Investigating Inclusive Education

INVESTIGATING INCLUSIVE EDUCATION
IN PRIMARY SCHOOLS
Investigating inclusive education

in primary schools in Ghana: what
inclusive cultures, environment, and
practices support implementation?
ISAAC OPOKU-N KOOM and
FRANCIS R. ACKAH-J NR
Schools create an inclusive environment and cultures and enact

inclusive practices to cater for the learning and social needs of
learners. Using an adapted Ghana Inclusive Education Monitoring Tool
(IEMT), which is based on the Index for Inclusion, we collected data
from 74 headteachers of primary schools. Data analysis involved
percentages and frequencies of multiple-scaled items of the adapted
IEMT. Findings revealed headteachers admit learners with special
needs and disabilities (LwSEND) to set the stage for inclusion, while
teachers accept these learners in schools. Collaborative cultures
among teachers, parents, and other community stakeholders support
inclusive education. While classrooms had somewhat good ventilation
and lighting, school facilities were less accessible to all learners.
Knowledge to adapt the curriculum and the flow of inclusive knowledge
among teachers was limited. Suggestions to improve inclusive
education include school-wide professional development for sharing
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© 2023 The Authors. Support for Learning published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd on behalf of
National Association for Special Educational Needs.
DOI: 10.1111/1467-9604.12435
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inclusive knowledge, enhancing teachers’ pedagogical competence
and promoting supportive inclusive cultures.
Key words: inclusive practice, inclusive culture, school environment,

inclusive education, index for inclusion.
Introduction
Exploring inclusive practices of schools can provide insights into the affordances
and challenges of inclusive education. It can also lead to identification of benefits
schools are deriving from inclusive education. Results of the 2010 Census show
that approximately 100,000 Ghanaian children aged 6–14 of school entering age
had various forms of disabling conditions, and more than 16,000 of these children
were out of school (Ghana Statistical Service, 2012). This figure while signif-
icant is conservative because information on children with special educational
needs and disabilities (CwSEND) is often undisclosed due to traditional, cultural,
and social factors. Because such children are sometimes teased, stigmatised, and
victimised, they experience participation restrictions to education and social op-
portunities. In schools, these LwSEND face a high risk of exclusion. Worldwide,
millions of them are denied inclusive education, and during the COVID-19 pan-
demic, about 40% of low-and lower–middle-income countries were unable to
support these disadvantaged learners (UNESCO, 2020), exacerbating their exclu-
sion in schools.
Inclusive education, as a renewing process, expresses the view that all chil-
dren, regardless of special educational needs and disabilities (SEND), can
learn if education systems, schools, and teachers responsively support them.
Enmeshed in a transformative agenda that broadly focuses on limiting educa-
tional inequity and injustice or unfairness, inclusive education continues to
receive exceptional attention internationally and in Ghana. Stubbs (2008, p.
18) notes “inclusive education is a statement of everyone’s fundamental right
to access education and not be excluded.” This refocus of global education ide-
ology and practice benefits learners, parents, teachers, headteachers, and com-
munity members (Ackah-Jnr, 2016; Mcleskey et al., 2018). Empirically, the
benefits of quality inclusive practice to all learners, especially those LwSEND
include increased friendship, opportunities for peer support, and improved ac-
ceptance (Ackah-Jnr, 2016).
18 Support for Learning • Volume 38 • Number 1 • 2023 © 2023 NASEN.

Ghana’s policy directive enjoins schools to recognise and respond to the di-
verse needs of students, accommodate different styles and rates of learning,
and ensure quality education through appropriate curricula, organisational ar-
rangements, teaching strategies, and resource use in partnerships with school
communities (Ministry of Education, 2016). Inclusive education aims to
change systems, create mechanisms, equip schools, and in the process change
perceptions about all learners. It hinges on the principle that when children
learn and play together, share resources, and live happily together, it promotes
an inclusive society (Sapon-Shevin, 2007). Ghana’s SDGs 4, 10, and 16 as-
pire to build an inclusive society by 2030, ideas similarly reinforced in the
Salamanca Statement and Framework for Action: regular schools with inclu-
sive orientation are the most effective means of combating discrimination,
creating welcoming communities, building an inclusive society, and achiev-
ing education for all (UNESCO, 1994). In effect, the Salamanca Statement,
and subsequent declarations such as the Moscow Framework for Action and
Cooperation (UNESCO, 2010), call on governments and the international
community, including Ghana, not only to endorse the approach to inclusive
schools but also to resource and implement practical changes to promote and
sustain the education and socialisation of all learners and further enhance their
functioning, engagement, and contribution to society (Ackah-Jnr and Danso,
2019). While inclusive education is part of everyday classroom life, contex-
tual exigencies impact its implementation. It is important we identify inclusive
cultures (Booth and Ainscow, 2016), physical environment (Ackah-Jnr and
Danso, 2019; Gyimah, 2021; Maciver et al., 2018), and inclusive practices
(Agbenyega and Klibthong, 2022; McLeskey et al., 2018; Sharma et al., 2021)
of schools that support inclusive education.
Index for inclusion

