See discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: https://www.researchgate.

net/publication/377058512

Two-decadal climate impacts on growth of major forest types of Eastern

Himalaya

Article in Trees Forests and People · March 2024

DOI: 10.1016/j.tfp.2023.100491

CITATIONS READS

0 1,498

5 authors, including:

Rajdeep Chanda Salam Suresh Singh

Mizoram University Mizoram University
10 PUBLICATIONS 17 CITATIONS 4 PUBLICATIONS 1 CITATION

SEE PROFILE SEE PROFILE

Ngangbam Somen Singh Keshav Kumar Upadhyay

Mizoram University Mizoram University
24 PUBLICATIONS 54 CITATIONS 33 PUBLICATIONS 124 CITATIONS

SEE PROFILE SEE PROFILE

All content following this page was uploaded by Shri Kant Tripathi on 05 January 2024.

The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file.

 Trees, Forests and People 15 (2024) 100491

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Trees, Forests and People

journal homepage: www.sciencedirect.com/journal/trees-forests-and-people

Two-decadal climate impacts on growth of major forest types of

Eastern Himalaya
Rajdeep Chanda , Salam Suresh Singh , Ngangbam Somen Singh , Keshav Kumar Upadhyay , Shri
Kant Tripathi *
Department of Forestry, School of Earth Sciences and Natural Resource Management, Mizoram University, Aizawl, Mizoram, India

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Forests affect regional climates, livelihoods and global cycles of water, carbon and nitrogen. Anthropogenic
Climate variables activities and climatic change affect forest health and national growth. Therefore, developing effective forest
Edaphic factors management plans requires understanding of the drivers of forest growth. The primary objective of this study
Vegetation indices
was to understand the long-term effect of abiotic factors on the growth of forests in the region. This study used
EVI
MODIS
Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) data for vegetation indices like NDVI and EVI and
NDVI NASA’s Land Assimilation datasets (wind speed, evapotranspiration, soil moisture and temperature) to under­
stand their role on forest growth through statistical techniques such as Pearson’s correlation and Multiple Linear
Regression. The study examined the relationship between standard monthly vegetation indices and abiotic
variables (i.e., moisture and temperature at different soil profiles up to 2 m depth, land surface temperature,
evapotranspiration, relative humidity, wind velocity, and air temperature at 2 m height) in selected forests of the
Eastern Himalayas for two decades (2001–2020, n = 240). Rainfall, temperature, and other associated factors
significantly affected forest growth in the region. It was observed that rainfall alone affected forest growth in the
region. However, its impact was maximum after two months of the rain events, reflecting a significant lag effect.
Soil moisture at different depths affected vegetation growth in all forest types. Reduced soil moisture had a more
significant effect on old-growth forests than younger forests. Multiple Linear Regression models developed with
the abiotic factors explained higher variability in forest growth. In conclusion, this study reveals that rainfall,
temperature, and their associated variables significantly affected forest growth in the study area. The study has
significant implications for forest management in the region for formulating better strategies to mitigate climate
change effects on forests in the region in future.

1. Introduction 2017; Wapongnungsang et al., 2018; Beugnon et al., 2023). As a result,

Forests are dynamic components that affect the Earth’s climate sys­
tem in several ways, for instance, absorbing carbon dioxide from the
atmosphere through photosynthesis and sequestering it in the tree
biomass and soil for its more extended residence (Ao et al., 2023). Short
and long-term biotic and abiotic changes that occur over a year or for
decades alter the rate and efficiency of forest productivity by affecting
the process of photosynthesis (Davis et al., 2022). Further, changes in
photosynthesis have far-reaching consequences on the ability of forests
to capture carbon that may affect the region’s sustainable development.
Trees in a forest ecosystem add carbon and nutrients to the soil upon
their death, which energise microbes to degrade soil organic matter into
nutrients, promoting forest growth and regeneration (Pandey et al.,
in addition to influencing the local weather patterns of a region, forests
are superior to any other ecosystems in terms of cycling carbon and
nutrients. However, local meteorological circumstances and abiotic
variables strongly affect the carbon and nutrient cycling rates (Chen
et al., 2018).
Forest microclimates are therefore essential to consider in ecological
research for a comprehensive understanding of the factors that influence
changes in forest cover in relation to various climatic variables (De
Frenne et al., 2021). Furthermore, buffer zones created by protected
forests help mitigate the destructive effects of climate change on local
economies by controlling various ecosystem processes (Siyum, 2020).
Therefore, it is essential to learn how climate change affects pre-existing
forest vegetation reserves so that preventative actions and adaptive

* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: sk_tripathi@rediffmail.com (S.K. Tripathi).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tfp.2023.100491

