`

There have been many notable Métis people throughout history, including television
actor Tom Jackson, Commissioner of the Northwest Territories Tony Whitford, and
Louis Riel. Riel led two resistance movements: the Red River Rebellion of 1869-1870
and the North-West Rebellion of 1885, which ended in his trial.

The languages that are inherently Métis are either Métis French or a mixed language
called Michif. Michif, Mechif, or Métchif is a phonetic spelling of Métif, a variant of
Métis.

Today, the Métis predominantly speak English, with French as a strong second
language, as well as numerous Aboriginal tongues. In the 19th century, there was a
community of the Métis people known as the Anglo-Métis, who were referred to as
Countryborn.

They were children of Rupert's Land fur trade and were typically of Orcadian,
Scottish, or English paternal descent and Aboriginal maternal descent. Their first
languages were Aboriginal (Cree, Saulteaux, Assiniboine, etc.) and English.

Their fathers spoke Gaelic, which led to the development of an English dialect
referred to as "Bungee." S.35 of the Constitution Act, 1982 mentions the Métis, but
there has been a long-standing debate over legally defining the term Métis. On
September 23, 2003, the Supreme Court of Canada ruled that Métis are distinct people
with significant rights (Powley ruling).
`

Métis, Mixed-blood fur trader, c. 1870

The Métis are a group of people who are descended from marriages between
European settlers, mostly French, and various First Nations groups including Cree,
Ojibway, Algonquin, Saulteaux, Menominee, Mikmaq, Maliseet, and others. Their
history dates back to the mid-17th century. When Europeans first arrived in Canada,
they relied on the skills of Aboriginal peoples for fur trading and survival.

To ensure alliances, relationships between European fur traders and Aboriginal

women were often consolidated through marriage. The Métis homeland covers the
Canadian provinces of British Columbia, Alberta, Saskatchewan, Manitoba, Quebec,
New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, and Ontario, as well as the Northwest Territories
`

Inuit communities with adequate population density were involved in conflicts, such
as the Nunatamiut (Uummarmiut) living in the Mackenzie River delta region. On the
contrary, the Central Arctic Inuit did not have the numbers to engage in such battles.
During the 13th century, the Thule culture migrated from what is now Canada to
Greenland.

Nevertheless, there are few historical records from the Norse about this event. Norse
artifacts were found in Inuit camps in Greenland, likely obtained through trade or
plunder. One Norse tale, as told by Ivar Bárðarson, speaks of encounters with "small
individuals" who clashed with the Norse.

Later reports from the 14th century detail the Skræling taking over a western
settlement, one of two Norse colonies. After the Norse settlements vanished in
Greenland, the Inuit had no contact with Europeans for at least a century.

However, by the mid-16th century, Basque fishermen were active along the Labrador
coast, running whaling stations on land, like those discovered at Red Bay. The Inuit
seemed to leave their operations uninterrupted but occasionally raided the stations in
winter for tools, particularly iron, which they modified to meet their native needs.

In the early 17th century, European explorers like John Davis and William Baffin
began mapping the Arctic regions, encountering Inuit communities along their
journeys. These interactions led to sporadic trade and cultural exchanges, with the
Inuit often adapting European tools and technologies to suit their way of life.
`

As the fur trade expanded in North America, Inuit hunters became valuable
intermediaries, providing pelts and guiding fur traders through the harsh Arctic
terrain. This relationship brought both benefits and challenges to the Inuit, as they
navigated the complexities of interacting with outsiders while preserving their
traditional way of life.

By the late 18th century, whalers and traders from Europe and America were
venturing further into the Arctic, establishing trading posts and missions along the
coast. This influx of outsiders brought new diseases and social disruptions to Inuit
communities, challenging their resilience and traditional practices.

Despite these challenges, the Inuit adapted to the changing world around them,
forging new economic and social networks while maintaining their cultural identity.

The resilience and ingenuity of the Inuit people have allowed them to navigate
centuries of contact with outsiders, shaping a unique and enduring way of life in the
Arctic. In the face of increasing contact with outsiders and the challenges brought by
colonization, the Inuit continued to demonstrate remarkable resilience and
adaptability.

Their ability to navigate changing circumstances while preserving their cultural

identity speaks to the strength and ingenuity of their communities. As they forged new
connections and networks in the evolving Arctic landscape, the Inuit maintained a
deep connection to their traditions and way of life, showcasing a unique blend of
tradition and innovation that has defined their existence for centuries. In the modern
era, the Inuit people continue to face challenges and changes in their way of life.

Climate change is altering the Arctic environment, impacting traditional hunting

practices and threatening the sustainability of their communities. However, the Inuit
are resilient and resourceful, adapting to these new challenges through innovation and
collaboration.
`

By combining traditional knowledge with modern technologies, they are finding ways
to preserve their cultural heritage while also embracing opportunities for economic
development and self-determination. The Inuit's ability to navigate the complexities of
a rapidly changing world while staying true to their roots is a testament to their
strength and enduring spirit.

In this photograph taken between 1908 and 1914, an Inuk is seen paddling his kayak.
Several Aboriginal civilizations established cities or permanent urban settlements.

Aboriginal civilizations have established permanent urban settlements or cities,

agriculture, civic and monumental architecture, and complex societal hierarchies.
These cultures have evolved and changed by the time of the first permanent European
arrivals (c. late 15th—early 16th centuries) and have been brought forward through
archaeological investigations.
`

There are indications of contact made before Christopher Columbus between the first
peoples and those from other continents. Aboriginal people in Canada interacted with
Europeans around 1000 CE, but prolonged contact came after Europeans established
permanent settlements in the 17th and 18th centuries.

European written accounts generally recorded the friendliness of the First Nations,
who profited in trade with Europeans. Such trade generally strengthened the more
organized political entities such as the Iroquois Confederation.

Throughout the 16th century, European fleets made almost annual visits to the eastern
shores of Canada to cultivate fishing opportunities.

A sideline industry emerged in the unorganized traffic of furs overseen by the Indian
Department. The Woodland cultural period dates from about 2,000 BCE—I,000 CE,
and has locales in Ontario, Quebec, and Maritime regions.

The introduction of pottery distinguishes the Woodland culture from the earlier
Archaic stage inhabitants. Laurentian people of southern Ontario manufactured the
oldest pottery excavated to date in Canada.

They created pointed-bottom beakers decorated by a cord marking technique that

involved impressing tooth implements into wet clay. Woodland technology included
items such as beaver incisor knives, bangles, and chisels.

The population practicing sedentary agricultural lifestyles continued to increase on a

diet of squash, corn, and bean crops. The Hopewell tradition is an Aboriginal culture
that flourished along American rivers from 300 BCE to 500 CE.

At its greatest extent, the Hopewell Exchange System networked cultures and
societies with the people on the Canadian shores of Lake Ontario. Canadian
expression of the Hopewellian peoples encompasses the Point Peninsula, Saugeen,
and Laurel complexes.
`

First Nation

Chief George from the village of Senakw with his daughter in traditional regalia, c.
1906

First Nations people had settled and established trade routes across what is now
Canada by 1000 CE. Communities developed, each with its own culture, customs, and
character. In the northwest, there were the Athapaskan, Slavey, Dogrib, Tutchone, and
Tlingit.

Along the Pacific coast were the Tsimshian, Haida, Salish, Kwakiutl, Heiltsuk,
Nootka, Nisga'a, Senakw, and Gitxsan. In the plains, there were the Blackfoot,
Káínawa, Sarcee, and Peigan.

