CLEAN Soil Air Water - 2010 - Yang - Progress in the Development of Control Strategies for the SBR Process

732 Clean – Soil, Air, Water 2010, 38 (8), 732–749
Qing Yang1
Shengbo Gu1
Review
Yongzhen Peng1
Shuying Wang1 Progress in the Development of Control Strategies
Xiuhong Liu2
for the SBR Process
1
Key Laboratory of Beijing Water
Quality Science and Water The sequencing batch reactor (SBR) process has shown great success in the treatment of
Environment Recovery Engineering, industrial wastewater from intermittent discharge factories and for the treatment of
College of Energy and Environmental domestic wastewater from medium or small towns. As automation technology has
Engineering, Beijing University of
developed, many studies have been conducted to determine the optimal conditions for
Technology, Beijing, P.R. China
2
Research and Development Center of
the SBR process. This review outlines the progress and application of control strategies
Beijing Drainage Group Co. Ltd., that have been developed for the SBR process and provides a summary and comparison
Gaobeidian, Chaoyang District, of the advantages and disadvantages of various control strategies, especially fixed-time
Beijing, P.R. China control strategies and various real-time control strategies. Moreover, an analysis and
discussion of novel optimal control methods for biologic nutrient removal are pro-
vided. Although previous studies in this field have greatly enriched our understanding
of SBR systems, it is clear that many unsolved problems remain. Therefore, a summary
of unanswered questions regarding control strategies for the SBR process is provided
and future research directions are suggested.
Keywords: Control strategy; Fixed-time control; Intelligent control; Real-time control; SBR
Received: January 17, 2010; revised: April 15, 2010; accepted: June 15, 2010
DOI: 10.1002/clen.201000015
1 Introduction bacteria. Moreover, the SBR process has advantages that include
reduced land use, low cost, operational flexibility, and ease of
The sequencing batch reactor (SBR) process is an activated sludge
control. These advantages have resulted in the SBR process becoming
process that is operated in batch mode. In fact, unlike a continual-
the primary treatment process used for industrial wastewater and
flow process, the SBR process can be used to treat wastewater under
domestic wastewater from medium and small towns.
steady or non-steady state conditions. The SBR process is often
designed to reduce energy consumption and enhance the selective
pressures for BOD, nutrient removal, and control of filamentous 1.1 Evaluation of control strategies
The SBR process employs a time-oriented operational mode, unlike
Correspondence: Prof. Y. Peng, College of Energy and Environmental
continuous activated sludge processes, which employ space-oriented
Engineering, Beijing University of Technology, 100 Pingleyuan, operational modes. Generally, the SBR cycle is divided into five
Chaoyang District, Beijing 100124, P.R. China. phases: filling, reacting, settling, decanting, and idle. The most
E-mail: pyz@bjut.edu.cn remarkable trait of the SBR process is that it is operated in batch
Abbreviations: ANN, artifical neural network; ASM, activated sludge mode, which enables control of the reaction, the aeration, and the
model; BPNN, back progagation neural network; CASS, cyclic activated mixing time to be adjusted in response to the wastewater quality.
sludge system; CAST, cyclic activated sludge technology; DPBS, This improves the operational efficiency and energy-saving potential
denitrifying phosphorus bacteria sludge; EBPR, enhanced bacterial
phosphorous removal; ED-TOC, event-driven time optimal control of wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs), but it also brings compli-
strategy; EFuNN, evolution fuzzy neural network; FTC, fixed-time cated operation modes that require highly reliable automation
control strategy; FuNN, fuzzy neural network; HP, hydrogen methods. Based on the treatment targets and objective, SBR pro-
production; HPR, hydrogen production rate; ICA, instrumentation
cesses can adopt a wide variety of operational modes (Tab. 1). As
control and automation; ICEAS, intermittent cycle extended aeration
system; MICA, multiway independent component analysis; MKPCA, shown in Tab. 1, the more restricted the effluent quality is, the more
multiway kernel principal component analysis; MPCA, multiway complex the operation of the SBR is due to the intricate interactions
principal component analysis; MSBR, modified sequencing batch that occur with the pollutants in the wastewater. The equipments
reactor; MSPC, multivariate statistics process control; OB-TOC, observer-
based time optimal control strategy; OGAR, optimized management of used in the control system which need to switch on and off con-
aeration by redox; OUR, oxygen uptake rate; PAOs, phosphorous stantly, so it has a strict requirement with the quality of equipment.
accumulating organisms; PCA, principal component analysis; PCR, Due to its advantages, many studies have been conducted to inves-
principal component regression; PHA, poly-hydroxyalkanoate; PLC,
programmable logic controller; PLS, partial least squares; PRP,
tigate control technologies for the SBR process over the past 30 years,
phosphorous release potential; RBFNN, radial basis function neural which has led to the development of a wide variety of control systems
network; SBR, sequencing batch reactor; SLM, simplified linear models; to offset the complexity of the SBR process. Indeed, control strategies
SND, simultaneous nitrification and denitrification; SPM, simplified have received a great deal of attention because they are the heart of
process models; SRP, soluble residual product; SRT, solid retention
time; TSS, total suspend solid; VFA, volatile fatty acid; WWTPs, the system. Since the development of instrumentation, control, and
wastewater treatment plants; 4-CP, 4-chlorophenol. automation (ICA) of the SBR process, control strategies have primarily
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Clean – Soil, Air, Water 2010, 32 (8), 732–749 Control Strategies for the SBR Process 733
Table 1. The different operational modes of SBR process.
Treat target and objective Operational mode Function Literature
Carbon Low load wastewater (municipal sewerage, Static fill, aeration, settle, draw Increase the reaction driving force [117]
removal domestic wastewater)
Inhibitive sewerage, high load organic Aerated fill, aeration, settle, draw Strong resist impact load capability [118]
wastewater
Nitrogen Non-advanced Pre-denitrification Mixed fill, aeration, settle, draw Make the best of carbon source [119]
removal nitrogen in raw water, low nitrogen
removal removal efficiency
Post-denitrification Static fill, aeration, mixed, Utilize carbon source stored in [120]
settle, draw microorganism, low nitrogen
removal efficiency
Alternate Fill, aeration, mixed, aeration, Nitrogen removal efficiency is [121]
aerobic–anoxic mixed, aeration, mixed, n times, improved in some extent,
settle, draw complex operation
Advanced Advanced nitrogen Fill, aeration, adding carbon source High nitrogen removal efficiency, [42]
nitrogen removal add mixed, settle, draw but high cost
removal carbon source
Step-feed Fill, aeration, fill and mixed, High nitrogen removal efficiency, [61]
aeration, fill and mixed, n times, make the best of carbon source in
settle, draw raw water, complex operation,
and low space usage
Phosphorous Mixed fill, aeration, settle, draw Enhanced biologic phosphorous [122]
removal removal
employed a fixed-time control (FTC) strategy and process control been employed successfully at treating industrial wastewater pro-
strategy adjusted according to the real-time treatment state. duced by systems that have periodic draw and wastewater quality
Accordingly, the history of the development of control strategies and quantity that fluctuate, as well as for treating domestic waste-
for the SBR process is closely correlated with the development of water from medium and small towns. Accordingly, SBR has been
ICA technology. ICA technology make a great contribution in meeting rapidly developed and applied worldwide. Currently, there are hun-
the strict requirement of the SBR process and make the control dreds of SBR WWTPs operated successfully in Japan, the United
strategy of the SBR process became true. States, and Australia. In the last decade, 30–40% of WWTPs newly
built in China processing 50 000 m3/d wastewater have adopted the
SBR process. During this period, most SBR WWTPs have employed a
1.2 The evolution of control technology for the FTC strategy, while real-time control strategies have primarily been
SBR process used at the lab-scale and in pilot studies. FTC strategy demonstrated
some natural shortcomings which blocked the development of
1.2.1 Original development period the SBR process. Real-time control strategy is a beneficial option
to overcome the weaknesses of FTC strategy.
The original SBR experiment can be traced back to the early 20th
century. In 1905, Arden and Lockett designed the famous Manchester
experiment in which the concept of activated sludge was defined and 1.2.3 New evolution
an experimental reactor known as a fill and draw reactor was
employed. From 1914 to 1920, numerous SBR WWTPs were con- Recently, fuzzy control, neural network, and expert system
structed throughout the world. During this period, the control intelligent control strategies have been gradually applied to control
strategy for the SBR process primarily employed simple fixed-time the SBR process. Due to the ability of intelligent control systems
modes. Although the control strategy based on fixed-time modes is the to evaluate their own operation and their self-adaptive and self-organ-
simplest forms for control of SBR, ICA technology during 1914–1920 izational characteristics, such systems are especially well suited to the
could not support the reliable operation of SBR with fixed-time modes. control of the complex and dynamic process of the SBR wastewater
Therefore, most SBR wastewater treatment reactors were converted to treatment system. Although most studies still consider intelligent
continuous flow systems due to the inadequate quality of level control strategy to be in the development state, it will likely be widely
switches, complex operation and high cost caused by the lack of applied at WWTPs that employ the SBR process in the future. In the
development of automation technology. As a result, the SBR was meanwhile, the intelligent control strategy for the SBR process is not
not common from the early 20th century through the 1970s. applied until the current ICA technology improves greatly.
However, ICA technology was developed fast during this ‘‘silent In this paper, a comprehensive summary of the control strategy
period’’ of SBR process. The advancement of ICA technology built a for the SBR process is provided. As shown in Fig. 1, control strategies
strong foundation for the refreshment of SBR process. of the SBR process are primarily divided into the following types: FTC
strategy and real-time control strategy.
1.2.2 Development and revival period
Since the late 1970s, the SBR process has been recognized, studied,
2 Traditional fixed-time control strategy
and applied in response to the rapid development of wastewater Due to deficient measurements and inadequate stability of the
treatment automation technology. As a result, the SBR process has automation equipment and instruments during the early period

