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A Dictionary of Modern English Usage, 2e (1965)
A Dictionary of Modern English Usage, 2e (1965)
MODERN
ENGLISH USAGE
BY
H.W. FOWLER
SECOND EDITION
revised by
SIR ERNEST GOWERS
This book is sold subject to the condition that it shall not, by way
of trade or otherwise, be lent, re-sold, hired out or otherwise circulated
without the publisher's prior consent in any form of binding or cover
other than that in which it is published and without a similar condition
including this condition being imposed on the subsequent purchaser
'IT took the world by storm' said The Times, in its obituary notice of
H. W. Fowler, about The King's English, published by him and his
younger brother Frank in 1906. That description might have been more
fitly applied to the reception of A Dictionary of Modern English Usage
which followed twenty years later, planned by the two brothers but
executed by Henry alone. This was indeed an epoch-making book in
the strict sense of that overworked phrase. It made the name of Fowler
a household word in all English-speaking countries. Its influence ex-
tended even to the battlefield. 'Why must you write intensive here ?' asked
the Prime Minister in a minute to the Director of Military Intelligence
about plans for the invasion of Normandy. 'Intense is the right word.
You should read Fowler's Modern English Usage on the use of the two
words.'1 Though never revised, the book has kept its place against all
rivals, and shown little sign of suffering from that reaction which
commonly awaits those whose work achieves exceptional popularity in
their lifetime.
What is the secret of its success? It is not that all Fowler's opinions
are unchallengeable. Many have been challenged. It is not that he is
always easy reading. At his best he is incomparable. But he never forgot
what he calls 'that pestilent fellow the critical reader' who is 'not
satisfied with catching the general drift and obvious intention of a
sentence' but insists that 'the words used must . . . actually yield on
scrutiny the desired sense'.2 There are some passages that only yield
it after what the reader may think an excessive amount of scrutiny—
passages demanding hardly less concentration than one of the more
obscure sections of a Finance Act, and for the same reason : the deter-
mination of the writer to make sure that, when the reader eventually
gropes his way to a meaning, it shall be, beyond all possible doubt, the
meaning intended by the writer. Nor does the secret lie in the conveni-
ence of the book as a work of reference; it hardly deserves its title of
'dictionary', since much of it consists of short essays on various subjects,
some with fancy titles that give no clue at all to their subject. What
reporter, seeking guidance about the propriety of saying that the recep-
1 2
The Second World War, v. 615. s.v. ILLOGICALITIES.
iv PREFACE TO THE REVISED EDITION
tion was held 'at the bride's aunt's', would think of looking for it in an
article with the title 'Out of the Frying-Pan'?
There is of course more than one reason for its popularity. But the
dominant one is undoubtedly the idiosyncrasy of the author, which he
revealed to an extent unusual in a 'dictionary'. 'Idiosyncrasy', if we
accept Fowler's own definition, 'is peculiar mixture, and the point of it
is best shown in the words that describe Brutus : "His life was gentle,
and the elements So mixed in him that Nature might stand up And say
to all the world This was a man." One's idiosyncrasy is the way one's
elements are mixed.'1 This new edition of the work may therefore be
suitably introduced by some account of the man. The following is based
on a biographical sketch by his friend G. G. Coulton published in 1934
as Tract XLIII of the Society for Pure English.
He was born in 1858, the son of a Cambridge Wrangler and Fellow
of Christ's. From Rugby he won a scholarship to Balliol, but surprisingly
failed to get a first in either Mods, or Greats. After leaving Oxford he
spent seventeen years as a master at Sedbergh. His career there was
ended by a difference of opinion with his headmaster, H. G. Hart (also
a Rugbeian). Fowler, never a professing Christian, could not con-
scientiously undertake to prepare boys for confirmation. Hart held this
to be an indispensable part of a housemaster's duty. Fowler was there-
fore passed over for a vacant housemastership. He protested; Hart was
firm; and Fowler resigned. It was, in Fowler's words, 'a perfectly friendly
but irreconcilable' difference of opinion. Later, when Hart himself had
resigned, Fowler wrote to Mrs. Hart that though Sedbergh would no
doubt find a new headmaster with very serviceable talents of one kind
or another, it was unlikely to find again 'such a man as everyone sepa-
rately shall know (more certainly year by year) to be at once truer and
better, gentler and stronger, than himself'.
Thus, at the age of 41, Fowler had to make a fresh start. For a few
years he lived in London, where he tried his hand as an essayist without
any great success, and attempted to demonstrate what he had always
maintained to be true—that a man ought to be able to live on £100 a
year. In 1903 he joined his brother in Guernsey, and in 1908, on his
fiftieth birthday, married a lady four years younger than himself. The
brothers did literary work together. Their most notable productions
were a translation of Lucian and The King's English. The great success
of the latter pointed the road they were to follow in future.
When war broke out Henry was 56. He emerged from retirement to
1
S.V. IDIOSYNCRASY.
PREFACE TO THE REVISED EDITION v
take part in the recruiting campaign. But he found himself more and
more troubled by the thought that he was urging others to run risks
which he would himself be spared. So he enlisted as a private in the
'Sportsmen's Battalion', giving his age as 44. His brother, aged 45,
enlisted with him. Their experiences are fully told in letters from Henry
to his wife, now in the library of St. John's College, Cambridge. It is
a sorry story, summarized in a petition sent by the brothers to their
commanding officer in France in February 1916.
[Your petitioners] enlisted in April 1915 at great inconvenience and
with pecuniary loss in the belief that soldiers were needed for active
service, being officially encouraged to mis-state their ages as a patriotic
act. After nine months' training they were sent to the front, but almost
immediately sent back to the base not as having proved unfit for the work,
but merely as being over age—and this though their real ages had long
been known to the authorities. . . . They are now held at the base at
Étaples performing only such menial or unmilitary duties as dish-
washing, coal-heaving and porterage, for which they are unfitted by
habits and age. They suggest that such conversion of persons who
undertook purely from patriotic motives the duties of soldiers on active
service into unwilling menials or servants is an incredibly ungenerous
policy. . . .
This petition secured Fowler's return to the trenches, but not for long.
Three weeks later he fainted on parade, and relegation to the base
could no longer be resisted. This seemed the end. 'By dinner time', he
wrote to his wife shortly afterwards, ' I was making up my mind to go
sick and ask to be transferred to a lunatic asylum.' This drastic measure
proved unnecessary, for in a few days he was to go sick in earnest. He
was sent back to England, and after some weeks in hospital was dis-
charged from the Army, having spent eighteen dreary months in a
constantly frustrated attempt to fight for his country.
After their discharge the brothers returned to Guernsey, but the
partnership only lasted another two years; Frank died in 1918. In 1925
Henry and his wife left the island to live in a cottage in the Somerset-
shire village of Hinton St. George. There he remained until his death
in 1933, occupied mainly with lexicographical work for the Clarendon
Press and on the book that was to make him famous. An exceptionally
happy marriage ended with the death of his wife three years before his
own. The unbeliever's memorial to her was, characteristically, a gift of
bells to the village church.
The most prominent element in Fowler's idiosyncrasy was evidently
vi PREFACE TO THE REVISED EDITION
what the Romans called aequanimitas. He knew what he wanted from
life; what he wanted was within his reach; he took it and was content.
It pleased him to live with spartan simplicity. Coulton quotes a letter
he wrote to the Secretary of the Clarendon Press in reply to an offer
to pay the wages of a servant. Fowler was then 68 and the month was
November.
My half-hour from 7.0 to 7.30 this morning was spent in (1) a two-
mile run along the road, (2) a swim in my next-door neighbour's pond—
exactly as some 48 years ago I used to run round the Parks and cool
myself in (is there such a place now?) Parson's Pleasure. That I am still
in condition for such freaks I attribute to having had for nearly 30 years
no servants to reduce me to a sedentary and all-literary existence. And
now you seem to say: Let us give you a servant, and the means of slow
suicide and quick lexicography. Not if I know it : I must go my slow way.
Anyone undertaking to revise the book will pause over the opening
words of Fowler's own preface: ' I think of it as it should have been,
with its prolixities docked. . . . ' H e cannot be acquitted of occasional
prolixity. But his faults were as much a part of his idiosyncrasy as his
virtues; rewrite him and he ceases to be Fowler. I have been chary of
making any substantial alterations except for the purpose of bringing
him up to date; I have only done so in a few places where his exposition
is exceptionally tortuous, and it is clear that his point could be put
more simply without any sacrifice of Fowleresque flavour. But the
illustrative quotations have been pruned in several articles, and passages
where the same subject is dealt with in more than one article have been
consolidated.
Only one important alteration has been made in the scope of the book.
The article TECHNICAL TERMS, thirty pages long, has been omitted. It
consisted of definitions of 'technical terms of rhetoric, grammar, logic,
prosody, diplomacy, literature, etc., that a reader may be confronted
with or a writer have need o f . The entries that are relevant to 'modern
English usage' have been transferred to their alphabetical places in the
book. For the rest, the publication of other 'Oxford' books, especially
the COD and those on English and classical literature, has made it
unnecessary to keep them here. The eight pages of French words listed
for their pronunciation have also been omitted; a similar list is now
appended to the COD.
1
S.V. THAT REL. PRON. I .
2
Randolph Quirk in The Listener, 15 March 1958.
x PREFACE TO THE REVISED EDITION
I have already referred to the enigmatic titles that Fowler gave to
some of his articles, and their effect in limiting the usefulness of the
book as a work of reference. But no one would wish to do away with so
Fowleresque a touch; indeed, I have not resisted the temptation to add
one or two. I hope that their disadvantage may be overcome by the
'Classified Guide' which now replaces the 'List of General Articles'.
In this the articles (other than those concerned only with the mean-
ing, idiomatic use, pronunciation, etc., of the words that form their
titles) are grouped by subject, and some indication is given of their
content wherever it cannot be inferred from their titles. This also rids
the body of the book of numerous entries inserted merely as cross-
references.
