © Diem pressured to put in reforms, however him and his borther (chief of police) crushed opposition no agrarian reforms and the propagation of catholicism = shapin of brutal family disctatorship © 1956 — Diem refused to hold elections (with US support) = held bound to Geneca Accord and didn’t trust communists + fear of united Vietnam © S against Diem’s - military opposition - National Liberation Front (NLF) ~ South Vietcong + USA © formation of military units © support from the N, due to polulation fed up with Diem - USA became concerned of Diem as an ally and doubet his maintanance of ,Two ‘Vietnams policy* ° How did Kennedy widen this problem? - 11.1960 — Kennedy’s election, and flexible response to USSR’s expansionism © this expaned the aavaliable mean for fighting against communism, including = Increasing the number of US military advisers in the South (there were 17 000 advisers in Vietnam by the time of Kennedy's death). = Starting counter-insurgency operations against Communist guerrillas in the South. This included ‘search-and-destroy’ missions against the Vietcong and the spraying of defoliants, such as Agent Orange, in order to destroy the jungle that gave them cover. The United States also supported the Strategic Hamlets Program, which consisted of the resettlement of villagers into fortified villages where they could be kept ‘safe’ from the Communists. = Introducing a new US military counter-insurgency force, the ‘Green Berets’, trained in guerrilla fighting = Encouraging Diem to introduce social and political reforms = Vietcong still expanding and popular - Strategic Hamlets Programme, Agent Orange © only alleviation of local peasants - Diem’s unpopular actions continued to generate mass discontent © pinnacle in 1963 with a crisis over his anti-Buddhist policies = rallies, hunger strikes, self-immolations«international reaction © due to this Kennedy started cutting of financial aid = by 1963 both killed in a coup - their death only cause more discontent duc to increlased involvement of US gov because of subsequent Saigon gov © General William C Westmoreland believed that Diem’s assassination ‘morally locked us into Vietnam’ - after Kennedy’s assasination and with Lyndon Johnes, Vietcong was already under communism © gov in $ no longer stable © Johnson also continued the war to prevent domino effect - Johnson needed to increase the commitment to war however needed aén approval from congress ~ Gulf of Tonkin incident © excuse to attack © Onthe night of 2 August 1964, the American naval destroyer Maddox was fired on by North Vietnamese patrol boats while it was patrolling and gathering intelligence in the Gulf of Tonkin, o- the North Vietnamese coast. ‘Two days later, on 4 August 1964, the US destroyers Maddox and Turner Joy were allegedly fired on. Ship radar apparently showed that they were under attack, but there was much confusion, and no physical evidence of an assault ‘was found. Nevertheless, Johnson called this attack ‘open aggression on the high seas’, and as a result the United States immediately bombed North Vietnamese installations © Gulf of Tonkin incident = On the night of 2 August 1964, the American naval destroyer Maddox was fired on by North Vietnamese patrol boats while it was patrolling and gathering intelligence in the Gulf of Tonkin, o- the North Vietnamese coast. Two days later, on 4 August 1964, the US destroyers Maddox and Turner Joy were allegedly fired on. Ship radar apparently showed that they were under attack, but there was much confusion, and no physical evidence of an assault was found. Nevertheless, Johnson called this attack ‘open aggression on the high seas’, and as a result the United States immediately bombed North Vietnamese installations. 0 Reaction: = Launching a sustained campaign of bombing North Vietnam, which ‘was known as Operation Rolling Thunder. = Sending 100 000 ground forces to South Vietnam in 1965. Led by General Westmoreland, US soldiers carried out ‘search-and-destroy’ missions. By 1968, there were 520 000 troops in Vietnam © devastating impact on population and country # use ofrockets, napalm, ... ‘The Tet Offensive ~ 1968 ~reaching a tuning point US's anti-war movement was gaining© support (casualties, expenses, ...) - 1967 that there was ‘light at the end of the tunnel’ © that is, the United States was starting to win the war © 30 January 1968 — 70 000 Communists surprise attack ‘assault that was most shocking = 100 cities in the $ * including Saigon. = It took 11 days for the US and ARVN forces to regain control of Saigon ~ communist psed back after massive fireback © Tet Offensive was a failure for communists, © 40,000 casualties ~ progressively US agains war 0 seemingly US supported the regieme flouting the basic civil rights and US was not winning - results of the Tet Offensivve changed their strategy © bombing stopped and peace initiated - 31.3.1968 — Johnson adressed US that he would not be standing in elction in 10. Did President Nixon achieve ‘peace with honour? ~ 10.1968 — Nixon elected ~ wanted US to withdraw, but didn’t want to accept peace ~ wanted to reach a settlement which in the next year would also coast half a million of casulties ~ _ Kissing er as Nixon key foreign policy adviser © dedicated to use force to reach peace = _ covert" campaign of 14-month of bombing aling Ho Chi Minh Trail (inside neutral Cambodia) © without