734 Q. Yang et al. Clean – Soil, Air, Water 2010, 32 (8), 732–749
the fill time (Tf), the aeration fill time (Taf), the reaction time (Tr),
the settling time (Ts), the decanting time (Td), and the idle time (Ti)
of each cycle.
Generally speaking, each cycle includes the fill time, reacting
time, settling time, and decanting time. The fill time can be changed
in response to the amount of water and its quality. The reaction time
can be determined based on the treatment objective. The settling
time can be ascertained based on the settling performance of the
activated sludge in the system, which is normally 0.5–1 h. The
decanting time takes into account factors involved in the decanting
quantity of the system and the decanting velocity of the decanter,
and is often a fixed value. Indeed, the decanting time can only be
changed under specific conditions. For example, when the SVI and
MLSS are both quite small and the settling performance of the
activated sludge is perfect, the decanting time can be changed
to 0.5 h, thereby increasing the reaction time. Conversely, if SVI
Figure 1. The development history of control strategy. and MLSS are both high and the settling performance of the
activated sludge is particularly poor, the decanting time should
be increased to 1.5–2.0 h and the reaction time should be decreased
or a longer cycle should be adopted. The decision of whether or
of SBR process development, the operation of SBR was primarily not to include an idle period and the length of any such idle
conducted manually until the end of 1970s. However, after this period relies on the influent volume. If the influent wastewater is
period, the SBR process was changed by the rapid improvement suddenly increased, each operation cycle can overleap an idle period,
of equipment, which enabled the application of automated FTC whereas if wastewater quantity decreases sharply, the idle time can
strategies to the SBR WWTPs. Currently, most SBR plants still employ be extended.
a FTC strategy due to its simple operation.
2.1.2 Basic design principle of fixed-time control
strategy
2.1 Fixed-time control strategy
When the SBR process has a single reactor, the design of a FTC
Sequencing batch reactor processes can typically be divided into
strategy is quite simple, and simple automation can be realized
five periods: filling, reacting, settling, drawing, and idle. The SBR
as the reactor is operated using an appropriate cycle length and
operation can be recycled through fixed duration of each period,
time. Normally, full scale SBR WWTPs has at least two tanks, the
which follows the sequence of the filling period, the reacting period,
control strategy then will be more complex. The key problem when
the settling period, the drawing period, and the idle period. The FTC
employing two reactors is determining how to adjust the
strategy, which can be broadly applied to WWTPs throughout the
operational sequence between the two SBR reactors and how to
world, has a simple and practical principle.
improve the operational efficiency of the system.
One proposed a control strategy for design reference is as follows:
2.1.1 Basic parameters of fixed-time control strategy
if a single operational cycle is 4 h, the fill and aeration time is 2 h, the
Conventional FTC methods primarily select process parameters settling time is 1 h and the decanting time is 1 h in each cycle. The
according to practical experience, with the cycles of the SBR plant SBR operational mode of double tanks SBR system is shown in Tab. 2.
during each day often employing an integral number. The most To improve the influent continuity and efficiency of the SBR process,
common number of cycles/day is 4, 5, or 6, which have lengths of SBR processes that employ three or more tanks can be used to treat
6, 4.8, or 4 h. The parameters involved in the SBR process include high load wastewater. In such systems, it is not necessary for the
the length of the cycle (Tc), the numbers of cycles each day (N), influent and effluent periods to overlap to improve the treatment
Table 2. Control strategy for double-reactors of SBR process.
Time #1 SBR reactor #2 SBR reactor
0:00–1:00 Fill, aeration, and excess sludge is recycled Settlement

1# decanter and 1# dredge pump is closed; 1# fill valve, 2# gas valve, 2# return sludge pump,
1# gas valve, and 1# return sludge pump is opened and 2# influent valve is closed
1:00–2:00 Fill, aeration, and excess sludge is recycled Effluent, idle, excess sludge is discharged
Maintenance 2# decanter and 2# dredge pump is opened
2:00–3:00 Settlement Fill, aeration, and excess sludge is recycled
1# gas valve, 1# return sludge pump, and 2# decanter and 2# dredge pump is closed;
1# influent valve is closed 2# fill valve, 2# gas valve, and
2# return sludge pump is opened
3:00–4:00 Effluent, idle, and excess sludge is discharged Fill, aeration, and excess sludge is recycled
1# decanter, 1# dredge pump is opened Maintenance

capability and efficiency. In multiple-tank systems, the duration of Data Math Predict Control system Control Control Data
the reacting, settling, drawing, and idle time for any one tank must input model values command objective output
equal the total fill time for the remaining tanks. Hence, as the Parameters
number of reactors increases, the influent time proportion in each adjustment
cycle will decrease, while the proportion of the reacting, settling, Predict values True data
drawing, and idle time will increase. History data base
For large SBR wastewater plants, it is more realistic to increase the

Figure 2. The basic flow of control strategy based on mathematical model.
number of tanks than to build two huge tanks. This is because huge
tanks will trigger specific complexity and redundancy, especially
when any tank in the system is taken off-line for maintenance. 2.2.2 Evolution of mathematical model for SBR process
Accordingly, it is difficult to guarantee the treatment capability
Control strategy based on mathematical model was divided into two
of a system. As a result, a FTC strategy for the SBR process must
categories: (1) traditional metabolic model; (2) mechanism model
follow the principle of a proper time schedule to ensure easy
based on activated sludge model (ASM). The early mathematical
maintenance and simple operation. In this way, a FTC strategy
model for the SBR process was traditional metabolic model, next
can provide the greatest practicality; thereby facilitating its wide-
the ASM model was reported gradually with the development of
spread promotion and application.
mechanism.
2.1.3 Application of fixed-time control strategy 2.2.2.1 Traditional metabolic model

