IET Microwaves, Antennas & Propagation

Research Article

ISSN 1751-8725
Three-element broadband narrow beam Received on 8th January 2016
Revised on 3rd April 2016
without side lobes array antenna Accepted on 5th May 2016
doi: 10.1049/iet-map.2016.0015
www.ietdl.org

Peter Apostolov ✉
Department of Communication and Computer Engineering, South West University “Neofit Rilski”, Ivan Mihailov str. No. 66,
Blagoevgrad 2700, Bulgaria
✉ E-mail: p_apostolov@abv.bg

Abstract: This study proposes the design of a three-element uniform linear array antenna using the method of
‘compressed cosines’. An approximation of an ideal array factor (AF) – Kronecker-δ with third degree optimal
polynomial was performed and some Luneburg lenses were used to realise the array antenna. The designed array
antenna has remarkable properties: broadband, narrow beam without side lobes, and with constant selectivity of the
AF. A Matlab simulation was also demonstrated and a five-element, two-dimensional array antenna was designed with
the proposed method.

1 Introduction are non-monotonical (equiripple). In [1] is noted: ‘for a given SLR

The uniform linear array (ULA) antenna is a technical device for
signal spatial selection. In theory, it is assumed to consist of
uniformly and linearly placed isotropic radiators. The theory on
array antennas dates from the first half of the twentieth century.
Classical problems include obtaining a pencil beam array factor
(AF) with minimum side-lobe level, or side lobe envelope
shaping. In [1], an overview of the known methods for ULA
synthesis has been made. Some methods such as Dolph–
Chebyshev [2]; modifications of the function sinc(.) – Taylor one
parameter distribution [3], Taylor
n distribution [4], and
Villeneuve
n distribution [5] have also been discussed.
The bases of contemporary methods of beam-forming synthesis
are various iterative algorithms, which can produce arbitrary forms
of the AF. Elliott’s method for side lobe envelope shaping [6] uses
an iterative procedure to achieve zero shifts. In [7], the Newton–
Raphson method is used to rapidly (usually ten iterations) find null
shifts.
Other authors have also implemented various algorithms and
optimisation methods such as Bayesian inference framework [8],
Remez exchange algorithm [9], exponential Prony’s method [10],
genetic algorithm [11]; Taguchi’s method [12]; particle swarm
optimisation method [13] and others.
An overview of the current state-of-the-art in the field of the
phased arrays based on non-regular lattices or overlapped
subarrays is given in [14]. The described innovative methods
improve in various aspects the characteristics of the phased arrays,
reducing the number of array elements, cost, computational
complexity, antenna selectivity and so on.
Essentially, most of the methods are polynomial approximations
of the ideal AF using the L2 (Fourier transform) and L∞ norms.
The ideal AF is the Kronecker-δ function

w(u) = −
1, u = 0  p p
d(u) = ; u[ − , , (1)
0, u = 0 2 2
where θ is the observation angle. This is an AF with a main lobe
width of 0° and zero level of the side lobes. The approximation in
L2 norm uses sinc(.) function. The side lobe envelope decreases
monotonically, which is the result of the Gibbs’ phenomena. In a
number of the cited articles, weighting (window) functions are
used to reduce the Gibbs’ phenomena. The approximations using
the L∞ (Chebyshev’s) norm are optimal and the side-lobes levels
(side-lobe ratio) Dolph–Chebyshev distribution yields the highest
directivity and the narrowest beamwidth’. In other words, the
optimal approximation using the L∞ norm is the best
approximation for ULA design.
In this paper, a new approximation method with compressed
cosines for ULA design is presented.
2 Approximation with compressed cosines
From the above-discussed methods, we can draw that to obtain an
AF with high selectivity, a polynomial of high order is required,
and it follows a large number of radiators. Usually, the radiators
are located at a half-wavelength distance, which denotes a large
ULA geometrical size. The synthesis problem is an approximation
of the ideal AF with the lowest degree polynomial with minimal
approximation error.
The approximation theoretical base is the alternation theorem [15]:
† If a function f (x) is defined and continuous in a closed definition
area, it can be approximated by a trigonometric polynomial Pn(x) by
power n, with the basis function cos(x).
† The polynomial is the unique and best approximation, if the error
function E(x) = f (x) − Pn (x) has at least n + 2 extremes in the
definition area.
† All extremes are alternative and their modules are equal to a
positive number ɛ – the approximation error.
In the alternation theorem, basis function cos(.) is required. The
method of compressed cosines uses basis function with
modulation cos(nj(θ)), where
p   
erf bkd sin u + 1 . (2)
2
In (2), d is the inter-element distance, k = 2π/l is the wave number,
and erf(.) is the Gaussian integral error function. This is the function
with an S-shaped graph. The parameter β > 0 changes the gradient of
the erf(.) graph. The result is a compression of the cosine oscillations
density in the middle of the definition domain (see Fig. 1). This
effect gives the name of the method: ‘Approximation with
compressed cosines’ [16].
The approximation method is a Remez’ exchange algorithm. It
comprises an iterative procedure based on the alternation theorem,