forcing N to peace agreement - Nixon intorduced Vietnamization ©. gradual withdrawal of US troops and the handing over of the war to the South Vietnamese government = 1969 — 1973 US troops decreased - 6.1969 — Nixon Doctrine © move away from the policies followed in Asia since Truman = nations were responsible for their own defence Paris Peace Talks - 125.1972 — 1.1973 ~ Kissinger’s negotioation with N Vietnam © Vietnam also wanted peace with honor ~ Vietnam demanded representation in the gov of S © each tried to get an advantage by achieving the upperhand in battle = US—bombing - Nixon & Kissinger — détante with USSR and China© one of the ways to achieve better relationship with USSR and China was to put pressure on N Vietnam to agree with the peace settlement = 27.1.1973 - peace sttlement © USA troops withdrawn = with respect to dividing line oN still took the initiative and in 1975 took on Saigon ~ by 1975 Vietnam, Cambodia, Laos were under communism © containment failed ‘Was Vietnam a failure for the American policy of containment? = dominos became a reality - in isolation, the Vietnam War is America’s biggest and most overt failure ~ when stopping the spread of communism they only induced it ~ some historians argue that it wasn’t a failure © ‘the broader aims of America’s e- ort in Vietnam were to keep the Capitalist semi-democracies of Southeast Asia from falling to Communism’ and that Vietnam allowed other countries in the region, such as Malaysia, Thailand, and Singapore — all of whom faced Communist threats — the breathing space they needed. ‘In other words ... America ... accomplished in a spectacular way the broader aims of Asian stability and prosperity that the intervention was intended to serve’ Conclusion - by 1949 it was said that containment in EU was successful - Soviet obvious gains were stopped after 1948 — Air Lift - Marshall Plan also contriputed to containment in EU and helped multiple economies © eradicating possible communist threats in gov = however in asia it was less successful © communism usally linked to nationalists andwas more diverse - Mao and Ho Chi Minh had great local support and struggle for independence - although USA wanted to fight against the Soviet imperialism, it only fought the nationalist’s movements © could explain why USA was never succesful in containing these countriesPeaceful co-existence imeline of US-USSR reationships 1953 Eisenhower inaugurated as US president March - Death of Stalin, who is succeeded by Malenkov and Khrushchev July - Korean armistice 1954 Jan - US Secretary of State Dulles announces massive retaliation policy 1955 July - Geneva Summit May - Austrian State Treaty ends four-power occupation of Austria 1956 Feb - Khrushchev denounces Stalin and promotes ‘peaceful coexistence” policy June - Polish workers revolt Oct Suez Crisis Oct - Soviets crush Hungarian rising 1957 Oct - USSR announces Sputnik satellite success 1958 Nov - Khrushchev issues ultimatum to West over Berlin, 1959 Sept - Khrushchev visits USA and meets Eisenhower at Camp David 1960 May - U-2 spy plane shot down and Paris Summit collapses Kennedy elected US president 1961 June - Khrushchev and Kennedy meet at Vienna Summit Yuri Gagarin is the first man to ‘make an earth-orbiting space flight 1962 Oct - Cuban Missile Crisis Eisenhower, Dulles — Roll-Back, Brinkmanship and the New Look - 1952-elected - both strongly anti-communism - both were keen on policy of roll-back ©. liberating the E.EUno actual attempts to to liberate E.EU by US * although they encouraged rebellion in 1953,1956 ‘© however it wasn’t used to expand their sphere of influence - ‘The New Look? — new policy of containment © this meant preventing extension of communism in the areas where it wasn’t established using these actions: Setting up alliances to encircle the Soviet Union ~ for example, SEATO. Using military power to protect vulnerable areas — for example, West, Berlin. Assisting forces that were fighting Communism ~ for example, Diem’s government in South Vietnam. Using the CIA (Central Intelligence Agency) for covert operations more extensively than had been done before (see the box below). Initiating an increased reliance on nuclear weapons. A national security document in 1953 stated: ‘The US will consider nuclear weapons to be available for use as other munitions.’ Conventional weapons would thus play a smaller role in defence. Brinkmanship. This involved threats of massive retaliation as an instrument of containment. It entailed going to the brink and threatening nuclear war to intimidate the aggressor into backing down = US & USSR due to nuclear threat wanted to negotiate — 1955 and 1959 Khrushchev and co-existence ~ negotiation of 50°s occued due to Eisenhower's willingness and new emerging Soviet leader - Malenkov forumlated the New Look © where after the struggle for leadership renamed it peaceful co-existence © move away from Stalin’s doctrine where the war was inevitable © US believed that without expansion communism would collapse © USSR also belived that capitalism would collapde due to its weakness ‘What encouraged the change of international relagtions? - keen on avoiding mutual inihillation - economy © USSR- 1/3 of GDP into military, in spite of low living standards US — 12% of GNP, higher standards of living © with better relations less expense on military - by 1954 Korean War was over, which was a key conflict Reality in 1950’s - Austrian State Treaty — end of 4 power occupation of Austria = later summits — Geneva Summit - Soviet Proposals © Mutual disbandment of NATO and the Warsaw Pact.