E.G.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I. U S A G E
absolute construction. ('The play collectives. A classification of nouns
being over, we went home.') singular in form used as plurals.
absolute possessives. ('Your and commercialese,
our(s) and his efforts.') compound prepositions and con-
abstractitis. Addiction to abstract junctions. Inasmuch as, in regard
words. to, etc.
adjectives misused. didacticism. Showing itself in
ambiguity. Some common causes. attempts to improve accepted vocab-
Americanisms. ulary etc.
analogy. As a literary device. As a differentiation. Of words that might
corrupter of idiom. have been synonyms, such as
archaism. spirituous and spiritual; emergence
avoidance of the obvious. In choice and emergency.
of words the obvious is better than its double case. Giving references to
obvious avoidance. other articles which illustrate the
basic English. making of a single word serve as both
battered ornaments. An introduc- subjective and objective.
tion to other articles on words and double passives. E.g. 'The point is
phrases best avoided for their trite- sought to be avoided.'
ness. elegant variation. Laboured avoid-
cannibalism. For instance the ance of repetition.
swallowing of a to by another to in elision. Of auxiliaries and negatives:
'Doubt as to whom he was referring'. I've, hasn't, etc.
cases. The status of case in English ellipsis. Leaving words to be 'under-
grammar. Some common tempta- stood' instead of expressed, especially
tions to ignore it. References to parts of be and have, of that (conj.)
other articles on particular points. and of words after than.
cast-iron idiom. More on the enumeration forms. The proper use
corruption of idiom by analogy. of and and or in stringing together
-ce, -cy. Differences in meaning three or more words or phrases.
between words so ending, e.g. -er and -est. Some peculiarities in the
consistence) (jy). use of comparatives and superlatives.
cliché. ethic. For the 'ethic dative'.
CLASSIFIED GUIDE
euphemism. incongruous vocabulary. Espe-
euphuism. cially the use of archaisms in unsuit-
false emphasis. Sentences accident- able setting.
ally stressing what was not intended indirect object.
to be stressed. indirect question.
false scent. Misleading the reader. -ing. Choice between the -ing form
feminine designations. Their use. and the infinitive in such sentences
fetishes. References to articles on as 'Dying at their posts rather than
some grammarians' rules mis- surrender(ing)': 'doing more than
applied or unduly revered. furnish(ing) us with loans.'
foreign danger. Foreign words and intransitive past participle. As
phrases misused through ignorance. a grammatical curiosity in e.g. 'fallen
formal words. Deprecating their angels'.
needless use. inversion. Its uses and abuses.
French words. Their use and pro-
nunciation.
fused participle. The construction
exemplified in 'I like you pleading
poverty.'
gallicisms. Borrowings from French
that stop short of using French words
( Differentiation in
these different end-
ings.
without disguise, e.g. 'jump to the irrelevant allusion. The use of
eyes'. 'hackneyed phrases that contain a
generic names and other allusive part that is appropriate and another
commonplaces. A Jehu, Ithuriel's that is pointless or worse', e.g. to
spear, and the like. 'leave (severely) alone'.
genteelisms. italics. Their proper uses.
gerund. Its nature and uses. Choice jargon. Distinguishing argot, cant,
between gerund and infinitive in dialect, jargon, and other special
e.g. aim at doing, aim to do. vocabularies.
grammar. The meaning of the word jingles. Supplements the article
and the respect due to it. repetition of words or sounds,
hackneyed phrases. The origin and legerdemain. Using a word twice
use of the grosser kind of cliché. without noticing that the sense
hanging-up. Keeping the reader required the second time is different
waiting an unconscionable time for from that of the first.
verb or predicate. letter forms. Conventional ways of
haziness. Shown in overlappings and beginning and ending letters.
gaps. literary critics' words,
headline language. literary words,
hyperbole. litotes. A variety of meiosis.
hysteron proteron. Putting the cart long variants. E.g. preventative for
before the horse. preventive; quieten for quiet.
-ic(al). Differentiation between ad- love of the long word,
jectives with these alternative endings. -ly. Ugly accumulation of adverbs
-ics. -ic or -ics for the name of a so ending.
science etc. ? Singular or plural after malapropisms.
-ics? meaningless words. Actually, defi-
idiom. Denned and illustrated. nitely, well, etc.
illiteracies. Some common types. meiosis. Understatement designed
illogicalities. Defensible and in- to impress.
defensible. membership. Use of -ship words for
incompatibles. Some ill-assorted members, leaders, etc.
phrases of similar type : almost quite, metaphor,
rather unique, etc. misapprehensions. About the
meaning of certain words and
CLASSIFIED GUIDE
phrases, e.g, leading question, pre- phrasal verbs. Their uses and
scriptive right. abuses.
misquotations. Some common pleonasm. Using more words than
examples. are required for the sense intended.
names and appellations. Con- poeticisms.
ventional ways of speaking to and of polysyllabic humour.
relations and friends. popularized technicalities. Includ-
needless variants. Of established ing 'Freudian English'.
words. position of adverbs. Common
negative mishandlings. Especially reasons for misplacing them.
those that lead one to say the oppo- preposition at end.
site of what one means. preposition dropping. ('Eating fish
noun-adjectives. As corrupters of Fridays'; 'going places' etc.)
style. pride of knowledge. Showing itself
novelty hunting. In the choice of disagreeably in the choice of words.
words. pronouns. Some warnings about
number. Some problems in the their use.
choice between singular and plural quasi-adverbs. Adjectival in form
verbs. {preparatory, contrary, etc.).
object-shuffling. Such as 'Instil quotation. Its uses and abuses.
people with hope' for 'instil hope repetition of words or sounds.
into people'. revivals. Of disused words.
officialese. rhyming slang.
©ratio obliqua, recta. rhythm.
out of the frying pan. Examples of Saxonism and anti-Saxonism.
a writer's being faulty in one way semantics.
because he has tried to avoid being sentence. What is a sentence?
faulty in another. sequence of tenses.
over zeal. Unnecessary repetition of Siamese Twins. Such as chop and
conjunctions, prepositions, and rela- change', fair and square.
tives. side-slip. A few examples of sen-
pairs and snares. Some pairs of tences that have gone wrong through
words liable to be confused. not keeping a straight course.
paragraph. slipshod extension. Of the meaning
parallel sentence dangers. Dam- of words, and consequent verbicide.
aging collisions between the negative sobriquets.
and affirmative, inverted and unin- sociologese.
verted, dependent and independent. split infinitive.
parenthesis. stock pathos.
participles. On the trick of begin- sturdy indefensibles. Examples of
ning a sentence with a participle. ungrammatical or illogical idiom.
Also giving references to other subjunctive. Modern uses of a dying
articles on participles. mood.
passive disturbances. On the im- superfluous words. Some that
personal passive (it is thought etc.). might be dispensed with.
Also giving references to other superiority. Apologizing for the use
articles on the passive. of homely phrases.
pathetic fallacy. superstitions. Some outworn gram-
pedantic humour. matical pedantries.
pedantry. swapping horses. Three sentences
perfect infinitive. 'I should (have) gone wrong, one through failure to
like(d) to have gone.' maintain the construction of the
periphrasis. opening participle, and the others
personification. E.g. using crown through failure to remember what
for monarch, she for it. the subject is.
C L A S S I F I E D GUIDE
syllepsis and zeugma. Defined and a single species: each . . . are',
distinguished. scarcely . . . than and others.
synonyms. unidiomatic -ly. Against 'the grow-
tautology. Especially on the use of ing notion that every adjective, if an
the 'abstract appendage'. adverb is to be made of it, must
-tion words. Addiction to position have a -ly clapped on to it'.
and situation and similar abstract verbless sentences.
words. vogue words.
titles. Changing fashion in the vulgarization. Ofwords that depend
designation of peers. on their rarity for their legitimate
to-and-fro puzzles. Sentences that effect, e.g. epic.
leave the reader wondering whether walled-up object. Such as him in
their net effect is positive or nega- 'I scolded and sent him to bed.'
tive. Wardour Street. The use of antique
trailers. Specimens of sentences words.
that keep on disappointing the word patronage. Another mani-
reader's hope of coming to the festation of the attitude described in
end. superiority.
-ty and -ness. Differentiation be- working and stylish words. Dep-
tween nouns with these alternative recating, with examples, 'the notion
endings. that one can improve one's style by
u and non-u. using stylish words'.
unattached participles. worn-out humour. Some specimens.
unequal yokefellows. A collection worsened words. Such as imperial-
(from other articles) of varieties of ism, appeasement, academic.
D. PLURAL FORMATIONS
-ae, -as. Of words ending a. words. Of words ending -y. Refer-
-ex, -ix. Of words so ending. ences to other articles on plurals of
-ful. Handful etc. particular words or terminations.
Latin plurals. -trix.}
o(e)s. Of words ending-o. -um. > Of words so ending.
-on. Of words so ending. -us. j
plural anomalies. Of words ending x. As French plural.
-s in the singular. Of compound
E. MISCELLANEOUS
be (7). Ain't I, Aren't I. d r y . Spelling (i or y) of derivatives
centenary. Words for the higher of monosyllables in -y.
anniversaries (tercentenary etc.). -fied. Countrified or countryfied etc.
C L A S S I F I E D GUIDE
M.P. Singular and plural possessive names ending s and other difficulties.
forms. Use of 's as a bare plural.
mute e. Retained or omitted in singulars. Vagaries of words ending
inflexions and derivatives of words s in the singular,
so ending (lik(e)able, mil(e)age, etc.). -s-, -ss-, -sss. The writing of e.g.
-o-. As a connecting vowel (Anglo- focus(s)ed, mis(-)spell, mistress-ship.
Indian, speedometer, etc.) -ved, -ves. Words ending f making
one word or two. Giving references v in inflexions.
to articles on the writing of e.g. verbs in -ie, -y, and -ye. Their
altogether, all together, anyrate, any inflexions,
rate, into, in to. y and i. Choice between in such
-our, -or-. E.g. in colo(u)rist, words as cipher, gypsy.
honourable. -z-, -zz-. Buz or buzz etc.
possessive puzzles. Of proper
III. PRONUNCIATION
-ade, -ado. pn-.
arch(e)(i)-. pronunciation. (1) Some recent
-ciation. trends. (2) Silent t. (3) Silent h.
didacticism. Illustrated and depre- (4) a or ah in e.g. pass and 0 or aw in
cated. e.g. loss. (5) 0 or u in e.g. comrade.
diphth-, (6) Long u. (7) er or ur in e.g.
false quantity. An expression to be demurring. (8) al- followed by con-
banished from any discussion of sonant. (9) -ough-. (10) Some
English pronunciation. proper names curiously pronounced.
French words, and other foreign ps-.
words. pt-.
Greek g. Soft or hard? quad-.
homophone. quat-.