As an essential self-evaluation tool (Booth and Ainscow, 2016), the Index for
Inclusion focuses on three interrelated dimensions of school improvement: creat-
ing inclusive cultures, producing inclusive policies, and evolving inclusive prac-
tices. It has a set of indicators for each dimension and is operationalised on three
variables, namely, presence, learning, and participation. Because of its flexibility,
the Index can be adapted and used in different contexts to meet local needs and
for schools to effect change and action to limit the barriers and challenges to
inclusive education. The first dimension, creating cultures, is considered elemen-
tal to inclusive education. In inclusive schools, culture reflects relationships and
© 2023 NASEN. Support for Learning • Volume 38 • Number 1 • 202319

deeply held values and beliefs among staff. Producing inclusive policies, which
also focus on the school environment, constitutes the second dimension. The third
dimension, evolving inclusive practices, includes mobilising resources and enact-
ing pedagogies to promote inclusive education.
The focus and aim of the study

Ghana’s teachers are expected to enact successful inclusive practice. Yet,
the systemic and school transformation needed to make this happen is not
fully realised. When teachers possess knowledge and skills, are motivated,
and support inclusive education, they can express willingness to teach all
learners. Research indicates that the vision, commitment, and leadership of
headteachers are crucial to inclusive education (Ackah- Jnr, 2022; Ackah-
Jnr and Fluckiger, 2021; Angelides, 2012; Hoppey and McLeskey, 2013). In
Ghanaian schools, however, not everyone values and expresses positive at-
titudes towards inclusive education. Some teachers resist inclusive practice
(Ackah-Jnr and Udah, 2021); some headteachers deny admission to LwSEND
(Hirpa, 2021); some teachers feel unprepared for the task of inclusion (Opoku-
Nkoom, 2010; Sharma, 2018); and others feel inclusion is the responsibility of
others. Since June 2012, Ghana Education Service, with support from United
Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF), has piloted inclusive education in schools
and utilised the IEMT to examine the adaptation of inclusive education poli-
cies. This collaboration started with 14 selected educational districts and is in
its third phase. The UNICEF currently supports the government to implement
inclusive education across 24 districts, including Komenda-Edina-Eguafo-
Abrem Municipal (KEEAM). Little attention is still focused on the practices of
headteachers and teachers in inclusive pilot schools in Ghana. More research
exists on teacher attitudes, practice, and preparation for inclusive education
(Ackah-Jnr and Udah, 2021; Opoku-Nkoom, 2010; Opoku-Nkoom and Dogbe,
2020). No research was found to examine inclusive education using the IEMT.
As noted, the IEMT is based on the Index for Inclusion, which has been used
to assess inclusive education in developed countries including Australia and
Spain (Echeita and Ainscow, 2010) and developing countries such as South
Africa (Engelbrecht et al., 2006). The Index is also widely used in the UK to
promote inclusive education.
This study aimed to investigate inclusive education in Komenda-Edina-Eguafo-

Abrem Municipal (KEEAM) in Ghana to identify efforts towards inclusive

education and what affords and constrains its implementation. The study was
conducted with a three-fold objective:
1. Investigate the type of inclusive cultures created in primary schools