Available online 1 January 2024

2666-7193/© 2023 Published by Elsevier B.V. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
R. Chanda et al.
measures may be developed to conserve the forest and improve the
livelihoods of the region under the changing climate (Sanogo et al.,
2021). Most studies on forest biodiversity rely on gridded macroclimate
data, which are based on rainfall and temperature patterns based on
weather stations located in open areas outside the forests. Hence, many
forest and climate analyses (precipitation and temperature effects) could
not effectively capture the fluctuations in forest microclimate at small
spatio-temporal scales (Potter et al., 2013).
Remote sensing via satellite imagery is a cost-effective and efficient
method of mapping forests (Navalgund et al., 2007), which has
contributed to our understanding of terrestrial processes and the crea­
tion of geodatabases on vegetation structure and dynamics (Roy et al.,
2013). Satellite imagery has become a cost-effective and efficient tool
for understanding the terrestrial plant structure and dynamics and
building databases for vegetation processes through accurate vegetation
mapping over the last few decades (Lechner et al., 2020). These datasets
might provide an upper edge to the studies of forest dynamics by
providing a range of satellite-based modelled characteristics, which are
the most effective methods that can be used to solve the challenge of
forest growth monitoring over complex terrains globally. Recent de­
velopments in Remote Sensing (RS) and Geographical Information
Systems (GIS) have enabled us to examine many causes of forest dis­
turbances at different spatial scales (i.e., regional and global) (Wang
et al., 2010; Garbarino et al., 2023). RS datasets such as MODIS (Mod­
erate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer), NDVI and EVI are
commonly used for wide locations to study the gaps in understanding
the driving forces that trigger forest growth and development at various
spatial scales. Vegetation indices indicate forest structure and can be
valuable for landscape planning and developing forest conservation and
restoration strategies (Freitas et al., 2005).
The microclimate of a forest is of utmost importance as it is a
fundamental regulator of many vital ecosystem functions. In a forest
environment, evaporative cooling, or transpiration, lowers the temper­
atures at the canopy and the soil surface (De Frenne et al., 2013). Due to
increased solar radiation and wind, there are sometimes substantial
microclimatic variations towards forest fringes. Thereby, small-scale
differences in sun fleck at the stand level generate substantial rises in
near-ground temperatures (Matlack, 1993). Many hydrological and
forest biogeochemical processes rely heavily on edaphic variables like
soil moisture from the surface (at 0–10 cm depth) to various rooting
zones (up to 200 cm depth) through more profound and widespread root
systems (Wang and Qu, 2009).
Air temperature plays a pivotal role in determining the vegetation
health of a forest in many ways, for example, changing temperature
regimes influence plant life cycle events (i.e., phenology) to shift from
the regular times, such as early or late bud burst, leafing, flowering and
fruiting (Gebeyehu and Hirpo, 2019). Abnormal temperatures might
have a knock-on effect on forests by making them more susceptible to
insect infestations. Specific herbivore insect populations in a forest can
have their growth and development stimulated by other external factors,
such as humidity, which negatively affect forest growth (Jaworski and
Hilszczański, 2014). Conditions of wind close to the ground affect the
physiological processes in trees and their growth and survival ability.
The interactions between wind and trees can also occur across a vast
spectrum of spatio-temporal scales (Schindler et al., 2012).
Soil temperatures at varying depths also affect root growth and
development by changing the expansion of root systems (McMichael and
Burke, 1998). Studies show that deforestation in many regions of the
world increases surface albedo, the proportion of incident solar radia­
tion reflected by the Earth’s surface, which contributes significantly to
the stability of the energy levels of the planet. A dense forest’s albedo is
typically lower than other land use patterns like cities or meadows
(Spracklen et al., 2018). Moreover, evapotranspiration is one of the
crucial biospheric processes that involve evaporating liquid water from
wet surfaces and plant tissues (Matin and Bourque, 2013), and thus,
forests showed higher rates of evapotranspiration than any other
2
Trees, Forests and People 15 (2024) 100491
terrestrial ecosystems. In tropical forests, evapotranspiration rates are
reported to be 1080 mm year− 1, which is more than 80 % higher than
tropical grasslands, which register at 580 mm year− 1 as per satellite
retrievals (Schlesinger and Jasechko, 2014). Further, the same authors
reported that transpiration is a significant determinant of rainfall and
microclimate of a region that indicate the significance of vegetation in
the global water cycle, as in the case of tropical rainforests of the
Amazon.
The Himalayas, famous as the "abode of snow," are highly significant
because of the way they have shaped the South Asian culture and the
environment for thousands of years. Significant studies have been car­
ried out in the region to study the impact of climate on forests. Kumar
et al. (2019) showed that 80 % of the region is vulnerable to climate
change because of various expansion activities in the western Himalayas
of the Indian region. The Eastern Himalayas, spread across the five
South Asian nations (China, India, Bhutan, Nepal, and Myanmar), are an
expansive mountain range consisting of rich varieties of flora and fauna.
Northeastern parts of India, like Arunachal Pradesh, Sikkim, Assam,
Nagaland, Manipur, Mizoram, Tripura, and Meghalaya, are integral
parts of the Eastern Himalaya. This region is essential for several rea­
sons, including the cultural richness and ecological value because of the
vital ecosystem services they provide to the region (WWF-US, 2005).
Negi et al. (2022) showed that increasing temperatures in the eastern as
well as western Himalayas during the past two decades have resulted in
the melting of glaciers, which will be of significant concern for this
ecologically sensitive region. Increasing anthropogenic (i.e., expansion
of population, agricultural, tourism, etc.) loads for fuelwood and cattle
feed in recent decades in this region have severely affected the health of
forests (Wani et al., 2013; Verma et al., 2021). As a result, plant diversity
and stocks of carbon and nutrients in forest soils have been declining at
alarming rates because of these pressures (Bisht et al., 2022). Therefore,
it is critical to implement efficient management and conservation plans
to minimise the impact of human activities in this region.
Although many studies have been carried out focusing on forest
cover changes with respect to climate (rainfall, temperature, and rela­
tive humidity) and carbon stock, limited studies have been carried out
that explain the effect of abiotic factors on forest growth. Thus, this
study hypothesises that abiotic factors of the region shape forest struc­
tures at large spatial and long temporal patterns. The main objective of
the present study is to investigate the role of abiotic factors (i.e., LST,
rainfall, air temperature, RH, wind speed, evapotranspiration, soil
moisture and temperature up to 2 m depth) on vegetation growth (i.e.,
NDVI and EVI) in long temporal (2001–2020) and large spatial scales
(different tropical, sub-tropical and temperate forests) of the Eastern
Himalayas.
2. Study area
The state of Mizoram represents the southern part of the Eastern
Himalayas, which is in the northeastern part of India and forms the
North-East Biogeographic Zone of India (Fig. 1). The geographical
location of Mizoram ranges from 21◦ 56′N to 24◦ 31′N and 92◦ 16′E to
93◦ 26′E. Being an integral part of the Eastern Himalayas, Mizoram has
the highest forest cover (84.53 %) as a percentage of the total
geographical area in the country (ISFR, 2021). Thus, it is essential to
study forest cover change studies in this region. The climate of the re­
gion is usually on the cooler side, varying from wet tropical to sub­
tropical. The annual precipitation of the state varies from 2100 mm to
3500 mm (based on the total annual average from 2001 to 2020), while
temperatures range from 11 ◦ C to 24 ◦ C in winter and 18 ◦ C to 29 ◦ C the
summer. The rainy season typically lasts from May through September
(Fig. 2).
This study was conducted in four protected forests and two com­
munity forests of Mizoram, northeast India. The temperate Phawngpui
National Park, the Blue Mountains, is situated at elevations ranging from
1800 to 2157 m amsl (Table 1), characterised by a humid and sub-
R. Chanda et al. Trees, Forests and People 15 (2024) 100491

Fig. 1. Map of the study area.

Fig. 2. Climatogram of Mizoram from 1901 to 2020 showing mean annual temperatures (minimum, maximum and mean) and annual total rainfall (mm). Data
downloaded from https://climateknowledgeportal.worldbank.org.

tropical climate (Champion and Seth, 1968) and encompasses a total
land area of 50 km2. The sub-tropical Dampa Tiger Reserve, the largest
protected area in the state, lies in the Mamit district and has an area of
approximately 500 km2, and average elevations range from 800 to 1100
m amsl. The sub-tropical Tawizo Wildlife Sanctuary lies in the Serchhip
district of the state and extends across approximately 35 km2. In addi­
tion, two subtropical community forests—Hmuifang and Reiek were
chosen for the study. While selecting the locations, it was kept in mind
that the region should be representative of a range of different elevations
across the state. The study thus considers altitudes ranging from 70 m in

3
R. Chanda et al. Trees, Forests and People 15 (2024) 100491

Table 1
Description of the study sites.
Area Coordinates Elevation Forest type Dominant species
(metres)