In the northern woodlands were the Cree and Chipewyan. Around the Great Lakes
were the Anishinaabe, Algonquin, Iroquois, and Huron. Along the Atlantic coast were
the Beothuk, Maliseet, Innu, Abenaki, and Mi'kmaq. There was a Thule site (Copper
Inuit) near the waters of Cambridge Bay (Victoria Island).
`

Between 7,000 to 5,000 BCE, various cultures on the west coast of Canada relied on
salmon fishing as their primary source of food. The Nuu-chah-nulth of Vancouver
Island began using long spears to hunt whales during this time.

The Maritime Archaic was a group of sea-mammal hunters who lived along the
Atlantic Coast of North America between 7,000 BCE and 1,500 BCE. They built
longhouses and temporary or seasonal houses on boats and engaged in long-distance
trading using white chert as currency.

The Pre-Columbian culture, also known as the Red Paint People, lived in the New
England and Atlantic Canada regions of North America between 3,000 BCE to 1,000
BCE.

They were named after their burial ceremonies, which involved using large quantities
of red ochre to cover bodies and graves. Following these periods, there were
significant cultural changes in the region.
`

The Mound Builders, a collective term for various cultures that constructed earthen
mounds across the eastern and central parts of North America, were another
prominent group during this time.

These cultures, including the Adena, Hopewell, and Mississippian cultures mentioned
earlier, built mounds for various purposes, such as burials, ceremonies, and residences
of important individuals. In the Southwest, the Mogollon culture thrived from around
200 BCE to 1400 CE. They inhabited present-day Arizona, New Mexico, and parts of
Mexico, and were known for their distinctive pottery and cliff dwellings.

The Mogollon people were skilled farmers, cultivating crops such as corn, beans, and
squash, and also engaged in trade with neighboring cultures. The Iroquois
Confederacy, a political and cultural alliance of several Native American tribes in the
northeastern part of North America, also emerged during this time.

The confederacy, which included the Mohawk, Oneida, Onondaga, Cayuga, and
Seneca nations, later added the Tuscarora nation in the early 18th century. The
Iroquois Confederacy developed a sophisticated system of governance known as the
Great Law of Peace, which influenced the formation of the United States democratic
principles.

These pre-Columbian cultures had diverse economies, ranging from hunting and
gathering to agriculture and trade. They developed advanced technologies, such as the
construction of complex irrigation systems, the creation of intricate pottery, and the
cultivation of various crops. Social structures varied, with some cultures organized
into chiefdoms or confederacies, while others had more egalitarian societies.

The arrival of European explorers and settlers in the late 15th century had a profound
impact on these indigenous cultures. European diseases, forced labor, land seizures,
and cultural assimilation led to the decline and displacement of many Native
American communities. However, the descendants of these pre-Columbian cultures
continue to maintain their traditions, languages, and cultural practices.
`

This section of the map focuses on the Saugeen, Laurel, and Point Peninsula
complexes of the Hopewell Interaction Sphere. The map shows the southeastern
United States and the Great Lakes area of Canada, with different colors representing
the various local expressions of the Hopewell cultures.

These include the Laurel Complex, Saugeen Complex, Point Peninsula Complex,
Marksville culture, Copena culture, Kansas City Hopewell, Swift Creek Culture,
Goodall Focus, Crab Orchard culture, and Havana Hopewell culture.

The Old Copper Complex societies, dating back to 3,000 BCE-500 BCE (5000-2000
years ago), are a manifestation of the Woodland Culture and are pre-pottery in nature.
`

Evidence found in the northern Great Lakes regions indicates that they extracted
copper from local glacial deposits and used it in its natural form to manufacture tools
and implements.

The Arctic Small Tool Tradition is a cultural phenomenon that emerged around 2,500
BCE in regions such as the Alaska Peninsula, Bristol Bay, and the eastern shores of
the Bering Strait.

These Paleo-Arctic people had a unique set of tools that mainly consisted of small
blades, also known as microblades. These blades were double-pointed and used as
side or end barbs for arrows or spears made of bone or antler.

Along with these blades, their toolkits also included scrapers, engraving tools, and
adze blades. The Arctic Small Tool Tradition is divided into two cultural variants,
which are the Pre-Dorset and the Independence traditions.

These two groups, who are ancestors of the Thule people, were displaced by the Inuit
in 1,000 CE. The placement of artifacts and materials within an Archaic burial site
indicated that there was social differentiation based on status.

There is also a continuous record of Aboriginal people occupying Sólh Téméxw

dating back to the early Holocene period, which is around 10,000 to 9,000 years ago.

Archaeological sites located at Stave Lake, Coquitlam Lake, Fort Langley, and
surrounding areas have uncovered artifacts from early periods. These early inhabitants
were mobile hunter-gatherers, consisting of approximately 20 to 50 members of an
extended family.

The Na-Dene people occupied a large land area in northwest and central North
America, starting around 8,000 BCE. They were the earliest ancestors of the
Athabaskan-speaking people, including the Navajo and Apache.
`

They had villages with large multi-family dwellings, which they used seasonally
during the summer. From there, they hunted, fished, and gathered food supplies to last
through the winter.

The Wendat people settled in Southern Ontario along the Eramosa River
approximately years ago. They were concentrated between Lake Simcoe and
Georgian Bay. The Wendat hunted caribou to survive on the glacier-covered lands.

Many different First Nations cultures relied upon the buffalo starting around 6,000-
5,000 BCE years ago. They hunted buffalo by herding them off cliffs during
migrations.

Head-Smashed-In Buffalo Jump, located near Lethbridge, Alberta, was a hunting

ground that was used for over 5,000 years. The Plano cultures were a group of hunter-
gatherer communities that lived in the Great Plains area of North America between
12,000 to 10,000 years ago.

As the glaciers retreated, the Paleo-Indians moved into new territories where big
game was abundant. The Plano culture is identified by a range of projectile point tools
collectively known as Plano points, which were used to hunt bison.

They also hunted pronghorn, elk, deer, raccoon, and coyote. At the beginning of the
Archaic Era, they began to adopt a more sedentary approach to subsistence.

Sites in and around Belmont, Nova Scotia have evidence of Plano-Indians, indicating
small seasonal hunting camps that were perhaps re-visited over generations from
around 11,000 years ago.

Seasonal large and small game, fish, and fowl were their food and raw material
sources. To adapt to the harsh environment, they tailored clothing and constructed
skin-covered tents on wooden frames.
`

Around 10,000 years ago, the North American climate stabilized, and it became very
similar to the climate we have today. As a result, there was a significant increase in
migration, cultivation, and population growth throughout the Americas.

The indigenous peoples of America domesticated, bred, and cultivated a wide range
of plant species over thousands of years. Today, these species make up around 50-
60% of all crops grown worldwide.

Distribution of Na-Dene languages shown in red

`

A Clovis point was created using a bi-facial percussion flaking technique, which
means that each face of the point was flaked on both edges alternatively with a
percussor. During the 1930s, Clovis sites dated 13,500 years ago were discovered in
western North America.

Clovis peoples were believed to be the first widespread Paleo-Indian inhabitants of

the New World and ancestors of all indigenous peoples in the Americas.

In the past thirty years, archaeological discoveries have revealed other distinctive
knapping cultures that occupied the Americas from the lower Great Plains to the
shores of Chile. Localized regional cultures developed from the time of the Younger
Dryas cold climate period from 12,900 to 11,500 years ago.