The early application of the fixed-time SBR process was conducted at The earliest report of mathematical model for the SBR process can
Salford, England, in 1914, at a system that employed two tanks and trace back to the end of 1970s, Dennis and Irvine [2] proposed a mass
had an average daily capability of 303 m3. The average cycle time of balance equation on fill and react period of SBR:
this system was 7 h (0.75 h fill, 3 h react, 2 h settle, 1 h draw, and dðVCS Þ
0.25 h idle time) [1]. In 1915, a full-scale fill-and-draw system was ¼ qCSO þ Vg fs
dt
operated in Milwaukee, WI, with a 1 h fill, 3.5 h react, 0.5 h settle, 1 h
where CSO is the initial substrate concentration, mg/L; V the volume
draw, and 0 h idle time.
of tank, L; CS the substrate concentration, mg/L; q the influent flow
Between 1914 and 1920, many additional full-scale fill-and-draw
rate, L/day; and gfs the substrate utilization rate, mg/(L/day).
systems were developed. In most of these facilities, fill-and-draw
Subsequently, a dynamic model for a SBR process, which can
systems were converted to continuous-flow operation systems.
simulate the variation of organic substance removal at filling period
Indeed, improvements in aeration equipment and control systems
based on the mass balance of substances, soluble total organic
have enabled the shortcomings of the SBR system to be overcome,
carbon and biomass, has been put forward by Silverstein and
which has resulted in a good foundation for the widespread appli-
Schroeder [3]. But this dynamic model lacked the description about
cation of SBR systems throughout the world.
the other SBR phases.
Fixed-time control strategy for SBR process is simple and
Afterward, many studies about mathematical models which were
convenient, but if only time is fixed, the effluent quality and
aiming to the SBR process were reported [4–7]. These models were
energy cost cannot be easily adjusted. This is especially true
successful in predicting the operation state of the SBR process in
during the aeration period because the blower is often operated
some degree. Ibrahim and Abasaeed [8] investigated the impact of
using a constant air flow that cannot be adjusted in response to
soluble residual product (SRP) on the model proposed by Artan et al.
the oxygen requirements in real time. As a result, it is not good to
[5]. Abasaeed [9] analyzed the effect of some model parameters on the
improve the capability and the treatment efficiency of such sys-
prediction function of COD by a mathematical model created by
tems at the same time, which results in high amounts of energy
Ibrahim and Abasaeed[8].
waste.
It is relatively simple to compute for traditional metabolic model
which were static models for modeling the organic substance
removal. Mathematical model cannot simulate the dynamic charac-
2.2 Control strategy based on mathematical model ter and the nutrient removal of the SBR system until the appearance
of the ASM model.
2.2.1 The basic principle of control strategy based on
mathematical model 2.2.2.2 Research progress of ASM model
Compared with FTC strategy, the flexibility of control strategy The ASM1 model, which was proposed by International Association
based on mathematical model was improved in some extent. on Water Quality in 1986, could predict the processes of organic
When the sewage quality and quantity fluctuate, mathematical removal, nitrification, and denitrification in activated sludge system
model in the control system can predict the effluent statement [10]. With the development of ASM2, ASM2d, and ASM3 models in
of the SBR system. Control system offer control commands series [11, 12], many studies designed many control strategies for the
by analyzing the predicted value and history data. The control SBR process in order to optimize the operation of the SBR process.
objectives execute these commands in time in order to maintain The ASM model has a significant meaning for the establishment of
the reliable effluent performance of the SBR system (Fig. 2). mathematical model for the SBR process:
The remarkable feature of such control strategy is the prediction
function of mathematical model which indicate the future (1) Modified ASM model for the SBR process: Due to ASM model was for
statement of the SBR process. the ordinary activated sludge process, the ASM model needs to be

modified when apply it to the SBR process. However, there were WWTP which included a SBR process [27]. This model, which was
also some examples of applying the ASM model directly [13, 14]. established according the correlation of ammonia load and aeration
Oles and Wilderer [15] modified the deamination rate parameter time, linked a three layer settler model in order to optimize aeration
of dissolved organic nitrogen under aerobic and anoxic con- period time and to reduce the energy consumption. Some modified or
dition, the modified model can predicted the variation of simplified ASM models were applied in modified SBR processes, e.g.,
COD, ammonia, nitrate in the operation process of the SBR UNITANK [28], cyclic activated sludge system (CASS) [29], and modified
process. Based on the unsuitable assumption of one step process sequencing batch reactor (MSBR) [30].
of nitrification and denitrification, some study split the nitrifi- Traditional metabolic model and ASM model both have the dis-
cation and denitrification into two-step reaction [16, 17]. At the advantages of heavy computational cost, long reaction, and poor
same time, Brenner [18] modified ASM2 model to establish the robustness, which seriously restrict the application of such model.
nitrogen and phosphorus transform model by changing facul- The mechanism model for the SBR process is mostly based on lab
tative coefficient in order to control the initial states of nitrifi- scale or pilot scale system, did not verified in full scale WWTP.
cation and denitrification. Moreover, many studies reported
ASM2d-modified models for the nutrient removal SBR system 2.2.4 Conclusion
[19–22]. Some modified ASM1 model for the SBR process also
Mathematical models have three disadvantages: (1) they cannot
combined with a dephosphorize-model [23]. After the combi-
simulate the SBR system definitely, due to high complexity and non-
nation, the modified models have stronger prediction perfor-
linear feature of the SBR system, (2) the mathematical model has
mance than the common models.Modified ASM model has had
limited ability to predict the future state of the SBR system, and (3)
assemble complex structure of the ASM model, although it has
predicted values often have clear deviation with actual values which
made some improvement. Simplified model not only kept basic
influence the decision and order of control system seriously. Even
character of activated sludge process, but also was easily adjusted
though mathematical model can simulate the SBR system precisely,
by modeling software with few data. The appearance of simpli-
model response time will lagged greatly, so control strategy based on
fied model improves the application of control strategy based on
mathematical model for the SBR process also exist the similar problem,
ASM model.
which go against the application of control strategy in full scale WWTP.
(2) Simplified ASM model for the SBR process: Simplified ASM are classi-
With the rapid development of ICA technology, great improve-
fied into two categories: simplified process models (SPM) and
ments in the performance of equipment such as sensors, level gauges
simplified linear models (SLM). Zhao et al. [24] proposed ASM2
have been made, which has enabled realization of real-time control
model, SPM model from ASM2 and mixed model for SBR process.
strategies for the SBR process. The real-time states of the operational
The prediction performance of these three models was compared
processes of the SBR system can be mastered by applying real-time
in their study. The result showed that ASM2 has advantage in
control, which is based on the on line measurement function of
modeling the detail of process; the prediction performance of
direct or indirect parameters sensors, after which the advanced real-
SPM was stronger than ASM2; mixed model having strong robust-
time control strategy can reach the objective of on line real-time
ness was good at on line prediction and did not need to be
control via its computing and decision function.
adjusted constantly. But the frequent adjustment of ASM2 model
was difficult, the prediction performance of SPM was not good
enough and the neural network module in the mixed model 3 Real-time control strategy
needs to be trained by accurate data.
The variations in influent quantity, quality, and operational environ-
ment are important causes of uncertainty in the wastewater
Kim et al. [25] obtained a linear version of the ASM2 for nutrient treatment process for SBR. Factors that affect the process control
removal by carried out linearization treatment. The control system vary with time, and these changes are often hard to control using
based on above model optimized the aeration phase of SBR cycles. traditional FTC strategy. Accordingly, real-time control strategy is
Compared with ASM2, the computation time for adjustment and used to predict, analyze, and judge the real-time state of a system
prediction with linear version of ASM model decreased obviously. based on signals from on-line sensors. The greatest advantages
Mostly above revised and simplified models based on ASM models of real-time control strategies are good accuracy, powerful adapta-
were integrated into the algorithm of control system and were used bility, and strong flexibility in the treatment of industrial waste-
to predict effluent quality. In order to optimize operation of the SBR water from intermittent discharge factories and domestic
process, mostly of control strategy based on mathematical model wastewater from medium or small towns. The differences in real-
was used to improve the algorithm of control system by comparing time control strategies based on various parameters (direct or
the predicted value of mathematical model and history data from indirect parameters) are described below.
history data base.
2.2.3 The application of control strategy based on 3.1 Real-time control strategy for the SBR process
mechanism model based on direct parameters
The advancement of mechanism model also promotes the develop- Real-time control strategies for the SBR process based on direct
ment of control strategy based on mathematical model. Mikosz et al. parameters involve direct detection of the variation in pollutants
[26] optimized the length of aeration by simplified mechanism model, by on-line sensors. When the pollutant concentration is decreased to
guided the operation of full scale SBR WWTP which improved within the range of the discharge criterion, the equipments of the
nutrient removal efficiency effectively. Moreover, some investigations SBR system execute the orders of stage conversion in time, thereby
established mathematical model based on ASM1 model for a biocos realizing the optimal operation for the SBR process.

