Physics

Paper No. : Nuclear and Particle Physics

Module : Basic nuclear properties-4

Development Team
Prof. Vinay Gupta, Department of Physics and Astrophysics,
Principal Investigator University of Delhi, Delhi

Dr. Sanjay Kumar Chamoli, Department of Physics and

Paper Coordinator Astrophysics, University of Delhi, New Delhi-110007

Content Writer Dr. Sanjay Kumar Chamoli, Department of Physics and

Astrophysics, University of Delhi, New Delhi-110007

Prof. S. K. Pancholi, Department of Physics and Astrophysics,

Content Reviewer University of Delhi, Delhi

Nuclear and Particle Physics

Physics Basic nuclear properties-4
Description of Module
Subject Name Physics

Paper Name Nuclear and Particle Physics

Module Name/Title Basic nuclear properties-4

Module Id M5

Nuclear and Particle Physics

Physics Basic nuclear properties-4
Contents of this Unit
1. Measuring Nuclear Properties; Size of nucleus

1.1 Charge distribution

1.1.1 Mirror nuclei method
1.1.2 Mesonic X-ray method
2. Measuring Nuclear Properties; Mass of nucleus

2.1 Via Q-value determination

2.2 Via decay counting method
2.3 Via direct measurements methods
2.3.1 Accelerator mass spectrometry (AMS)

2.3.1.1 Principle of working

2.3.1.2 Essential components

2.3.1.3 Advantages of Accelerator Mass Spectrometer

2.3.1.4 Limitations of AMS technique

3. Summary

Learning Outcomes

From this module students may get to know about the following:
 The knowledge of basic nuclear properties.
 The importance of nuclear properties.
 The experimental ways of determining nuclear properties.

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1.3 Mirror nuclei method:

“Mirror nuclei” are pairs of nuclei in which the proton number in one equals the neutron number in the other and
vice versa. Some examples of mirror nuclei are listed in table 1. The nuclei in these pairs differ from each other
only in that a proton in one is exchanged for the neutron in the other. If we accept the principle of charge
symmetry according to which the nuclear force between a pair of protons is the same as the force between a pair
of neutrons in the same state, than there should be no difference in the nuclear binding forces of a pair of mirror
nuclei but experimentally it was observed that the total binding energy of the two nuclei will not be the same,
however, because of the difference in the coulomb self-energy.

Table 1

Mirror Nuclei
3 3
1H 2He
7 7
3Li 4Be
13 13
6C 7N
39 39
19K 20Ca
9 9
4Be 5B
11 11
4B 6C

For a pair of mirror nuclei of radius R, charges Ze and (Z+1)e, the coulomb energy difference is given by

3 e2 3 e2
Ec  [(Z  1) 2  Z 2 ]  (2Z  1).
5R 5R

As mirror nuclei have 2Z + 1 = A, so

3 e2
E c  . A 2/3
5 R0
From the above equation we can say that
Ec  .A 2 / 3

From this relation, it is clear that when a graph is plotted between Ec and A2 / 3 it gives a straight line and the
slope of straight line between  Ec and A2/3 gives the value of Ro.

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1.4 Mesonic X-ray method:

The Mesonic X-ray method is an experimental method to find the radii of nuclei. In this method, Meson (), a
Dirac particle of spin ½ ħ, mass (m~ 207 me) is a probing particle. The large mass of meson allows it to
penetrate the nucleus long before it decays or captured by the nucleus.
The decay of positive pions is given by
     
   e  v  v.

And the decay of negative muons (-) is given by

      v.

The decay of positive pions (+) gives a mixed beam of and positive pions (+) and muons (. For the
estimation of nuclear radius, negative pions (-) are important. They lose energy in matter & then finally
captured by atoms called mesonic atoms. The Bohr-like orbits of the ‘mesonic atoms’ are much closer to the
nucleus than the electronic orbits due to greater mass of the mesons and therefore give a more precise estimation
of nuclear radius.