The Folsom tradition is characterized by their use of Folsom points as projectile tips
at archaeological sites. These tools assisted activities at kill sites that marked the
slaughter and butchering of bison.
`

The first inhabitants of North America arrived in Canada over 15,000 years ago, and
there is evidence to suggest an even earlier arrival.

They are believed to have come to the Americas in pursuit of Pleistocene mammals,
such as the woolly mammoth, steppe wisent, giant beaver, mastodons, ancient
reindeer (early caribou), and musk ox.

One theory is that these people walked south along an ice-free corridor on the east
side of the Rocky Mountains, fanning out across North America before continuing to
South America.

The land bridge that once existed between Asia and North America lasted until
around 13,000-11,000 years ago, long after the oldest known human settlements in the
New World had begun. This resulted in the formation of great grasslands, called the
archipelago of Haida Gwaii, in the Queen Charlotte Sound and Hecate Strait.

Hunter-gatherers left distinctive lithic technology tools and the remains of large
butchered mammals, indicating they occupied the area from 0-9,000 years ago.

In July 1992, the Federal Government officially recognized Xá:ytem (near Mission,
British Columbia) as a National Historic Site. This was one of the first Indigenous
spiritual sites in Canada to be formally recognized in this manner.

The text below has been corrected for spelling, grammar, and punctuation errors, and
rewritten for clarity: The theory of how humans migrated to the Americas has been a
topic of debate for many years. One possibility is that they traveled through a land
bridge that connected Asia and North America.

Another possibility is that they migrated down the Pacific Coast, crossed the Rockies
and Andes, and eventually reached the tip of South America. However, evidence of
this second theory has been covered by hundreds of meters of sea level rise following
the last ice age.
`

The Old Crow Flats and basin in Canada were not affected by glaciations during the
Pleistocene Ice ages, making it a pathway and refuge for ice age plants and animals.

The area also shows evidence of early human habitation in Canada dating back
approximately 12,000 years ago.

Fossils from the area include some species that were not previously known to have
existed in North America, such as hyenas and large camels. Bluefish Caves, located in
Yukon, Canada, is an archaeological site where a specimen of mammoth bone that
appears to have been worked by humans has been found. This specimen has been
radiocarbon dated to 12,000 years ago.

North and South America were the last continents in the world to be inhabited by
humans, according to archaeological and genetic evidence.

During the Wisconsin glaciation period, which lasted from 50,000 to 17,000 years
ago, sea levels fell and a land bridge between Siberia and northwestern North
America (Alaska) emerged. This allowed a small population in Alaska, which was
ice-free due to low snowfall.
`

However, the Laurentide ice sheet covered most of Canada, limiting nomadic
inhabitants to Alaska (East Beringia) for thousands of years. Aboriginal genetic
studies suggest that the first inhabitants of the Americas share a single ancestral
population that developed in isolation, which is believed to have been in Beringia.
The isolation of these peoples in Beringia might have lasted for several thousand
years.

the modern world, influencing art, music, cuisine, and traditions. The archaeological
record provides a window into the past, allowing us to better understand the
complexities of these ancient civilizations and how they adapted to their environments
as we continue to uncover new archaeological sites and artifacts, our knowledge of
the indigenous peoples of the Americas grows, shedding light on their resilience,
creativity, and ingenuity. By studying their past, we can gain a deeper appreciation for
the diversity and richness of the cultures that once thrived across the continent.

including mammoths and mastodons, at sites such as the Clovis site in New Mexico
and the Meadowcroft Rockshelter in Pennsylvania. These archaeological sites provide
valuable insights into the lifeways and cultural practices of these early inhabitants.

As time progressed, different cultural groups emerged across the Americas, each with
their own unique technological advancements and adaptations to their specific
environments.

For example, the Plano tradition, which emerged around 11,000 years ago, is
characterized by the use of Plano points, which were smaller and more delicate than
the earlier Clovis and Folsom points. The Plano tradition was prevalent in the Great
Plains region, where the inhabitants relied heavily on bison hunting for their
subsistence.
`

They developed sophisticated hunting strategies, such as driving bison off cliffs, to
efficiently harvest these large animals. In the Pacific Northwest, the coastal peoples
developed a distinct maritime culture, relying on the rich resources of the ocean for
their sustenance.

They crafted specialized tools, such as harpoons and fishhooks, to facilitate the
fishing and hunting of marine mammals. In the Southwest, the Ancestral Puebloans,
also known as the Anasazi, built elaborate cliff dwellings and developed advanced
agricultural techniques to cultivate maize, beans, and squash.

Their settlements, such as Mesa Verde and Chaco Canyon, are renowned for their
architectural complexity and cultural significance.

The Mississippian culture, which emerged around 800 CE, was characterized by
large, mound-building societies in the southeastern United States. These societies
constructed monumental earthworks and engaged in extensive trade networks,
exchanging goods such as shell beads, copper, and pottery. T

throughout the Americas, indigenous peoples developed diverse cultural practices,

languages, and social structures. They established complex societies, built impressive
cities, and developed sophisticated agricultural systems. Their rich cultural heritage
continues to shape the Americas today, as indigenous communities strive to preserve
their traditions and maintain their connection to the land.
`

An Aboriginal community in Northern Ontario

The term Eskimo has pejorative connotations in Canada and Greenland. Indigenous
peoples in those areas have replaced the term Eskimo with Inuit.

The Yupik of Alaska and Siberia do not consider themselves Inuit, and ethnographers
agree they are distinct people.

They prefer the terminology Yupik, Yupiit, or Eskimo. The Yupik languages are
linguistically distinct from the Inuit languages. Linguistic groups of Arctic people
have no universal replacement term for Eskimo, inclusive of all Inuit and Yupik
people across the geographical area inhabited by the Inuit and Yupik peoples.

In addition to ethnic identifiers, Aboriginal peoples are often categorized legally

based on their relationship with the Crown (i.e. the state). Section 91 (clause 24) of
the Constitution Act of 1867 grants the federal government (as opposed to the
provinces) the exclusive responsibility for "Indians, and Lands reserved for the
Indians".
`

The government assumed treaty obligations from British colonial authorities in

Eastern Canada and entered into treaties with First Nations in Western Canada (the
Numbered Treaties). The Indian Act of 1876 was also enacted to regulate its dealings
with all treaty and non-treaty peoples.

First Nations band members under the Indian Act with the Crown are listed in the
Indian Register and are referred to as Status Indians. Many non-treaty First Nations,
as well as Inuit and Métis peoples, are not governed by the Indian Act.

However, two court cases have clarified that Inuit, Métis, and non-status First Nations
individuals are all encompassed by the term "Indians" in the Constitution Act of 1867.
The first case was Re Eskimos in 1939 concerning the Inuit, and the second was
Daniels v. Canada in 2013, which pertains to Métis and non-Status First Nations.

Despite Canada's location in the Americas, the term "Native American" is not utilized
in Canada as it typically refers specifically to the indigenous peoples within the
present-day United States. Canadian Aboriginal culture features permanent
settlements, agriculture, civic and ceremonial architecture, complex societal
hierarchies, and trading networks.

The Métis culture of mixed heritage originated in the mid-17th century through
intermarriage between First Nation and Inuit individuals with Europeans. The Inuit
had less interaction with European settlers during this early period. Various laws,
treaties, and legislation have been established between European immigrants and First
Nations across Canada.

