Tectonic Control

on Rock Mass Properties and GSI

Simon Löw
Chair of Engineering Geology
Federal Institute of Technology ETH

Thanks to: Susanne Laws, Volker Lützenkirchen,

Christian Zangerl, Erik Eberhardt

Overview

• Basic Principles of Tectonic Rock Mass

Deformation
– Deformation Mechanisms and Tectonic Rock Types
– Brittle and Ductile Shear Zones
• Properties of Faults and Fault Zones (Shear Mode)
• Properties of Joints and Joint Systems (Opening Mode)
• Interrelationships with Rock Mass Properties

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 Basic Principles of Tectonic Rock Deformation

Hudson and Harrison, 1997

Basic Principles of Tectonic Rock Deformation

EF: Elastico-Frictional, QP: Quasi-Plastic Sibson, 1977

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 Basic Principles of Tectonic Rock Deformation

• Brittle Deformation in the EF Field:

– Dominated by fracturing on grain and larger scales.
Fracturing leads to rigid-body rotations, frictional grain
boundary sliding and dilatancy among grain fragments:
Cataclasis.
• Ductile Deformation in the QP Field:
– Deformation mainly achieved by crystal plasticity,
without (significant) development of fractures on the
grain scale.

„Fracturing“ is the formation of discrete breaks

along which a loss of cohesion has taken place

Basic Principles of Tectonic Rock Deformation

Protoclasite Cataclasite Ultraclasite

EF

QP

Mylonite
Increasing Strain Sibson, 1977

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Basic Principles of Tectonic Rock Deformation

500 micrometer

Laws et al., 2002

Basic Principles of
Tectonic Rock
Deformation

Zangerl, 2002

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Basic Principles of Tectonic Rock Deformation

Frei and Löw, 2001

Basic Principles of Tectonic Rock Deformation

Huber in Müller et al., 1984

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 Basic Principles of Tectonic Rock Deformation

Huber and Huber, 1996

Basic Principles of Tectonic Rock Deformation

• Brittle Shear Zone (Fault Zone):

– Contains fractures and cataclastic fault rocks,
often accompanied by hydrothermal alterations
• Ductile Shear Zone:
– Contains mylonites, i.e. structures that have a
metamorphic aspect and that formed by ductile
flow (crystal plasticity)
• Brittle-Ductile Shear Zone:
– Show evidence of both brittle and ductile
deformation, due to intermediate PT conditions
or changing PT conditions during deformation.

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 Basic Principles of Tectonic Rock Deformation

Bürgi, 2001

Properties of Faults and

Fault Zones

Clay/Marl
Development
(Kinematics) of Fault
Zones depends on:
•Stress Regime
Granite •Rock Type
•Heterogeneity
•Fluids
•Strain Rate

Limestone
Huber and Huber-Aleffi, 1990

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 Properties of Faults
and Fault Zones

Wallace and Morris, 1996

Properties of Faults
and Fault Zones

Granitic Fault Rocks Aar Massif, Pc=5MPa

Laws et al. 2002

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 Properties of Faults
and Fault Zones

Chester and Logan, 1996

Properties of Faults and Fault Zones

Chester and Logan, 1996

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Properties of Faults and Fault Zones

Wallace and Morris, 1996

Properties of Faults
and Fault Zones

Wallace and Morris, 1996

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 Properties of Faults and Fault Zones

Wallace and Morris, 1996

Properties of Faults and Fault Zones: Central Alps

After: Schmid et al. 1996

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Properties of Faults and Fault Zones: Central Alps

After: Wyder and Mullis 1998

Properties of Faults and

Fault Zones: Central
Alps

Lützenkirchen 2002

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Properties of Faults and Fault Zones: Central Alps

Lützenkirchen 2002

Properties of Joints and Joint Systems:

Joint Sets and Patterns

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 Properties of Joints and Joint Systems:
Formation Mechanisms

• Uplift and erosion

• Regional folding under low PT conditions
• Tectonic decompression of heterogeneous rock
masses
• Cooling of plutonic rocks
• „Hydro-Fracturing“in the deeper subsurface

→ Multiple episodes of joint formation and

reactivation are to be expected in complex
geological settings such as mountain belts

Properties of Joints and Joint Systems:

Joint Surface Morphology

• Little displacement parallel to the joint walls

• Formation as narrow open fissure
• Fissure sometimes filled with vein minerals
• No scratches, slickensides, or gauge
• Surface markings incompatible with frictional
sliding
• Secondary alterations (i.e. weathering) important

→ Joints are opening mode fractures that have been

generally formed under tensile effective normal stresses

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Properties of Joints and Joint Systems:
Joint Surface Morphology

Conchoidal discontinuities, plumose structures,

and fringe with en-echelon fractures

Suppe 1985

Properties of Joints and Joint Systems:

Joint Surface Morphology

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 Properties of Joints and Joint Systems:
Shape and Dimensions of Joints

• Layered sediments: joint size is controlled by

layer thickness. Often rectangular shapes. (dm-
m•m-hm)
• Massive rocks: joint size depends on fracture
process, especially interaction among neighboring
joints. Often elliptical shapes. (dm-hm•dm-hm)

→ Joint length distributions must be drived from

truncated trace length distributions

Properties of Joints and Joint Systems:

Shape and Dimensions of Joints

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 Properties of Joints and Joint Systems:
Joints Sets and Patterns

• Joint sets: Series of subparallel joints

• Joint sets in layered sedimentary rocks often have
regular spacing distributions
• Joint sets in plutonic rocks often have irregular
spacing distributions
• Multiple joint sets (joint patterns) are common
• Multiple joints sets can form in a single or in
multiple episodes
• Variations in joint patterns define joint domains

Properties of Joints and Joint Systems:

Joint Sets and Patterns

Ytredal 1985

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 Properties of Joints and
Joint Systems:
Joint Sets and Patterns

Properties of Joints and Joint Systems:

Central Alps (Gotthard Massif)

• Magmatic Cooling Joints (?)

• Syntectonic Joints
• Uplift Joints
• Post-Uplift Joints (Glacial Erosion)

→Strong horizontal and vertical variability in joint

patterns and properties
→High overall joint density (mean spacing 0.4 m)

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 Interaction with Rock
Mass Properties

Mainly Jointing

Mainly Faulting

Hoek and others

Interaction with Rock Mass Properties

Intact Rock
Strongly Foliated Rock (ductile)
Strongly Fractured Rock
Laws et al. 2002 Cohesionless Zone („Gauge“)

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 Interaction with Rock Mass Properties

Laws et al. 2002

Interaction with Rock Mass Properties:

The Problem of Prediction

Zangerl 2002

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Interaction with Rock Mass Properties:
The Problem of Prediction

Interaction with Rock Mass Properties:

The Problem of Prediction

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 Summary and Conclusions

• Tectonic processes have a major impact on rock

mass properties.
• In mountainous areas joint patterns are complex
and high variable in 3D.
• Most faults and faults zones in mountainous
settings have strong internal heterogeneity, lateral
variability and non-planar geometry.
• Prediction of rock mass properties for deep
tunnels can only be done in terms for types or
classes.
• The spatial prediction of rock mass properties at
tunnel elevation is often highly uncertain.

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