Commonly used pollutant sensors include COD, ammonia, phos- [35, 36]. It has been found that controlling the ORP value at 200 to
phate, and nitrate. Of these sensors, COD and ammonia sensors 50 mV enabled good simultaneous nitrification and denitrification
are mainly used to control the aeration period of the SBR process, (SND) and phosphorus removal by a CASS WWTP operated at low
while phosphate and nitrate sensors are commonly applied during temperature under low DO conditions [36]; however, this conclusion
the settling and drawing periods [31]. Some research has established was not consistent with findings obtained for systems in which
real-time control strategies for a SBR WWTP with sewage systems the ORP values were lower than 50 mV at the end of the anoxic
and a SBR WWTP without sewage systems by applying ammonia, period [37]. Moreover, some study stopped the nitrification and
nitrate, and total suspend solid (TSS) sensors [32, 33]. It has been denitrification process of a SBR system by setting the ORP values
shown that real-time control strategies can increase the treatment equal to 400 and 150 mV, respectively, using an optimized manage-
capability of WWTPs by about 50% while greatly improving the ment of aeration by redox (OGAR) control system which utilizes on
removal efficiency of nitrogen and phosphate. line redox (ORP) measurements to control the aeration process in an
A submersible UV–VIS spectrometer, which is often employed in activated sludge process [38]. These empirical values were similar
the monitoring of sewage systems, was used to monitor the control with the results of many studies [39–41].
process of a SBR WWTP and to monitor the nitrate, COD, and TSS The discrepancy among the empirical values likely occurred
indices on line (Fig. 3) [34]. Points 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5 indicate the end of because the ORP value in the SBR system reflected the synthesis
the last cycle, beginning of filling period, ending of filling period, the results of the oxidation–reduction reaction by multiple oxidizing
denitrification reaction endpoint, and the end of the reaction. The substances and reducing agents. Diverse influent water quality and
use of a submersible UV–VIS spectrometer avoids consumption of microorganisms both affect the ORP values. For biologic wastewater
chemical reagents and reduces the detection time; however, they treatment systems, ORP is neither a concept of equilibrium thermo-
require complex calibration and often have poor accuracy and unre- dynamics, nor a concentration index of some types of oxidation and
liable performance. Therefore, this equipment must be improved reduction substances. Accordingly, the ORP parameter can only
through further research. The general problems associated with estab- provide a qualitative description of the oxidation–reduction state
lishing control strategy based on direct pollutant sensors included of an entire system. Therefore, the sampling range of the ORP is
high sensor cost, complex maintenance, and lag times [34]. For these determined by the actual situation of the SBR system.
reasons, many researchers and engineers have begun to adopt indirect Control strategies based on empirical values cannot be adjusted
parameter sensors, which are relatively inexpensive and reliable. according to variations in water quality, and accordingly, most have
poor robustness, which leads to an unsteady effluent water quality.
To improve the above disadvantages and deficiencies, many research-
3.2 Real-time control strategy for the SBR process ers have developed control strategies based on indirect parameters.
based on indirect parameters (DO, pH, and ORP)

3.2.2 Evaluation of parameter values through simple
The variation and feature points of DO, pH, and ORP can indicate the processing
reaction processes that occur during carbon and nitrogen removal
by the SBR process. It is easy to adjust the operation parameters in 3.2.2.1 The fundamental principles and categories of
real-time by detecting these feature points, after which the SBR
control strategies based on indirect parameters
cycles can be reduced to the maximum extent, thereby increasing
As shown in Fig. 4, the variation in the curves describing the
capacity while reducing time, energy, and materials consumption.
DO, ORP, pH, and oxygen uptake rate (OUR) are closely correlated
Under different control principles, control strategies based on
with the degradation of polluted substances [42]. Due to the rapid
DO, pH, and ORP can be divided into the categories described below.
Aeration Add ethonal Mixing

3.2.1 Empirical values
NO -N,NO -N
-
+
3
40
NH4 -N(mg/L)
NH4 -N
Many reports were involved with research on the algorithm of -
300
COD(mg/L)
NO2 -N
control strategies based on the ORP values during the SBR process 30 -
NO3 -N
-
2
-
COD
20 200
10 100
DO(mg/L)
0
pH
8.4 ORP 6
DO 0
DO break point nitrate apex
8.0
ORP(mv)
pH
4 -100
nitrate knee
7.6 AmmoniaValley 2 -200
7.2
0 -300
6.8
0 60 120 180 240 300 360 420 480
Time(min)
Figure 3. Time series for NO3—N and total suspend solid (TSS) during a Figure 4. The relationship of DO, ORP, pH with COD, NH4—N, NO2—N,
typical SBR cycle. NO3—N in nitrogen removal process of typical SBR cycle.

degradation of organic substances by heterotrophic bacteria, chart of a typical control strategy based on single parameter
indirect parameters curves (DO, pH, and ORP) present a break point (taking pH as an example).
after 30 min in each cycle, and these break points indicate the
endpoint of organic degradation during the SBR reaction process. A. DO style: DO sensors are one of the most widely applied
During the nitrification process, an ammonia valley on the pH curve, sensors for monitoring of the early stage of the activated
a break point on the DO curve and a platform break point on the ORP sludge process. The DO parameter is applied during the early
curve appear almost simultaneously, and all of these points indicate period of the SBR process using a fixed-value control method.
the endpoint of nitrification during the SBR process. Currently, With the rapid development of the modern industry, control
readily biodegradable COD is almost completely used by microor- strategies are no longer limited at the level of the fixed
ganisms and the ammonia nitrogen metabolic process is finished. If parameters. Rather, a real-time control strategy can be estab-
control systems distinguish these characteristic points in time and lished based on the break point in the DO curve during the
stop the aeration period, the reaction time will be reduced, the aerobic period, as well as the DO change point, which is related
process treatment capability will be increased and the aeration to the metabolic rates of the microorganisms in the system
energy consumption will be reduced without affecting the effluent and indicates the end of the pollutant degradation process. At
quality. At the end of the aeration period, the SBR system begins to this point, it is necessary to stop aeration to allow the settling
enter the denitrification period, at which time denitrifying bacteria and drawing periods [43]. Control strategies based on only a
utilize the nitrite and nitrate produced during the nitrification single DO parameter have rarely been reported, and they are
period, resulting in denitrification, after which the nitrogen gas generally used in real-time control strategies in conjunction
leaves the treatment process as escaping bubbles. The nitrate apex with other parameters.
in the pH curve and the nitrate knee in the ORP curve can both
indicate the end of denitrification. If a control system can dis- B. OUR style: The OUR is the DO consumption per unit of time in
tinguish this break point and stop the stirrer, the reaction period unit volume. The OUR value reflects the activity of the microor-
will be finished, after which the SBR process will enter the settling ganism in the reaction process to some extent. OUR value can be
period. Due to the anoxic period, the DO signal is maintained at calculated using a PC or programmable logic controller (PLC)
nearly 0, which does not provide effective information; as a result, program based on data obtained from the DO sensors and
DO is not used to control denitrification. Moreover, indirect OUR defining formula which is a function of DO and time.
parameter curves can be processed using simple methods such as Then, the aeration period of the SBR process can be controlled
filtering, first derivative, and second derivative, and we can also based on the computed OUR value [44, 45]. The control strategy
use this information to obtain characteristic points indicating based on the OUR has been applied to new SBR processes, such as
the progress of the reaction. Accordingly, a control system can be the short-cut nitrification process [46, 47] and the enhanced
used to control the period of the SBR and to optimize the energy biologic phosphorus removal (EBPR) [48]. In addition, some
consumption based on these characteristic points. research established a start-up control strategy that primarily
General speaking, during operation of the SBR process, traditional employed the OUR and dOUR signals as control parameters based
indirect parameters are applied widely in the control strategy on the corresponding relationship between the break point in the
based on simple processing methods that can be divided into two OUR curve and the phosphate uptake endpoint by phosphorous
categories: control strategy based on single parameter and control accumulating organisms (PAOs) [49]. In their system, the break
strategy based on multiple parameters. point of the dOUR signal from negative to positive indicated the
endpoint of phosphate uptake. This type of control strategy has
3.2.2.2 Control strategy based on single parameters several disadvantages as the same as DO strategy. Both of these
At present, the control pattern for the SBR can be divided strategies cannot be used to control the anoxic or anaerobic
into the following styles according to the sensors used: period due to the OUR and DO data is closely 0 during anoxic
DO style, OUR style, ORP style, and pH style. Figure 5 is a flow or anaerobic period.
Figure 5. A typical flow chart for a single para-

meter control strategy.