The Aboriginal Right to Self-Government offers the opportunity to oversee historical,

cultural, political, healthcare, and economic aspects within the communities of the
first peoples.
`

According to the 2011 census, Aboriginal peoples in Canada accounted for 1 person,
or 4.3% of the national population, residing among 600 recognized First Nations
governments or bands with unique cultures, languages, art, and music.

National Aboriginal Day is a day that celebrates the diverse cultures and significant
contributions of Indigenous peoples to the history of Canada. The term First Peoples
or Aboriginal peoples in Canada is broadly used to describe Indigenous peoples and
include Inuit, Métis, and First Nations.

First Nations is the preferred term for Indigenous peoples in Canada and their
descendants who are not Inuit or Métis.

In recent years, on reserves, members of different nations have started identifying

themselves by their specific group or ethnic identity, such as "I am Haida" or "we are
Kwantlens," to acknowledge their First Nations heritage. The term "Aboriginal
peoples of Canada" encompasses Indian, Inuit, and Métis individuals. Prominent
figures and role models from diverse backgrounds have emerged in the Indigenous
community, shaping Canadian cultural identity.

Indian remains the legal term in the Canadian Constitution. Using it outside legal
contexts can be offensive. Aboriginal peoples is the preferred term for all indigenous
peoples of Canada. The term Aboriginal people is becoming outdated and is gradually
being replaced by Indigenous people.
`

Indigenous peoples in Canada, also known as Indigenous Canadians or Aboriginal

Canadians, are the original inhabitants of present-day Canada. They include the First
Nations, Inuit, and Métis. The terms "Indian" and "Eskimo" are not widely used
anymore as they are considered to be pejorative by some. Similarly, the term
"Aboriginal" is a specific term used in some legal documents, but it is also falling out
of favor in some circles.

Old Crow Flats and Bluefish Caves are some of the earliest known sites of human
habitation in Canada. The Paleo-Indian Clovis, Plano, and Pre-Dorset cultures pre-
date the current indigenous peoples of the Americas. Tools such as projectile points,
spears, pottery, bangles, chisels, and scrapers are found in archaeological sites, which
help distinguish different cultural periods, traditions, and lithic reduction styles.

John Cabot, an Italian explorer, was the first European known to have landed in
Canada after the time of the Vikings. According to records, on June 24, 1497, he
sighted land at a northern location believed to be somewhere in the Atlantic
provinces.

Although the official tradition considers the first landing site to be at Cape Bonavista,
Newfoundland, other locations are possible. After 1497, Cabot and his son Sebastian
Cabot continued to make other voyages to find the Northwest Passage, and other
explorers continued to sail out of England to the New World, although the details of
these voyages are not well recorded.
`

Based on the Treaty of Tordesillas, the Spanish Crown claimed it had territorial rights
in the area visited by John Cabot in 1497 and 1498 CE. However, Portuguese
explorers like João Fernandes Lavrador continued to visit the North Atlantic coast,
which accounts for the appearance of "Labrador" on topographical maps of the
period. In 1501 and 1502, the Corte-Real brothers explored Newfoundland (Terra
Nova) and Labrador, claiming these lands as part of the Portuguese Empire.

In 1506, King Manuel I of Portugal created taxes for the cod fisheries in
Newfoundland waters. Joao Alvares Fagundes and Pêro de Barcelos established
fishing outposts in Newfoundland and Nova Scotia around 1521 CE, but these were
later abandoned, with the Portuguese colonizers focusing their efforts elsewhere.

L'Anse aux Meadows on the island of Newfoundland, the site of a Norsemen

colony about the year 1000.

These interactions between indigenous groups and neighboring tribes, as well as with
other indigenous groups in the Pacific Northwest and Alaska, were crucial for the
development of trade networks and cultural exchanges.

Indigenous peoples would trade goods such as furs, shells, pottery, and food items,
allowing for the exchange of resources and the development of specialized
economies. These trade networks also facilitated the sharing of knowledge and ideas.
`

Indigenous groups would exchange techniques for hunting, fishing, and farming, as
well as share spiritual beliefs, artistic styles, and storytelling traditions.

This cultural exchange helped to foster a sense of community and interconnectedness

among indigenous peoples, despite their diverse languages and customs. In addition to
trade and cultural exchanges, indigenous groups had sophisticated systems of
governance and resource management.

They would establish alliances and diplomatic relationships with neighboring tribes,
often through intermarriage and the exchange of gifts. These alliances helped to
maintain peace and stability within the region, as well as facilitate the sharing of
resources and knowledge. Indigenous peoples also had a deep understanding of the
land and its resources.

They would practice sustainable resource management, using techniques such as

controlled burning to maintain healthy ecosystems and promote the growth of desired
plant species. They would also have extensive knowledge of local flora and fauna,
allowing them to effectively utilize the resources available to them for food, medicine,
and shelter.

The early European contact with indigenous peoples in North America, such as the
Basque fishermen visiting the Grand Banks, added another layer to these existing
networks of trade and cultural exchange.

The indigenous Beothuk people would interact with the Basque fishermen, trading
goods such as fish, furs, and tools. They would also share knowledge about
navigation, fishing techniques, and boat building.

Similarly, the migration of indigenous peoples from Asia into North America via the
Bering Land Bridge added to the diversity of indigenous cultures in the region. These
migrations occurred over thousands of years and led to the establishment of distinct
cultural groups, such as the Inuit in the Arctic regions.
`

The Inuit had a long history of interaction with other indigenous groups, as well as
with European explorers, and had developed a unique way of life adapted to the harsh
Arctic environment.

Overall, the pre-Columbian era in North America was a time of vibrant cultural
exchange, trade networks, and resource management among indigenous peoples.
These interactions laid the foundation for the later European colonization and
exploration of the Americas, shaping the cultural, social, and economic landscapes of
the region.

There are accounts of pre-1492 contact between First Nations, Inuit, and individuals
from other continents before Christopher Columbus' voyages and the Age of
Discovery. The Norse, known for their settlements in Greenland and Iceland,
reached L'Anse aux Meadows around 1000 AD, where they constructed a small
settlement (carbon dating suggests 990 — 1050 CE).

L'Anse aux Meadows is significant for its association with the unsuccessful Vinland
colony founded by Leif Erikson during that era, or more generally, with Norse
exploration of the Americas.

Pre-Columbian distribution of Na-Dene languages in the North American interior of

British Columbia housed Salishan language groups like the Shuswap (Secwepemc),
Okanagan, and southern Athabaskan language groups, mainly the Dakelh (Carrier)
and the Tsilhqot'in.

The inlets and valleys of the British Columbia Coast sheltered significant
populations, including the Haida, Kwakwaka'wakw, and Nuu-chah-nulth, sustained
by abundant salmon and shellfish.
`

These groups developed intricate cultures centered around the western red cedar,
featuring wooden houses, seagoing whaling and war canoes, and elaborately carved
potlatch items and totem poles. In the Arctic archipelago, the unique PaleoEskimos
known as Dorset peoples, with a culture dating back to around 500 BCE, were
succeeded by the ancestors of today's Inuit by 1500 CE.

This shift is supported by archaeological findings and Inuit mythology recounting

the expulsion of the Tuniit or 'first inhabitants'. Inuit traditional laws differ
anthropologically from Western legal systems. Customary law was absent in Inuit
society before the introduction of the Canadian legal framework.

Languages in North America. Speakers of eastern Algonquian languages included

the Mi'kmaq and Abenaki of the Maritime region of Canada and likely the extinct
Beothuk of Newfoundland.