2. Examine the nature of the physical environment of inclusive schools
3. Explore the kinds of evolving inclusive practices of schools.
Considering that inclusive education depends on contextual factors such as lead-

ership, inclusive knowledge, and resource availability (e.g., Ackah-Jnr, 2022;
Ackah-Jnr and Fluckiger, 2021; Agbenyega and Klibthong, 2022; Hoppey and
McLeskey, 2013), as well as school environment (Ackah-Jnr and Danso, 2019;
Gyimah, 2021; Maciver et al., 2018) and attitudes (Opoku-Nkoom, 2010; Sharma,
2018), we examined how schools are enabling inclusive education. Our interest
was to hone insights on primary schools educating diverse learners, following
policy, and what challenges could be eliminated to ensure successful inclusive
practice. We posed these specific questions:
1. What inclusive cultures do Ghana’s schools implementing inclusive educa-

tion create for LwSEND?
2. How inclusive is the physical environment of schools?
3. What inclusive practices characterise schools implementing inclusive
education?
The methodological approach

The context in which inclusive education takes place is important as well as the
stakeholders who make this happen. This study was conducted in Komenda-
Edina-Eguafo-Abrem Municipal (KEEAM), Central Region of Ghana. Ghana
has an estimated population of 30.8 million (Ghana Statistical Service, 2021).
According to the 2010 Ghana Population and Housing Census, the population of
KEEAM is 144,705, out of which 6.3% have one form of disability or the other.
Of the total number of persons with SEND of school entering age (8876), about
43% have never attended school (Ghana Statistical Service, 2014). According to
the KEEAM education directorate, 290 LwSEND are currently enrolled in pri-
mary schools, which reflects a relatively low number of such learners included
in schools. The KEEAM is among the first Metropolitan/Municipal/District
Assemblies, the Ghana Education Service collaborated UNICEF to pilot inclusive
education. The vision of the education directorate supports inclusive education:

to become a model and resourceful…equip all children of school-[entering]
age [including LwSEND] with requisite knowledge, skills, attitudes and val-
ues needed to become functional in the society in which they find themselves.
(KEEAM, n.d.)
UNICEF supports the KEEAM education directorate to implement inclusive

education, and the municipality has benefited from major educational interven-
tions aimed at improving equitable access to quality pre-tertiary education such
as the Safe School program, Community-Based Education program (CBE), and
Ghana Accountability for Learning Outcomes Project (GALOP). The study
sample consists of all 74 headteachers of primary schools purposely selected
with the goal of securing comprehensive description of inclusive education.
We used an adapted version of the Inclusive Education Monitoring Tool

(IEMT) Ghana Education Service designed as a research instrument to explore
inclusive education. The IEMT can identify barriers to inclusion existing in
schools and has a 4-point Likert scale, ranging from 0 to 3, which is interpreted
depending on the question item. The adapted instrument comprised three di-
mensions on enhancing quality inclusive education programs and practices.
The first dimension had six items that measured school inclusive cultures. Four
items constituted the second dimension, which focused on the school (physi-
cal) environment. The third dimension included four items on inclusive prac-
tices. Before the field administration and collection of data, some colleagues
and researchers in the fields of inclusive education and educational studies in
Ghana and Australia appraised the adapted instrument to enhance its utility,
clarity, and relevance.
With assistance from eight circuit supervisors at KEEAM education directorate,

we collected quantitative data from 74 headteachers. These participants were
taken through the IEMT, after which they completed it independently. Initial
engagements with headteachers were aimed to cure any misunderstandings and
answer questions to ensure we elicited responses to meet the study’s objective.
To ensure voluntary participation, we provided a description of the purpose and
procedures of study to the headteachers. They were briefed about the study’s rel-
evance and their expectations and responsibilities as research participants. The
data gathering process took 4 weeks. Our study adhered to ethical considerations
such as informed consent, confidentiality of data and anonymity of respondents,

and other contextual information. The KEEAM education directorate gave per-
mission and approval for this study to be conducted.
Responses to the 14-item questionnaire (adapted IEMT) were screened, scruti-

nized, and prepared for analysis. Descriptive statistics, involving frequencies and
percentages, were used as indexes to analyse the data. Using descriptive statistics
ensured we presented the results of the study in a more meaningful and easier to
interpret manner.
The research findings