The radius and the energy of the stationary orbits of mesonic atoms is given by
n2h2 mZ 2 e 4
r , E
mZe 2 2n 2 h 2
A X-ray spectrum of Ti is shown in figure 1. In this spectrum the observed energy was found to be 0.955 MeV
and the radius constant R0 came out to be ~ 1.17 F. A list of elements with their observed energy and radius
constant (R0) are given in table 2.

Fig 1: A X-ray spectrum of Ti nuclei. Observed peak was found at energy 0.955 MeV.

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 Table 2

Element (Z) Calculated energy Observed energy R0

(MeV) (MeV) (in Fermi)
Ti 22 1.045 0.955 1.17

Cu 29 1.826 1.55 1.21

Sb 51 5.83 3.5 1.22

Pb 82 16.41 6.02 1.17

2. Measuring nuclear masss:

The mass of nuclei is an important nuclear property that needs to be measured as precisely as possible. Just to
show as how important are nuclear mass measurements, we can consider the example of nuclei produced by the
cosmic radiations in the upper atmosphere. When cosmic radiation interacts with the atmosphere and the surface
layers of Earth, minute quantities of radioactive nuclei (such as carbon, aluminium and chlorine) are produced.
These isotopes decay sufficiently slowly to be useful in dating human artefacts or natural features in the
environment. So to know which nuclei and of what mass have been produced in these nuclei is important to
know the quality of soil.
Methods of measurements : The nuclear masses can be measured by variety of ways. However the principle
methods used to measure mass of nuclei are the followings :

2.1 Via Q- value determination in nuclear reaction or decay : In this method, first the mass difference of
nuclei are found by measuring the Q-value (total energy released) of the reaction or decay happening. For
example in the 2-body reaction a(b,c)d, the mass excess () are related by

Q = a + b - c -d

Then, if three of the four masses (ma, mb, mc, md) are well known, the Q-value from the reaction is used to
measure the mass of the remaining reaction partner.
In addition to the measurements in nuclear reactions, the mass of nuclei can also be found by measuring the Q-
value of a nuclear decay. In principle the masses for all bound nuclei off the stability line can be determined
from the measurement of the Q- value associated with the -decay. This approach has, consequently, been
employed across a wide range of nuclei in association with most production methods.
In the case of nuclei on the neutron-rich side of stability, decay is accompanied by the emission of an electron,
i.e.
A  D + - +  + Q-value

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and the mass difference is simply,
Q- = a - d

For proton rich nuclei decay may occur with the emission of a positron,

Q+ = a - d – 2 mec2

Or via electron capture, QEC = a - d

Usually the mass of the daughter (d) is known and the mass of the parent (a) may be deduced. Decay may occur
to either the ground or excited states of the daughter and in the latter case, the mass differences must be adjusted
by the excitation energy of the state fed by the measured transition. Far from stability, however, decay schemes
are often poorly known and it is necessary to measure the -particles in coincidence with gamma rays in order to
establish the decay scheme. Then, the Q- value for the decay is derived from the feedings to a number of excited
states as well as to the ground state.
2.2 Via Decay counting method : The method is the earliest (and also the conventional) method of measuring
mass and the abundance of radioactive nuclei by observing the decay produced by them. Decay counting
methods are used for fast-decaying radioactive isotopes. By measuring the number of alpha or beta decays in a
given period of time and comparing with known decay rates, the abundance of a radioactive isotope may be
calculated. This method is extensively used to determine the activity or concentration of radioactive isotopes.
Methods include gas proportional counting and liquid scintillation counting. The basic principle of measuring
mass (or nuclear abundances) is shown in the figure given below.

Fig 2: Principle of measuring mass via decay counting method.

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Nowadays, the decay counting method is not a very popular method of finding nuclear abundances as it is time consuming
and requires strong radioactive sources to get the desired accuracy. The more sophisticated, accurate and less time
consuming methods like accelerator mass spectrometry are commonly used.