-ies and -ein. re-.
-ile. received pronunciation, or 'stan-
-in and -ine. dard English'.
-ise. recessive accent.
Italian sounds. retro-.
-ite. -thand-dh. Plurals of words ending
Latin phrases. -th.
-lived. u and non-u.
noun and adjective^ Differences in -valent.
accent. I pronunciation wh.
noun and verb > indicating dif-
accent. ferent parts of
participles (5). ) speech.
IV. PUNCTUATION AND TYPOGRAPHY
ae and ce. Use of the ligatures. misprints to be guarded against.
capitals. period in abbreviations. Mr. or
diaeresis. Mr} Rev. or Rev}
hyphens. A general article contain- stops. Comma. Semicolon. Colon.
ing also references to articles on Full stop. Exclamation mark. Ques-
particular points. tion mark. Inverted commas. Paren-
italics. thesis symbols.
KEY TO PRONUNCIATION
VOWELS
â ë i 5 û ôô {mate, metes mite, mote, mute, moot)
a ë ï ô ù ôô {rack, reck, rick, rock, ruck, rook)
(The light vague er sound often given to short vowels in
unstressed syllables, and the * sound often given to unstressed
e, are not separately distinguished.)
âr ër if ôr ûT {mare, mere, mire, more, mure)
ar er or {part, pert, port)
ah aw oi oor ow owr {bah, bawl, boil, boor, brow, bower)
CONSONANTS
of which the value needs defining
ch {child, each : not as in chaos, champagne, loch)
dh (dhât, mû'dher, = that, mother)
S {gai> get'- not as in gentle)
j (juj = judge)
ng {singer: not as in finger, ginger)
ngg (f i'ngger = finger)
s (saws = sauce: not as in laws)
th {ihinketh : not as in this, smooth)
zh (rôôzh, vï'zhn, = rouge, vision)
For h, r, w, in ah, ar & c , ow, owr, see Vowels
ABBREVIATIONS, SYMBOLS, ETC.
a., adjective i.e. ( = id est), that is s.f. ( = sub finetn), near
aa.^ adjectives indie, indicative the end
adj., adjective ind. obj., indirect object sing., singular
adv., adverb L, Latin Skeat, S's Etymological
advl, adverbial Lit., Literature Dictionary
APD, Authors' and lit., literally SOED, Shorter Oxford
Printers' Dictionary MS., manuscript English Dictionary
arch., archaic MSS., manuscripts SPE, (Tracts of the)
A.V., Authorized Ver- n., noun Society for Pure Eng-
sion NEB, New English lish
c , century Bible subj., subjunctive
c c , centuries nn., nouns s.v. ( = sub voce), under
cf. ( = confer), compare obj., object the (specified) word
COD, Concise Oxford OED, Oxford English TLS., Times Literary
Dictionary Dictionary Supplement
conj., conjunction OID, Oxford Illustra- U.K., United Kingdom
CUP, Cambridge Uni- ted Dictionary U.S., United States of
versity Press opp., as opposed to America
DNB, Dictionary of OUP, Oxford Univer- usu., usually
National Biography sity Press v., vb, verb
E, English part., participle present var.j variant
e.g. ( = exempli gratia), pers., person vol., volume
for instance pi., plural wd, word
ellipt., elliptical p.p., past or passive par- Webster, W's New Inter-
Enc. Brit., Encyclopae- ticiple national Dictionary
dia Britannica pr., pronounce
Evans, E's Dictionary of pref., prefix /, placed between sep-
Contemporary Ameri- prep., preposition arate quotations
can Usage pron., pronoun [ ] , containing words that
F, French refl., reflexive are not part of the
Gk, Greek rel., relative quotation
Gram., Grammar R.V., Revised Version
Small capitals refer the reader to the article so indicated, for further information.
a, an. i . A is used before all con- late position should not be adopted
sonants except silent h (a history, an with other words than as, how, so, too ;
hour) ; an was formerly usual before an e.g. in Which was quite sufficient an
unaccented syllable beginning with h indication / Can anyone choose more
and is still often seen and heard (an glorious an exit? / Have before them far
historian, an hotel, an hysterical scene, more brilliant a future,1, the normal
an hereditary title, an habitual offender). order (a quite or quite a sufficient, a
But now that the h in such words is more glorious, a far more brilliant) is
pronounced the distinction has become also the right one.
anomalous and will no doubt disappear 4 . A, an, are sometimes ungrammati-
in time. Meantime speakers who like cally inserted, especially after no adj.,
to say an should not try to have it both to do over again work that has already
ways by aspirating the h. A is now been done; so in No more signal a
usual also before vowel letters that in defeat was ever inflicted (no — not a;
pronunciation are preceded by a con- with this ungrammatical use cf. the
sonantal sound (a unit, a eulogy, a one). merely ill-advised arrangement in Suf-
Before letters standing for abbrevia- ferred no less signal a defeat, where no
tions or symbols the choice is usually is an adverb and a should precede it ;
determined by the sound of the letter, see 3 above). Other examples of the
not of the word it represents, e.g. an mistake are: The defendant was no
R.A., an M.P.; but that is the sort of other a person than Mr. Benjamin
thing about which we ought to be al- Disraeli (no other = not another). /
lowed to do as we please, so long as we Glimmerings of such a royally suggested
are consistent. even when not royally edited an institu-
2. The combinations of a with few tion are to be traced (even . . . edited
and many are a matter of arbitrary but being parenthetic, we get such a royally
established usage: a few, a great many, suggested an institution).
a good many, are idiomatic, but a many
is now illiterate or facetious and a good a-, a n - , not or without. Punctilious
few is colloquial; a very few is per- word-making requires that these should
missible (in the sense some-though- be prefixed only to Greek stems; of
not-at-all-many, whereas very few such compounds there are some hun-
means not-at-all-many-though-some), dreds, whereas Latin-stemmed words
but an extremely few is not; see FEW. having any currency even in scientific
3. A, an, follow instead of preceding use do not perhaps exceed half a dozen.
the adjectives many, such, and what There are the botanical acapsular and
(many an artist, such a task, what an acaulous, the biological asexual and
infernal bore !) ; they also follow (i) any acaudate, and the literary amoral. This
adjective preceded by as or how (I am last being literary, there is the less
as good a man as he; knew how great a excuse for its having been preferred
labour he had undertaken), (ii) usually to the more orthodox non-moral.
any adjective preceded by so (so resolute Amoral is a novelty whose progress
an attempt deserved success ; a so resolute has been rapid. In 1888 the OED
attempt is also English, but suggests af- called it a nonce-word, but in 1933 full
fectation), and (iii) often any adjective recognition had to be conceded.
preceded by too (too exact an, or a too These words should not be treated as
exact, adherence to instructions). The precedents for future word-making.
abbreviations able
abbreviations. See CURTAILED perceptible and prescriptible and the
WORDS. established convertible should be de-
abdomen. The orthodox British able. cisive for preferring avertible to avert-
pronunciation is âbdô'men, giving the -able On the other hand adjectives in
o the same value as in the Latin word, verbs may be formed even from those
whose established representa-
though doctors, the chief users of the tives end
word, often say ab'dômen, which is word has to-ible when the established
some extent lost the verbal
standard in America. or contracted, a special sense. Thus a
abetter, - o r . -er is the commoner mistake may be called uncorrectable,
general form, -or the invariable legal because incorrigible has become ethical
one. in sense ; solvable may be preferred be-
abide. For a. in its current sense with cause soluble has entered into an alliance
{abide by = keep) abided is usual, but dissolve; a law must be described
in its archaic sense of remain or dwell as enforceable to disclaim any relation-
it makes abode only. ship between that passive-sense adjec-
tive and the active-sense forcible; and
-able, -ible, etc. i . Normal use of destroyable by dynamite may seem less
-able as living suffix. 2 . Choice be- pedantic than destructible by because
tween -able and -ible (or -uble). 3. destructible tends to be purely adjec-
Negative forms of adjectives in -ble. 4. tival. The existence of a single estab-
-ble words of exceptional form or sense. lished -ible word of a more or less
1. Normal use of -able as living suf- technical kind need not be allowed
fix. The suffix -able is a living one, and much weight; e.g. fusible does not
may be appended to any transitive verb suffice to condemn confusable, diffus-
to make an adjective with the sense able, and refusable.
able, or liable, or allowed, or worthy, or 3. Negative forms of adjectives in
requiring, or bound, to be ed. If the -ble. The adjectives in -ble being
verb ends in mute -e, this is retained required with especial frequency in
after soft c or g (pronounceable, manage- negative contexts, the question often
able) and generally dropped after other arises whether the negative form of
consonants (usable, forgivable), but on any particular word should be made
this see MUTE E. Verbs ending in -y pre- with in- or un-. The general principle
ceded by a consonant change y into i is (a) that negatives from -ble words
(justifiable, triable), but not when pre- other than those in -able have in- (or
ceded by a vowel (buyable, payable). ig-, il-, im-, ir-); the only exceptions
Verbs with the Latin-derived ending are words already beginning with the
-ate that have established adjectives prefix im- or in- (impressible, intelli-
drop the -ate (demonstrable, abomin- gible), and (b) negatives from words in
able, alienable, appreciable, calculable, -able ordinarily have un-, but there are
expiable, execrable, etc.); and new ad- numerous exceptions with in- (e.g. im-
jectives from such verbs should be probable, inestimable). These latter
similarly formed, but for possible ex- have a tendency, no doubt due to the
ceptions See -ATABLE. greater familiarity of un-, to develop
2 . Choice between -able and -ible (or an alternative negative form with that
-uble). The -ible form is the natural one prefix (e.g. approachable, surmount-
for words derived from Latin verbs able). See IN- and UN-.