Zawlnuam Bird 24.1351◦ N 70–90 Tropical wet Ulmus lanceifolia, Dipterocarpus retusus, Persea minutiflora, Macaranga indica, Dysoxylum
Sanctuary 92.3345◦ E evergreen binectariferum
Dampa Tiger Reserve 23.5034◦ N 800–1100 Tropical semi- Walsura robusta, Macaranga indica, Dysoxylum binectariferum, Tetrameles nudiflora,
92.4180◦ E evergreen Aporusa octandra Castanopsis purpurella
Tawizo Wildlife 23.5617◦ N 1400–1500 Sub-tropical Moist Litsea salicifolia, Macropanax dispermus, Mitragyna rotundifolia, Persia odoratissima,
Sanctuary 92.9555 ◦ E Helicia robusta
Hmuifang Community 23.4496◦ N 1500–1700 Sub-tropical Moist Wendlandia budleioides, Helicia robusta, Macaranga indica, Schima wallichi, Embelia
Forest 92.7587◦ E robusta, Castanopsis purpurella
Reiek Community 23.6938◦ N 1200–1300 Sub-tropical Moist Litsea salicifolia, Acrocarpus fraxinifolius, Magnolia hodgsonii, Canarium bengalense,
Forest 92.6070 ◦ E Albizia richardiana
Phawngpui National 22.6831◦ N 1900–2157 Temperate Rhododendron arboreum, Pinus kesiya, Engelhardtia spicata, Helicia robusta, Quercus
Park 93.0458 ◦ E leucotrichophora, Macropanax dispermus

the Zawlnuam tropical forest, one of the lowest elevation lands of the
state, to the highest land of the state (2157 m) in the Blue Mountains.
Sub-tropical forests cover the majority of the forests of the region at
mid-altitudes.
3. Materials and methods
3.1. Collection of vegetation and climate data for the study
i) NDVI and EVI products
NDVI is one of the most popular and widely used remote sensing
indices. It is obtained by dividing the reflectance at the top of the at­
mosphere in the red band (ρred) at 0.66 m by the reflectance in the near-
infrared (NIR) band (ρnir) at 0.86 m. Positive NDVI values are more
typical in heavily vegetated regions. In contrast, near-zero or negative
values are more typical in water and urban regions. It is given by Piao
et al., 2007 as:
R(NIR) − R(RED)
NDVI =
R(NIR) + R(RED)
R(NIR) and R(RED) are the reflectance values of near infrared and red
electromagnetic spectrum bands.
The monthly Vegetation Index products used for the study were
MOD13C2 Version 6 products, which provide a Vegetation Index (VI)
value per pixel (250 m resolution). There are two primary layers of
vegetation. The first dataset is the Normalised Difference Vegetation
Index (NDVI), the continuity index to the existing NOAA-Advanced Very
High-Resolution Radiometer-derived NDVI.

Fig. 3. Flowchart of the study.

4
R. Chanda et al. Trees, Forests and People 15 (2024) 100491

The Enhanced Vegetation Index (EVI) is an optimised vegetation ∑n

index that aims to improve vegetation monitoring by de-coupling the i=1 (xi − x)(yi − y)
rxy = √̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
∑n ̅
2 ∑n
canopy background signal and minimising the impact of the atmosphere i=1 (xi − x) i=1 (yi − y)
2

on the vegetation signal, which is especially useful in areas with a high

biomass density (Didan et al., 2015). EVI can be calculated using the
formula:
N− R
EVI = G
N + C1 R − C2 B + L
where N, R, and B are atmospherically corrected or partially corrected
surface reflectance in the near-infrared, red, and blue bands, respec­
tively; G is a gain factor; C1 and C2 are the coefficients of the aerosol
resistance term, which uses the blue bar to correct for aerosol influences
in the red band; and L is the soil-adjustment factor. The datasets were
first downloaded and then reprojected to the WGS84 datum using the
reprojection tool of ArcGIS software (Alcaras et al., 2020). Further, the
values were extracted for the specific study sites for the study period
(Fig. 3). Details of various datasets used in the study are given in Table 2.
ii) MODIS Land Surface Temperature
Land Surface Temperature (LST) refers to the temperature at the
surface of the Earth. The product can be deduced from information from
satellites or through direct measurements. It is a highly accurate
measuring device that can determine whether a steady flow of energy is
transferred back and forth between the Earth and the atmosphere. It
assists in investigating global climate change effects on forest cover. The
LST product used for this study is the MODIS MOD11C3 monthly CMG
LST at 0.05-degree spatial resolution (Wan et al., 2015).
iii) Precipitation Data
Gridded monthly rainfall data provided by NASA’s Global Precipi­
tation Measurement programme has been used for this study. The GPM
IMERG Final Precipitation L3 1 month 0.1-degree x 0.1-degree (10 km)
V06 (GPM 3IMERGM) product was the one that was used in this study
(Huffman et al., 2018). The data sets were retrieved in NetCDF formats.
Then, with the help of programming languages, the data were extracted
according to the site coordinates.
iv) Other abiotic parameters
Besides Rainfall and Land Surface Temperature, six other monthly
averaged abiotic variables were considered for this study. These pa­
rameters are near surface Wind speed, Soil temperature (0–10 cm,
10–40 cm, 40–100 cm, and 100–200 cm depths), Soil moisture (0–10
cm, 10–40 cm, 40–100 cm, and 100–200 cm depths), total evapotrans­
piration, relative humidity, and air temperature at 2 m. The datasets are
part of the NASA-provided Famine Early Warning Systems Network
(FEWS NET) Land Data Assimilation System (FLDAS), which generates
simulated land surface parameters using the NOAH 3.6.1 model (Amy
McNally, 2018).
3.2. Correlation analysis of vegetation indices and abiotic parameters
Karl Pearson’s correlation coefficient was used to analyse the linear
relationship between rainfall and vegetation indices for the study re­
gions (Pearson, 1909). The Pearson correlation coefficient provides a
value between +1 and − 1 inclusive (x and y variables). The formula for
Pearson’s correlation is:
where xi is the vegetation index value for the i th year/month; yi is the
abiotic factor for the i th year/month; x is the average vegetation index
for all years/months and y is the average value of the abiotic factor for
all years/months (Guo et al., 2014). Pearson’s correlations were calcu­
lated using IBM SPSS Statistics Version 27.
3.3. Multiple regression analysis
Stepwise multiple linear regression is a statistical approach for
developing a regression model by automatically picking a subset of
predictor variables from a larger dataset through a computer program.
The purpose is to identify the most essential variables having consid­
erable influence on predicting the dependent variable. This technique
entails adding or eliminating variables based on specific criteria (F-
statistic threshold for entry: 0.05; F-statistic threshold for removal: 0.1)
at each phase. This helped us to determine the most influential factors
for the vegetation growth in the forests of our study area. The multi­
variate regression model is given by Eberly (2007) as follows:
̂ = a0 + a1 X1 + … + ai Xi
Y
where Ŷ is the dependent parameter being predicted, X0 represents the
intercept, i represents the number of independent variables and a1…i
and X1…i are regression coefficients and values for the independent
abiotic variables, respectively. Vegetation indices (NDVI/ EVI) denoted
by Ŷ were taken as the dependent variables in our study, and abiotic
parameters denoted by X1…i was taken as independent variables since
we had to establish how various abiotic variables affect the changes in
vegetation shifts in the study areas (He et al., 2013). For developing the
equations, Minitab Version 21.3.1 was used for developing the regres­
sion models. Akaike Information Criterion (AIC) and Bayesian Infor­
mation Criterion (BIC) were used to evaluate the goodness of model fits.
AIC is calculated using the formula:
AIC = − 2 ∗ log − likelihood + 2 ∗ k,
where "log-likelihood" is the maximised value of the likelihood function
for the estimated model, and "k" is the number of parameters in the
model. Similarly, BIC is calculated using the formula:
BIC = − 2 ∗ log − likelihood + k ∗ log(n),
where "log-likelihood" is the maximised value of the likelihood function,
"k" is the number of parameters, and "n" is the sample size. The models
were validated by running the equations using the test set validation
function of the Minitab software where the models are run with training
sets that are divided from the actual observations and run separately
from which the test R2 values are determined. The higher R2 values
mean that the model is working efficiently. The detailed results are
shown in Table 3.

