GEOLOGY NOTES

Second Partial exam: Geomechanical classifications, Soils

and Site Investigation

Raúl Rodríguez Gómez

Geology - 1st Semester 23/24
ETSECCPB - UPC
Index
Unit 6: Intact Rock and Rock Mass
1. Geomechanical classifications 2

Unit 7: Surficial Formations - Soils

1. Geomorphologic processes and resulting soils 6
2. Colluvial Soils 10
3. Alluvial Soils 13

Unit 8: Site Investigation

Goals, process. methods 19

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UNIT 6: Intact Rock and Rock Mass (Geomechanical
classifications)

1. Geomechanical classifications
By the discontinuities characteristics:
Joint frequency or spacing (distance Discontinuity length (persistence,
between two discontinuities): continuity)

Separation or aperture Roughness or surficial texture (rough,

(open or closed) smooth)

Infilling (with or without, Orientations of discontinuities

type) and weathering

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● Goals of studying the geomechanical properties:
- Evaluation of the rock mass quality and strength.
- Define the rock mass support and need of reinforcement.
- Simplify the control of construction work progress.
- Provide design parameters.
- Establish empirical relations between rock mass parameters and their
behavior in engineering applications like tunnels, foundations and
excavations.

● How do we qualify the quality of a rock?

○ RQD (Rock Quality Designation):
- Based on a modified sample
recovery.

- It indirectly depends on the number of

fractures and the degree of weathering
of the rock mass.

- Note: Pieces shorter than 10cm are

ignored. Also those pieces that were broken in the process of the sample
making.
- Volumetric joint count (number of joints in a volume) → RQD=110-2,5JV

○ RMR (Rock mass rating):

- We have to take into account the geomechanical properties of the matrix
rock.
(1) Strength of intact rock maximum value = 15

(2) R.Q.D. maximum value = 20

(3) Spacing of discontinuities maximum value = 20

(4) Conditions of discontinuities maximum value = 30

(5) Groundwater maximum value = 15

RMR = (1) + (2) + (3) + (4) + (5)

With RMR and the design span, we can determine whether we will need
reinforcement due to instabilities.

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○ Q-System of Barton (rock mass quality):
- It expresses the quality of the rock mass in the so-called Q-value, on which
designs are based and support recommendations for underground
excavations.

In the Q-system, stresses are more important than in RMR.

○ GSI (Geological Strength Index):

- It is a system for characterizing the geomechanical properties of rock
masses, through easy identification by visual evaluation of geological
properties in the field.
- It has two inputs: 1) Joint
conditions // 2) Structure

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SUMMARY:
To qualify the quality of a rock we must look at the joints of the rock. Then depending on the
method used, we hate to look at one characteristic or another.

RMR Q-System GSI

Conditions of the joints (roughness, length, ✔ ✔ ✔

weathering, infilling…)

Frequency of discontinuities (RQD, joint ✔ ✔ ✔

spacing)

GSW ✔ ✔ X
Strength of intact rock ✔ X X
Stress reduction factor (indication of weak X ✔ X
zones in a rock formation)

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UNIT 6: Surficial Formations - Soils
Geomorphology → It studies the different processes that produce landforms (weathering
and erosion). These processes continually shape the Earth's surface, and generate the
sediments that circulate in the Rock Cycle.

● Geomorphologic processes and resulting soils:

○ Residual soils: Weathering
- They occur at the same place
- Physical, chemical or biological weathering

○ Transported soils: Erosion, transportation and deposition

- Transported by wind, water…

Weathering → Physical or chemical transformations that the geological material suffers on

the surface of the Earth or at its proximity.

Superficial deposits → They are the youngest geological deposits formed during the most
recent period of geological time, the Quaternary, which extends back about 2.6 million years
from the present. They rest on older deposits or rocks referred to as bedrock.
These recent unconsolidated sediments may include stream channel and floodplain
deposits, beach sands, talus gravels and glacial drift and moraine.

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Why do we need to know this?

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● Weathering
- Degradation of rock by different processes in order to form soils and
sediments, by extended exposure of rocks to atmosphere, hydrosphere and
biosphere.
- Rocks and also minerals become unstable.

a) Mechanical weathering: Is the process that causes rocks to crumble.

Types:
1. Decompression (exfoliation):
Caused by pressure release of rocks buried at high depths.
Formation of sheet joints parallel to the surface.
2. Crystal growth in rock porosity:
Due to the freezing of water inside the rocks, the rock suffers fractures.