ending -ërë or -ire, making adjectives 4 . -ble words of exceptional form
in -ibilis (dirigible, audible). Otherwise or sense. The normal formation and
-able is the normal form and should be sense of adjectives in -able have been
used unless there is a well-established explained in paragraph 1; and adjec-
-ible form for the word, or it belongs to tives in -ible have the same ordinary
a set that form their adjectives that range of sense. There are, however,
way; for instance perceivable and pre- large numbers of words, and certain
scribable should not be substituted for usages, that do not conform to this
able able
simple type, and to some of them it are obscured by the non-existence in
(a reliable man, perishable articles, English of verbs to which they can be
dutiable goods, feedable pasture, an neatly referred {affable, amenable, de-
unplayable wicket, an actionable of- lectable, feasible, plausible, and many
fence, payable ore, unwritable paper, others). Secondly, there are many
and others) exception is often taken. common words in which the sense of
The advocatus diaboli who opposes -ble either is (as sometimes in Latin), or
their recognition has the advantage of (which is as much to the point) seems
an instantly plausible case that can be to be, not passive but active {agree-
put clearly and concisely: we do not able, capable, comfortable, hospitable,
rely a man, nor perish articles, nor viable, etc.). Thirdly, -ble is often ap-
play a wicket; therefore we have no pended, or (which is as much to the
right to call a man unreliable, and so point) seems to be appended, to nouns
with the rest. An answer on the same instead of to verbs {actionable, com-
pattern would be that neither do we panionable, fashionable, seasonable, un-
dispense a man, yet our right to call exceptionable, etc.). To take a single
him indispensable is not questioned. example in detail, no one but a com-
But it is better to go on broader lines, petent philologist can tell whether
sacrificing the appearance of precision reasonable comes from the verb or the
and cogency, and point out that the noun reason, nor whether its original
termination -ble has too wide a range sense was that can be reasoned out, or
in regard both to formation and to that can reason, or that can be reasoned
sense and the analogies offered by the with, or that has reason, or that listens
-ble words are too various and debat- to reason, or that is consistent with
able to allow of the application of cut- reason. The ordinary man knows only
and-dried rules. The words and usages that it can now mean any of these, and
to which exception is taken should be justifiably bases on these and similar
tested not by the original Latin prac- facts a generous view of the termina-
tice, nor by the subsequent French tion's capabilities ; credible meaning for
practice, nor by the English practice him worthy of credence, why should not
of any particular past period, even if reliable and dependable mean worthy of
any of" these were as precise as is some- reliance and dependence? Durable
times supposed, but by what inquiry meaning likely to endure, why should
may reveal as the now current concep- not payable and perishable mean likely
tion of how words in -ble are to be to pay and perish?
formed and what they may mean. In
determining that conception we cannot In conclusion, a small selection fol-
help allowing the incriminated words lows of words in -ble, other than those
themselves to count for something. It already mentioned, that illustrate the
may seem unfair that reliable should looser uses of the termination; the
itself have a voice in deciding its own paraphrases are offered merely by way
fate ; but it is no more unfair than that of accommodating each word to what
possession should be nine points of the is taken to be the current conception
law. The existence of the still more of -ble: accountable, liable to account;
modern payable ore, playable wicket, answerable, bound to answer; appeal-
unwritable paper, has in the same way able, subject to appeal; available, that
its value as evidence; the witness-box may avail; bailable, admitting of bail;
is open to the prisoner. Apart, how- chargeable, involving charge ; clubbable,
ever, from this special proof that the fit for a club; conformable, that con-
current conception of -ble is elastic, it forms; conversable, fit for conversing;
is easy to show that at the present stage demurrable, open to demur; jeepable,
of its long history and varied develop- capable of being traversed by a jeep;
ment it could not be rigid. In the first impressionable, open to impressions;
place the original formation and mean- indispensable, not admitting of dis-
ing of many common words containing pensation; knowledgeable, having or
capable of knowledge; laughable,
ablutions I absolute construction
providing a laugh; marriageable, fit any verb or the object of any preposition
for marriage; merchantable, fit for the but is attached to a participle or an in-
merchant; objectionable, open to ob- finitive, e.g. The play being over, we went
jection; operable, capable of being home. / Let us toss for it, loser to pay.
operated on; peaceable, inclined to 1. The insertion of a comma between
peace; personable, having person or noun and participle in the absolute use
presence; pleasurable, affording plea- is indisputably wrong. It arises from
sure; practicable, adapted for practice; the writer's or the compositor's taking
profitable, affording profit; proportion- the noun, because it happens to stand
able, showing proportion; revertible, first, for the subject of the main verb;
liable to reversion; risible, adapted for and it puts the reader to the trouble of
provoking laughter; sizable, having readjusting his notion of the sentence's
size; skatable, fit for skating; uncon- structure. The King having read his
scionable, not according to conscience. speech from the throne, their Majesties
retired is the right form; but news-
ablutions seems to be emerging from paper writing or printing is so faulty
the class of PEDANTIC HUMOUR, which on the point that it would be likely to
is its only fitting place outside religious appear as The King, having read
ceremonial, to claim serious recogni- his etc. Thus : By mid-afternoon Lock,
tion as a FORMAL WORD. This should having taken seven wickets for 47, it was
not be conceded. Though we have all over, j The House of Commons, hav-
prudishly created unnecessary diffi- ing once decided against the capital
culty for ourselves by denying to the penalties, it was declared impossible that
word lavatory its proper meaning, we there could be another execution for
still have wash-place and do not need forgery. The temptation to put a
monstrosities like a. facilities, a. cubi- comma in this position is so strong
cles, and mobile a. centres. that one may be found even in the
abolishment, abolition. See -ION rubric of a ceremonial service, presum-
AND -MENT. ably prepared with scrupulous care:
Bath King of Arms, having bowed first
aborigines. The word being still to those Knights Grand Cross who have
usually pronounced with a conscious- been installed previously and then to
ness that it is Latin (i.e. with -êz), the those who are not to be installed, they
sing, aborigine {-ne") is felt to be anoma- thereupon sit in the seats assigned to them.
lous and avoided or disliked; the adj.
aboriginal used as a noun is the best 2 . The case in this construction is
singular. the subjective; e.g. There being no clear
evidence against him, and he (not him)
above. The passage quoted a.; the a. denying the charge, we could do nothing.
quotation', the a. is a quotation. There There is little danger of the rule's
is ample authority, going back several being broken except where a pronoun
centuries, for this use of a. as adverb, stands as a complement. Though no
adjective, or noun, and no solid ground one would write me being the per-
for the pedantic criticism of it some- son responsible, the form the person
times heard. responsible being I is likely to be
abridg(e)ment. For spelling see shrunk from; me should not be used
JUDGEMENT. except colloquially; myself is usually
possible, but not always. The formula
absence. For conspicuous by a. see whom failing (= or in default of him)
CONSPICUOUS. should be either who failing or failing
absolute construction. Defined by whom; the justification of failing whom
the OED as 'standing out of the usual is that failing has, like during etc.,
grammatical relation or syntactical passed into a preposition, and whom
construction with other words', it failing is a confusion between the two
consists in English of a noun or pro- right forms.
noun that is not the subjea or object of 3. The construction may be elliptical,
absolute possessives ; abstractitis
with the participle omitted: He a must have lied (not mine); her and his
scholary it is surprising to find such a mutual dislike (not hers); our without
blunder. But it cannot be used without your help will not avail (not ours). There
a noun or pronoun: he should be in- is no doubt a natural temptation to
serted before the participles in It was substitute the wrong word; the simple
his second success of the day, having won possessive seems to pine at separation
the Royal Winter Fair Trophy earlier. / from its property. The true remedy is
The formal garden was conceived by the a change of order : your efforts and ours
sixth earls but, dying in 1844, ** was W* and his; my informant or yours; our help
to his son to complete it. See UN- without yours. It is not always avail-
ATTACHED PARTICIPLES. able, however; her and his mutual dis-
4. The following example of one like must be left as it is.
absolute construction enclosed in
another is a pretty puzzle for those abstractitis. The effect of this
who like such things: To the new disease, now endemic on both sides of
Greek Note Bulgaria replied by a Note the Atlantic, is to make the patient
which was returned to the Bulgarian write such sentences as Participation
Foreign Minister, Greece, it being de- by the men in the control of the industry
clared, not wishing to enter into any is non-existent instead of The men have
bargaining. It is clear enough that no part in the control of the industry ;
this will not do; it must be changed Early expectation of a vacancy is indi-
into (a) it being declared that Greece didcated by the firm instead of The firm
not wish, or (b) Greece not wishing, it say they expect to have a vacancy soon;
was declared, to ... ; but why will it not The availability of this material is
do? Because the absolute construction diminishing instead of This material is
'it being declared' cannot, like the 'it
was declared' of (b), be parenthetic, getting scarcer; A cessation of dredging
but must be in adverbial relation to the has taken place instead of Dredging has
sentence. Knowing that, we ask what stopped; Was this the realization of an
'it' is, and find that it can only be an anticipated liability? instead of Did you
anticipatory it (see IT) equivalent to expect you would have to do this? And
'that Greece did not wish'; but the so on, with an abstract word always in
consequent expansion 'Greece, that command as the subject of the sen-
Greece did not wish being declared, tence. Persons and what they do,
not wishing' makes nonsense. things and what is done to them, are
put in the background, and we can
only peer at them through a glass
absolute possessives. Under this darkly. It may no doubt be said that
term are included the words hers, ours, in these examples the meaning is clear
theirs, and yours, and (except in their enough; but the danger is that, once
attributive-adjective use) his, mine, and the disease gets a hold, it sets up a
thine. The ordinary uses of these need chain reaction. A writer uses abstract
not be set forth here though it is per- words because his thoughts are cloudy;
haps worth remarking that the double the habit of using them clouds his
possessive of such constructions as thoughts still further; he may end by
a friend of mine, that facetiousness concealing his meaning not only from
of his, is established idiom. See OF 7. his readers but also from himself, and
But a mistake is often made when two writing such sentences as The actuali-
or more possessives are to be referred zation of the motivation of the forces
to a single noun that follows the last must to a great extent be a matter of
of them: the absolute word in -s personal angularity.
or -ne is wrongly used in the earlier The two quotations that follow are
place or places instead of the simple instructive examples of the difficulties
possessive. The correct forms are: that readers may find in following
your and our and his efforts (not yours the meaning of writers suffering from
and ours); either my or your informant this disease. The first is English and
abysmal • accept of
its subject is the way in which business by Shakespeare, Tennyson, and Low-
men arrive at decisions; the second is ell, is a mistake; but the grove of A.
American and its subject is the test- (Milton) means rightly The Academy.
ing of foods specially designed for use
in certain types of military aircraft, or Academy. The A., the Garden, the
Lyceum, the Porch, the Tub, are names
possibly in space-ships.