Descriptive analysis and results are presented for each research question.
Research question 1
In research question 1, we elicited responses on inclusive cultures schools create

to enhance inclusive education, as summarised in Table 1.
From Table 1, inclusive school cultures are created to foster the education
and socialisation of all learners, including LwSEND. For example, all the 74
headteachers admitted LwSEND, although this was limited to those with mild–
moderate conditions and challenges from the localities of primary schools.
Again, 33 headteachers (44.6%) indicated that all teachers in primary schools
were sensitised to welcome and work with LwSEND, while 55.4% of head-
teachers said more than 50% of teachers were sensitised to do so. Fifty-two
(70.3%) headteachers reported that class teachers met parents of LwSEND
once or more times a year to discuss the progress of their children. However,
22 (29.7%) headteachers noted that teachers never met parents of LwSEND for
any deliberations. As part of creating inclusive cultures, the schools sensitised
all parents including Parent–Teacher Association and School Management
Committee members about disability issues during monthly, termly, and an-
nual meetings depending on the school’s program. From the headteachers, 19
schools know about disability and inclusive education stakeholders and 43
schools also interacted and collaborated with these stakeholders to promote
inclusive education. The data further revealed that 42 (56.7%) schools had
no or a few regular school pupils assigned to support their peers with SEND
alongside teacher assistance to encourage participation in school activities.

Table 1. Creating inclusive school cultures
Statements Response scale N %

I give admission to Not yet – –
LwSEND in my location Just a few with SEND – –
Only children with mild disability 74 100.0
Any child with disability – –
Every teacher has been Not yet – –
sensitised to welcome Few staff (less than 50%) – –
LwSEND in the school
Almost all staff (more than 50%) 41 55.4
All staff (100%) 33 44.6
Teachers and parents Never 22 29.7
of LwSEND meet to Once or twice a year 32 43.2
discuss the progress of
the learners Three to five times a year 15 20.3
More than five times a year 5 6.8
The school has Yearly 11 14.9
sensitised parents Termly 44 59.5
on disability issues
through Parent–Teacher Monthly 19 25.7
Association (PTA) and
School Management
Committee (SMC)
The school is aware None 12 16.2
of the disability and Just know the names 19 25.7
inclusive education
stakeholders/facilities in Has met with them 28 37.8
the Municipality Has collaboration with them 15 20.3
The school has as- Not yet 12 16.2
signed a pupil to assist For few learners 30 40.5
LwSEND to ensure
active participation in all For almost all learners 14 18.9
school activities For all learners 18 24.3
Research question 2
Table 2 presents a summary of the descriptive analysis of research question 2

that focuses on the nature of schools’ environment regarding access to and use of
physical facilities and other conditions that support inclusive education.

Table 2. Inclusive school environment
Statement Response scale N %

Toilet and urinals No toilet or urinals 10 13.5
are available and Toilets and urinals but not 6 8.1
accessible for learn- accessible
ers with SEND
Accessible toilets and urinals 58 78.4
There are ramps to Not at all 47 63.5
reach all facilities One 9 12.2
in the school
Two 11 14.9
Three or four 7 9.5
There is good light- Poor lighting 12 16.2
ing in the school Reasonable lighting 13 17.6
Good lighting 17 23.0
Very good lighting 32 43.2
There is good Poor 4 5.4
ventilation in the Fair 13 17.6
classrooms
Good 24 32.4
Excellent 33 44.6
From Table 2, some aspects and conditions of the physical environment of the pri-
mary schools are somewhat appropriate, while others are not, which may require
modifications and improvement. About 78% of headteachers identified that some
schools had accessible toilet and urinal facilities for LwSEND, with an addi-
tional 8.1% indicating that these facilities were not user-friendly, whereas 10% of
schools had no toilets and urinals. Many headteachers (63.5%) also reported that
schools had no ramps at all that enable LwSEND to reach school facilities, while
27 (36.6%) indicated that schools had between one and four ramps to support
access and mobility of LwSEND, especially those who use wheelchairs. Both
ventilation and lighting were identified as critical components of a healthy school
environment. Pertaining to lighting, 66.2% of headteachers said that classrooms
somewhat had good lighting to support teaching and learning. It was also noted
that 77% of schools were well-ventilated in classrooms and other school areas.
But, 33% of schools had poor ventilation, which can pose health risks to learners
and teachers.