C. ORP style: The earliest measurement of the ORP during waste- The second pH-based control strategy has primarily been applied
water treatment was reported in 1906 [50]. Indeed, there has in the operation and start-up of new SBR processes, such as the step-
long been interest in the application of ORP as a control feed process [61] and the short-cut nitrification and denitrification
parameter, which has resulted in ORP detection being employed process [42]. Some study adopted pH and differential signal (dpH/dt)
in many WWTPs. The results of all studies conducted to as a control parameter to establish real-time control strategy for the
measure the ORP has been the same, namely, a slight increase short-cut process in a pilot-scale SBR at low water temperature over
in the ORP value is associated with the oxidation of organic the long term [42]. In their study, pH parameters were used to
substances in sewage. Almost all studies conducted to date have conduct real-time control while maintaining a short effective solid
suggested that the ORP can be adopted as a new process control retention time (SRT ¼ 13 days), which optimized the sludge com-
parameter, and some have even suggested that ORP control munity structures and resulted in the ammonia oxidizing bacteria
can be used to solve operational problems or to provide guidance becoming the dominant nitrifying bacteria. These changes in the
regarding the operation of WWTPs, especially with respect to bacterial community structures occurred because the nitrite oxidiz-
control of the aeration quantity. However, DO sensors have been ing bacteria were washed out of the activated sludge. Overall, their
widely applied in the aeration control processes due to their method resulted in development of a stable short-cut nitrogen
reliable performance, while ORP sensors are not yet capable of removal effect. The real-time control strategy adopted in the above
an accurate detection. Additionally, the definition and meaning study is summarized in Fig. 6. Although the pH control strategy
of ORP cannot be explained rationally, which has resulted in has reliable performance, it is still not completely immune to the
ORP research coming to a standstill. Despite these disadvantages, influence of external factors such as the pH change point being
as eutrophication has become an increasing concern, activated lost, pH sensor malfunction, and decreased accuracy with time.
sludge processes have generally focused on nutrient removal Therefore, many studies have been conducted to integrate
via the addition of an anoxic and anaerobic period. Due to DO multiple-parameters to develop a pH-based control strategy that
the concentration during these phases almost approaches to 0, combines the merits of single parameters to improve the overall
DO is useless for control of such systems. Therefore, ORP has effectiveness and stability of systems employing such strategies.
again received attention. The different control strategies based on single parameters are
ORP control strategy has been applied in activated sludge pro- compared, analyzed and summarized in Tab. 3.
cesses (include the SBR process) since the 1980s [39, 51, 52]. A
recent study conducted lab-scale SBR batch experiments to
evaluate denitrifying phosphorus bacteria sludge (DPBS) and 3.2.2.3 Control strategies based on at least two
found that ORP curves provided a good indication of the phos- parameters
phate release endpoint during the anaerobic phase, but showed Control strategies based on at least two parameters fall into two
poor performance when used to control the anoxic phase and categories, those based on two indirect parameters, and those based
aerobic phase [53]. Accordingly, if this control strategy was on three or more indirect parameters.
applied to the SBR process it would be severely limited. The
methods of indicating the nitrification and denitrification A. Control strategies based on two indirect parameters: control
phase by ORP parameters, which gave powerful support to strategies based on two indirect parameters are generally based
implementation of this control strategy, was proposed [54]. on DO, pH, ORP, and OUR. There are 16 such strategies in theory,
However, ORP detection is easily interrupted by external elec- but most studies conducted to date have focused on either
tron acceptors such as sulfate ions (SO42), which can lead to ORP and pH type strategies [62–72], ORP and OUR type strategies
unreliable measurement and even loss of the break point from [73, 74], ORP and DO type strategies [75], and pH and DO type
the ORP curves. Therefore, the ORP control strategy has had strategies [76, 77]. Of these, ORP and pH type strategies are the
unreliable performance and poor anti-interference ability. most commonly applied, while the others are relatively rare. ORP
Indeed, the results of many studies have shown that pH is more and pH type control strategies are common because these
reliable than ORP for control strategies [55, 56]. parameters can be detected reliably and reflect the actual states
D. pH style: pH is used to control the anoxic or anaerobic phase, in of the microorganisms in the system, regardless of whether they
part, because it is not easily disturbed by external factors. are measured in the anoxic, anaerobic, or aerobic phases of the
Accordingly, pH control strategy has stronger robustness and SBR process. ORP and pH are also related to each other, and unless
more reliable performance than other control strategies based there are problems with both of these parameters at the same
on single indirect parameters. The pH control strategy can be time, which rarely occurs, control strategies based on these
divided into two categories: one based on change points in the pH parameters provide rather stable operation. ORP and pH type
curve (maximum value, minimum value) and one based on control strategies can be divided into two categories, one based
differential signals (dpH/dt, d2pH/dt2). on change points in the pH and ORP curves (maximum value,
minimum value), and one based on differential signals of pH and
The first pH control strategy was applied widely in the treatment ORP (dpH/dt, d2pH/dt2, dORP/dt, d2ORP/dt2). The former control
of industrial wastewater [57] and domestic wastewater [58–60]. strategy can be easily employed, and examples of its application
Specifically, the fuzzy control strategy based on indirect pH include traditional SBR processes for nutrient removal [66, 72],
parameters that indicated the endpoint of the nitrification process intermittent cycle extended aeration system (ICEAS) processes
was proposed [59]. In this strategy, the change in the pH curve is [64], cyclic activated sludge technology (CAST) processes [71],
taken to indicate the end of nitrification independent of the alka- short-cut nitrification–denitrification processes [68, 70], and
linity. The results of their study clearly demonstrate that pH has step-feed processes [62]. The latter control strategies are more
stronger robustness than other indirect parameters. complex than the former strategies, but have also been applied

Start-
Start-up
Filling
NO
Adding carbon Mixing
source NO
Time or Level limit
NO Calculate dpH/dt Tmixing>tmax
YES
Time out NO YES
Aeration dpH/dt <0
NO YES
YES
Calculate dpH/dt &
Taeration>tmax
Settling
NO
dpH/dt >0 NO
YES
Idle discharging
YES Time out sludge
NO NO
Read the alternate times YES
Time out Time out
Discharging
YES YES
Check the alternate times NO
YES
YES End
NO Time out
Filling Mixing NO
NO Recycling times
NO
Time out Calculate dpH/dt YES

Tmixing>tmax
End
YES NO
dpH/dt <0 YES
YES
& Figure 6. Real-time control strategies for the
SBR process based on pH parameter.
more frequently and investigated more intensively. Literature control parameters for the denitrification phase in the SBR pro-
study compared the performance of systems employing real-time cess was developed and a reliable control strategy based on ORP
control strategy and FTC strategy, and analyzed the change point and pH fuzzy parameters was established [67]. Recent study
in ORP and pH curves and their first order and second order developed a control strategy for the treatment of piggery waste-
differential curves [65]. The results of their study revealed that water that is resistant to fluctuations in the COD/N ratio of the
systems employing real-time control strategies had better influent and obtained a impressive treatment effect; however,
nutrient removal performance than those employing FTC strat- this control strategy adopted ORP, pH, and its first order differ-
egies. They also found that the zero point in the first order and ential signals as the control parameters for nitrification and
second order curves of ORP and pH indicated the end point of denitrification [69]. A flow chart of control strategies based on
ammonia oxidation and phosphate uptake, respectively. the two types of indirect parameters is presented in Fig. 7.
However, the change points in pH curves and their first and
second order differential curves were more reliable indicators B. Control strategies based on three or more indirect parameters: this
than the change points in ORP curves and their first and second category is primarily applied to systems that employ traditional
order differential curves [63]. Control strategies based on pH and SBR processes [37, 78], step-feed SBR processes [79, 80], and short-cut
ORP in above research relied on pH as an indirect parameter and nitrification and denitrification process [81, 82]. It is important to
the ORP values are used to assist the pH parameter. Later, a fuzzy note that some research established a control strategy for piggery
Table 3. Comparison among the different control strategies based on a single parameter.
Control Simple description Advantages Disadvantages References

strategy types
DO The ‘‘ammonia elbow’’ in Exert convenience Cannot been applied in [43]

DO curve indicates the end point anaerobic and anoxic phase
of aerobic period, then phases switch
OUR The break point in OUR curve at the Simply, strong indication Cannot been applied in [44–47]
end of aerobic phase indicates the finish anaerobic and anoxic phase
of ammonia and organic substance,
then phases switch
ORP The ‘‘ammonia elbow’’ and ‘‘nitrate knee’’ Good adaptability ORP sensor is not reliable, [51–54]
in ORP curve indicate the end of aerobic easy disturb by external
and anoxic phase, then to realize electron accepter
real-time control
pH The ‘‘ammonia valley’’ and ‘‘nitrate apex’’ Strong robustness, pH sensor need to maintenance [57–60]
in pH curve indicate the end point of reliable performance routine, accuracy decrease
aerobic and anoxic phase, then to realize with time
real-time control