3. Thermoclasty:
Rock fragmentation due to volume changes caused by thermal
expansions and contractions.

Result of the mechanical weathering:

a) Fragmentation of the rock
b) Increasing of the internal surface

b) Chemical weathering: Changes the molecular structure of rocks and soils.

Main process:
1. Dissolution
- Karstification (carbonate and evaporite rock dissolution due to water’s
action)
- Is a very long-time process.

2. Hydrolysis
- Chemical process where a substance breaks down by the addition of
water
- Formation of clay minerals (Clays create problems due to their high
plasticity, expansive nature, poor drainage, and swelling and shrinking
behavior. These properties can lead to issues such as foundation
movement, landslides and damage to infrastructure)

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 3. Oxidation
- Chemical process in which a substance loses electrons, typically
accompanied by an increase in its oxidation state. This process often
involves the addition of oxygen or the removal of hydrogen.

The rate of alteration of rocks/minerals depends on:

■ Chemical composition (type of bonding)
■ Structural integrity (fractures, cleavage, twinning…)
■ Degree of crystallinity (ideal stoichiometry)
■ Environmental conditions (acidic environments, basic, warm…)

● Soil Formation
Factors:
- Source rock
- Climate
- Fauna and flora
- Relief and topography
- Time (velocity and processes length)

Temperature and moisture have a high influence in mechanical and chemical weathering.

Chemical weathering is less effective in dry regions due to water scarcity

- Residual soil:
- Formed by weathering (mainly chemical).
- Source rock → Bedrock
- Hydrolysis forms “Sauló”
- Problems:
a) Irregular contact between residual soil and unaltered rock
b) Presence of isolated blocks

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Colluvial Soils
● Hydrologic cycle:

1) Precipitation
2) Infiltration (infiltration of lot of water decrease the strength of the rock, being able to
provoke falls and then slopes).4

● Superficial runoff
If Rainfall Intensity > Infiltration Capacity → runoff

- Runoff amount depends on:

a) Slope
b) Hillslope material (porosity and
permeability)
c) Climate (precipitation and
temperature)
d) Vegetation

- Hillslope runoff: Rills in an artificial slope formed by rainfall concentration following

subparallel lines along a sliding surface.

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● Landslides
- Mass movement of rock, soil or debris material ( fragments or remnants resulting
from the breakdown of larger structures or substances) toward the lower and
external part of the slope, along a defined sliding surface.
○ Material sedimentation at valley end or at lower part of hillslope.
○ Landslide movement is a dangerous process for infrastructures and civil
constructions.

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 ● Causes of landslides
Several determining factors but only one triggering factor.

Resulting surficial formation: Colluvial soil

+ Textural characteristics:
○ Angular clasts
○ Gravel and blocks with clay and sand-rich matrix
○ No bedding
+ Problems: Unstable excavations, change of hydrogeological conditions may
accelerate movements and mobilize colluvial deposits .

● Landslide classification according the state of activity (in time)

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Alluvial Soils
Fluvial processes: related to subaerial flows (rivers, creeks…).
● Rivers are the most common geomorphologic agents.
● Fluvial processes (in combination with landslides) are:
○ Shaping the topographic relief (in temperate climates)
○ Forming the hillslopes

● Fluvial sedimentation:
- Stream’s bed load (transport mechanisms): consists of sand and gravel moving on
or near the stream bed by traction and saltation. Finer silt and clay form the
suspended load of the stream.

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Variation of bed slope:
Changes in energy gradient of stream à variation of bed slope

Stream power (Ω)

• Effect of velocity and shear stress
• Measure of available power for sediment transport
Ω = γSQ
γ: Fluid specific weight
S: Stream gradient (slope)
Q= discharge (m3/s)

● External factors of river dynamics:

(CONTROLLED BY CLIMATE CONDITIONS AND BASIN GEOLOGY)
○ Water flow
○ Sediment load provided by the basin
○ Base level: the lowest limit in which erosion and sediment transport not occur
→ NO energy gradient of stream

● Valley morphology:
○ Fluvial erosion:
■ Vertical erosion of river bed → Downcutting (narrow valley).
■ Lateral erosion of bed margins → Widening of stream bed.