Table 3. Evolving inclusive practices
Statement Response scale N %

Teachers who have Not yet 27 36.5
received training Not for all training received 12 16.2
on inclusive
education have or- For all training received 35 47.3
ganised a school-
based INSET for
their colleagues
All teachers have None 12 16.2
detailed records Just the list of LwSEND 15 20.3
of all LwSEND in
a class Some information on LwSEND 13 17.6
Detail information including the learn- 34 45.9
ing of LwSEND
Teachers adapt LwSEND are taught just like other 30 40.5
the curriculum to learners
meet the needs of LwSEND benefit from specific support 29 39.2
every child in the
classroom LwSEND benefit from adapted 15 20.3
curriculum
Learners with Not at all 29 39.2
special learning Few pupils 24 32.4
needs are provided
with adapted Majority 15 20.3
learning materials
and support
Research question 3
Results of research question 3 that focused on the kinds of inclusive practices

primary schools enact to foster inclusive education are summarised in Table 3.
Evidence shows a variety of inclusive practices are enacted to support teachers
and learners in inclusive schools.
Results from Table 3 show that teachers who received training on inclusive
practices in more than 52% of the primary schools (39) did not organise train-
ing for other teachers. In only 34 (45.9%) schools, all teachers had detailed
information and records on LwSEND. The data also revealed that teachers
in almost 80% of the schools used traditional teaching methods that may be
inadequate to ensure LwSEND benefit from adapted instruction and supports.

In addition, about 20% of headteachers reported that teachers adapted the cur-
riculum for LwSEND. From the schools, 71.6% headteachers noted that a few
or none of the LwSEND was provided adapted learning materials and support
for learning and inclusion.
Discussion
The study explored implementation of inclusive education in primary schools.
Results established that creating inclusive cultures, environment, and practices
are ways to enhance inclusive education, although these are challenging for
some schools. These results are further discussed in line with the study’s specific
objectives.
Inclusive school cultures
Results indicate that inclusive schools create unique cultures that can set them
apart from other schools, enabling supportive environment and relationships to
be fostered. Multiple stakeholders, including headteachers, teachers, parents,
and other community members, are involved in creating inclusive cultures that
can transform school, system-wide, and societal thinking about inclusive edu-
cation. Such inclusive school cultures can deepen belongingness and eliminate
the likeliness of exclusion and discriminatory tendencies. It is encouraging that
all primary schools in KEEAM admit LwSEND, which is essential and a fun-
damental step to meaningful inclusive education. As this study illustrates, the
headteacher’s leadership primarily sets the tone for leveraging and operation-
alising inclusion, without which LwSEND are first denied the right to educa-
tion, and second access and participation opportunities in mainstream schools,
contrary to the SDGs 4, 10 and 16 (UN, 2016), and the universal basic educa-
tion policy in Ghana. The role of headteacher leadership in fostering inclusive
cultures and practice is recognised nationally and internationally (Ackah-
Jnr, 2022; Agbenyega and Klibthong, 2022; Ainscow and Sandill, 2010;
Angelides, 2012; Hoppey and McLeskey, 2013; Maciver et al., 2018). By ac-
cepting LwSEND, schools accentuate Article 25 of Ghana’s 1992 Constitution
and Inclusive Education policy that enjoins equal education opportunities and
inclusion for all. We claim that by admitting LwSEND, headteachers can re-
focus the attention of the school-community imperative for inclusive educa-
tion and resource architecture for enabling it. Headteacher leadership can also
ensure schools articulately shared inclusive values of respect, tolerance, and

non-discrimination in enacting inclusive practices. While admission is mostly
restricted to LwSEND with mild–moderate conditions from schools’ locali-
ties, this reflects the level of preparedness for inclusion in terms of resource
availability (Ackah-Jnr and Fluckiger, 2021) and teacher competence (Opoku-
Nkoom, 2010). Meanwhile, many headteachers still refuse enrolment or are
unwilling to include LwSEND, regardless of the kind of SEND (e.g., Graham
and Scott, 2016; Hirpa, 2021).
Our results further reveal, however, that although headteachers are the chief protag-
onists for inclusive education, they alone cannot sustain inclusive cultures without
effort from teachers, parents, and community members. Collaborative partner-
ships with the school-community can lead to shared knowledge and commitment
for sustaining the inclusive agenda. Since inclusive education is cross-sectoral,
school, parental, and community collaboration is needed. Family and parent in-
volvement in inclusive education is critical throughout the lifecycle of LwSEND,
especially in the early years (UNICEF, 2014; Wolf, 2020). It is no surprise that
about 70% of schools involved parents in taking decisions to support the inclusion
of LwSEND. We believe successful inclusive cultures are promoted through good
cooperation between schools with parents and other community members (Ackah-
Jnr, 2022; Gross et al., 2015; Maciver et al., 2018). With support and collabora-
tion, schools can create inclusive cultures so that the hitherto excluded LwSEND
enjoy their educational and inclusive rights to develop their potential.
School/physical environment
Results indicate that the school environment influences inclusive education.

