Biology

Principle of inheritance and variation

Genetic character - The characters which transfer in offspring from

their parents is called genetic characters.

Heredity - Inheritance of genetic character from parents to offspring

is called heredity.

Genetics- The branch of biology in which studies about heredity and

variation is called genetics.
1. The word genetics first used by W Batson, so he is called father of
modern genetics.
2. Genetic discover by Gregor John Mendel So he is called father of
genetics.
3. He experimented on the garden pee plant. his experiment was
known by the name of experiment and plant hybridisation

Selection of pea plant - Mandel selected garden pea plant paysum

sativum for his experiment due to following reasons.
1st.It is annual plant. Its lifespan is very short, so its many generation
can be obtained in less time.
2nd.It can easily grow in garden or in a flower pot.
3rd its flower are bisexual. They are self pollinated. Hence the purity
of character is maintained from many generation.
4th.Cross pollination also occurs in its flower by.
5th.In pea plant, many contrasting characters are present.

34 contrasting characters are present in Pplant, but Mendel selected

only 7 contrasting characters for his experiment.

Factor.- It is a unit responsible for inheritance of a particular character.

Now this factor is known as Gene. Gene word is given by Watson.
Homozygous - An individual that has some kind of alleles for any
character is called homozygous.(TT)

heterozygous - The unequal condition of both alleles for any

character in an Organism is called heterozygous. (T,t)

Phenotype- The external expansion of one or more characters of any

individual is known as phenotype.

Genotype- Genetic Structure of an individual which receives from

their parent through inheritance are called Genotype.

Reciprocal cross - In this type of gross, the sex of mother and

father.Are reverse means if in first cross the father is tall and mother
is dwarf then mother will be taken toll and father will be doofed in
reciprocal course.

Reason for mendal succes

1st.Mendel studied the inheritance of single character at a time

2nd.Mandel use only pure plant for his experiment.

3rd Mendel did his experiment up to F2 and F3 generation only.

Experiments
Monohybrid cross.The study of inheritance of single pair of
contrasting characters or the cross between the pair of contrasting
characters is called monohybrid course.
In monohybrid cross, Mendel made a crossben puretal plant and pure
dwarf plant and obtain F1 generation. All plants were hybrid tall in F1
generation.After this F2 generation were obtained by self fertilization
among F1 generation plant. Both type of plants were obtained in F2
generation.

Dihybrid cross.The study of inheritance of two pair of contrasting

character or the cross between two pair of contrasting character is
called dihybrid cross.In this experiment cross between P plants which
having two pairs of contrasting characters, round and yellow
(RRYY)seeded plants and wrinkled and green(rryy) seeded plant are
obtained in a one generation. In F1 generation all plants were hybrid
round and yellow seeded plants. After this F2 generation were
obtained by self fertilization of F1 generation plants.In F2 generation,
all characters were represented

Law of inheritance (mendalism)

Law of dominance.This law is based on the result of monohybrid
cross.According to this law, when a cross takes place between
homozygous contrasting characters, then the character which express
itself in F1 generation is called dominance. The character doesn't
express in itself in F1 generation is called recessive, like tall is
dominant character because it represents an F1 generation. Dwarf is a
recessive character because it doesn't express in F1 generation.

Law of segregation, purity of gametes.This law is also based on result

of monohybrid cross During formation from hybrid F1 generation
plants, both genes segregate to each other. Therefore it is called law
of segregation.Each gametes carry 1 gene for each character, means
two different genes live together in F1 generation but not affect to
each other and make their purity. Therefore it is called of purity of
gametes.

Law of Independent Assortment.This law is based on result of

dihybrid cross. When a cross is done taking under consideration 2 or
more contrasting characters then in F1 generation all plants of
dominant character were develops. But when seed of these plants
obtained after self fertilization.Are grown, then all character appear in
F2 generation independently without affecting each other.It means
presence of 1 character does not affect the inheritance of the other
character. So it is called independent assortment.
Back cross.When the plant develop in F1 generation after
monohybrid cross is crossed with anyone of parent plant then it is
called back cross. It is of two types.
1. Outgrows.When hybrid of spring is crossed with dominant parent
then it is called outcross.
2. Test cross.When hybrid of spring is crossed with recessive parent
then it is called test cross.

Incomplete dominance.It is exception of law of dominance. According

to this law, the dominant character not effective in F1 generation
means dominant is not completely dominant recessive character also
express an F1 generation.

Codominance.When both dominant and recessive character equally

appear in F1 generation, this process is called codominance.

Sex determination in human being.46 chromosomes are found in

each cell of human being, in which 44 chromosomes are
homogeneous and two chromosomes determine the sex of
offspring.In female ** sex chromosomes are present and XY
chromosome are present in male Y chromosome important for sex
determination and offspring if Y chromosome take part in
fertilisation.Offspring is buoy effects. Chromosome of male take place
in fertilisation, then offspring is girl.

Sex determination in insects.In female insect, ** chromosome are

present with autosome while only one sex chromosome X is found in
male insect with autosome. During the gamut formation, all female
gametes are equally.But 50% gametes have only autosomes AO.. Sex
chromosomes are absent in it.

Sex determination and birds.In male birds.Sex chromosomes are

equal AZ, but in female birds two type of gametes are formed Aza. So
female birds are responsible for sex determination.

Sex determination and honeybee.

Female honeybee is a dipole have 32 chromosomes. Male honeybee
is a haploid have 16 chromosomes Gamete formed in female by
meiosis division and gamut formed in male by mitosis
division.Female loafers spring produced by B in office, spring
produced by egg female gametes without fertilization. It is called
determination system.

Note.Hanking Discover a nucleus structure in insect

during.Spermatogenesis and called it sex body after X body is called
X chromosome.

Mutation. Sudden and inheritable changes in the hereditary material

DNA.In the cell of all living being a mutation, mutation is
phenomenal which results in alternation of DNA sequence,
consequently changes in the phenotype and genotype of an
Organism.

Types of mutation
Gene mutation The sequence of nitrogen pair is the speciality of
gene. When change in gene then it is called gene mutation. It is of
two type.
Point mutation.Mutation arises due to change in a single base pair of
gene. This is called point notation.Sickle cell anemia disease
produced by point mutation.

Frame shift mutation.Deletion and.Insertions of base pair of DNA are

called.Frame shift.

Chromosomal mutation.When there is a difference in the

arrangement in the chromosome or addition of other gene and some
gene or get lost, then it is called chromosomal mutation.

A structural change in chromosome.

Delation
The loss of a large or a small segment of chromosome.
Translocation.
The transformation of a segment of a chromosome to another
chromosome.

Inversion.
One part of a chromosome is rearrange.In inverse order.

Dipulation.Any part of a chromosome repeated twice.

Padigre analysis - Such an analysis of traits in a Several of generation

of family is called pedigree analysis.
In this analysis, the inheritance of a particular trait is represented in
the family tree or generation.
This analysis is useful for.To know about genetic disease, some of the
standard symbol used in analysis.