Table 2
Details of various datasets used in the study.
Variables Data source Product used Resolution
Temporal Spatial

Rainfall GPM, NASA GPM 3IMERGM V06 1 month 10 km

Air Temperature MERRA-2, NASA M2IMNXASM V5.12.4 1 month ~50 km
Relative Humidity MERRA-2, NASA M2TMNPCLD V5.12.4 1 month ~50 km
Evapotranspiration, Soil Moisture, Soil Temperature, Windspeed FEWS NET, NOAH, NASA FLDAS_NOAH01_CP_GL_M 1 month 10 km
NDVI MODIS, NASA MOD13Q1 1 month 250 m
EVI MODIS, NASA MOD13Q1 1 month 250 m
LST MODIS, NASA MOD11C3 1 month 500 m

5
R. Chanda et al. Trees, Forests and People 15 (2024) 100491

Table 3
Tabulated results of multiple linear regression of vegetation indices vs. abiotic parameters.
Site Regression equation Observed Adjusted Predicted AIC BIC Validation
R2 R2 R2 test R2

Zawlnuam Bird NDVI = 0.34 − 0.02*WS + 0.52*SM100–200 + 0.01*ST100–200 − 89.29 % 88.96 % 88.31 % − 719.47 − 698.30 93.48 %
Sanctuary 0.004*LST − 0.000068*RF + 0.001*RH
EVI = − 0.24 + 0.96*SM100–200 + 0.02*ST40–100 87.08 % 86.84 % 86.36 % − 564.91 − 549.66 87.92 %
Dampa Tiger NDVI = 0.72 − 0.03*WS + 0.25*SM100–200 + 0.009*ST100–200 + 76.17 % 75.58 % 74.23 % − 722.27 − 704.05 80.36 %
Reserve 0.004*LST − 0.01*T2M
EVI = 0.1241 + 0.329*SM40–100 + 0.43*SM100–200 + 69.69 % 69.32 % 68.70 % − 526.78 − 514.53 76.15 %
0.005727*ST0–10
Tawizo Wildlife NDVI = 0.49 − 0.79*SM0–10 + 0.88*SM40–100 + 0.02*ST100–200 − 83.28 % 82.87 % 82.04 % − 709.93 − 691.71 88.98 %
Sanctuary 0.007*LST + 0.0008*RH
EVI = − 0.06 − 1.02*SM 0–10 + 1.58*SM40–100 + 0.02*ST40–100 + 83.83 % 83.64 % 83.25 % − 567.47 − 555.22 76.73 %
0.000061*RF
Hmuifang NDVI = 0.62 − 0.02*WS − 0.36*SM0–10 + 0.79*SM40–100 + 88.05 % 87.60 % 86.69 % − 738.95 − 714.86 92.51 %
Community 0.01*ST0–10 + 0.01*ST100–200 − 0.003*LST − 0.01T2M
Reserve
EVI = − 0.152 − 0.71*SM10–40 + 1.2*SM40–100 + 0.02*ST0–10 − 85.84 % 85.40 % 84.82 % − 559.75 − 538.58 88.47 %
0.0596*ST40–100 + 0.0704*ST100–200 − 0.00947*LST +
0.000071*RF
Reiek Community NDVI = 0.49 − 0.029*WS − 0.464*SM0–10 + 0.43*SM100–200 + 88.13 % 87.69 % 86.92 % − 738.97 − 714.88 93.49 %
Forest 0.02*ST100–200 − 0.005*LST + 0.001*RH
EVI = − 0.16 + 0.76*SM100–200 + 0.02*ST40–100 84.14 % 83.65 % 83.18 % − 541.83 − 520.66 87.07 %
Phawngpui NDVI = 0.58 − 0.04*WS + 1913*ET − 0.77*SM0–10 + 85.08 % 84.43 % 83.14 % − 670.45 − 643.47 78.79 %
National Park 0.59*SM40–100 + 0.02*ST100–200 − 0.008*LST + 0.002*RH
EVI = − 0.35 + 0.03*WS + 0.51*SM40–100 + 0.029*ST100–200 76.15 % 75.57 % 74.43 % − 491.24 − 473.02 50.26 %

NDVI = Normalised Difference Vegetation Index, EVI = Enhanced Vegetation Index, SM = Soil Moisture, ST = Soil Temperature, RF = Total Rainfall, T2M = 2 metre
Air Temperature, LST = Land Surface Temperature, WS = Wind Speed, RH = Relative Humidity, ET = Evapotranspiration, the numbers shown in subscripts of soil
temperature and soil moisture represent their respective soil depths.

4. Results 0.01), followed by zero lag correlation coefficient values (r = 0.58 −

0.68). Finally, a 3-month lag between rainfall and EVI showed the lowest
4.1. Temporal changes in NDVI, EVI, and rainfall of the forest sites correlation coefficient values (r = 0.35 − 0.59, p < 0.01).