1. Whereas the micro-economic neo- used for fivetheir chief schools of Greek
classical theory of distribution was based philosophy, founders, adherents,
on a postulate of rationality suited to and doctrines : the A., Plato, the Plato-
their static analysis and institutional nists, and the Platonism; the Garden,
assumptions, we are no longer justified Epicurus, Epicureans, and Epi-
cureanism; the Lyceum, Aristotle, aie
in accepting this basis and are set the Aristotelians, and Aristotelianism; the
problem of discovering the value premises Porch, Zeno, the Stoics, and Stoicism;
suited to the expectational analysis and the Tub, Antisthenes, the Cynics, and
the institutional nature of modern busi- Cynicism.
ness. The neo-classical postulate of
rationality and the concept of the entre- accent(uate). In figurative senses
preneur as the profit maximizing indivi- (draw attention to, emphasize, make
dual, should, I think, be replaced by a conspicuous, etc.) the long form is now
sociological analysis of the goals of the much the commoner; in literal senses
firm in relation to its nature as an (sound or write with an accent), though
organization within the socio-political either will pass, the short prevails;
system. and the differentiation is worth
2 . Strangeness of samples has been encouraging.
shown to lead to relative rejection of
products in the comparative absence of acceptance, acceptation. The words,
clues to a frame of reference within once used indifferently in several
which judgement may take place. Varia- senses, are now fully differentiated.
Acceptation means only the interpreta-
tion in clues selected by judges as a basis tion
for evaluation lead to greater inter-judge properput acceptation
on something (the word in its
means love; the
disagreement. Addition of a functional various acceptations of the doctrine of
{utilitarian) basis for judgement tends to the Trinity), while acceptance does the
reduce relative importance of product ordinary work of a verbal noun for
physical characteristics as a basis for accept(find acceptance, be well received
judgement. In the absence of any judge- beg or ask one's acceptance of, ask him;
mental frame of reference reduction in to accept; cf. ask his acceptation of, ask
the number of product physical attri-
butes apparent to the judge appears to how he understands; cards of accep-
reduce operation of bases for rejection tance, accepting an invitation; accep-
tance of persons, favourable regard;
and increase homogeneity of judgement acceptance of a bill, drawee's accepting
between subjects; inter-sample discrimi- of responsibility;
nation is also reduced. See also PERI- tance of the terms, endorses my accep-
agrees with me in
PHRASIS, MEMBERSHIP, TAUTOLOGY, and
-TION WORDS.
accepting them; cf. endorses my accep-
tation of them, agrees with my view of
abysmal, abyssal. The first is the their drift).
word for general use (abysmal ignor- accept of. In all senses of accept other
ance, degradation, bathos) ; abyssal, for-
merly used in the same way, has now than that of accepting a bill of ex-
change etc. accept of was formerly
been appropriated as a technical term almost as widely used as the simple
meaning of the bottom of the ocean or verb; this was still so when letter A of
of a depth greater than 300 fathoms. the OED was published in 1888. It
Academe properly means Academus has since fallen into disuse and is be-
(a Greek hero); and its use as a poetic coming an ARCHAISM, though it has
variant for academy, though sanctioned lingered long enough for the COD
access r accord
(1964) to record it as still permissible Unfortunately this useful differentia-
'with a slight suggestion of formality tion has been blurred by the encroach-
or condescension'. ments of accessory on the province of
access, accession. There are prob- accessary. Accessory before {or after)
ably, in modern usage, no contexts in the fact is now the more usual spell-
which one of these can be substituted ing.
for the other without the meaning's accidence. See GRAMMAR.
being modified. But the wrong one is
sometimes carelessly or ignorantly acclimatize, -imate, -imatization,
chosen. With regard to arriving, acces- -imatation, -imation. Acclimatize,
sion means getting there, access oppor- acclimatization, are the forms for
tunity of getting there; accordingly which general usage has decided
accession to the throne means becoming in Britain, though in U.S. the
sovereign, access to the throne oppor- shorter form is sometimes used for the
tunity of approaching the sovereign. verb. Some British writers wish to
We can say His access to fortune was retain the others with reference to the
barred, or His accession to fortune had process when brought about by
not yet taken place, but not the con- natural as opposed to human agency;
verse. The idea of increase, often but it is doubtful whether the words
present in accession, is foreign to are in common enough use for the
access', an access of fury, fever, joy, differentiation to gain currency; and,
despair, etc., is a fit or sudden attack failing differentiation, it is better that
of it, which may occur whatever the the by-forms should perish.
previous state of mind may have accommodation has long been a
been, whereas an accession of any of FORMAL WORD for rooms in a hotel
them can only mean a heightened etc. It has recently been pressed
degree of the state that already into service to meet the incon-
existed; our forces have had no venience of our having no single
accession, have not been augmented in word to cover house, flat, and lodgings,
numbers, have had no access, have not and is worked hard in that capacity by
been able to enter. housing authorities. Accommodation
unit seems to have been killed by the
accessary, accessory. The words, ridicule that greeted its first appear-
though they have separate histories, are ance, but the cliché alternative accom-
often confused. The following distinc- modation, meaning somewhere else to
tion was favoured by the OED (1888). live, remains as an unhappy legacy of
Accessary involves the notion of com- the general post that marked the early
plicity or intentional aid or consent, days of the second world war. See
and is accordingly used only where
a l s o ALTERNATIVE.
that notion is applicable, i.e. chiefly (as
a noun) of persons and (as an adjective) accompan(y)ist. See -IST.
of persons or their actions {he was an
accessary, if not the principal; the acces- accomplice, accomplish. The OED
saries also were punished', this course has gives the pronunciation with -am-, not
made us accessary to the crime; was -urn-, as the established one for both
guilty of accessary action). Accessory words, though 'the historical pronun-
has no such implication of consent, ciation' of accomplish was with -urn-.
and, though it includes the notion of This ruling is still followed by the
contributing to a result, emphasizes dictionaries and, on the whole, in
especially the subordinate nature of usage, though -urn- is sometimes
the contribution; it is applied chiefly heard. See PRONUNCIATION 5.
to things {the accessory details of the accord, account. The phrases are of
picture; that is only an accessory, an one's own accord, on one's own account;
unessential feature; the accessories, the of one's own account is a confusion.
not indispensable accompaniments). See CAST-IRON IDIOM.
according as
: act
according a s . There is a tendency to acid test. See POPULARIZED TECHNI-
repeat the phrase (like BETWEEN), with CALITIES and HACKNEYED PHRASES.
a mistaken idea of making the con-
struction clearer, in contexts where the acknowledge(ment). For -dg(e)-
repetition is not merely needless, but ment see JUDGEMENT.
wrong. For instance, the second ac- acoustic. Pronunciation varies be-
cording as it should be omitted in tween -ow- and -6b-; the latter is
The big production will be harmful or perhaps commoner, and is preferred
the reverse, according as it can command by the OED. In its favour is the
the Government to insure it a monopoly adoption from French, the sound of
in all circumstances, or according as it Greek ov in the more recent English
works with the knowledge that, if it pronunciation of Greek, and the
abuses its trust, the door is freely open to general impression that the value of
the competing products of other countries. ou in outlandish words is ôô; in favour
The error is at once apparent if the of -ow- is the older English pronuncia-
clause (for it is in fact a single clause) tion of Greek, and the preponderating
is reduced to its simplest expression— value of ou in English. Acôû'stic is re-
(will be harmful or the reverse) accord- commended.
ing as it is irresponsible or responsible,
no one would write or according as it is acquaintanceship is a NEEDLESS
responsible; the temptation comes in VARIANT for acquaintance.
long sentences only, and must be a c r o n y m . See CURTAILED WORDS.
resisted. Or according as is legitimate
only when what is to be introduced is act vb. In the sense behave like, the
not, as in the quotation, the necessarily word, once used as freely as play {act
implied alternative or the other ex- the lover, act the child), has fallen into
treme of the same scale, but another disuse. Even play in this sense is now
scale or pair of alternatives. Man at- rarely used apart from certain phrases
tains happiness or not according as he (e.g. play the fool; play the man); act
deserves it or not (right), according as he like a is the usual expression.
deserves it or does not deserve it (right),
according as he deserves it or according act, action. The distinction between
as he does not deserve it (wrong), accord- the two words is not always clear. The
ing as he deserves it or according as he natural idea that act should mean the
can digest his food (right). thing done, and action the doing of it,
is not even historically quite true, since
act represents the Latin noun actus
account. Unlike regard, and like con- (which is very close to actio in sense)
sider, this verb does not in good mod- as well as the Latin participle actum;
ern usage admit of as before its com- but, even if not true, it has influence
plement ; / account it a piece of good enough to prevent act from being com-
fortune; you are accounted wise or a monly used in the more abstract senses.
wise man. We can speak only of the action, not
the act, of" a machine, when we mean
accumulative. The word, formerly the way it acts; and action alone has
common in various senses, has now the collective sense, as in his action
given place to cumulative in most of throughout (i.e. his acts or actions as a
them, retaining in ordinary use only whole) was correct. There are also
the sense given to accumulating pro- other senses in which there is obviously
perty, acquisitive. no choice open. In contexts that do
admit of doubt, it may be said generally
ace. See TOP, ACE, CRACK. that action tends to displace act. If we
achieve implies successful effort. Its were making the phrases for the first
use in on achieving the age of 21 is time now, we should probably prefer
unsuitable and in officers achieving action in Through God will we do great
redundancy is absurd. acts, The Acts of the Apostles, By the
activate > adhere
act of God, Be great in act as you have adapt(at)ion. The OED gives exam-
been in thought, I deliver this as my act ples of adaption from Swift and
and deed. This tendency, however, is Dickens, but the longer form alone
by no means always effective; it is is now in general use. For adapt(er)(or)
immaterial, for instance, whether we see -OR.
say we are judged by our acts or by our
actions; there is no appreciable differ- ad captandum 'for catching (the
ence between it was an act, and it was common herd', vulgus). Applied to
an action, that he was to regret bitterly. unsound specious arguments. An a. c.