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Alluvial plain: Flat surfaces aggraded by meandering (the path forms “S”) and/or braided
river channels, which are bordered by flat-lying areas consisting of floodplains, lakes and
peatlands.

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● Chanel morphology:

● Fluvial terrace:
○ Paired terraces: Paired terraces may be erosional benches cut in rock.
○ Unpaired terraces: Unpaired terraces do not match across a river → formed by
simultaneous downcutting and lateral erosion.
○ Flood plain: The lowest part of alluvial plain (closest to river) → Flooded during an
overflow (overtaking river bed)

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● Alluvial deposits:
○ Well-sorted sediments:
■ Gravels in a sandy groundmass

○ Well bedded, horizontal layers stratification

○ Rounded particles

● Alluvial fans
Alluvial fans are fan-shaped landforms formed at the base of mountains or hills
where fast-flowing streams or rivers deposit sediment, often a mix of gravel, sand,
and finer particles. The fan shape is created as the flowing water loses energy and
spreads out, depositing the sediment it carried.

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Site investigation
● Main goals:
○ Establish geological, geotechnical, and hydrogeological conditions
○ Ground characterisation
○ Sampling

● Testing Previous considerations:

○ Variability ↔ Individualized Site investigation
○ Type of project or work: interaction between structure and ground
○ Efficient investigation with limited budget. Must obtain all relevant data. Site
investigation cost about 15-25% of the project.

● Phases:

1) Preliminary investigation (viability study):

- Consulting of geological and topographical maps
- Revision of existing information: Studies and reports consult.
- Preliminary photo-interpretation
- Preliminary field reconnaissance

2) Draft project:
- Geological cartography
- Geophysical survey
- Borehole drilling
- Basic geotechnical data

3) Construction project:
- Detailed cartography (scale >1:2000)
- Specific ground characterisation
- Borehole drilling
- Laboratory tests

4) Draft project:
- Geological cartography
- Geophysical survey
- Borehole drilling
- Basic geotechnical data

5) Construction/exploitation:
- Check of geological model during excavation
- Monitoring: average stress, deformations, interstitial stress
- Quality control

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● Field reconnaissance (surface):
a) Photo-geological investigation:
- Structural Geology
- Lithology
- Topography
- Stability
- Hydrology
- Erosion
b) Field exploration:
- Mapping, cartography and analysis of surface geology
- Types of materials (description of soils and rocks)
- Discontinuities
- Geomorphological Processes
- Basic and geotechnical properties of the materials

● Ground investigation
a) Direct methods
- Goals:
• Lithological description
• Soil/rock contact
• Quality and weathering
• Sampling
• Phreatic/piezometric level
• In-situ test
• Paleoseismicity
• Confirmation of geological model

- Methods:
• Excavation
• Trench
• Boreholes:
Goals:
- Study the structure
- Get samples to test in laboratory
- Perform tests during drilling:
- Strength tests
- Deformation tests
- Hydrogeological tests
- Install monitoring equipment

Drilling techniques:
- Rotation
- Percussion
- Rotary-percussion
- Auger

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b) In-situ tests
Strength & Deformation tests:
• Standard Penetration Test SPT (soils)
• Cone Penetration Test CPTU (soft soils)
• Dilatometer test (soils)
• Pressuremeter (Menard soils & OYO rocks)
• Vane Shear Test (soils)
• Schmidt hammer, point load (rocks)

c) Indirect or geophysical methods

ADVANTAGES:
• Quick & Cheaper than borehole drilling
• Large scale. Entire coverage of an area
DISADVANTAGES:
• Not definitive, require subjective interpretation
MAIN TECHNIQUES:
• Electric surveying
• SEV
• Tomography
• Seismic:
• Refraction
• Reflection
• Passive
• Downhole & Crosshole
• Ground Penetrating Radar (GPR - Georadar)
• Magnetometry
• Gravimetry

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Seismic methods
To be applied to determine the sequence of layers in depth, the geological structure
and the rock mass quality through the underground velocity of seismic waves.
Most used techniques are seismic refraction and reflection.

● Seismic survey
Seismic waves are propagated in all directions (as light waves)

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● Seismic refraction

● Ground Penetrating Radar (GPR):

The GPR is used to detect buried objects and define the underground layers. It
provides a low depth vertical profile. The data is collected by profiles and results can
be visualized in real time on a screen. That allows a fast and easy interpretation
in-situ

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