Based on the monthly averaged values of NDVI and EVI for all the
study sites, it was observed that NDVI at all the sites peaks during
September - October in the growing season while the same is minimal
during March–April (Fig. 4). The NDVI and EVI values for all the study
sites during the study period ranged between 0.27–0.93 and 0.27–0.86,
respectively. The maximum values of these indices were noticed in the
post-monsoon period, and the minimum was observed during the dry
season. The mean highest and lowest monthly rainfall (550 mm and 290
mm, respectively) during the past 20 years was observed in June in the
tropical Zawlnuam Bird Sanctuary and sub-tropical Dampa Tiger
Reserve.
4.2. Vegetation indices versus rainfall with different lag periods (i.e., 0, 1,
2, and 3 months) for the past two decades (2001–2020, n = 240)
The effect of the same month’s rainfall on vegetation indices was
significantly less in different forest sites. Therefore, vegetation indices
(NDVI and EVI) were correlated with 1-, 2- and 3-month lag periods
following rainfall events to assess the effect of rainfall on forest growth
patterns. Correlation coefficients between NDVI and two months lag
period of rainfall were highest for all forest sites (r = 0.65 − 0.81, Fig. 5)
except for the Dampa tiger reserve, where the highest correlation coef­
ficient (r = 0.72) was observed after a 3-months lag period. The corre­
lation coefficients of 1-month lag for different sites (r = 0.43 − 0.65, p <
0.01) were higher than the values of zero-lag (r = 0.05 − 0.35, p < 0.01).
The second highest correlation coefficients (r = 0.68 − 0.76, p < 0.01)
were observed between NDVI and 3 months after the rain event for all
the sites except at the sub-tropical Dampa tiger reserve.
The correlation coefficients for EVI showed maximum values at a lag
period of 1 month (r = 0.70 − 0.81, Fig. 6) except for the tropical
Zawlnuam Bird Sanctuary, which showed the highest correlation coef­
ficient value (r = 0.83) at a lag period of 2 months. The second highest
correlation was observed for a lag of 2 months (r = 0.59 − 0.83, p <
4.3. Stepwise multiple regression analysis of NDVI and EVI vs. abiotic
variables
For temperate forests at Phawngpui, abiotic variables such as
windspeed, evapotranspiration, soil moisture (i.e., 0–10 cm and 40–100
cm depths), soil temperature (at 100–200 cm depths) and LST were auto
selected in the analysis. Together, they explained 83 % variability in
NDVI. However, the abiotic variables, i.e., windspeed, soil moisture
(40–100 cm depth) and soil temperature (100–200 cm depth) explained
69 % variability in EVI.
At the sub-tropical Dampa forest, wind speed, soil moisture
(100–200 cm), soil temperature (100–200 cm), LST and 2 m air tem­
perature explained 78 % variability in NDVI. In the case of EVI, soil
moisture at depths 40–100 cm and 100–200 cm and soil temperature at
0–10 cm explained 72 % variability.
For the Hmuifang community forest, variables such as windspeed,
soil moisture, soil temperature, LST, and 2-metre air temperature
explained 90 % variability in NDVI. For EVI, soil moisture at depths
(10–40 cm and 40–100 cm) were the significant factors, soil tempera­
tures at the same depths along with LST and rain explained 87 %
variability.
At the sub-tropical Tawizo Wildlife Sanctuary, soil moisture at
depths 0–10 and 40–100 cm, soil temperature at 100–200 cm, LST and
relative humidity explained 83 % variability in NDVI. For EVI, the same
parameters except for LST again explained 83 % variability.
At the tropical forest in Zawlnuam Bird Sanctuary, abiotic factors
such as windspeed, soil moisture and temperature (100–200 cm), LST,
rain and relative humidity explained 91 % variability in NDVI. Only soil
moisture at 100–200 cm and soil temperature at 40–100 cm explained
87 % variability in EVI.
In the sub-tropical forest of Reiek, abiotic factors such as windspeed,
soil moisture at depths 0–10 cm and 100–200 cm, soil temperature at
100–200 cm, LST, and relative humidity explained 90 % variability in