Figure 7. A typical flow chart for a double para-

meters control strategy.
wastewater by adding pig manure as an external carbon source 3.2.3.2 Ordinary types
[78]. This control strategy not only increased the nitrogen removal Multivariate statistics process control technology includes PCA tech-
efficiency, but also saved the cost associated with adding a carbon nology, partial least square (PLS) analysis, and principal component
source to the denitrification process. The same treatment effect regression (PCR). The most common types of analysis used are PCA
can be obtained from application of this control strategy to the technology and modified PCA technologies (e.g., multiway principal
treatment of lumber wastewater, as indicated by a decreased SBR component analysis (MPCA), multiway independent component
cycle length and increased daily treatment capacity [79]. Another analysis (MICA), and multiway Kernel principal component analysis
study designed and verified a control strategy in detail [83]. (MKPCA)).
Specifically, they introduced the optimal control of the anoxic Some research proposed a control algorithm that integrated
and aerobic phase by DO, ORP, and pH indirect parameters. To adaptive PCA and MPCA and then successfully applied their control
accomplish this, they designed an algorithm that filtered the strategy to monitoring a lab scale SBR process [84]. Normally,
primary data and then processed these data simply (differential MPCA technology has three disadvantages: (1) the length of batch
processing), after which they identified character points in the must be equal; (2) the variables must follow the Gaussian distri-
parameter curves and finally switched the phases of the SBR bution; and (3) the prediction of on line variables should based
process to reduce energy use. on the values of the current batch. In order to overcome above
disadvantages, some study developed a control strategy based on
A summary of the different control strategies based on multiple MICA technology to optimize the cycle operation of a lab scale
indirect parameters is provided in Tab. 4. SBR process [85]. Additionally, a study [86] proposed a general
algorithm for monitoring the wastewater treatment process that
differed from traditional MPCA technology [87]. Control strategy
3.2.3 Determination of the value of parameters through based on this general PCA algorithm had the same performance
complex processing as the control strategy based on MPCA [88]. Later, MKPCA for
monitoring a nonlinear batch was developed and applied to solve
3.2.3.1 Brief introduction nonlinear problems which cannot be solved by PCA-based control
Sequencing batch reactor batch data has a three-dimensional strategies [89]. Some research attempted to establish a control
characteristic (batch number variables time), while principal strategy based on MKPCA technology for monitoring the
component analysis (PCA) technology only provides a two- operational process of a pilot scale SBR and found that this control
dimensional data structure. Accordingly, traditional PCA technology strategy based on an adaptive and nonlinear monitoring model
can be applied to evaluate the SBR process directly. More recently, had strong robustness [90].
modern multivariate statistics process control (MSPC) was developed Moreover, two EBPR statistical models was proposed [91], a model
and widely applied to the evaluation of industrial batch production. that employed PLS methods after the data were unfolded variable
Due to the typical batch characteristics of the SBR process, many wise and pretreated, and a model that was based on PCA methods
studies have been conducted to establish control strategies based on conducted after the data were unfolded batch wise and pretreated.
MSPC technology. In this category of control strategy, monitoring Two control strategies based on the PLS and PCA technology was
data is extracted from the SBR process using MSPC technology, after developed. The results revealed that the PLS control strategy was
which the information present in the monitoring data is analyzed more reliable than the PCA control strategy. These findings were due
and used to generate a corresponding diagnosis, which is then used to the complexity, large computation, and long lag time associated
to determine the optimal control of the SBR process. with the PCA model.

Table 4. Summary of different types of control strategies based on mixed parameters.
Control Control pathway of control strategy for SBR process Treatment objective and treatment scale References
strategy
types Nitrification or aerobic Denitrification or anaerobic
phosphate uptake phosphate release
pH dpH/dt ¼ 0 d2pH/dt2 ¼ 0 Synthetic wastewater and lab-scale SBR [65]

ORP d2ORP/dt2 ¼ 0
pH dpH/dt ¼ 0 Beer synthetic wastewater and lab-scale SBR [67]
ORP dORP/dt ¼ 0
pH dpH/dt > 0, maintain 20 min Piggery wastewater and lab-scale SBR [69]
ORP dORP/dt < 5, maintain 30 min
pH dpH/dt ¼ 0 dpH/dt ¼ 0 Domestic wastewater and lab-scale SBR [64]
ORP dORP/dt ¼ 0 dORP/dt ¼ 0
pH dpH/dt from negative to positive dpH/dt from positive to negative Soy bean wastewater and lab-scale [68, 70]
short-cut nitrification SBR
ORP dORP/dt ¼ 0, maintain 20 min dORP/dt ¼ 0
pH dpH/dt from negative to positive dpH/dt from positive to negative Domestic wastewater and lab-scale CAST [71]
ORP d2ORP/dt2 ¼ 0
pH dpH/dt from negative to positive Pharmacy wastewater and lab step-fed SBR [62]
ORP d2ORP/dt2 ¼ 0
ORP ORP < 120 mV Municipal wastewater and pilot-scale SBR [73]
OUR OUR < 35 mg O2/L h
ORP Platform break point Piggery wastewater and lab-scale SBR [75]
DO DO > 3 mg/L, DDO/Dt ¼ 0.1–0.2
pH dpH/dt from negative to positive Domestic wastewater and lab-scale SBR [76]
DO DO > 3 mg/L
pH dpH/dt from negative to positive Slaughter wastewater and lab-scale [77]
step-fed SBR
OUR OUR < 0.5 mg O2/(L min)
pH Ammonia valley Nitrate apex Domestic wastewater and lab-scale [81, 82]
short-cut nitrification SBR
DO Ammonia elbow
ORP Platform break point Nitrate knee
pH pH ¼ 7.2–7.3 pH ¼ 8.2–8.3 Synthetic wastewater and lab-scale SBR [37]
DO DO ¼ 2–2.7 mg/L
ORP ORP ¼ 49 to 55 mV ORP ¼ 129–152 mV
3.2.3.3 Existing problem 3.3.1.1 Real-time control strategy based on HP or HPR

Due to the highly nonlinear nature and time variations associated Traditional titration is one of the most common methods in off-line
with the SBR process, as well as fluctuations in hydraulics and measurement, but the result of titration always has a long lag time.
components and equipment malfunctions, it is difficult to apply Recently traditional titration has the ability of on line measurement
MSPC technology to the SBR process. Indeed, although MSPC tech- with the development of ICA technology. Meanwhile, biologic
nology has been applied to different batch industrial processes nutrient removal process all exist the production and consumption
successfully, this technology has only recently been applied to of hydrogen, so the parameters HP and HPR began to apply in the
SBR processes. Therefore, the development, design, and verification control of the SBR process.
of control strategies based on MSPC technology require further Guisasola et al. [48] provided the theory proof for EBPR control
research. Such control strategies integrated with MSPC technology strategy based on online OUR and HPR titration measurement.
will likely be widely applied to the SBR process in the future. Afterwards, Vargas et al. [92] investigated the possibility of on-line
HP measurement as a tool for EBPR based on the similar ideas.
Results showed that the variation of HP curve can indicated
3.3 Other types of real-time control strategy the endpoint of phosphorous release and volatile fatty acid (VFA)
The application of control strategy based on indirect parameters is consumption, and indicated the nitrate and nitrite concentration in
the most common types, but there are still some unconventional anoxic period indirectly. Above research supplied theory support for
types among the real-time control strategies. These types of the implement of control strategy for SBR process. But this kind of
control strategy, which demonstrate some new directions for the control strategy should be further research.
SBR process, are still stay at laboratory level.
3.3.1.2 Control strategy based on PRP
Compared with chemical phosphorous removal process, the EBPR
3.3.1 Control strategy based on unconventional control
process has a significant advantage in operational cost. But the
parameters
difficulty is the EBPR process has a long start-up phase and many
Control strategy based on hydrogen production (HP), hydrogen complex influence factors. Some report can start up an EBPR process
production rate (HPR), phosphorous release potential (PRP), and in a SBR reactor with a short time by applying reliable real-time
conductivity could be category to unconventional control strategy control strategy, which helps to enrich the PAOs and to reach the
due to their uncommon trait. reliable advanced phosphorous removal performance.