Quality physical environment impacts student learning and success, as well
as the affective, behavioural, and cognitive functions of learners and teachers
(Ackah-Jnr and Danso, 2019) and their health. Many schools were somewhat
less accessible to LwSEND due to the absence of ramps, the presence of stairs
to doorways, and inappropriate environmental layout. Some schools had ramps
and disability-friendly facilities, including toilet and urinals for LwSEND, but
the school environment mostly suited learners without SEND. Providing safe
access to school buildings, classrooms, and facilities can ensure all learners
physically engage with the educational and social environment and be included
in appropriate activities (Winter and O’Raw, 2010). Results affirm that the
physical environment of schools impacts inclusive education in terms of acces-
sibility, learning, and participation of LwSEND, especially those with physical,
mobility, and sensory disability (Ackah-Jnr and Danso, 2019). If inappropriate,

the physical environment can cause stress, mobility difficulty, limit the use of
functional areas, and pose danger to LwSEND. Unsafe school environment in-
creases the likelihood of learners to sustain injuries. Safety issues, as Gyimah
(2021) noted, should be high priority in inclusive schools. This finding is con-
trary to the Standards and Guidelines for the Practice of Inclusive Education in
Ghana 2015, Standard 1 and 2 especially, mandating that LwSEND should have
“no obstacles in their way by the siting of school, design of buildings… arrange-
ment of out-or inside space” in classrooms (Ministry of Education, 2015, p. 5).
Another key finding shows that most schools had good ventilation in classrooms,
but the quality and standard of lighting in them was generally inadequate for ef-
fective teaching and learning of all children. Both ventilation and lighting were
seen as crucial elements of the learning environment, as this can affect the health,
survival, interaction, and concentration of learners. These findings are consis-
tent with those of a previous Ghanaian study that some inclusive classrooms and
schools had somewhat excellent ventilation, but lighting in classrooms and other
areas, whether natural or artificial, was generally poor in these schools (Ackah-
Jnr and Danso, 2019). Adequate ventilation may reduce stuffiness and heat in
classrooms and other school areas. We claim that classrooms with poor aeration
were by default due to their architectural designs, which can influence learners’
behaviours and quality of life. There were honeycomb-shaped windows that im-
pacted lighting and ventilation in classrooms, affecting the comfort of learners
and teachers. Therefore, there needs to be right kind ventilation and lighting
sources in inclusive classrooms.
Results on the state and conditions of the physical environment of schools are key
because objective 2 of Ghana’s inclusive education policy aims to foster friendly
and conducive school environment for quality education for all learners (Ministry
of Education, 2016). Effective accessibility and utility of school environment and
facilities can be ways to motivate learners not only to attend school but also feel
supported and included. Unfriendly and inaccessible physical environment and
less comfortable classrooms can lead to exclusion of learners, so it is important
schools’ environment are improved to optimally cater for the human, social, and
learning needs of all learners and users.
Inclusive practices
Effective inclusive practices are ways to foster inclusive education. Professional

development was identified as a crucial practice through which teachers develop

inclusive pedagogies to support learner engagement in schools. Such ongoing
training on inclusive education enable teachers to acquire new competencies.
However, many master trainers (trainer of trainers) tasked to organise school
and cluster-based professional development programs on inclusive education for
teachers in KEEAM did little, which may be attributed to inadequate knowledge
of inclusive education on the part of master trainers and time constraints. If school
and cluster-based in-service training programs, as fora to promote professional
learning communities (PLCs) on localised issues on inclusive education, do not
happen, then inclusive knowledge and skills can be truncated and not flow to
teachers that need it. Since Ghana Education Service uses a cascading model
of professional development, supporting such PLCs can be key avenues where
teachers share knowledge and skills about inclusive education. Results show
that cooperating with teachers and other school staff to learn about inclusion can
foster transformative behaviours for developing successful inclusive education.
Because inclusive education is a situated practice, training should take cogni-
sance of teachers’ doings, sayings, and relatings in distributed settings. As such,
collaborative PLCs, involving master trainers and other education officials, where
knowledge, expertise, and experiences on inclusive education come together and
are shared among teachers, can sustain the inclusive futures of schools. As Ackah-
Jnr and Udah (2021) reported, teachers with limited knowledge and understand-
ing of inclusive education have a low sense of support, resist, react, or struggle
with inclusive practice. Inclusive education is a shared responsibility, so every
teacher requires knowledge, skills, and competencies for it to succeed. Some
teachers had limited knowledge of inclusive education and LwSEND (Opoku-
Nkoom, 2010; Sharma, 2018), so we believe strengthening PLCs in schools can
be avenues to enhance the flow of inclusive knowledge, skills, and best practices
among teachers.
Teachers committed to inclusive education usually undertake curriculum dif-