6
R. Chanda et al.
Fig. 4. Plots showing monthly variations of precipitation and vegetation indices (NDVI and EVI) for the study sites.
NDVI. Only soil moisture at 100–200 cm depth and soil temperature at
40–100 cm depth were auto selected and explained 83 % variability in
EVI.
Based on the AIC values of each model, the best-fit model for
determining the NDVI and EVI in the study regions were: NDVI = 0.49 −
0.029*WS − 0.464*SM0–10 + 0.43*SM100–200 + 0.02*ST100–200 −
0.005*LST + 0.001*RH and EVI = − 0.06 − 1.02*SM 0–10 +
1.58*SM40–100 + 0.02*ST40–100 + 0.000061*RF respectively (Table 3).
5. Discussion
The exponential increase in human population growth has led to
considerable deforestation because of enhanced urbanisation and un­
precedented expansion of agricultural land along with other develop­
mental activities (Yilanci et al., 2023; Bhattacharyya et al., 2023). All
these have geared towards a considerable decline in forest cover and its
subsequent fragmentation in recent decades. Tropical, sub-tropical and
temperate forests in this study are essential components of the
Indo-Burma biological hotspot within the Eastern Himalayan region and
harbour immense biodiversity with high endemism, which is facing a
range of threats due to enhanced anthropogenic activities. This has
significantly altered the temperature and precipitation patterns and,
7
Trees, Forests and People 15 (2024) 100491
thereby, the region’s forest composition, diversity, and species perfor­
mance (Tripathi et al., 2016; Upadhyay et al., 2021). Climate change has
altered the weather patterns of the region over the past two to three
decades as average annual precipitation has gradually declined in the
state over the said period (Fig. 2). According to Upadhyay et al. (2021),
increasing moisture stresses in the region may pose a threat to different
forest vegetation having low adaptability to climate change stresses,
which are incompetent to make niche shifts. Changes in rainfall and
temperature trends in the region have been reported to promote early
flowering and fruiting of a few tree species like Schima wallichi and
Callicarpa arborea. In contrast, the same has delayed flowering and
fruiting by one to three months in other species (like Albizia chinensis)
(Singh and Sahoo, 2019). Further, the increase in the overall tempera­
ture of an area has resulted in shifts in various phenological events of
important tree species (Devi et al., 2023). Climate change has note­
worthy implications in affecting the growth and development of
different forests around the globe (Roshani et al., 2022). This implies
that fluctuations in temperatures in the future will have consequences
towards tree seedling growth and development in natural conditions
that might also lead to the extinction of some prominent tree species in
the region (Luo et al., 2020). It is evident that rainfall is one of the
primary factors influencing forest growth in an area; however, since all
R. Chanda et al.
Fig. 5. Correlation coefficients (r) between time after rainfall (i.e., the same month as zero lag, 1-month lag, 2-month lag, and 3-month lag) and NDVI values for
different sites.
Fig. 6. Correlation coefficients (r) between time after rainfall (i.e., the same month as zero lag, 1-month lag, 2-month lag and 3-month lag) and EVI values for
different sites.
our study sites are primarily located on steep slopes of the hills, the
chance for the percolation of rainwater down the soil profile is minimal,
and most of the rainwater flows down the rivers as runoff. Lag effects
(1–2 months) of rainfall accounted for in the present study (Figs. 5 & 6)
could be related to the time taken by the trees to initiate their noticeable
leaf emergence in the canopy, which is captured through remote sensing
after the rain events. The lag effect of rain events on vegetation has also
been reported by Kong et al. (2020) in the Loess Plateau of China.
However, the lag effect in their study was minimal. Further, the lag ef­
fect of 1-month following rainfall events on tree phenology has also been
reported in the sub-tropical moist forests of Reiek in Mizoram by Devi
et al. (2023). The most common abiotic variable affecting the vegetation
of the region in this study was soil moisture, especially at lower depths
(> 40 cm). This is possibly because of the minimal recharge of
groundwater due to the topography of the studied forest sites. Although
the small herbaceous vegetation uses the water available in smaller
8
Trees, Forests and People 15 (2024) 100491
amounts from the topsoil (0–10 cm), older and bigger trees in
old-growth forests with deep penetrating roots use the infiltrated water
in depths greater than 100 cm using their tiny fibrous root tips. Adequate
soil moisture is thus essential for the survival and growth of trees as it
provides necessary water for their physiological processes (McDowell
and Allen, 2015). Changes in soil moisture can immediately impact the
rhizospheric activities, the tree’s root and root-associated microbiome.
This, in turn, influences carbon distribution within trees and their
overall growth. Soil moisture availability can influence rhizosphere
metabolic activity and drive carbon allocation and transport within
plants (Joseph et al., 2020).
Soil temperature at lower depths helps in breaking larger soil parti­
cles, enabling better assimilation of water and nutrients and providing
favourable conditions for microbial growth and metabolism (Zheng
et al., 2019). Wind speeds negatively impacted the growth (in terms of
NDVI and EVI) of forests for all the study sites. This may be because of
R. Chanda et al.
the vibration of leaves caused by strong wind that reduces the efficiency
of leaves to perform photosynthesis, transpiration, and gaseous ex­
changes as efficiently as at steady conditions, which has also been
mentioned by Schindler et al. (2012). High relative humidity reduces the
leaf-atmosphere vapour pressure gradients, reducing the efficiency of
transpiration (Perez and Feeley, 2018). Increased humidity can also
speed up the decomposition of dead organic remains on the forest floor,
promoting nutrient cycling and soil fertility. Due to increased evapora­
tion, low relative humidity, and soil moisture availability may impede
root development, water, nutrient uptake, cambial activity, leaf effi­
ciency, and tree growth (Truu et al., 2017; Firn et al., 2019). The RH
datasets used in our study were mostly confined to a height of 2 m, and
most of the tree canopy in forests are above an average height of 5 m. We
suggest using RH at elevated levels to overcome this problem for better
interpretations in the future. However, the availability of datasets at this
height is another constraint for this type of study. According to Stahl
et al. (2010), seasonal variations in the rate of change in the girth of
tropical rainforest trees reflect variation in trunk biophysical parameters
via the influence of relative humidity on bark qualities.
This part of the Himalayan region is an integral part of the Indo-
Burma biodiversity hotspot. It supports a large number of human and
cattle populations, and thus, the forests of the region are under threat
(Kumar and Ram, 2005; Tripathi et al., 2016). In addition to the
above-mentioned anthropogenic factors, this region is dominated by
prevalent slash-and-burn agriculture (locally called jhuming) occurring
throughout the hilly states of the northeastern Indian region, putting a
severe threat to the forest. The practice is difficult to abolish or replace
as it has become an integral part of society and is deeply associated with
the tribal culture in the region (Grogan et al., 2012). Owing to this,
disasters like forest fires are often very likely in the region and pose
another threat to the forest and the human population in the region
(Tripathi et al., 2020). Keeping this in mind, studies on the effect of
abiotic variables like soil moisture and soil temperature on forest growth
in the region are crucial to proper planning in order to attain sustain­
ability in the region in future. Studies like this are essential as the impact
of climate on forest growth holds global significance, and conveying its