The Ojibwa and other Anishinaabe speakers of the central Algonquian languages
maintain an oral tradition of having migrated to their lands around the western and
central Great Lakes from the sea, possibly from the east coast. As per oral tradition,
the Ojibwa established the Council of Three Fires in 796 CE with the Odawa and
the Potawatomi.

The Iroquois (Haudenosaunee) were centered in northern New York from at least
1000 CE, with influence reaching into southern Ontario and the Montreal area of
modern Quebec. The Iroquois Confederacy, as per oral tradition, was established in
1142 CE. On the Great Plains, the Cree or Nëhilawë, who spoke a closely related
Central Algonquian language, depended on bison herds for food and various other
necessities. To the northwest resided the Na-Dene language speakers, including the
Athapaskan-speaking peoples and the Tlingit, living on the islands of southern
Alaska and northern British Columbia.
`

The Na-Dene language group is thought to be connected to the Yeniseian languages

of Siberia. The Dene of the western Arctic might represent a distinct migration
wave.

In the Great Lakes area, the Woodland cultural period spanned from about 2000
BCE to 1000 CE, encompassing Ontario, Quebec, and the Maritime regions. The
introduction of pottery distinguished the Woodland culture from the previous
Archaic stage inhabitants. The Laurentian-related people of Ontario produced the
oldest excavated pottery in Canada to date.

The Hopewell tradition was an Aboriginal culture flourishing along American rivers
from 300 BCE to 500 CE. At its peak, the Hopewell Exchange System linked
cultures and societies to the people on the Canadian shores of Lake Ontario.
Canadian expressions of the Hopewellian peoples included the Point Peninsula,
Saugeen, and Laurel complexes.

The eastern woodland areas of what would become Canada were inhabited by the
Algonquian and Iroquoian peoples. The Algonquian language is thought to have
originated in the western plateau of Idaho or the plains of Montana before spreading
eastward, reaching from Hudson Bay to present-day Nova Scotia in the east and as
far south as the Tidewater region of Virginia.

The North American climate stabilized around 8000 BCE (10,000 years ago).
Climatic conditions were akin to modern patterns; nonetheless, the retreating glacial
ice sheets still enveloped vast land areas, forming meltwater lakes.
`

Most population groups during the Archaic periods remained highly mobile hunter-
gatherers. However, some groups began focusing on locally available resources,
leading to a trend of increasing regional specialization over time (e.g., Paleo-Arctic,
Plano, and Maritime Archaic traditions).

A northern section highlights the Saugeen, Laurel, and Point Peninsula complexes on
a map depicting the southeastern United States and the Great Lakes region of Canada.

It showcases the Hopewell Interaction Sphere and, in distinct colors, the diverse local
manifestations of the Hopewell cultures, including the Laurel Complex, Saugeen
Complex, and Point Peninsula Complex.

Marksville, Copena, Kansas City, Hopewell, Swift Creek, Goodall Focus, Crab
Orchard, and Havana Hopewell cultures.
`

The Great Lakes are believed to have formed about 10,000 years ago at the end of the
last glacial period as the Laurentide ice sheet retreated.

During this time, these early migrants adapted to the harsh Arctic environment and
developed unique cultural practices and technologies to survive. As the ice sheet
began to recede around 17,000 years ago, these populations gradually expanded
southward, following the retreating glaciers and the newly exposed land.
Archaeological evidence, such as stone tools and ancient campsite remains, has been
found throughout North America, providing insights into the migration patterns and
lifestyles of these early inhabitants.

These artifacts suggest that as the ice sheet melted, different groups of people
dispersed and settled in various regions, adapting to the diverse environments they
encountered.

The genetic evidence from aboriginal populations also supports the theory of
migration from Siberia to the Americas. By analyzing the DNA of indigenous peoples
across the Americas, scientists have identified genetic markers that link them to
populations in Siberia and northeast Asia.
`

This genetic similarity indicates a common ancestry and supports the idea that the
first inhabitants of the Americas originated from this region. As these early migrants
spread across the continent, they diversified into distinct cultural groups, each with
their languages, traditions, and ways of life.

The Americas became home to a rich tapestry of indigenous cultures, including the
Inuit in the Arctic, the Native American tribes in North America, and the various
indigenous groups in Central and South America.

The migration and settlement of humans in the Americas was a complex and dynamic
process that unfolded over thousands of years. It involved adapting to changing
environments, overcoming natural barriers, and developing unique cultural identities.

The evidence from archaeology and genetics provides valuable insights into this
fascinating chapter in human history and helps us understand the origins and diversity
of the indigenous peoples of the Americas.

Archaeological and aboriginal genetic evidence suggests that North and South
America were the last continents that humans migrated to.

During the Wisconsin glaciation, which occurred between 50,000 and 17,000 years
ago, sea levels dropped, allowing people to move across the Bering land bridge
(Beringia) from Siberia into northwest North America.

However, after entering North America, they were blocked by the Laurentide ice
sheet, which covered most of Canada. This confined them to Alaska and the Yukon
for thousands of years.

The exact dates and routes of the migration into the Americas are still a subject of
debate. By 16,000 years ago, the melting of the glaciers allowed people to move by
land south and east out of Beringia and into Canada. Some of the earliest Paleo-Indian
archaeological sites in Canada are found in the Queen Charlotte Islands, Old Crow
Flats, and Bluefish Caves, where Ice Age hunter-gatherers left lithic flake fluted stone
tools and the remains of large butchered mammals.
`

History of Canada

The history of Canada spans from the time when Paleo-Indians arrived thousands of
years ago to the present day. The country has been inhabited for ages by distinctive
groups of Aboriginal peoples who had unique trade networks, spiritual beliefs, and
social organizations.

Some of these civilizations had faded away by the time of the first European arrivals,
and have been discovered through archaeological investigations.

Various treaties and laws have been enacted between European settlers and the
Aboriginal populations. Starting in the late 15th century, expeditions by the French
and British explored and later settled along the Atlantic Coast.

After the Seven Years' War, France ceded almost all of its colonies in North America
to Britain in 1763. In 1867, with the union of three British North American colonies
through Confederation, Canada was formed as a federal dominion of four provinces.

This led to the addition of provinces and territories, and a process of increasing
autonomy from the British Empire, which became official with the Statute of
Westminster of 1931 and completed in the Canada Act of 1982, which severed the
vestiges of legal dependence on the British parliament.

During the worldwide Great Depression that started in 1929, Canada was severely
affected. The country's gross national product fell by 40% between 1929 and 1933,
which was worse than the 37% drop experienced by the United States.

The unemployment rate in Canada reached its peak in 1933, with 27% of the
population being unemployed. As a result, many businesses were forced to shut down,
causing corporate profits to plummet from $396 million in 1929 to losses of $98
million in 1933.
`

Canadian exports also decreased by 50% from 1929 to 1933, while the construction
industry saw an 82% decline in activity during the same period. Additionally,
wholesale prices dropped by 30%, and wheat prices fell from 78 cents per bushel in
1928 to 29 cents in 1932. The census of 1931 revealed that urban unemployment was
at a rate of 19%, with Toronto's rate being slightly lower at 17%.

Farmers who remained on their farms were not considered unemployed. However, by
1933, 30% of the labor force was jobless, and one-fifth of the population became
reliant on government assistance.

Wages and prices also decreased significantly.

The areas most affected by the depression were those that heavily relied on primary
industries such as farming, mining, and logging.