ferentiation (Tomlinson, 2014). Results however indicate teachers lack orien-
tation, knowledge, and skills for effective curriculum differentiation, so many
use traditional teaching methods that do not comprehensively cater for the needs
of LwSEND. To appropriately modify the curriculum and instruction to suit the
unique needs of all learners, including LwSEND, teachers must understand that
development and learning occur at different levels for each learner (Duchesne
and McMaugh, 2019). As a basis to differentiate the curriculum, teachers can use
methods such as observation, individual evaluation of the child, and discussions
with families to identity the needs of LwSEND. Due to the multifaceted needs of

learners, adapting the curriculum can encourage differentiation and personalisa-
tion of learning in inclusive settings.
In our study, supporting all learners was considered best practice and a tenet of
inclusive education that ensures participation and engagement in schools. In this
direction, it is expected that LwSEND in schools are identified and rightfully
supported to enhance their learning and socialisation. Our results nonetheless
revealed many schools provided few or no support and adapted materials to
LwSEND, although their educational and social needs were identified. This is not
surprising because many schools often lack resources and teachers are less skilled
in using adaptive instruction for LwSEND.
Conclusion
Primary schools are increasing effort to a more inclusive education. Our study
is the first to adapt and use Ghana’s IEMT to explore inclusive education.
The study shows that the combined aspects of inclusive cultures, primarily
instigated through headteacher leadership, and the somewhat accessible and
usable school environment and evolving inclusive practices, including profes-
sional development for teachers, are elemental to effective inclusive educa-
tion. However, inclusive education is beset with challenges such as inadequate
school-wide inclusive knowledge, limited pedagogical competence to adapt
curriculum, and limiting physical environment. Consequentially, schools must
continue to confront these contextual barriers. We thus believe reviewing, re-
fining, and rethinking practices and supports can make inclusive education
better in schools.
Recommendations
The study unearthed opportunities and challenges to inclusive education. To im-
prove inclusive education, the preparedness of schools needs to be enhanced, so
we make these suggestions:
1. Effective inclusive education is driven by positive, dynamic, and renewing cul-

tures. Hence, school-wide, teachers, headteachers, and learners need ongoing sen-
sitisation to promote cultures of acceptance, respect, and support for LwSEND.
Headteachers should not only admit LwSEND but continuously collaborate
and rally support and work with teachers, parents, and other school-community

members to give meaning to inclusive education. This calls for leadership eco-
system in the school-community context (Ackah-Jnr, 2022). Inclusive cultures
should be a matter of reviewing and refining practices and attitudes.
2. The Municipal Assembly and Education Directorate need to ensure schools
have appropriate physical environment and facilities, including functional
places of convenience and improve existing ones to enhance their usability
and accessibility for LwSEND, especially those with physical, mobility, or
sensory conditions. Schools may also need to construct functional ramps,
redesign aspects of the physical environment, and improve lighting and ven-
tilation systems in classrooms to create conducive learning and social envi-
ronment for all learners.
3. The Municipal Education Directorate should periodically organise
inclusive-focused professional development on inclusive education policies,
practices, and emerging issues to update teachers’ knowledge of inclusive
education. Professional development should centre inclusionary practices
and efforts of teachers and schools. Such programs must be authentic, fo-
cusing on identified inclusive practice needs of teachers and schools.
4. Through collaboration, the National Teaching Council, the National Schools
Inspectorate Authority, and the Ghana Education Service should ensure
teachers are equipped with knowledge and skills to adapt the regular school
curriculum for learners that struggle to engage with it. Teachers may require
improved knowledge of pedagogies, including modifying the content, using
different teaching methods, and individualising and differentiating instruc-
tion, as well as employing diverse assessment forms to make practical cur-
riculum adaptation to meet the needs of learners. Essentially, teachers should
understand that adapting the curriculum may not necessarily bring additional
work to them but rather a different approach of teaching, aimed at minimis-
ing exclusion in school learning.
5. The Municipal Education Directorate should implement pragmatic and
context-informed measures such as providing incentives and motivation and
ensuring lead trainers organise school and cluster-based inclusive educa-
tion training programs to encourage professional learning and collaboration
among teachers for sharing inclusive knowledge and skills.
Limitations
There are some limitations to our study. First, we should exercise caution in at-
tempting to generalise the results since the number of selected headteachers and