importance to a global audience through our paper is essential for
fostering international collaboration and addressing shared environ­
mental challenges.
6. Conclusion
Forests of the eastern Himalayas exhibit rich biodiversity, and
tropical forests play an essential role in maintaining global carbon bal­
ance besides being sensitive to changes in climate; thus, analysis of long-
term climate implications on these forests is of utmost importance.
However, the extent to which the abiotic factors affect the health of a
forest ecosystem is still quite unclear. In this study, most abiotic factors,
such as soil moisture and temperature, influenced the tropical forests
more than other forest types like sub-tropical and temperate. The role of
various abiotic variables on the vegetation growth of different forests in
the region for two decades showed a significant influence of soil mois­
ture and soil temperature on the NDVI and EVI of the forests in the re­
gion. Further, the effect of these variables (soil moisture and
temperature) recorded at deeper soil profiles was found to be stronger
on the vegetation growth than the upper soil layer, indicating the role of
deeper root systems in maintaining moisture balance in forest growth.
Wind speed strongly affected forest growth because of the decreased
photosynthetic efficiency of oscillating aerial parts of the trees. More­
over, the forest growth indices change as a function of relative humidity.
Rainfall was another major determinant of forest growth. However, the
effect of rain events was visible after a 1–2-month lag in the study for all
the sites. Further studies are necessary to design appropriate scaling of
regional forest growth models by incorporating both micro- and macro-
level data sets to upscale the spatio-temporal resolutions of these
satellite-based datasets to achieve better outputs.
9
Trees, Forests and People 15 (2024) 100491
CRediT authorship contribution statement
Rajdeep Chanda: Conceptualization, Data curation, Formal anal­
ysis, Investigation, Methodology, Validation, Visualization, Writing –
original draft, Writing – review & editing. Salam Suresh Singh: Writing
– review & editing. Ngangbam Somen Singh: Writing – review &
editing. Keshav Kumar Upadhyay: Supervision, Writing – review &
editing. Shri Kant Tripathi: Conceptualization, Funding acquisition,
Supervision, Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing.
Declaration of competing interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
the work reported in this paper.
Data availability
The data used for the study will be made available on request by the
corresponding author.
Acknowledgement
This work was supported by the Department of Science & Technol­
ogy, New Delhi, Government of India, through a research project [Grant
No. DST/CCP/MRDP/193/2019(G)], for which the corresponding
author is thankful.
References
Alcaras, E., Parente, C., Vallario, A., 2020. The importance of the coordinate
transformation process in using heterogeneous data in coastal and marine
geographic information system. J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 8 (9) https://doi.org/10.3390/
JMSE8090708.
Amy McNally, NASA/GSFC/HSL,(2018). FLDAS Noah land surface model L4 global
monthly 0.1 x 0.1 degree (MERRA-2 and CHIRPS), Greenbelt, MD, USA, Goddard
Earth Sciences Data and Information Services Center (GES DISC), Accessed:
[Accessed 2023-01-10], 10.5067/5NHC22T9375G.
Ao, A., Changkija, S., Brearley, F.Q., Tripathi, S.K., 2023. Plant community composition
and carbon stocks of a community reserve forest in North-East India. Forests 14 (2).
https://doi.org/10.3390/f14020245.
Beugnon, R., Bu, W., Bruelheide, H., Davrinche, A., Du, J., Haider, S., Kunz, M., von
Oheimb, G., Perles-Garcia, M.D., Saadani, M., Scholten, T., Seitz, S., Singavarapu, B.,
Trogisch, S., Wang, Y., Wubet, T., Xue, K., Yang, B., Cesarz, S., Eisenhauer, N., 2023.
Abiotic and biotic drivers of tree trait effects on soil microbial biomass and soil
carbon concentration. Ecol. Monogr. 93 (2), 1–20. https://doi.org/10.1002/
ecm.1563.
Bhattacharyya, R., Bhatia, A., Ghosh, B.N., Santra, P., Mandal, D., Kumar, G.,
Chaudhari, S.K., 2023. Soil degradation and mitigation in agricultural lands in the
Indian Anthropocene. Eur. J. Soil Sci. 74 (4), e13388.
Bisht, S., Bargali, S.S., Bargali, K., Rawat, G.S., Rawat, Y.S., Fartyal, A., 2022. Influence
of anthropogenic activities on forest carbon stocks—a case study from Gori Valley,
Western Himalaya. Sustainability 14 (24), 16918.
Champion, H.G., Seth, S.K., 1968. A Revised Survey of the Forest Types of India. Manager
of publications.
Chen, Y., Liu, Y., Zhang, J., Yang, W., He, R., Deng, C., 2018. Microclimate exerts greater
control over litter decomposition and enzyme activity than litter quality in an alpine
forest-tundra ecotone. Sci. Rep. 8 (1), 14998.
Davis, T.S., Meddens, A.J.H., Stevens-Rumann, C.S., Jansen, V.S., Sibold, J.S.,
Battaglia, M.A., 2022. Monitoring resistance and resilience using carbon trajectories:
analysis of forest management–disturbance interactions. Ecol. Appl. 32 (8), 1–15.
https://doi.org/10.1002/eap.2704.
De Frenne, P., Lenoir, J., Luoto, M., Scheffers, B.R., Zellweger, F., Aalto, J., Ashcroft, M.
B., Christiansen, D.M., Decocq, G., De Pauw, K., Govaert, S., Greiser, C., Gril, E.,
Hampe, A., Jucker, T., Klinges, D.H., Koelemeijer, I.A., Lembrechts, J.J., Marrec, R.,
Hylander, K., 2021. Forest microclimates and climate change: importance, drivers
and future research agenda. Glob. Chang. Biol. 27 (11), 2279–2297. https://doi.org/
10.1111/gcb.15569.
De Frenne, P., Rodríguez-Sánchez, F., Coomes, D.A., Baeten, L., Verstraeten, G.,
Vellen, M., Bernhardt-Römermann, M., Brown, C.D., Brunet, J., Cornelis, J.,
Decocq, G.M., Dierschke, H., Eriksson, O., Gilliam, F.S., Hédl, R., Heinken, T.,
Hermy, M., Hommel, P., Jenkins, M.A., Verheyen, K., 2013. Microclimate moderates
plant responses to macroclimate warming. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 110 (46),
18561–18565. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1311190110.
Devi, N.L., Brearley, F.Q., Tripathi, S.K., 2023. Phenological diversity among sub-tropical
moist forest trees of north-eastern India. J. Trop. Ecol. 39, e29.
R. Chanda et al.
Didan, K., Munoz, A.B., Solano, R., & Huete, A., (2015). MODIS vegetation index user’s
guide (MOD13 series). University of Arizona: Vegetation Index and Phenology Lab,
35, 2–33.
Eberly, L.E., 2007. Multiple linear regression. Topics in Biostatistics, pp. 165–187.
Firn, J., McGree, J.M., Harvey, E., Flores-Moreno, H., Schütz, M., Buckley, Y.M., Risch, A.
C., 2019. Leaf nutrients, not specific leaf area, are consistent indicators of elevated
nutrient inputs. Nat. Ecol. Evol. 3 (3), 400–406.
Freitas, S.R., Mello, M.C.S., Cruz, C.B.M., 2005. Relationships between forest structure
and vegetation indices in Atlantic Rainforest. For. Ecol. Manage. 218 (1–3),
353–362. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foreco.2005.08.036.
Garbarino, M., Morresi, D., Anselmetto, N., Weisberg, P.J., 2023. Treeline remote
sensing: from tracking treeline shifts to multi-dimensional monitoring of ecotonal
change. Remote Sens. Ecol. Conserv.
Gebeyehu, M.N., Hirpo, F.H., 2019. Review on effect of climate change on forest
ecosystem. Int. J. Environ. Sci. Nat. Resour. 17 (4), 126–129.
Grogan, P., Lalnunmawia, F., Tripathi, S.K., 2012. Shifting cultivation in steeply sloped
regions: a review of management options and research priorities for Mizoram state,
Northeast India. Agrofor. Syst. 84, 163–177.
Guo, W., Ni, X., Jing, D., Li, S., 2014. Spatial-temporal patterns of vegetation dynamics
and their relationships to climate variations in Qinghai Lake Basin using MODIS
time-series data. J. Geogr. Sci. 24 (6), 1009–1021. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11442-
014-1134-y.
He, Q., Chen, E., An, R., Li, Y., 2013. Above-ground biomass and biomass components
estimation using LiDAR data in a coniferous forest. Forests 4 (4), 984–1002. https://
doi.org/10.3390/f4040984.
Huffman, G.J., Bolvin, D.T., Braithwaite, D., Hsu, K., Joyce, R., Kidd, C., ... & Xie, P.,
(2018). NASA global precipitation measurement (GPM) integrated multi-satellite