© Withdrawal of all foreign troops from Europe followed by the drawing up of a European Security Treaty. ©. Free elections to be carried out for a reunified German government. - US Reaction © Hostile. These ideas were unacceptable to the West European governments, and no agreement was reached on any of these proposals. - US Proposals © An ‘Open Skies’ proposal = This meant each side would exchange plans of military installations and allow aerial surveillance of each other’s installations. - Soviet Reaction © Hostile. The Soviets did not even bother to make a formal reply. They dismissed it as ‘nothing more than a bold espionage plot’ and Khrushchev said it would be ‘like seeing into our bedrooms’. However, the United States went ahead and used the U-2 reconnaissance plane (see pages 98-99). - although no agreement was reached it was first peace confrontation © summit also led to better relations in terms of trade exhibitions, exchanging of certain scientific information, and cultural exchanges ‘Why did the tension increase once again? - 2.1956 ~Khrushchev’s secret speech about the policy of de-stalinization © leading to challenging evvent in Eastern Bloc = Hungarian Uprising US also dealing with issues in the Middle-East © Suez Crisis both of these dissipate the trials at Geneva © Suez Crisis raised the concerns of growing influences in Middle-East - Eisenhower doctrine o 1.1957 © USA to helpany country in Middle East to fight agains communism ‘Technology race - 4.10.1957 — launch of first of Soviet satellite Sputnik © US thought about USSR’s technological superiority - Khrushchev used any opportunity to threaten USA Missile Gap - US Congress and media promoted the idea of missile gap ‘© scenario confirmed by Gaither Report ‘findings of top secret investigation © avast increase in offensive defence power, especially missile development ‘© abuild-up of conventional forces capable of fighting a limited war * amassive building programme of fallout shelters to protect US citizens from nuclear attack- although US spy plans have shown that there was no missile gap © to sooth the US fear Eisenhower had established NASA (1958) © promotion of science and education How did events of 1958-1960 affect East-West relations? - US was certain about nuclear superiority therefore they contemplated banning of testing (10.1958), followed by USSR ~ there were opes of passing test-ban treaty © however K in exchange wanted to W to leave Berlin = K had to back down and next summits were called in USA and Paris, (1959,1960) U-2 Incident ~ during Paris summit USSR announced that US spy plane was shot down (1.5.1960) © pilot admitted to espionage - Eisenhower refused to apologize because it was necessary ~ thereby K declined E comming to USSR for negotiations about Berlin nor test-ban Peaceful co-existence and containemnt: Berlin 1958-1961 1945 Feb - Yalta Conference July - Potsdam Conference 1948 Feb - Marshall Aid agreed to be Congress June - Berlin Blockade 1949 April - NATO established Sept - Federal Republic of Germany established (FGR ~ West Germany) Oct - German Democratic Republic established (DDR — East Germany) USSR proposes neutralized Germany 1953 June - East German uprising 1954 Oct West Germany admitted to NATO and permitted to rearm 1955 May - Warsaw Pact established July Germany discussed at Geneva summit ~ no agreement 1958 Khrushchev demands German peace treaty and demilitarized West Berlin1961 June - Khrushchev threatens to sign a separate peace treaty with East Germany August - Berlin Wall built Differences between Germanys Economic = W larger in every aspect © Marshall Aid © economic miracle ~ rapid increase of living standard - E~collectivization having a disastrous impact © many fled to W Politics - W-democracy - _E-~no free elctions ince 1946 and rigidly Satlinist by 1950°s © riots by workers, yet quickly put down by tanks ‘first major rebellion in Soviet sphere of influence - due to these differences there were no further efforts to reunite - increasingly unstable situation Berlin Crisis - after Berlin Blockade Berlin remained devided and their economic and other differences were quite tangible ~ Was an example what capitalism can achieve © Wencouraged E to escape - encourgaed by W for skilled young E Germans © 1945-1961 ~ 1/6 escaped (German population) - espionage on E Germany - 1958 —K proposed peace treaty that'd recognize existence of 2 Germanys - 27.11.1958 — proposed de-militariaztion of Germany © turning it into a free city - if it wasn’t done within 6 month K threatened W with similar tactics to Berlin Blockade © then W would have to negotiate with E, having them to recognize as a separate state * W didn’t want to lose the propaganda and military bases but if not agreed — possibility of facing war - the reason why K initiated and the influences on his policy were: © Soviet fear of West Germany acquiring nuclear weapons © concer over the failing East German economy © pressure from Walter Ulbricht, leader of the GDR - suecessful in getting W to disscus this © 2.1959 — foreign minister conference in Geneva * both proposed terms of German unity ~ mutiple summits to reach an agreement —no result