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Fig. 2 Optimal approximations, ɛ = 0.373
Fig. 1 Modulating and basis functions, n = 3

using the L∞ norm. As a result, n + 1 coefficients of an optimal

trigonometric polynomial of odd power (n) and approximation
error (ɛ) are obtained.
In accordance with the task, an approximation with n = 3 is
accepted. The basis function has only two extremes (Fig. 1). We
denote the angles of these extremes with θ1 and θ2. Due to the
low polynomial degree, the Remez’ algorithm process has only
one iteration with initial condition {−π/2, θ1, 0, θ2 π/2}. The
polynomial coefficients and the approximation error are derived by
(see (3))

As a result, a third-degree polynomial is obtained


4
P3 (u) = bi cos[(i − 1)w(u)], (4)
i=1

with four coefficients and maximal approximation error (ɛ)

b4 = 0; b3 = −0.5; b2 = 0; b1 = 0.5 − 1. (5)

Fig. 3 Optimal approximations, ɛ = 0
Note that coefficient b4 = 0. This means that practically, the
approximation polynomial is of second degree. Substituting the
Evidently, this approximation is closer to the ideal AF. When
coefficients in (4), the polynomial becomes
β = ∞, the polynomial graph coincides with the ideal AF. In this
  case, the coefficients are constants
P2 (u) = 0.5 − 0.5 cos 2w(u) − 1. (6)
b4 = 0; b3 = −0.5; b2 = 0; b1 = 0.5, (7)
Fig. 2 shows the polynomial approximation of the Kronecker-δ
for two values of parameter β, d = l /2, and approximation error, and the polynomial expression is
ɛ = 0.373.
This is an optimal equiripple approximation with maximal error ɛ.  
The polynomial is equal to the ideal AF only in two points, where the P2 (u) = 0.5 − 0.5 cos 2w(u) . (8)
graph intersects the abscissa axis. From (6), it is seen that the third
term (−ɛ) does not depend on the angle θ. Its meaning in this The parameter β is determined from
dependence is to translate the function to negative vertical   √
direction by ɛ value, as seen from Fig. 2. The maximum value of erf −1 (1/p) arccos 1 − 2 0.2043 l
the function is (1 − ɛ) and the minimum is (−ɛ). Therefore, if we b=   ≃  ; d= ,
p sin DuHPBW sin DuHPBW 2
assume ɛ = 0, we obtain а polynomial with the lowest
approximation error (Fig. 3). (9)

 −p   −p   −p  −1
1 cos w cos 2w cos 3w 1
b1 2 2 2 0
b2 1 cos w u1 cos 2w u1 cos 3w u1 −1 0
b3 = 1 cos[w(0)] cos[2w(0)] cos[3w(0)] 1 × 1 . (3)
b4       0
1 cos w u2 cos 2w u2 cos 3w u2 −1
1       0
1 cos w p/2 cos 2w p/2 cos 3w p/2 1

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where ΔθHPBW is the main lobe half power bandwidth and erf−1(.) is
the inverse integral Gaussian error function.
The normalised AF is obtained using z-transform [17, 18]
   
A(u) = 1 − 2 exp j2w(u) + 1 exp j4w(u) . (10)

Fig. 4 shows the AF in (dB) corresponding to the one presented in

Fig. 3’s polynomial approximation. The AF is without side lobes
and the parameter β changes the main lobe width.