retrievals for GPM (IMERG). Algorithm Theoretical Basis Document (ATBD) Version, 4.
ISFR, (2021). India State of forest report 2021. Forest Survey of India. Ministry of
Environment, Forest and Climate Change, Government of India, Dehradun, India.
Jaworski, T., Hilszczański, J., 2014. The effect of temperature and humidity changes on
insects development their impact on forest ecosystems in the expected climate
change. For. Res. Pap. 74 (4), 345–355. https://doi.org/10.2478/frp-2013-0033.
Joseph, J., Gao, D., Backes, B., Bloch, C., Brunner, I., Gleixner, G., Gessler, A., 2020.
Rhizosphere activity in an old-growth forest reacts rapidly to changes in soil
moisture and shapes whole-tree carbon allocation. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. 117 (40),
24885–24892.
Kong, D., Miao, C., Wu, J., Zheng, H., Wu, S., 2020. Time lag of vegetation growth on the
Loess Plateau in response to climate factors: estimation, distribution, and influence.
Sci. Total Environ. 744, 140726.
Kumar, A., Ram, J., 2005. Anthropogenic disturbances and plant biodiversity in forests of
Uttaranchal, central Himalaya. Biodivers. Conserv. 14, 309–331.
Kumar, M., Savita, Singh, H., Pandey, R., Singh, M.P., Ravindranath, N.H., Kalra, N,
2019. Assessing vulnerability of forest ecosystem in the Indian Western Himalayan
region using trends of net primary productivity. Biodivers. Conserv. 28 (8–9),
2163–2182. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10531-018-1663-2.
Lechner, A.M., Foody, G.M., Boyd, D.S., 2020. Applications in remote sensing to forest
ecology and management. One Earth 2 (5), 405–412. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
oneear.2020.05.001.
Luo, S., Schmid, B., Wagg, C., Chen, Y., Jiang, B., Liang, M., Yu, S., 2020. Community-
wide trait means and variations affect biomass in a biodiversity experiment with tree
seedlings. Oikos 129 (6), 799–810.
Matin, M., Bourque, C.P.A., 2013. Influence of vegetation cover on regional
evapotranspiration in semi-arid watersheds in northwest China. Evapotranspiration-
An Overview.
Matlack, G.R., 1993. Microenvironment variation within and among forest edge sites in
the eastern United States. Biol. Conserv. 66, 185–194.
McDowell, N.G., Allen, C.D., 2015. Darcy’s law predicts widespread forest mortality
under climate warming. Nat. Clim. Chang. 5 (7), 669–672.
McMichael, B.L., Burke, J.J., 1998. Soil temperature and root growth. HortScience 33
(6), 947–951. https://doi.org/10.21273/hortsci.33.6.947.
Navalgund, R.R., Jayaraman, V., Roy, P.S., 2007. Remote sensing applications: an
overview. Curr. Sci. 93 (12), 1747–1766. Issue.
Negi, V.S., Tiwari, D.C., Singh, L., Thakur, S., Bhatt, I.D., 2022. Review and synthesis of
climate change studies in the Himalayan region. Environ. Dev. Sustain. 24 (9)
https://doi.org/10.1007/s10668-021-01880-5. Springer Netherlands.
Pandey, R., Aretano, R., Gupta, A.K., Meena, D., Kumar, B., Alatalo, J.M, 2017.
Agroecology as a climate change adaptation strategy for smallholders of Tehri-
Garhwal in the Indian Himalayan region. Small-scale For. 16, 53–63.
Pearson, K., 1909. Determination of the coefficient of correlation. Science 30 (757),
23–25.
10
View publication stats
Trees, Forests and People 15 (2024) 100491
Perez, T.M., Feeley, K.J., 2018. Increasing humidity threatens tropical rainforests. Front.
Ecol. Evol. 6, 68.
Piao, S., Friedlingstein, P., Ciais, P., Viovy, N., Demarty, J., 2007. Growing season
extension and its impact on terrestrial carbon cycle in the Northern Hemisphere over
the past 2 decades. Global Biogeochem. Cycles 21 (3).
Potter, K.A., Arthur Woods, H., Pincebourde, S, 2013. Microclimatic challenges in global
change biology. Glob. Chang. Biol. 19 (10), 2932–2939. https://doi.org/10.1111/
gcb.12257.
Roshani, Sajjad, H., Kumar, P., Masroor, M., Rahaman, M.H., Rehman, S., Sahana, M,
2022. Forest vulnerability to climate change: a review for future research
framework. Forests 13 (6), 917.
Roy, P.S., Murthy, M.S.R., Roy, A., Kushwaha, S.P.S., Singh, S., Jha, C.S., Behera, M.D.,
Joshi, P.K., Jagannathan, C., Karnatak, H.C., Saran, S., Reddy, C.S., Kushwaha, D.,
Dutt, C.B.S., Porwal, M.C., Sudhakar, S., Srivastava, V.K., Padalia, H., Nandy, S.,
Gupta, S., 2013. Forest fragmentation in India. Curr. Sci. 105 (6), 774–780.
Sanogo, K., Birhanu, B.Z., Sanogo, S., Aishetu, A., Ba, A., 2021. Spatiotemporal response
of vegetation to rainfall and air temperature fluctuations in the Sahel: case study in
the forest reserve of Fina, Mali. Sustainability (Switzerland) 13 (11). https://doi.org/
10.3390/su13116250.
Schindler, D., Bauhus, J., Mayer, H., 2012. Wind effects on trees. Eur. J. For. Res. 131 (1),
159–163. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10342-011-0582-5.
Schlesinger, W.H., Jasechko, S., 2014. Transpiration in the global water cycle. Agric. For.
Meteorol. 189, 115–117.
Singh, S.L., Sahoo, U.K., 2019. Shift in phenology of some dominant tree species due to
climate change in Mizoram, North-East India. Indian J. Ecol. 46 (1), 132–136.
Siyum, Z.G., 2020. Tropical dry forest dynamics in the context of climate change:
syntheses of drivers, gaps, and management perspectives. Ecol. Process. 9 (1)
https://doi.org/10.1186/s13717-020-00229-6.
Spracklen, D.V., Baker, J.C.A., Marsham, J., 2018. The effects of tropical vegetation on
rainfall. Annu. Rev. Environ. Resour. 1–26. July.
Stahl, C., Burban, B., Bompy, F., Jolin, Z.B., Sermage, J., Bonal, D., 2010. Seasonal
variation in atmospheric relative humidity contributes to explaining seasonal
variation in trunk circumference of tropical rain-forest trees in French Guiana.
J. Trop. Ecol. 26 (4), 393–405.
Tripathi, S.K., Roy, A., Kushwaha, D., Lalnunmawia, F., Lalnundanga, L.H.,
Lalnunzira, C., Roy, P.S., 2016. Perspectives of forest biodiversity conservation in
Northeast India. J. Biodivers. Bioprospect. Dev. 3 (2), 1–9.
Tripathi, S.K., Upadhyay, K.K., Singh, N.S., 2020. Forest Fire in Mizoram: An Overview.
TM Offset Printing Press, Aizawl. ISBN: 978-81-945678-2-0.
Truu, M., Ostonen, I., Preem, J.K., Lõhmus, K., Nõlvak, H., Ligi, T., Truu, J., 2017.
Elevated air humidity changes soil bacterial community structure in the silver birch
stand. Front. Microbiol. 8, 557.
Upadhyay, K.K., Shah, S.K., Roy, A., Tripathi, S.K., 2021. Dendroclimatology of teak
indicates prevailing climatic conditions of tropical moist forests in India. Ecol. Indic.
129, 107888.
Verma, A., Schmidt-Vogt, D., De Alban, J.D.T., Lim, C.L., Webb, E.L., 2021. Drivers and
mechanisms of forest change in the Himalayas. Global Environ. Change 68, 102244.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2021.102244. July 2020.
Wan, B., Guo, Q., Fang, F., Su, Y., Wang, R., 2015. Mapping US urban extents from
MODIS data using one-class classification method. Remote Sens. (Basel) 7 (8),
10143–10163.
Wang, K., Franklin, S.E., Guo, X., Cattet, M., 2010. Remote sensing of ecology,
biodiversity and conservation: a review from the perspective of remote sensing
specialists. Sensors 10 (11), 9647–9667. https://doi.org/10.3390/s101109647.
Wang, L., Qu, J.J., 2009. Satellite remote sensing applications for surface soil moisture
monitoring: a review. Front. Earth Sci. China 3 (2), 237–247. https://doi.org/
10.1007/s11707-009-0023-7.
Wani, A.M., Raj, A.J., Kanwar, M., 2013. Impact of climate change on forests of Eastern
Himalayas and adaptation strategies for combating it. Int. J. Agric. For. 3 (3),
98–104.
Wapongnungsang, C.M., Tripathi, S.K., 2018. Changes in soil fertility and rice
productivity in three consecutive years cropping under different fallow phases
following shifting cultivation. Int. J. Plant Soil Sci. 25 (6), 1–10.
WWF-US, 2005. Eastern Himalayas region. Science 8–9. February.
Yilanci, V., Ulucak, R., Zhang, Y., Andreoni, V., 2023. The role of affluence, urbanization,
and human capital for sustainable forest management in China: robust findings from
a new method of Fourier cointegration. Sustain. Dev. 31 (2), 812–824.
Zheng, Q., Hu, Y., Zhang, S., Noll, L., Böckle, T., Dietrich, M., Wanek, W., 2019. Soil
multifunctionality is affected by the soil environment and by microbial community
composition and diversity. Soil Biol. Biochem. 136, 107521.