And in certain contexts act more than presentation of the facts.
holds its ground: (i) in the sense deed addle, addled. The adjectival use of
of the nature of; it would be an act addle as in an addle egg, his brain is
(never action) of folly, cruelty, madness, addle, is correct, and was formerly
kindness, mercy, etc.; similarly in the common; but to prefer it now to the
sense deed characteristic of; it was usual addled is a DIDACTICISM. It still
the act (rarely action) of a fool (cf. the prevails, however, in compounds, as
actions of a fool cannot be foreseen, addle-pated, addle-brained.
where the sense is not characteristic
deed, but simply deed). On the other -ade, - a d o . Pronunciation. Most of
hand, when for of folly or of a fool etc.
the -ade words have anglicized their
foolish etc. is substituted, action is at
ending into -dd—arcade, brocade, cas-
least as common as act—a cruel, kind, cade, cavalcade, esplanade, fusillade,
foolish, noble, base, action or act. (2) In
serenade, etc. A few retain -ahd as their
the sense instant of doing: caught in only pronunciation, e.g. aubade, bal-
the act, was in the very act of jumping.
lade, charade, façade, glissade. Promen-
(3) In antithesis to word, thought, plan,
ade shows a curious reluctance to fol-
etc., when these mean every word, low the lead of esplanade. Promenahd is
each thought, a particular plan, rather
still usual, but as long ago as 1933 the
than speech, thinking, planning: SOED recognized -âd as an alterna-
faithful in word and act (but in speech
tive. Accolade seems to have crossed
and action) ; innocent in thought and act
the boundary but not yet settled down
(but supreme in thought and action) ; the
on the other side; the COD gives
act was mine, the plan yours (but a
strategy convincing in plan, but dis- -ad first with -ahd as an alternative;
appointing in action). with pomade it is the other way about.
The -ado words have been having
similar experiences. Barricado, gam-
activate, actuate. Activate was bado, and tornado are now -âdo only;
marked obs. in the original OED, but for bravado the COD still gives -ahdo
has since been recalled to life as a only, and prefers that pronunciation
technical term of chemistry and for desperado. The more exotic words
physics, used especially of promoting such as amontillado, avocado, INCOM-
the growth of bacteria in sewage and MUNICADO, and Mikado remain -ahdo
of making substances radioactive. It only. For -ada words see ARMADA and
should not be allowed to become a CICADA.
POPULARIZED TECHNICALITY and dis-
place actuate (= to set a machine in adequate. For unidiomatic use see
motion or to prompt a person to INADEQUATE.
action). He was activated by the best
possible intentions will not do. adhere, adhesion. The established
phrase give one's adhesion to a policy,
actuality. See LITERARY CRITICS' party, leader, etc., means to declare
WORDS. one's acceptance of, and describes a
single non-continuous act. Adhere to
actually. See MEANINGLESS WORDS.
is narrower; it is not used, by good
acuity, acuteness. See -TY AND writers at least, in the corresponding
-NESS. sense accept or declare acceptance of,
adjacent io adjectives misused
but only in that of remaining constant stark, or perhaps even that it was a
to. pity to be content with one word
adjacent. A very good maiden over where they might have two. The
from Benaud contained a loud shout for operation needs considerable skill and
a catch behind the wicket. This one should be performed with proper care. /
certainly turned, and May was certainly Effective means of stopping the spread
very adjacent. Adjacent, says the of infection are under active considera-
OED, means 'not necessarily touching, tion and there is no cause for undue
though this is by no means excluded'. alarm. The adjective-noun pairs in
We cannot therefore accuse this re- these sentences are typical of the
porter of using the word incorrectly, worser kind of present-day writing,
whatever we may think of the play- especially business and official. It is
fulness that prompted him to prefer it clear that considerable, proper, effective,
to the monosyllable near or close. and active are otiose and undue is
adjectivally, adjectively, etc. Ad- absurd; their only effect is to under-
jectivally and substantially are prefer- mine the authority of the nouns they
able to adjectively and substantively. are attached to.
First, the words adjective and (in the It is my hope that this year concrete and
grammatical sense) substantive are now positive steps will be taken to achieve
regarded as nouns. So far as they are progress towards the union of Africa.
The speaker may perhaps be pardoned
still used as adjectives, they are felt to
be nouns used attributively; adverbs for feeling that steps needed reinforcing
formed directly from them therefore by an adjective; a step may be short
cause uneasiness. Secondly the ad- or tottery, though it is true that steps
jectives adjectival and substantival areof that kind are not likely to 'achieve
of such frequent occurrence in progress'. He might reasonably have
modern grammar that it is natural to said decisive or definitive. He saved
form the adverbs from them, especially himself the trouble of thinking of a
since the former has an even wider suitable adjective by putting in a
currency as a polite substitute for somecouple of clichés. One may perhaps
more expressive but less printable walk up concrete steps but one cannot
word {He threatened to knock my adjec- 'take' them, and any step must be
tival block off), cf. EPITHET. Thirdly positive unless indeed it is a step
adverbs from the other part-of-speech backwards; the speaker cannot have
names correspond to adjectivally, not thought it necessary to warn his
to adjectively—adverbially, pronomi- hearers against thinking that that was
nally, verbally, etc., not adverbly etc.what he meant.
adjectival nouns. See NOUN ADJEC- The habit of propping up all nouns
TIVES. with adjectives is seen at its worst in
those pairs in which the adjective is
adjectives misused. 'An adjective', tautological, adding nothing to the
says the OED, 'is a word standing for meaning of the noun; such are grateful
the name of an attribute which being thanks, true facts, usual habits, conse-
added to the name of a thing describes quent results, definite decisions, un-
the thing more fully and definitely, as expected surprise, and scores of others
a black coat.11 Adjectives, then, ought commonly current. Constant associa-
to be good friends of the noun. In fact, tion with an intensifying adjective
as has been well said, they have be- deprives a noun of the power of stand-
come its enemies. They are often used ing on its own legs. Thus danger must
not to 'describe the thing more fully always have its real, part its integral,
and definitely' but rather to give it and crisis its grave or acute, and under-
some vague and needless intensifica- statements must be masterly. The only
tion or limitation; as if their users hope for a noun thus debilitated is for
thought that the noun by itself was the combination to be recognized as a
either not impressive enough or too cliché and killed by ridicule ; there are
adjust 11 advance(ment)
signs for instance that in this way test is admit. 1 . Admit of, formerly used
ridding itself of acid and moment of for admit in several senses, is now
psychological. See HACKNEYED PHRASES. restricted to the sense present an
It is convenient, though sometimes opening or leave room for, and to
confusing, that adjectives when used impersonal nouns usually of an
attributively may denote relationship, abstract kind as subject : His veracity
not quality; a male nurse is a nurse admits of no question (but not / can
who is a male, but a sick nurse is not a admit of no question); A hypothesis
nurse who is sick; nor did the old admits by its nature of being disputed
phrase a mad doctor mean a doctor (but not he admits of being argued with) ;
who was mad. But this free-and-easy A jet air-liner does not admit of
property of adjectives is no excuse careless handling.
for failing to choose the most fitting 2 . Admit to. Grey then admitted to
one for use in the ordinary way as his financial manipulations. One may
a qualifier; for instance the weather either confess one's misdeeds or confess
may be hot or cold and commodities to them, but if admit is used idiom will
may be dear or cheap, but temperatures not tolerate to. See CAST-IRON IDIOM.
and prices are more suitably described
as high or low. adopted, adoptive. The anomalous
adjust. It is argued that... this enables use of adopted with parents, father,
the prostitute and her client to adjust to mother, etc., is to a certain extent
society. This 'elliptical intransitive' use excused by such allowed attributive
of a. is said by the OED to be obsolete, uses as the condemned cell; that is the
and no later example is given of it than cell of the condemned, and the adopted
1733. Modern idiom required the father is the father of the adopted.
reflexive pronoun to be expressed—to Similarly divorced is applied equally to
adjust themselves to society—until the the successful petitioner and the un-
old construction was revived as a term successful respondent. But while con-
of psychology. demned and divorced save a clumsy
periphrasis, adopted saves only the
administratrix. For pi. see -TRIX. trouble of remembering adoptive.
admission, -ittance, -issible, -it-
table. Of the nouns, admission is used a d u m b r a t e . See FORMAL WORDS.
in all senses (No admittance except on
business is perhaps the only phrase in advance(ment). There are no con-
which the substitution of admission texts in which advancement can be
would be noticed), while admittance is substituted for advance without dam-
confined to the primary sense of letting age to or change in the sense; in the
in, and even in that sense tends to dis- following sentence advance should
appear. You have to pay for admission is have been written: It will not be by
now commoner than/or admittance, and the setting of class against class that
so with What is needed is the admission advancement will be made. It is true
of outside air ; admission 2s.6d. is now the that both words can be used as verbal
regular form; on the other hand Such an nouns of to advance', but advance
admittance (instead of admission) would represents its intransitive and advance-
give away the case is now impossible. ment its transitive sense; the advance
The difference between the adjectives of knowledge is the way knowledge is
is that admissible is the established advancing, whereas the advancement of
word, and admittable, though formerly knowledge is action taken to advance
current, is now regarded as merely knowledge. Apart from this verbal-
made for the occasion, and used only noun use with of following, and from
when the connexion with admit is to a technical sense in law, advancement
be clear ; this is chiefly in the predicate, has only the sense of preferment or
as Defeat is admittable by anyone with- promotion, never the more general one
out dishonour. of progress.
adventurous aero-
adventurous, venturesome, adven- one for the other and unlearned
turesome, venturous. Usage has readers have their difficulties with
decisively declared for the first two spelling increased. It seems desirable
and against the last two. Adventure- that in the first place all words in
some and venturous, when used, are due common enough use to have begun to
to either ignorance or avoidance of the waver between the double letter and
normal. the simple e (as pedagogy now rarely
pae- or pee-, medieval still often
adverse. Unlike averse, this can be -aeval, ecumenical still usually oe- or
followed only by to; Politicians who ce-, penology now rarely poe- or pee-)
had been very adverse from the Suez- should be written with the e alone, as
Canal scheme is wrong. phenomenon now is; and secondly, in
words that have not yet reached or
advert. See ARCHAISM. can for special reasons never reach the
advertise. Not -ize; see -ISE, -IZE. stage in which the simple e is accept-
able, ae and oe should be preferred to
advocate. Unlike recommend, pro- ae and oe {Caesar, gynaecology, paedi-
pose, urge, and other verbs, this is not atrics, homoeopathy, diarrhoea, arch-
idiomatically followed by a that- aeology, Boeotian, Oedipus; the plurals
clause, but only by an ordinary or and genitives of Latin first-declension
a verbal noun. In Dr. Felix Adler nouns, as sequelae, Heraclidae, aqua
advocates that close attention shall be vitae). This is in fact the present
paid to any experiments, either urges tendency of printers. In French words
should be substituted for advocates, like chef-d'œuvre the ligature œ must
or that and shall be paid should be obviously be kept; whether it is kept or
omitted or give place to the paying of. not in manoeuvre, where the pronunci-
ation is anomalous, is of no importance.