primary schools is relatively small, compared to the sample of inclusive pilot
schools in Ghana, although they were recruited via purposive sampling. Second,
the data collection and analysis could have benefitted from views of teachers and
other stakeholders in order to capture a more comprehensive picture of inclusive
education in primary schools. In future research, a larger sample of inclusive pilot
and regular schools and participants in multiple educational districts, using mixed
methods, should be undertaken to garner more insights into the affordances and
inhibitors to inclusive education. Nonetheless, our study provides timely insights
into what inclusive cultures, environment, and practices of schools influence in-
clusive education.
Acknowledgement
Open access publishing facilitated by Griffith University, as part of the Wiley
- Griffith University agreement via the Council of Australian University
Librarians.
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Correspondence
Francis R. Ackah-Jnr
Griffith University
School of Education and Professional Studies
Mount Gravatt Campus, Mt Gravatt
4122 QLD
Australia
Email: fr.ackahjnr@yahoo.com

Isaac Opoku-Nkoom holds Master of Philosophy degree in inclusive education. He has supported
learners with special educational needs and disabilities to access basic education in Ghana. He is the
Special Education Coordinator at the KEEA Municipal education directorate, with responsibilities to
monitor the progress and inclusion of learners with disabilities in schools. His research interest com-
prises inclusive education, disability studies and early childhood education.
Dr Francis R. Ackah-Jnr teaches and researches at Griffith University. His research interests are
in inclusive education, leadership, early childhood, parent-school-community partnerships, intercul-
tural communication, and pedagogy. He was the recipient of an Australian Council for Educational
Leadership (ACEL) Award in 2017 and has extensive university teaching and research experience
from Australia and Ghana.

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INVESTIGATING INCLUSIVE EDUCATION

Investigating inclusive education

Schools create an inclusive environment and cultures and enact

Key words: inclusive practice, inclusive culture, school environment,

18 Support for Learning • Volume 38 • Number 1 • 2023 © 2023 NASEN.

Index for inclusion

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The focus and aim of the study

This study aimed to investigate inclusive education in Komenda-­Edina-­Eguafo-­

20 Support for Learning • Volume 38 • Number 1 • 2023 © 2023 NASEN.

1. Investigate the type of inclusive cultures created in primary schools

Considering that inclusive education depends on contextual factors such as lead-

1. What inclusive cultures do Ghana’s schools implementing inclusive educa-

The methodological approach

© 2023 NASEN. Support for Learning • Volume 38 • Number 1 • 202321

UNICEF supports the KEEAM education directorate to implement inclusive

We used an adapted version of the Inclusive Education Monitoring Tool

With assistance from eight circuit supervisors at KEEAM education directorate,

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Responses to the 14-­item questionnaire (adapted IEMT) were screened, scruti-

The research findings

In research question 1, we elicited responses on inclusive cultures schools create

© 2023 NASEN. Support for Learning • Volume 38 • Number 1 • 202323

Statements Response scale N %

Table 2 presents a summary of the descriptive analysis of research question 2

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Statement Response scale N %

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Statement Response scale N %

Results of research question 3 that focused on the kinds of inclusive practices

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Inclusive school cultures

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Results indicate that the school environment influences inclusive education.

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Effective inclusive practices are ways to foster inclusive education. Professional

© 2023 NASEN. Support for Learning • Volume 38 • Number 1 • 202329

Teachers committed to inclusive education usually undertake curriculum dif-

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1. Effective inclusive education is driven by positive, dynamic, and renewing cul-

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