2.3 Via Direct measurement methods (e.g. Accelerator mass spectrometry (AMS)) :
All direct mass measurement techniques work on the same basic principle, namely that the magnetic rigidity
(Bp) is related to the time-of- flight (TOF) through the system in question, or the cyclotron frequency. The most
popular direct technique of mass measurement is Accelerator mass spectrometry (AMS).

2.3.1 Accelerator Mass Spectrometry (AMS) is a technique for measuring the concentrations of rare isotopes
that cannot be detected with traditional mass spectrometers. The technique essentially uses mass spectrometers
to separate isotopes and measure the abundance of concentrated isotopes when used as tracers in fields such as
chemistry, biology, and medicine. They are efficient at measuring the ratio of a rare isotope to a common
isotope much more accurately than by using absolute ratios. The main strength of AMS among the mass
spectrometric methods is its ability to separate a rare isotope from an abundant neighboring mass (e.g. 14C from
12
C). The method suppresses molecular isobars completely and in many cases can separate atomic isobars (e.g.
14
N from 14C) also. This makes possible the detection of naturally occurring, long-lived radio-isotopes such as
10
Be, 36Cl, 26Al and 14C. AMS can outperform the competing technique of decay counting for all isotopes where
the half-life is long enough. Traditional mass spectrometers, such as thermal ionization mass spectrometers and
gas source mass spectrometers, vary mainly in type of ion source employed. Accelerator mass spectrometers add
an additional step: injection of negatively charged C ions from the material.

2.3.1.1 Principle of working : The AMS work on the principle of counting of individual nuclei. The sample is
put into a negative ion source. The negative ions are injected into the positive terminal of an accelerator where
all molecular ions are broken up and positive ions are formed. The positive ions are again accelerated and
mass/energy analyzed to separate the abundant and rare isotopes.
In general the working of AMS involves the following steps :

(a) Negatively charged ions from the material to be analysed are injected into a nuclear particle accelerator.
(b) The negative ions are then accelerated towards the positive potential. At the terminal they pass through
either a very thin carbon film or a tube filled with gas at low pressure (the stripper), depending on the
particular accelerator. Collisions with carbon or gas atoms in the stripper remove several electrons from
the carbon ions, changing their polarity from negative to positive.
(c) The positive ions are accelerated through the second stage of the accelerator, reaching kinetic energies
of the order of 10 to 30 million electron volts. This has the effect of eliminating the 14N ions that are
extremely common in the Earth’s atmosphere.
(d) The ions are then subjected to perpendicular (to their direction of motion) magnetic field inside a
magnetic spectrometer. The ions are then dispersed as per their mass –to-charge ratio (m/q).
(e) The separated ions are then collected/detected in a suitable particle detector. The detector may be a
solid-state detector or a device based on the gridded ionisation chamber. The latter type of detector can
measure both the total energy of the incoming ion, and also the rate at which it slows down as it passes

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 through the gas-filled detector. These two pieces of information are sufficient to completely identify the
ions.

Fig 3: Principle of measuring mass via decay counting method.

2.3.1.2 Essential components : A typical AMS system essentially includes the following:

Fig 4: Schematic diagram showing essential components of a mass spectrometer.