As a result, prices fell, and there were few alternative jobs available. Although most
families experienced moderate losses and little hardship, they became pessimistic, and
their debts became more burdensome as prices continued to drop.

During the long depression in 1930, many families lost most or all of their assets and
suffered severely. At that time, Prime Minister Mackenzie King believed that the
crisis was just a temporary swing of the business cycle and that the economy would
soon recover without any government intervention.

He refused to provide unemployment relief or federal aid to the provinces, stating that
if Conservative provincial governments demanded federal dollars, he would not give
them "a five-cent piece." However, his refusal to help people led to the defeat of the
Liberals in the 1930 election.

The main issue was the rapid deterioration in the economy, and whether the prime
minister was out of touch with the hardships of ordinary people. The winner of the
1930 election was Richard Bedford Bennett and the Conservatives.

Bennett had promised high tariffs and large-scale spending, but as deficits increased,
he became wary and cut back severely on Federal spending.
`

With falling support and the depression getting only worse, Bennett attempted to
introduce policies based on the New Deal of President Franklin D. Roosevelt (FDR)
in the United States, but he got little passed.

Bennett's government became a focus of popular discontent. For example, auto

owners saved on gasoline by using horses to pull their cars, dubbing them Bennett
Buggies. The Conservative failure to restore prosperity led to the return of Mackenzie
King's Liberals in the 1935 election.

During the 1935 election, the Liberals used the slogan "King or Chaos" to win a huge
victory. They promised a trade treaty with the U.S., which was highly desired at the
time, and they delivered on that promise by passing the 1935 Reciprocal Trade
Agreement.

It marked a turning point in Canadian-American economic relations, reversing the

disastrous trade war of 1930-31, lowering tariffs, and resulting in a dramatic increase
in trade. By 1935, the worst of the Depression had passed, and the government
launched relief programs like the National Housing Act and the National Employment
Commission.

The Canadian Broadcasting Corporation became a crown corporation in 1936. The

precursor to Air Canada, Trans-Canada Airlines, was formed in 1937, and the
National Film Board of Canada was established in 1939.

In 1938, Parliament transformed the Bank of Canada into a crown corporation.

However, the government's response to the Depression also included a highly
restrictive immigration policy, which led to a rise in nativism.
`

The situation was particularly difficult in western Canada, where a full recovery did
not occur until the Second World War began in 1939. As a result, new political parties
like the Social Credit movement and the Cooperative Commonwealth Federation were
created, and there was also popular protest in the form of the On-to-Ottawa Trek.

Canada declared war on Nazi Germany on September 10, 1939, one week after
Britain acted to demonstrate independence. This marked Canada's involvement in the
Second World War. During the war, Canada played a significant role in the Atlantic
and Europe, which helped restore its economic health and self-confidence.

However, Canada became more closely linked to the United States, with the
Americans taking control of Yukon to build the Alaska Highway and having a major
presence in the British colony of Newfoundland with significant airbases.

Despite Canada's major role in supplying food, raw materials, munitions, and money
to the hard-pressed British economy, training airmen for the Commonwealth,
guarding the western half of the North Atlantic Ocean against German U-boats, and
providing combat troops for the invasions of Italy, France, and Germany in 1943-
1945, Mackenzie King and Canada were largely ignored by Winston Churchill and
the British government.

The government mobilized the economy for war, and the depression ended, prosperity
returned, and Canada's economy expanded significantly.

Building up the Royal Canadian Air Force was a high priority and it was kept separate
from Britain's Royal Air Force. The British Commonwealth Air Training Plan
Agreement, signed in December 1939, bound Canada, Britain, New Zealand, and
Australia to a program that eventually trained half the airmen from those four nations
in the Second World War.
`

The Canadian federal election, of 1940 was held as scheduled, producing another
majority for the Liberals. Mackenzie King rejected any notion of a government of
national unity.

After the start of the war with Japan in December 1941, the government, in
cooperation with the U.S., began the Japanese-Canadian internment, which sent
22,000 British Columbia residents of Japanese descent to relocation camps far from
the coast. The reason was intense public demand for removal and fears of espionage
or sabotage.

The government ignored reports from the RCMP and Canadian military that most
of the Japanese were law-abiding and not a threat.

The Battle of the Atlantic began immediately, and from 1943 to 1945 was led by
Leonard W. Murray, from Nova Scotia.

German U-boats operated in Canadian and Newfoundland waters throughout the

war, sinking many naval and merchant vessels, as Canada took charge of the
defenses of the western Atlantic.

The Canadian army was involved in the failed defense of Hong Kong, the
unsuccessful Dieppe Raid in August 1942, the Allied invasion of Italy, and the
highly successful invasion of France and the Netherlands in 1945.

The Conscription Crisis of 1944 greatly affected unity between French and English-
speaking Canadians, though it was not as politically intrusive as that of the First
World War.
`

Of a population of approximately 11.5 million, 1,1 million Canadians served in the

armed forces in the Second World War. Many thousands more served with the
Canadian Merchant Navy. In all, more than 45,000 died, and another 55,000 were
wounded.

Canada experienced a period of prosperity during the Second World War, which
continued in the following years with the establishment of universal healthcare, old-
age pensions, and veterans' pensions.

The financial crisis of the Great Depression caused the Dominion of Newfoundland to
give up responsible government in 1934 and become a crown colony governed by a
British governor.

Newfoundland's decision to join Canada in 1949 marked a significant turning point in

the province's history. Before this decision, Newfoundland had been a separate
dominion, with its government and autonomy.

However, the referendum results showed that a majority of voters chose to end this
separate status and become the 10th province of Canada. The decision was not
without controversy, as there were strong arguments on both sides of the debate.

Supporters of joining Canada believed that it would bring economic stability to

Newfoundland, which had been struggling with financial difficulties.

They also saw joining Canada as an opportunity to access better healthcare and
education, as well as increased opportunities for trade and development. On the other
hand, opponents of joining Canada were concerned about losing their cultural identity
and autonomy.
`

They feared that becoming a province of Canada would mean giving up their distinct
Newfoundland identity and being assimilated into a larger Canadian identity. There
were also concerns about potential economic exploitation by larger Canadian
provinces, as Newfoundland was seen as a resource-rich region. Despite these
concerns, Newfoundland officially became a province of Canada on March 31, 1949.

The transition was not without challenges, as the province had to adapt to Canadian
laws, institutions, and systems of government. However, over time, Newfoundlanders
have embraced their new status as Canadians and have made significant contributions
to the country's cultural, social, and economic fabric.

Today, Newfoundland and Labrador remains a unique and vibrant province within
Canada. It is known for its stunning landscapes, including the rugged coastline and
the iconic Gros Morne National Park.

The province also has a rich history, with strong ties to its fishing and maritime
heritage. Newfoundlanders have a strong sense of community and are known for their
warmth and hospitality.

The decision to join Canada in 1949 continues to shape Newfoundland and Labrador's
identity and its place within the larger Canadian federation. It has allowed the
province to benefit from the resources and opportunities that come with being part of
a larger country, while still maintaining its distinct cultural identity.

Newfoundlanders take pride in their province's history and its contributions to

Canada, and they continue to play an important role in shaping the country's future.
`

The Avro Canada CF-105 Arrow (Recreation)

The foreign policy of Canada during the Cold War was closely tied to that of the
United States. Canada was a founding member of NATO (which Canada wanted to
be a transatlantic economic and political union as well.