-ae, - a s , in plurals of nouns in -a.
Most English nouns in -a are from aeon, aeon, eon. The first form is
Latin (or latinized Greek) nominative recommended; see /£, Œ.
feminine singular nouns, which have
in Latin the plural ending -ae. But not aerate, aerial are no longer written
all; e.g. sofa is from Arabic; stanza and with a DIAERESIS, and now that the
vista are from Italian; subpoena is not common pronunciation of the new
nominative; drama and comma are noun aerial is indistinguishable from
neuter; data, strata, stamina, and Ariel—slovenly perhaps but curiously
prolegomena are plural; and with all appropriate—the old adjective can
such words -ae is impossible. Of the hardly fail to conform; and with aero-
majority, again, some retain the Latin plane (and other aero- compounds)
-ae in English either as the only or as pronounced as though they began in
an alternative plural ending {formulae the same way as aircraft, we shall
or -las, lacunae or -nas), and some have probably soon give up all attempt to
always -as (ideas, areas, villas). The pronounce aer in any of its com-
use of plurals in -ae therefore presents pounds in the disyllabic way we
some difficulty to non-latinists. For suppose the Greeks to have pro-
most words with which -ae is possible nounced it.
or desirable the information is given
in their dictionary places; for the aero-, a i r - . The two aero-compounds
principle of choice when both -ae and still in popular use—aeroplane and
-as are current see LATIN PLURALS I , aerodrome—are unlikely to maintain
3- themselves much longer against pres-
sure from America, where air- has
ae, ce. These ligatures (see DIGRAPH), always been the favoured prefix.
of which the pronunciation is identical Aerodrome is already giving way to
(ë), are also in some founts of type so airport, airfield, and airstrip; and air-
much alike that compositors often use craft (formerly collective but now often
aery 13 afford
used for a single machine) and even tuted for the other. Affect (apart from
airplane are increasingly used. other senses in which it is not liable to
confusion with effect) means have an
aery, aerie, eyry, eyrie. The vic- influence on, produce an effect on,
tory of the last form over the other concern, effect a change in: effect
three seems to have been undeserved. means bring about, cause, produce,
According to Skeat and the OED, it result in, have as result. These measures
and eyry are due to a theory of the chiefly a. the great landowners. It does
derivation (from ey, M.E. for egg; not a. me. It may seriously a. (i.e.
eyry — eggery) that is known (though injure) his health. A single glass of
the ultimate origin of aery is doubtful) brandy may a. (alter for better or worse
to be wrong. Of the alternative pro- the prospects of) his recovery. A single
nunciations recognized by the dic- glass of brandy may e. (bring about) his
tionaries (â'rï, ë'rï, and ï'rï) the first is recovery. This will not a. (change) his
preferred. purpose. This will not e. (secure) his
aesthet(e)(ic). The adjective, which purpose.
means etymologically concerned zoith affinity. The prepositions normally
sensuous perception, was introduced used after this are, according to con-
into English to supply sense of beauty, text, between and with. When the sense
with an adjective, and used in such is less relationship or likeness than at-
contexts as a. principles, from an a. point traction or liking, to or for are some-
of view, an a. revival occurred, a. consi- times used instead of with. This should
derations do not appeal to him. By a later not be done: in places where with is
extension it was given the meaning pro- felt to be inappropriate the truth is
fessing or gifted with this sense (I am not that affinity, which properly describes
a.; a. people), thus providing an adjec- a reciprocal relationship only, has been
tive for the noun aesthete. This was a used of a one-sided one, and should
much later introduction; the OED's itself be replaced by another word. Cf.
first quotation is 1881 and it is signifi- sympathy with and for.
cant that its first definition, beginning
'One who professes a special apprecia- affirmative. See NEGATIVE.
tion of what is beautiful', was changed
by the SOED some 50 years later to 'One afforce. There is no suggestion that
who professes a superior appreciation either House should be ajforced for the
of what is beautiful'. The word is less purpose, as the House of Lords . . . is
used now than it was at the end of the afforced by the addition of judges of the
19th c , but the opposite of an highest degree. As long ago as 1888 the
aesthete, according to the COD, is OED described as obsolete all the uses
still a hearty in English university use. of a. except 'to reinforce or strengthen
The adjective is less in place when a deliberative body by the addition of
given the meaning dictated by or new members, as a jury by skilled
approved by or evidencing this sense assessors or persons acquainted with
(a very a. combination; aesthetically the facts', and its supporting quota-
dressed; a. chintzes and wallpapers; tions refer only to the practice of
flowers on a table are not so a. a decora- 'afforcing' juries in the Middle Ages.
tion as a well-filled bookcase) ; and still In the COD the word is not given.
less so when it is little more than a Its use in the above quotation cannot
stilted substitute for beautiful {that escape the suspicion of being a REVIVAL
prompted by PRIDE OF KNOWLEDGE.
green is so a.; a not very a. little
town). afford. The modern use of cartt afford
to in the sense of daren't makes for
affect, effect. These verbs are not confusion. Can we afford to do this?
synonyms requiring differentiation, asks a politician about a popular pro-
but words of totally different meaning, posal, meaning have we the money to
neither of which can ever be substi- do it? Can we afford not to do it?
à fond 14 ago
retorts another, meaning dare we face the agenda there seems no escape from
the consequences of not doing it? The that rather cumbrous phrase; agendum
two arguments are not in the same is pedantic and agend obsolete.
plane and will never meet.
aggrandize(ment). The accent of the
à fond. See FRENCH WORDS It should verb is on the first and of the noun on
be remembered that à fond and au fond the second syllable. See RECESSIVE
mean different things, à fond to the ACCENT.
bottom, i.e. thoroughly, and au fond
at bottom, i.e. when one penetrates aggravate, aggravation. For many
below the surface. years grammarians have been dinning
a fortiori. Introducing a fact that, if into us that to aggravate has properly
one already accepted is true, must also only one meaning—to make (an evil)
and still more obviously be true. It worse or more serious—and that to use
could not have been finished in a week; it in the sense of annoy or exasperate is
a. f. not in a day. a vulgarism that should be left to the
uneducated. But writers have shown
after. English novelists, rashly trying no less persistence in refusing to be
to represent Irish characters as speak- trammelled by this admonition. The
ing in their native idiom, almost always OED, which calls the usage 'fam.',
betray their ignorance of its subtleties. gives examples that date back to 1611
Their commonest mistake is their and include quotations from Richard-
wrong use of the expression I'm after son and Thackeray. They have their
doing so-and-so. It does not mean / distinguished followers today. But
•want to do or / am about to do. It means Archbishop Tenison, though much out
/ have just done. of favour with the Queen, outlived her
aftermath. Our own generation can in the most aggravating manner (G. M.
be proud of what it has done in spite of Trevelyan). / He had pronounced and
war and its aftermath. The use oi after- aggravating views on what the United
math in the sense of an unpleasant States was doing for the world (Graham
consequence of some event is firmly Greene). / Then he tried to be less
established, and only a pedant can aggravating (E. M. Forster). / Syngman
object to it on the ground that the Rhee has made it plain that he will go
word in its primary sense (a second to any lengths to aggravate the commun-
growth of grass in a season after the ists into a renewal of the fighting ( The
first has been cut) is beneficent rather New Statesman). It is time to recognize
than unpleasant. But the metaphor is that usage has beaten the grammarians,
not yet dead enough to tolerate the use as it so often does, and that the con-
with it of an incongruous epithet such demnation of this use of aggravate has
as violent. See METAPHOR 2 c. become a FETISH. After all, the exten-
sion from aggravating a person's tem-
afcerward(s). Afterward, once the per to aggravating the person himself
prevalent form, is now obsolete in is slight and natural, and when we are
British use, but survives in U.S. told that Wackford Squeers pinched
a g e . For synonymy see TIME. the boys in aggravating places we may
aged. One syllable in aged 21 etc. and reasonably infer that his choice of
an aged horse (i.e. more than 6 years places aggravated both the pinches and
old); two syllables in an aged man etc. the boys.
agenda. What emerged from the Com- ago. If ago is used, and the event to
monwealth Conference was not a cut- be dated is given by a clause, it must
and-dried agenda. Although agenda is be by one beginning with that and not
a plural word, it is pedantry to object since. The right forms are: He died 20
to the common and convenient prac- years ago (no clause); It is 20 years
tice of thus treating it as a singular one. since he died (not ago) ; It was 20 years
If a singular is needed for one item of ago that he died. The following exam-
agree 15 - a l nouns
pies are wrong; the tautology ago since Hardy) of aim to. But the analogy of
is naturally commoner, but is equally purpose, try, intend, which take the
wrong, in sentences like the second, infinitive, reinforced by the general use
where a parenthesis intervenes: It is of that construction with aim in Ameri-
barely 150 years ago since it was intro- ca, is proving too strong; and it is un-
duced. I It is seven years ago, when the likely that eyebrows were raised by
Colder Hall station was begun, since a any members, however purist, of the
start was made with turning nuclear audience that in 1958 heard a Minister
power to peaceful purposes. For similar at the Annual Congress of the Con-
mistakes see HAZINESS. servative party say What we aim to do
is to widen the whole field of house
agree. The normal uses of agree are as purchase.
an intransitive verb often with a prepo-
sition (a. with, concur with a person, ain't. See BE 7.
a. to, consent to a project, a. on, decide a i r - . See AERO-.
something by mutual consent). Its use aisle has escaped from its proper
as a transitive verb in the last sense, meaning of the lateral division of a
without on, was said by the OED in church separated from the nave by
1888 to be applicable only to discrep- pillars, and is commonly applied also
ant accounts and the like, but it is now to the central passage-way of the
much wider, especially in the p.p. An nave, and indeed to any passage-way
agreed statement was issued after the between seats in a church, corruptly re-
meeting. / The committee has power to placing alley, says the OED. In
agree its own procedure. / It proved im- America it has strayed even further,
possible to agree a price. That is un- and is used of what in England would
exceptionable. But the same cannot be called gangways in a theatre or
be said of the encroachment of a railway carriage
transitive agree on the province of agree
to. The chairman has not yet agreed the aitch-bone. H-bone, edge-bone, ash-
draft circular, j The use of tear-gas was bone, and other forms, are due to ran-
agreed by the Commissioner of Police. / dom shots at the etymology. Aitch-
There is ample evidence that the peti- bone, though it does not reveal the true
tioner agreed the course of action taken origin of the word (L natis buttock,
by the respondent. Here agree usurps with loss of n- as in adder etc.), sug-
the place of some more precise, and gests no false one and corresponds to
therefore better, word such as approve, the pronunciation.