Ion source : The sample material containing the rare isotopes to be counted is placed in the ion source. The
neutral atoms are converted into the negatively charged ions. This is required because all mass spectrometers
use E.M. fields to manipulate atoms and the atoms must be charged (and hence be ions) to be manipulated. The
AMS systems based on tandem electrostatic accelerators employ ion sources which utilize a beam of Cs+ ions to
sputter material from the sample. The ion source also provides some degree of focusing, collimation &
acceleration to ions. Most mass spectrometers use positive ions, since they are in general more easily created,
but sometimes using negative ions is required.
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Mass Analyzer : is a filter that separates ions by mass (or more specifically by momentum or energy) in space
or in time by using a combination of electric and magnetic fields (RF fields). It also provide some degree of
focusing to compensate for any optical spread of the ion beam leaving the source. Usually the choice of mass
separator & ion source is guided by the following parameters : (a) sample character, i.e. is the sample a gas,
liquid, solid& in what state of purity? (b) The abundance of isotope in the material, i.e. how abundant is the
material? Is it common or trace? (c) isotopic abundance, i.e. are the isotopes of interest all of similar abundance,
or are they drastically different? (d) range of variation, i.e. do the isotope ratios vary a lot or a little? ( e) Are
there any interferences, i.e. are there isotopes of another element or compounds/isotopes of similar m/e (mass to
charge ratio) that must be eliminated or separated? (f) our requirement, i.e. whether absolute or relative ratios are
needed.
Detector: The iidentification and counting of the individual rare isotopes is done with nuclear detection
techniques to measure ions leaving mass analyzer. The detection method mostly depends on the ion beam
intensity which range from a few ions per second to a fraction of a nano-ampere (109-1010 ions per second).
Computer controlled data acquisition system : In order to allow for an unattended operation of the
identification process and to provide control of the AMS system parameters, a computer controlled data
acquisition system is needed and the live images of the ions collected is obtained.

2.3.1.3 Advantages of Accelerator Mass Spectrometer : The main advantage of AMS is that a much smaller
sample size needed to make a measurement and this essentially gives an edge to the technique over other
conventional techniques. For example, via radiometric counting, the 14C atoms can only be detected at the rate at
which they decay. This requires sufficient atoms to be present to provide a large enough decay rate. AMS, on the
other hand, does not rely on radioactive decay to detect the 14C. The AMS technique literally extracts and counts
the 14C atoms in the sample, and at the same time determines the amount of the stable isotopes 13C and 12C. As a
consequence, a measurement that may take several days and require grams of sample using decay counting may
take only 30 minutes and consume a milligram using AMS.

The other advantages of AMS lie in the possibilities it offers for doing completely new kinds of measurements
and using new kinds of sample materials. For example:

 Measuring the 14C content of seawater is much simpler when the sample size needed is about 100 cm 3
than when hundreds of litres of water are required.
 Monitoring the 14C in rare atmospheric gases such as methane and carbon monoxide is virtually
impossible using decay counting but quite feasible with AMS.
 AMS allows more accurate dating of sediment core sequences if pollen grains or single seeds can be
extracted and dated, something which is not possible with decay counting.
 Radiocarbon dating by AMS is now used by a number of museums and dealers in antiquities to
authenticate the age of objects, such as wood carvings and textiles. The small samples required for AMS
mean that it is possible to remove a sample for dating without significantly damaging the object.

A novel application of AMS is the measurement of 14C tracer used at near-natural levels in biomedical and
pharmaceutical research. While 14C has long been used as a tracer for chemical processes and pathways, the
amount of tracer required using decay counting can be hazardous to the researchers, pose contamination

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problems or, in some cases, itself influence the process being studied. AMS allows very low levels of tracer to
be used, completely avoiding these problems.

2.3.1.4 Limitations of AMS technique : The serious limitation of AMS is that it tends to be more expensive
than decay counting. Technique essentially uses an accelerator and purchasing and maintaining a particle
accelerator and its associated components is expensive.
3. Summary:
The knowledge of basic nuclear properties of nuclei and the ways of measuring them accurately is very
important. The charge and mass are fundamental to any nucleus and therefore their accurate determination is
essential. The nuclear charge can be measured in a variety of ways with each method have its own advantages
and disadvantages. The method of measuring the charge distribution in nuclei with electron scattering method is
very useful and give direct access to the nuclear environment. It gives a fairly accurate value of the charge
distribution and is therefore considered as the best method so far. To measure the mass of nuclei, though a
number of methods are available but owing to its accuracy, less time consuming nature and other unique
advantages, the accelerator mass spectrometer technique is more useful.

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