In 1950, Canada sent combat troops to Korea during the Korean War as part of the
United Nations forces. The federal government's desire to assert its territorial claims
in the Arctic during the Cold War manifested with the High Arctic relocation, in
which Inuit were moved from Nunavik (the northern third of Quebec) to barren
Cornwallis Island, this project was later the subject of a long investigation by the
Royal Commission on Aboriginal Peoples.
`

The deployment of Canadian military forces to Korea in 1950 marked a significant

moment in Canada's history, as it was the first time the country had sent troops to a
foreign conflict under the United Nations banner.

This decision demonstrated Canada's commitment to international peacekeeping and

its willingness to contribute to global security efforts. The Canadian soldiers fought
bravely alongside their allies, facing harsh conditions and formidable enemy forces.
Their contributions were crucial in pushing back North Korean and Chinese forces
and ultimately achieving a stalemate that led to the armistice in 1953.

Meanwhile, during the Cold War, the Canadian government was focused on
strengthening its territorial presence in the Arctic region. This area was seen as
strategically important due to its proximity to the Soviet Union and the potential for
military threats. As part of this effort, the government initiated the High Arctic
relocation program in the late 1950s.

The program aimed to consolidate Inuit communities in the far north of Canada, with
the belief that this would enhance Canada's sovereignty and control over the region.
However, the High Arctic relocation program was met with controversy and criticism.

One of the most contentious aspects was the forced relocation of Inuit individuals
from their traditional lands in Nunavik to Cornwallis Island. This move disrupted the
lives and livelihoods of the Inuit people, who had deep connections to their ancestral
lands and relied on them for sustenance and cultural practices.

The government's decision to relocate the Inuit without proper consultation or

informed consent was a violation of their rights and autonomy. In response to growing
concerns and criticisms, the Royal Commission on Aboriginal Peoples was
established to investigate the impacts of the relocation program on the Inuit
communities.
`

The commission's findings highlighted the negative consequences of the government's

actions, including the loss of cultural identity, economic hardships, and social
dislocation experienced by the relocated Inuit.

The commission called for greater respect for Indigenous rights and autonomy,
emphasizing the need for meaningful dialogue and reconciliation between the
government and Indigenous peoples.

The events surrounding Canada's involvement in the Korean War and the High Arctic
relocation program reflect the complex and often fraught relationship between the
government and Indigenous peoples in Canada.

These instances demonstrate the historical disregard for Indigenous rights and the
need for reconciliation and redress. Moving forward, the government needs to engage
in meaningful dialogue with Indigenous communities, respect their rights and
autonomy, and work towards reconciliation and healing. Only through these efforts
can Canada truly address the injustices of the past and build a more inclusive and
equitable future for all its citizens.

In 1956, the United Nations responded to the Suez Crisis by convening a United
Nations Emergency Force to supervise the withdrawal of invading forces. The
peacekeeping force was initially conceptualized by Secretary of External Affairs
and future Prime Minister Lester B. Pearson.

Pearson was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 1957 for his work in establishing
the peacekeeping operation. Throughout the mid-1950s, Louis St. Laurent (12th
Prime Minister of Canada) and his successor John Diefenbaker attempted to create a
new, highly advanced jet fighter, the Avro Arrow.
`

The controversial aircraft was canceled by Diefenbaker in 1959. Diefenbaker

instead purchased the BOMARC missile defense system and American aircraft. In
1958, Canada established (with the United States) the North American Aerospace
Defense Command (NORAD).

In 1604, a North American fur trade monopoly was granted to Pierre Du Gua, Sieur
de Mons. The fur trade became one of the main economic ventures in North
America. Du Gua led his first colonization expedition to an island located near the
mouth of the St. Croix River.

Among his lieutenants was a geographer named Samuel de Champlain, who

promptly carried out a major exploration of the northeastern coastline of what is
now the United States. In the spring of 1605, under Samuel de Champlain, the new
St. Croix settlement was moved to Port Royal (today's Annapolis Royal, Nova
Scotia).

The Quebec Settlement is composed of several buildings and features, including a

warehouse (A), a pigeon loft (B), detached buildings for lodging workers and
keeping arms (C and D), a sundial (E), a building for the smithy and worker's
lodging (E), galleries surrounding the lodgings (G), the Sieur de Champlain's
lodgings (H), a draw-bridge at the entrance to the settlement with a promenade
around it (I and L), and a moat surrounding the entire settlement (M).

Additionally, there is a garden belonging to the Sieur de Champlain (O), a kitchen

(P), and a space in front of the settlement on the shore of the St. Lawrence River
(Q). In Canada, the Aboriginal peoples have a rich musical tradition that varies
among different ethnic groups.
`

Public music is usually social and involves dancing accompanied by drums and
rattles. Private, ceremonial music consists of vocal songs accompanied by
percussion and is used for events like Midewivin ceremonies and Sun Dances.

For centuries before Europeans arrived in Canada, Aboriginal peoples used the
materials available to make their instruments. First Nations people crafted rattles
out of gourds and animal horns, which were carefully decorated with intricate
carvings and bright colors.

In woodland areas, they fashioned horns from birch bark and drumsticks from
carved antlers and wood. Drums, a common percussion instrument, were typically
made from animal hides and carved wood. These instruments served as the
foundation for songs, and songs in turn provided the backdrop for dances.

For traditional First Nations people, song and dance are considered sacred.
Unfortunately, after Europeans came to Canada, First Nations people were
prohibited from practicing their ceremonies for many years.
`

Cultural areas of North American Indigenous peoples at the time of European

contact

There are three distinctive groups of Indigenous peoples in North America that are
recognized in the Canadian Constitution Act, of 1982: First Nations, Inuit, and
Métis. According to the Employment Equity Act, Aboriginal peoples are a
designated group, along with women, visible minorities, and persons with
disabilities.

However, they are not considered a visible minority under the Employment Equity
Act or by Statistics Canada. In the 2011 Canadian Census, 1,400,685 Aboriginal
peoples were enumerated, making up 4.3% of the country's total population.
`

This total included 851,560 people of First Nations descent, 451,795 Métis, and
59,445 Inuit. National representative bodies of Aboriginal peoples in Canada
include the Assembly of First Nations, the Inuit Tapiriit Kanatami, the Métis
National Council, the Native Women's Association of Canada, the National
Association of Native Friendship Centres, and the Congress of Aboriginal Peoples.

Indigenous peoples have been creating art for thousands of years, predating the arrival
of European settlers and the establishment of Canada as a nation-state. Indigenous art
traditions span territories across North America and are categorized by art historians
based on cultural, linguistic, or regional groups such as the Northwest Coast, Plateau,
Plains, Eastern Woodlands, Subarctic, and Arctic.

These traditions vary greatly among and within these diverse groups. Indigenous
visual art is often portable and body-focused, in contrast to European architectural
traditions. It is also frequently used in conjunction with other arts, such as masks and
rattles used ceremoniously in dance, storytelling, and music by shamans.

Artworks preserved in museum collections date from the period after European
contact and show evidence of the creative adoption and adaptation of European trade
goods such as metal and glass beads.

The Métis cultures that have arisen from intercultural relationships with Europeans
contribute to the creation of culturally hybrid art forms. However, during the 19th and
the first half of the 20th century, the Canadian government pursued an active policy of
forced cultural assimilation towards Indigenous peoples.
`

The Indian Act prohibited manifestations of the Sun Dance, the Potlatch, and works
of art depicting them. It was only in the 1950s and 1960s that indigenous artists such
as Mungo Martin, Bill Reid, and Norval Morrisseau began to publicly revitalize and
reinterpret indigenous art traditions. Presently, there is a presence of indigenous artists
across various mediums in Canada.