3 Array antenna design

The task is to realise the three terms of the AF (10) with technical
devices. The ULA will have three elements. The exciting currents
are proportional to the coefficients (1, 2, 1). This can be easily
achieved by multiplying the signal from the second antenna by 2,
or by reducing the signals from first and third antennas by half
power attenuators. The exponents in the second and the third Fig. 4 AFs in (dB): continuous line β = 0.5; dashed line β = 1
terms express the phase change of the signals.
The phase distribution is a non-linear function (2) of the
observation angle θ. It is technically easier for j(θ) to be realised and (14)
with delay lines. Taking the derivative of j(θ), the time function
is defined. For d = l/2 ⎧ ⎫
 
w′ (u) 1 ⎨ cos u ⎬
√ w(u) = tnom 1 − √ = 1−    . (16)
dw bp p cos u bp p 2f ⎩ exp 2bp sin u ⎭
2
w ′ (u ) = =  .
du exp 2bp sin u2
(11)

The weighting function for d = l/2 is defined. The function depends

It is important for the phased array antenna to be broadband. This on the spatial angle θ, the frequency f, and the parameter β, and does
means that at a fixed distance d, the array antenna does not change not depend on the distance d between the elements. The weighting
its diagram over a wide frequency range. Usually, the frequency function determines the array antenna selectivity ΔθHPBW
range is 10–15% of the nominal frequency f = c/l, where c is the independently on the distance between the elements (Fig. 6).
speed of light in vacuum. In this regard, a solution in two steps is The total delay (Fig. 7) for each antenna is given as follows
proposed.
⎧  p 
⎪
⎨ 0, u[ − ,0
  2
3.1 Phase alignment tA1 (u) = d  p . (17)
⎪
⎩2 sin u, u [ 0,
Time delay functions are introduced for alignment of the phases of c 2
the signals  
d  p p
⎧  p  tA2 (u) = w(u) + |sin u|, u[ − , ; (18)
⎪ c 2 2
⎨ 0, u[ − ,0
  2  
tA1 (u) = d  p ; (12) ⎧  p 
⎪
⎩2 u [ 0, ⎪
⎨ 2w(u) + 2
d
sin u, |sin u|, u[ − ,0
c 2 tA3 (u) = c 2
⎪  p . (20)
   p p ⎩ 2w(u), u [ 0,
d 2
tA2 (u) = |sin u|, u[ − , ; (13)
c 2 2
⎧    p 
⎪ d
⎨2 |sin u|, u[ − ,0
tA3 (u) = c 2
⎪  p . (14)
⎩ 0, u [ 0,
2

Fig. 5 shows the time delay functions normalised to the nominal time

l 1
tnom = = . (15)
2c 2f

From (12)–(14), it is seen that the time delay functions depend on the
spatial angle θ and on the distance d between the elements. They do
not depend on the frequency f, or wavelength l, i.e. the phase
alignment is for all the frequencies.

3.2 Time weighting function

After phases alignment, the time weighting function (time window)

is added to the delays of the second and the third antennas (13) Fig. 5 Time functions for phase alignment

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Fig. 6 Time weighting function, ΔθHPBW=10°
Fig. 8 Luneburg lens
Thus, at a fixed inter-element distance, the array antenna can operate
with a constant selectivity of the AF on an arbitrary nominal this condition is satisfied when the diameter of the lens is
frequency or wavelength. D ≃ 0.411l. For larger values of the diameter, it is necessary to
take the gain of the lens into account and the radiation of the array
antenna will be defined by the pattern multiplication theorem:
4 Technical solution Array pattern = Array element pattern × AF.
Fig. 10 shows the structure of a three-element ULA with the
As noted above, the amplitude distribution is realised by multiplying Luneburg lenses with signal processing devices shown in Fig. 9.
by two the signal from the second antenna. To implement the time Due to the phase alignment, the distance d between the elements
weighting function, an antenna that determines all the directions of can be sufficiently large to avoid mutual shadowing of the lenses.
the signals in the observation plane is needed. Such an antenna is The ratio between the inter-element distance and the lens diameter
the Luneburg lens. The Luneburg lens is a sphere with a variable
relative dielectric constant, ɛr. The lens has the property to focus
the plain waves from all directions of the angle θ in points on one d 1 p−a
= cotg ; a [ (130◦ , 180◦ ), (21)
semicircle in the azimuth plane. For example, in Fig. 8 the point a D 2 2
is the focus point from direction θ ≃ −30°, and the point b from
direction θ ≃ 45°. where α is the angle of the observation range.
The focusing properties are due to the gradient of the refraction
√ The signal from the second lens is multiplied by 2. At the output,
coefficient nrefr = 1r . They do not depend on the frequency, or all the signals are added.
the wavelength, l. Therefore, the theoretical focusing properties of
the Luneburg lens are in the entire radio-frequency band. N
antenna sensors are installed on the focus semicircle. The electrical
signals on the focus semicircle are down-converted, sampled and
delayed in accordance with formulas (16)–(20), as shown in
Fig. 9. All the signals are summed at the output.
To obtain the AF, we assume that the Luneburg lens has a unit
gain, similar to an isotropic radiator. For aperture efficiency 0.6,