Some study proposed a control strategy in order to enrich TOC maintains the reaction rate at maximum relying on on-line DO
the PAOs and to start up the EBPR in a short time [93]. On this measurement, while the OB-TOC requires mathematical model to
foundation, some research investigated the optimal operation of predict the reaction rate. So the influent substance concentration
EBPR by the indication effect of the PRP, which guaranteed the does not necessary. Some investigations treated 4-chlorophenol (4-
stable EBPR performance in a SBR process. Meanwhile, the influence CP) toxic wastewater under the influent load of 7000 and 1000 mg 4-
of influent COD, phosphate concentration, and aeration time CP/L by applying the ED-TOC strategy [99, 100]. Obviously, the ED-TOC
on the phosphate uptake ability and poly-hydroxyalkanoate (PHA) strategy is a rational choice for the SBR process when treating toxic
utilization in aeration period was investigated [94]. Noted above wastewater.
control strategies were aimed to optimize the aeration period time
and save the energy consumption, to realize the reliable EBPR
performance. 4 Intelligent control strategy
4.1 The basic concept of intelligent control
3.3.1.3 Control strategy based on conductivity
strategy
Conductivity of mixed liquid in process reactor often indicates the
degree of pollution. The larger the conductivity, the heavier the Intelligent control is a new integrated discipline that comprises
water pollution. Spagni et al. [66] investigated the possibility of artificial intelligence and auto control, which include system theory,
establishing control strategy based on conductivity. Afterwards, information theory, computer science, human engineering, and
Kim et al. [95] discovered the relationship of conductivity and subject knowledge. Intelligent control is the advanced stage of con-
phosphate concentration. Results showed that the indication trol theory, which is primarily designed to enhance the robustness of
of conductivity parameter was limited, the conductivity was control systems based on the study and adaptive ability of the
proportional to the phosphate concentration under anaerobic phase control system of interest. Intelligent control strategy is an advanced
without nitrate; while the relationship between conductivity and control strategy based on the intelligent control theory (fuzzy logic,
phosphate concentration was fluctuated with nitrate. Although the neural network, and expert system).
results were far away from the establishment of control strategy, the
mechanism theory was accumulated for EBPR control strategy.
4.2 Classification of intelligent control strategies
3.3.2 Control strategy based on influent velocity Intelligent control strategies can be divided into three categories:
control strategies based on rules including fuzzy control and expert
Unlike the real-time control strategy based on on-line parameters, system, control strategies based on models, such as artificial neural
the control strategy based on influent velocity is quite useful to treat networks (ANN) and mixed intelligent control strategies such as
industrial wastewater having toxicity. This class of control strategy fuzzy-neural control strategies, which consist of fuzzy techniques
has three representative types: FTC strategy, observer-based time and neural networks.
optimal control (OB-TOC) strategy, and event-driven time optimal
control (ED-TOC) strategy.
Normally, there are many drawbacks existed in treating toxicity 4.3 Control strategies based on rules
wastewater by the SBR process: (1) the inhibition effect of toxic
Control systems based on rules require large quantities of data and
substances on the microorganisms, (2) the shock loads of toxic
must be adjusted frequently to design rational control rules and
substances, (3) the non-adaptive behavior of the microorganisms,
enable increased control effects. Prerequisite to adopting rational
and (4) low removal efficiencies. FTC strategy could not solve above
control rules, control strategies based on these rules must be estab-
problems effectively. In order to overcome these problems, research-
lished and applied to the SBR control system to exert the maximum
ers tried to develop the OB-TOC strategy.
control. The meaning of a control strategy is demonstrated by the
The kernel theory of OB-TOC strategy is to keep microorganism at
control capability of the rules. Control rules can be divided into
maximum specific growth rate (m), which is obtained from Haldane
fuzzy control and expert systems according to the founding theory.
model for toxic compound degradation [96]. Toxic substances degra-
dation rate was kept at the maximum rate of m by maintaining
4.3.1 Fuzzy control
the substance concentration in the reactor at minimum critical
concentration (S). An optimize method for treating toxic waste- Since Zadeh first proposed the concept of fuzzy data in 1965, fuzzy
water and a mathematical model for controlling phases of the set theories have developed rapidly. Mamdani successfully applied
SBR process were proposed [97]. This mathematical model was fuzzy logic language to process control in 1974, after which fuzzy
gradually developed to an observer. Vargas et al. [98] developed an control was widely applied in the field of industrial processes, house-
adjustment method for observer and verified the OB-TOC strategy in hold appliance, and a series of high technology industries, demon-
practical experiment. Afterwards, Buitron et al. [43] demonstrated strating the huge potential for the use of fuzzy control. Fuzzy control
the practical operational process of OB-TOC in details. is capable of imitating the human experience without relying on a
Although OB-TOC solved the inherent problems of FTC, it also had mathematical model for control.
some disadvantages, such as required precise influent substance Fuzzy logic employs a computer to simulate human reasoning.
concentration and coefficient of Haldane model. All of these were The crucial concept involved in fuzzy logic control is language
harmful to the application of OB-TOC in industrial environment. variable and membership function. Language variables are words
Therefore, ED-TOC strategy appeared. or phrases described by a term of membership function. The first
Event-driven time optimal control strategy has the similar control step in fuzzy logic is fuzzification. To implement fuzzy logic reason-
thoughts with OB-TOC. The main difference between them is the ED- ing, a series of IF-THEN language rules are used to simulate special

human reasoning. IF-THEN rules express the result and influence with influent fluctuation and biomass change, enabling the model to
and enable export of the simple state of the ultimate decision, which retain its recognition capability. Moreover, a fuzzy interference
is known as reasoning. Finally, the output result is defuzzification, in algorithm based on rules and a control strategy based on fuzzy rules
which the result is converted to a numerical value. were developed [106]. The established fuzzy control system handled
On-line fuzzy control strategies can be divided into the following the on line data associated with the SBR process and diagnosed the
types according to indirect parameters: on-line DO fuzzy control devices that has problems in the SBR. This control system was found
strategy [101, 102] and on-line ORP and pH fuzzy control strategies to have reliable performance, detection, and faults diagnosis; there-
[103, 104]. Recent study compared the performance of fuzzy control fore, it is possible that it can be used to diagnose faults real time.
of three operational modes: short-cut nitrification process control
mode, two-step alternate aerobic/anaerobic SBR FTC mode, and two-
4.3.2 Expert system
step alternate aerobic/anaerobic SBR real-time control mode in
the treatment of soy bean wastewater [103]. The results showed An expert system based on knowledge can be used to solve the non-
that two-step alternate aerobic/anaerobic SBR real-time control structure problem, and such systems can handle uncertain knowl-
mode with on-line pH and ORP fuzzy control strategy had the best edge enabling the objectives to be met by human reasoning. A
operational effect. Employing assemble control thought, a fuzzy knowledge base and reasoning engine are the main parts of the
logic control was applied to a pilot-scale SBR process based on a expert system. Control strategies based on expert systems represent
DO fuzzy parameter [102]. In their study, three control methods were effective pathways for solving operational problems.
employed: on/off control, PID control, and fuzzy control. On/off Control systems based on expert systems involve theory knowl-
control and PID control were both hard to fit to the fluctuations edge and practical experience structuring. Expert systems comprise
in influent and the highly nonlinear character of the SBR process, mechanism knowledge and indicative knowledge, both of which are
while fuzzy control with a rational fuzzy logic control strategy described by IF-THEN rules. The remarkable feature of control strat-
enabled stable control of the DO. However, the on-line fuzzy control egies based on expert systems comprises theory knowledge and
system had poor robustness and was disturbed by parameter signals. practical experience.
Therefore, fuzzy logic control strategy requires enhanced anti-resis- Some research proposed a type of expert system for SBR processes
tance capability and identification ability. in which a control system stored scattered data that was difficult to
The periods of SBR cycles was controlled by fuzzy pattern recog- analyze and then organized and processed these data using
nition [105]. The control strategy was based on the rational fuzzy advanced figure statistical methods, finally giving an information
interference engine and indirect control parameters (ORP, DO, and report that could be edited [107]. However, their study did not
pH) by applying the fuzzy cluster technology successfully. Figure 8 introduce this statistical method in detail. Moreover, their study
shows the overall structure of the fuzzy interference engine, which did not include mathematical modeling for states of SBR, but was
determined different fuzzy cluster operational rules involved in real- instead just a theory-based project that was not verified in a full scale
time control processes. First, a duration checker with a logical WWTP. Accordingly, it is necessary to evaluate an expert system
algorithm was used to prevent the SBR phase from finishing early based on long term experience and continuous renewal of output
or late. The engine also identified the aerobic or anaerobic phases data from a mathematical modeling module to better evaluate the
based on a set of fuzzy operational rules, and the output result of the performance of their expert system.
engine was used to switch the phases of SBR process via a variable. A recent study [108] proposed an expert system based on
Fuzzy operational rules can also fit the process variation associated another study’s expert systems [107], which is shown in Fig. 9. The
performance of their expert system was superior to that of the
knowledge-based expert system [109]. Additionally, their system
had the following advantages: rigorous theory knowledge basement,
Process data pH ORP DO
system specificity based on data statistical analysis techniques,
Wavelet denoising and differentiation input SBR process output
d ( pH dn ) d ( ORPdn ) d ( DOdn ) On line monitor
dt dt dt Data analysis
Fuzzy clustering
µ ( pH ) µ ( ORP ) µ ( DO )
System control parameters identify
Interference Optimal
Statistical modeling
parameters
Switch Aerobic/anaerobic Optimization
ON/OFF Expert system
Figure 8. A typical flow chart on fuzzy technology of control strategy for the Figure 9. A general flow chart of control strategy based on expert system
SBR process. for the SBR process.