Edward Poitras and Rebecca Belmore, both indigenous artists, showcased Canada at
the Venice Biennale in 1995 and 2005, respectively. Indigenous artists continue to
play a significant role in shaping the cultural landscape of Canada, bringing attention
to important issues such as colonialism, identity, and the environment through their
artwork.

Through their unique perspectives and experiences, indigenous artists are challenging
stereotypes, reclaiming their heritage, and creating powerful and thought-provoking
pieces that resonate with audiences both nationally and internationally.

As their influence continues to grow, indigenous artists are making invaluable

contributions to the art world, enriching it with their diverse voices and perspectives.
Indigenous artists are also using their platform to advocate for social justice and push
for greater recognition and representation of Indigenous peoples in the art world.
Through their work, they are challenging the status quo and demanding a more
inclusive and equitable art community.

Their voices are powerful and necessary in the ongoing dialogue about indigenous
rights and cultural heritage. As we continue to celebrate and support indigenous
artists, we are not only enriching our artistic landscape but also honoring the
resilience and creativity of indigenous communities. Indigenous artists are paving the
way for a more inclusive and diverse art world, one that recognizes and celebrates the
unique perspectives and talents of Indigenous peoples.
`

Their contributions are not only shaping the cultural landscape of Canada but also
challenging societal norms and advocating for social change. As we continue to uplift
and support indigenous artists, we are moving towards a future where their voices are
heard, their stories are valued, and their art is celebrated on a global scale. Indigenous
artists are breaking barriers and pushing boundaries in the art world, showcasing the
richness and diversity of indigenous cultures.

Their works serve as a powerful reminder of the resilience and strength of indigenous
communities, challenging preconceived notions and highlighting the
interconnectedness of all peoples.

As we continue to elevate indigenous voices and support their artistic endeavors, we

are not only promoting cultural understanding and appreciation but also fostering a
more inclusive and equitable society for all.

Indigenous artists are leading the way towards a future where art is a powerful tool for
social change and unity, inspiring us all to embrace diversity and celebrate the beauty
of indigenous heritage. Indigenous artists are reshaping the art world with their unique
perspectives and powerful storytelling.

Their work challenges conventional norms and sheds light on important issues facing
indigenous communities. By amplifying their voices and supporting their artistic
endeavors, we are not only enriching our cultural landscape but also fostering a more
inclusive and equitable society for all.
`

Indigenous artists continue to inspire and provoke thought, inviting us to reflect on

our shared humanity and the interconnectedness of all peoples. As we embrace and
celebrate indigenous art, we are embracing a future where diversity is celebrated and
cultural heritage is valued.

Approximately 40,115 people with Aboriginal ancestry were not included in the 2006
census because some Aboriginal reserves and communities in Canada did not take
part in the count that year.

The undercount affected 22 Indigenous communities in 2006, fewer than the 30 First
Nation communities in 2001 and the 77 Indigenous communities in 1996.
Consequently, it was estimated that around 1,212,905 individuals of Aboriginal
descent (including North American Indians, Metis, and Inuit) were living in Canada
during the 2006 census.

In the following years, efforts were made to improve the accuracy of census data
collection in Indigenous communities across Canada. Special outreach programs and
partnerships were established to ensure better participation and representation of
Aboriginal peoples in the national census.

These initiatives aimed to address the undercounting issues and provide a more
comprehensive picture of the Indigenous population in the country. In the subsequent
censuses, particularly in 2011 and 2016, the inclusion of Indigenous voices and
perspectives in the data collection process continued to be a priority.

Collaborative efforts between Statistics Canada and Indigenous organizations were

strengthened to foster trust, improve communication, and tailor data collection
methods to better suit the needs and preferences of Indigenous communities.
`

These ongoing endeavors have played a crucial role in enhancing the accuracy and
reliability of census data about Aboriginal peoples in Canada. Efforts to ensure the
accurate representation of Indigenous communities in the Canadian census have been
ongoing and have shown positive results in recent years.

The collaborative approach between Statistics Canada and Indigenous organizations

has led to improved trust, communication, and data collection methods tailored to the
specific needs of Aboriginal peoples.

This continued commitment to inclusivity and accuracy has been instrumental in

providing a more comprehensive and reliable picture of the Indigenous population in
Canada, highlighting the importance of recognizing and valuing the voices and
perspectives of all communities in national data collection efforts. Efforts to ensure
the accurate representation of Indigenous communities in the Canadian census have
been ongoing and have shown positive results in recent years. The collaborative
approach between Statistics Canada and Indigenous organizations has led to improved
trust, communication, and data collection methods tailored to the specific needs of
Aboriginal peoples. This continued commitment to inclusivity and accuracy has been
instrumental in providing a more comprehensive and reliable picture of the
Indigenous population in Canada, highlighting the importance of recognizing and
valuing the voices and perspectives of all communities in national data collection
efforts. In the realm of data collection and representation, the journey towards
inclusivity and accuracy is an ongoing one.
`

The strides made in improving the census data about Indigenous communities in
Canada serve as a testament to the importance of recognizing and valuing diverse
voices and perspectives.

By fostering collaboration, trust, and tailored approaches to data collection, we move

closer to a more comprehensive understanding of the rich tapestry of identities that
make up our nation.

Efforts to ensure the accurate representation of Indigenous communities in the

Canadian census have been ongoing and have shown positive results in recent years.

The collaborative approach between Statistics Canada and Indigenous organizations

has led to improved trust, communication, and data collection methods tailored to the
specific needs of Aboriginal peoples.

This continued commitment to inclusivity and accuracy has been instrumental in

providing a more comprehensive and reliable picture of the Indigenous population in
Canada, highlighting the importance of recognizing and valuing the voices and
perspectives of all communities in national data collection efforts.

The journey towards inclusivity and accuracy in data collection is a continuous one,
reflecting the commitment to embracing diversity and understanding the complexities
of our nation's population. Efforts to ensure accurate representation in census data
collection have been crucial not only for Indigenous communities but also for various
other marginalized groups in Canada.
`

By prioritizing inclusivity, collaboration, and tailored approaches to data collection,

Statistics Canada continues to work towards a more comprehensive understanding of
the diverse populations that shape the nation's identity.

The ongoing commitment to recognizing and valuing the voices and perspectives of
all communities underscores the importance of data accuracy in informing policies
and programs that address the needs of a multicultural society. Efforts to ensure
accurate representation in census data collection have been crucial not only for
Indigenous communities but also for various other marginalized groups in Canada.

By prioritizing inclusivity, collaboration, and tailored approaches to data collection,

Statistics Canada continues to work towards a more comprehensive understanding of
the diverse populations that shape the nation's identity.

The ongoing commitment to recognizing and valuing the voices and perspectives of
all communities underscores the importance of data accuracy in informing policies
and programs that address the needs of a multicultural society.

This dedication to inclusivity and accuracy in data collection reflects a broader

societal shift towards recognizing and respecting the unique experiences and
contributions of all individuals, regardless of background or identity.

Efforts to ensure accurate representation in census data collection have been crucial
not only for Indigenous communities but also for various other marginalized groups in
Canada. By prioritizing inclusivity, collaboration, and tailored approaches to data
collection, Statistics Canada continues to work towards a more comprehensive
understanding of the diverse populations that shape the nation's identity.