Fig. 9 Lower hemisphere of a Luneburg lens with A/D convertors and delay
Fig. 7 Total delay functions for each antenna lines

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Fig. 10 ULA antenna structure with three Luneburg lenses

Fig. 12 2D array antenna

The ULA can operate simultaneously in real time with high
selectivity in many frequency bands, as the different time delays
can be easily changed. This property of the AF is proven by
Matlab simulation. A computer simulation for a three-element
ULA with inter-element distance l/2 and main lobe width
ΔθHPBW = 10° is done. For frequencies 0.3f, f and 3f, 91 × 3
sinusoids are used. The sinusoids are phased so as to simulate the
reception of signals at three isotropic radiators from 91 spatial
directions of the angle θ ∈ [−90°, 90°]. The signal processing uses
formulas (15)–(20).
Fig. 11 shows the results of the simulation. The beamwidth of the
AF is constant for the different frequencies. It follows that when the
frequency band is divided into sub-bands, the described array
antenna (Fig. 10) is a spatial prototype filter bank with а sampling
period of tnom (15).
The main lobe width ΔθHPBW depends on the parameter β, which
can be arbitrarily large. This means that with three lenses, an
arbitrary specification can be realised with respect to the width of
the main lobe.

5 Two-dimensional (2D) ULA with five Luneburg Fig. 13 Theoretical AF of 2D array antenna
lenses

It is known that ULA is selective in the azimuth angle θ only. To The antenna sensors for the delay lines of the central common
obtain 2D selectivity, a combination of two orthogonally placed antenna A2 are placed on two mutually perpendicular focal
ULAs has to be realised with three Luneburg lenses each, as semicircles. The signal from A2 is multiplied by 2. At the output,
shown in Fig. 12. all the signals are added. Fig. 13 shows the theoretical AF of 2D ULA.

Fig. 11 Matlab simulations

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Fig. 14 Comparison of AFs
6 Discussion
In Fig. 14, the AFs of four array antennas are compared with the
following specifications:
† three-element uniform array with half-wavelength distance;
† three-element binomial array with half-wavelength distance;
† fifteen-element Dolph–Chebyshev array with half-wavelength
distance, and side-lobes level −40 dB;
† three-element compressed cosines array with half-wavelength
distance.
It is seen that the array antenna with compressed cosines has better
selectivity than uniform and binomial arrays; with wider main lobe,
but without side lobes as compared with the 15-element Dolph–
Chebyshev array.
The proposed approximation method of compressed cosines is
very simple, because the polynomial coefficients are constants.
Such array antenna cannot be realised with three simpler elements
(dipoles, slots etc.) because they cannot determine the direction of
arrival of the signals.
The accuracy of the AF beamwidth depends on the number of
antenna sensors (Fig. 9). For the above-demonstrated simulation
with 91 sensors (Fig. 11), the narrowest accurate beamwidth is 4°.
The described array antenna can operate in real time on one or
more nominal frequencies, with equal AF selectivity, and also to
steer the main beam.
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The signal from the second lens must be multiplied exactly by 2,
otherwise, side lobes will appear. Exact multiplication by 2 and
programmable time delays with digital signal processing can be
easily realised.
7 Conclusion
With the method of compressed cosines, an optimal third degree
polynomial is obtained. Original formulas for signal processing are
defined. A technical solution to design ULA with three Luneburg
lenses is proposed. As a result, a narrow beam broadband without
side lobes ULA and with constant selectivity of the AF is
designed. The array antenna is a spatial prototype filter bank.
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