strong diagnosis and analysis ability, automatic refreshing of and reducing operational costs while maintaining reliable effluent
knowledge base, and rules tracing the dynamic variation in the water quality.
system. These types of control strategies not only include their
predecessors’ experiences, but also strong self-learning functions,
which can increase the adaptability of the SBR system they are
4.4 Control strategy based on the ANN model
applied to. Therefore, intelligent control strategy is suited to waste-
The ANN model (black box model) is one of the most widely applied water treatment systems that are highly nonlinear and have lag
statistical models due to its use of linear or nonlinear curve fitting characteristics and time variations. As a result, further development
for practical conditions. The ANN model can be divided into Feed- of intelligent control systems should be conducted.
forward Networks and Feedback Networks based on its structure
style. The most familiar types of ANN models are the back
propagation neural network (BPNN) and radial basis function 5 Conclusion and prospects
neural network (RBFNN).
The ANN model has not only been applied widely to traditional The SBR process, which has the advantages of small occupation, low
SBR processes [87, 110], but also to the modified SBR process of ICEAS investment cost, low operation complexity, and significant control
[111, 112]. Indeed, some research employed a control system performance, has become the primary treatment process used for
combined with an evolution fuzzy neural network (EFuNN) and industrial wastewater and domestic wastewater from medium and
a logical decision-making unit to detect and recognize geometry small towns. Real-time control strategies can enable the optimal
feature points [110]. This method has a rapid learning function that operation of SBR processes and improve the application of the SBR
can detect the geometry feature points that would cause a change in process. Obvious advancements in the study of real-time control of
the DO curve under different environmental conditions. Although SBR processes have occurred, but there is still much work necessary
control systems based on the above two methods are used to detect to enhance the robustness of real-time control systems. The stability
variation points on the DO curve, this system can also be extended to of real-time control strategy must improve to enable more wide-
variation points on the ORP curve under anoxic conditions. spread applications of real-time control strategy in SBR WWTPs.
Moreover, recent study compared the prediction performance of Therefore, development and evaluation of control strategies
three models, the PCR model, the PLS model, and the ANN model designed to enhance SBR performance should be conducted to
[113]. Their results showed that the performance of the PLS model address the key problems associated with such systems.
was better than that of other models. Additionally, they found that Specifically, future studies of SBR control strategies should focus
ANN can make reliable predictions after losing data or using on the following aspects:
new modeling data, and that it can supply effective information
regarding mechanisms involved in the SBR process. 1) Establishment and design of general systems and assessment of
the criterion used for real-time control strategies to improve their
stability.
4.5 Mixed intelligent control strategy 2) The development of ICA technology should be traced and the
The ANN, expert system and fuzzy logic technique intelligent latest developed control technology should be identified; this
control methods are newly developing disciplines. Therefore, it is information should then be used to develop a control strategy
worthwhile to integrate the merits of the fuzzy control, ANN, for the SBR process.
and expert systems to intelligent control technology to avoid their 3) Intelligent control is the advanced stage of real-time control
shortcomings and realize stable operation of biologic wastewater strategy, and control strategy based on intelligent control tech-
treatment systems. nology is the future of SBR real-time control.
To overcome the disadvantages associated with the ANN model, 4) The mechanism research of the SBR process should be enhanced,
which include its complex structure, heavy computation, and long the state of the SBR process should be acknowledged, and reliable
response time, researchers developed a traditional fuzzy-neural intelligent control strategies with intelligent control techniques
network controller [114] that integrated fuzzy control and neural should be established, after which intelligent control systems
network control. As the excepted ANN module, the fuzzy neural with strong robustness should be developed and applied to the
network (FuNN) module also detected and recognized DO geometric SBR process.
characteristic points. Literature study attempted to control a pilot 5) A method of determining a rational strategy for the control of SBR
scale SBR by combining neural network and fuzzy logic control processes with a goal of addressing the wastewater needs of China
intelligent technologies [115]. In their system, DO, ORP, and pH that are adequate for its current level of development should be
parameter signals in the SBR process were pretreated by the ANN identified.
model and then analyzed and diagnosed by a fuzzy logic control
module, after which the decision unit determined the optimal con-
Acknowledgments
ditions, which improved automation of the SBR system effectively.
An intelligent control system that integrated fuzzy logic control This research was supported by National Key Science and Technology
and the expert system was developed [116]. During operation of their Special Projects (2008 ZX07317-007-105), Beijing Natural Science
control system, the fuzzy logic control unit was used to trace the Foundation (8102021), and Funding Project for Academic Human
variations in parameters, while the expert system consisted of rule Resources Development in Institutions of Higher Learning Under the
reasoning and case reasoning to diagnose the output of the fuzzy Jurisdiction of Beijing Municipality (PHR20090502).
logic control unit. They found that the mixed control system was
better than the single control system with respect to energy saving The authors have declared no conflict of interest.

[23] M. C. Wentzel, P. L. Dold, G. A. Ekama, G. R. Marais, Enhanced

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732 Clean – Soil, Air, Water 2010, 38 (8), 732–749

ß 2010 WILEY-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim www.clean-journal.com

Table 1. The different operational modes of SBR process.

Treat target and objective Operational mode Function Literature

ß 2010 WILEY-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim www.clean-journal.com

Table 2. Control strategy for double-reactors of SBR process.

Time #1 SBR reactor #2 SBR reactor

0:00–1:00 Fill, aeration, and excess sludge is recycled Settlement

ß 2010 WILEY-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim www.clean-journal.com

For large SBR wastewater plants, it is more realistic to increase the

2.1.3 Application of fixed-time control strategy 2.2.2.1 Traditional metabolic model

ß 2010 WILEY-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim www.clean-journal.com

ß 2010 WILEY-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim www.clean-journal.com

based on indirect parameters (DO, pH, and ORP)

Aeration Add ethonal Mixing

ß 2010 WILEY-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim www.clean-journal.com

Figure 5. A typical flow chart for a single para-

ß 2010 WILEY-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim www.clean-journal.com

ß 2010 WILEY-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim www.clean-journal.com

Time out Calculate dpH/dt YES

Control Simple description Advantages Disadvantages References

DO The ‘‘ammonia elbow’’ in Exert convenience Cannot been applied in [43]

ß 2010 WILEY-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim www.clean-journal.com

Figure 7. A typical flow chart for a double para-

ß 2010 WILEY-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim www.clean-journal.com

Table 4. Summary of different types of control strategies based on mixed parameters.

pH dpH/dt ¼ 0 d2pH/dt2 ¼ 0 Synthetic wastewater and lab-scale SBR [65]

3.2.3.3 Existing problem 3.3.1.1 Real-time control strategy based on HP or HPR

ß 2010 WILEY-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim www.clean-journal.com

ß 2010 WILEY-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim www.clean-journal.com

Wavelet denoising and differentiation input SBR process output

d ( pH dn ) d ( ORPdn ) d ( DOdn ) On line monitor

Switch Aerobic/anaerobic Optimization

ON/OFF Expert system

ß 2010 WILEY-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim www.clean-journal.com

ß 2010 WILEY-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim www.clean-journal.com

[23] M. C. Wentzel, P. L. Dold, G. A. Ekama, G. R. Marais, Enhanced

ß 2010 WILEY-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim www.clean-journal.com

ß 2010 WILEY-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim www.clean-journal.com

ß 2010 WILEY-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim www.clean-journal.com

ß 2010 WILEY-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim www.clean-journal.com

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