sanction, confirm, condone. -al nouns. When a noun in -al is
agricultur(al)ist. See -IST. given in its alphabetical place with
a simple reference to this article, the
aim. In the article CAST-IRON IDIOM meaning is that its use is deprecated.
it is observed that in the secular con- There is a tendency to invent or revive
flict between idiom and analogy, ana- unnecessary verbal nouns of this form.
logy perpetually wins; it is for ever The many that have passed into com-
successful in recasting some piece of mon use (as trial, arrival, refusal,
cast iron. This is what has happened acquittal, proposal) have thereby estab-
to aim. Until recently it was pos- lished their right to exist. But when
sible to say with confidence that in words of some age (as révisai, réfutai,
Britain this verb in the metaphorical retirai, accusai) have failed to become
sense of purpose or design or endeav- generally familiar and remained in the
our was idiomatically followed by at stage in which the average man cannot
with the gerund, not by to with the say with confidence off-hand that they
infinitive. He aimed at being (not he exist, the natural conclusion is that
aimed to be) the power behind the throne. there is no work for them that cannot
Even in 1933 the OED Supp. gave be adequately done by the more ordi-
only one British example (from Thomas nary verbal nouns in -ion {revision) and
à la 16 alibi
-a.tion(refutation, accusation) and -ment apparatus that gives these. This being
{retirement). When there is need on an a clear and useful differentiation, it is
isolated occasion for a verbal noun that to be regretted that it should have not
shall have a different shade of meaning been maintained : alarum survives only
from those that are current (e.g. accusai for the clock (even there fighting a
may suggest itself as fitter to be fol- losing battle with alarm clock) and in
lowed by an objective genitive than the jocular use of old stage-direction
accusation; cf. the accusai of a murderer, alarums and excursions. The use of
the accusation of murder), or that shall alarm for the air-raid warning was the
serve when none already exists (there death-blow to alarum.
is, e.g., no noun beheadmeni), it is
better to make shift with the gerund albeit, i.e. all be it (that), or, in full,
{the accusing, the beheading) than to all though it be that, was classed as an
revive an unfamiliar accusai or invent ARCHAISM in the first edition of this
beheadal. The use of rare or new -al book. It has since been picked up and
nouns, however, is due only in part to dusted and, though not to everyone's
a legitimate desire for the exactly taste, is now freely used, e.g. It is
appropriate form. To some writers the undeniable that Hitler was a genius, a.
out-of-the-way word is dear for its the most evil one the modern world has
own sake, or rather is welcome as known.
giving an air of originality to a sentence
that if ordinarily expressed would be ale, beer. Both words are more than
regarded as commonplace; they are 1,000 years old, and seem originally to
capable of writing bequeathal for be- have been used as synonyms for the
quest, agreeal for agreement, allowal for liquor made from fermented malt.
allowance, or arisal for arising. Except They were distinguished when beer
for this dislike of the normal word, we was appropriated to the kind brewed
should have had account instead of with an infusion of hops, first im-
recountal in Of more dramatic interest ported in the 16th c. This distinc-
is tht recountal of the mission imposed tion has now disappeared; beer has
upon Sir James Lacaita, and to recount become a generic word comprising all
these in But this is not the place for a malt liquors except stout and porter,
recountal of these thrilling occurrences', though brewers still call some of their
cf. retirai in There were many retirais products ales, especially with a dis-
at the dissolution. Referral, surprisal, tinguishing adjective, e.g. pale, brown,
supposai, decrial, may be mentioned rustic, audit. In ordinary use, as at
among the hundreds of needless -al table, beer is the natural word; ale has
words that have been actually used. a flavour of GENTEELISM.
barytone, -ritone. The first is the Basic English is the name given by
correct spelling etymologically, and the C. K. Ogden to a device for 'debabel-
invariable one for the Greek grammati- izing' language propounded by him
cal term; the second is the one in in 1929. Many others have tried to do
musical use. The -y- is the normal the same thing by constructing an
English transliteration of the original artificial language for universal use;
Greek v, which has been changed to J. M. Schleyer for instance who in-
Basic E n g l i s h 51 battered ornaments
vented Volapuk in 1879 and L . L . Hogben has tried to give fresh life to
Zamenhof who invented Esperanto in the conception.
1887. But the likelihood that any such basis. Basis is a frequent component
language will in fact be universally of PERIPHRASIS, much used by those
used has remained very remote indeed.
As Ogden has said, 'an artificial who think simple adverbs too bald and
language still awaits a millennium in would rather write, e.g., on a provi-
which conversion shall cease to be sional b. than provisionally.
confined to a few thousand en- bas-relief, bass-relief, basso-re-
thusiasts'. His approach is different. lievo, basso-rilievo. The first form
Instead of inventing a new language he is French, the last Italian, and the
would use English, with its vocabulary other two are corruptions; the plural
drastically limited and its grammar of the third is basso-relievos, and of the
simplified, as an international auxiliary fourth bassi-rilievi. It is recommended
language. He had of course no thought to use the first and pronounce it
that basic English ever should or could bâ'srïlëf.
supersede literary English; his aim was
to provide the peoples of all countries, bathetic, bathotic. These are made
nearly a quarter of whom already have in imitation of pathetic, chaotic, but
some knowledge of English, with a pathetic (from -rraO^TiKos) is not analo-
vehicle of communication with one gous, and chaotic is itself irregular.
another in the ordinary affairs of life. An adjective for bathos is, however,
The vocabulary consists of 850 almost a necessity to the literary
words chosen as capable of doing, critic, and the OED states that
alone or in combination, all the es- bathetic is 'A favourite word with re-
sential work of 20,000. It is claimed viewers' ; it is the better of the two and
for the system that anyone who has rightly prevailed. Bathotic is called
masters it will have at his command a nonce-word by the OED ; it appeared
'idiomatic English with no literary once in 1863 and has not been seen
pretensions but clear and precise at since.
the level for which it was designed'. battalion has plural battalions, and
It is obvious that ordinary prose, not even in poetic style battalia. Bat'
when translated into a language with talia is a singular word (It. battaglia)
so limited a vocabulary, cannot retain meaning battle array; but being ar-
its elegance or its rhetorical appeal, chaic, and often preceded by in {Fried-
and Basic English has suffered from rich draws out in battalia.—Carlyle), it
being an easy target for ridicule by is taken as meaning battalions.
those who misunderstand its object.
To criticize it on this account is battered ornaments. On this rub-
unreasonable; it should be judged bish-heap are thrown, usually by a bare
only by its aptitude to achieve the cross-reference, such synonyms of the
purpose put thus by an enthusiastic ELEGANT-VARIATION kind as alma mater;
advocate, Sir Winston Churchill: daughter of Eve, gentle sex, and Emerald
'It would certainly be a grand con- Isle; such metonymies as the buskin or
venience for us all to be able to move cothurnus and the sock for tragedy and
freely about the world and to be able comedy; such jocular archaisms as con-
to find everywhere a medium, albeit sumedly and VASTLY; such foreign
primitive, of intercourse and under- scraps as dolce far niente, HOI POLLOI,
standing'. But Ogden's system, after and cui BONO?; such old phrases as in
a promising start, has languished— DURANCE vile and suffer a sea-change',
'bedevilled by officials' said its in- such adaptable frames as where s
ventor. It remains to be seen whether most do congregate and on intent;
anything will come of the variant and such quotations, customarily said
called Essential World English with with a wink or written instead of one, as
which, thirty years later, Lancelot Tell it not in Gath or own the soft im-
peachment. The title of the article, and
bay 52 be
their present company, are as much maintained), see POSITION OF ADVERBS.
comment as is needed for most of 4 . He is dead, and I alive; I shall
them; but a few words will be found dismiss him, as he ought to be. For such
elsewhere on those that contain a word forms see ELLIPSIS 1, 3.
in small capitals; and other articles 5. Confusion of auxiliary and copu-
from which the list may be enlarged lative uses. In The visit zvas made we
are: CLICHÉ; FACETIOUS FORMATIONS; have was auxiliary; in The impression
GALLICISMS 5 ; HACKNEYED PHRASES ; IN- zvas favourable we have zvas copulative.
CONGRUOUS V O C A B U L A R Y ; I R R E L E V A N T It is slovenly to make one was serve in
ALLUSION; QUOTATION; OUT-HEROD; both capacities, as in The first visit was
POPULARIZED TECHNICALITIES; SOBRI- made and returned, and the first impres-
QUETS; STOCK PATHOS; VOGUE WORDS; sion of the nezv neighbours on the Falconet
WARDOUR STREET; WORKING AND STYL- family highly favourable; was should
ISH WORDS; WORN-OUT HUMOUR; a n d be repeated after family—though, if
ZEUGMA. created had stood instead of highly
favourable, the repetition would have
bay. For b. and gulf see GULF. been unnecessary.
bay, bow, -window. A bay-w., so 6. Case of the complement. The rule
named because it makes a bay in that the complement must be in the
the room, is one that projects out- same case as the subject of the copula
wards from the wall in a rectangular, {You believed that it zvas he; You
polygonal, or semicircular form; believed it to be him) is often dis-
bow-w., though often loosely ap- regarded in talk {It zvasn't me), but
plied to any of these shapes, is should be observed in print, except
properly restricted to the curved one. where it would be unnatural in
dialogue. The temptation in its
-b-, -bb-. Monosyllables ending in simplest forms is rare, but may occur;
b double it before suffixes beginning Meredith, for instance, writes / am
with vowels if the sound preceding it is she, she me, till death and beyond it,
a short vowel, but not if it is a long where the ungrammatical me is not
vowel or a vowel and r: cabby, satirically intended. This should not
toebbed, glibbest, bobbed, shrubbery; be imitated.
but dauber, barbed. Words of more
syllables (e.g. rhubarb, sillabub, hub- 7. Forms. Those that require notice
bub, Beelzebub, cherub) are few, and are {a) an't, ain't, and {b) the singular
it will suffice to mention cherubic (so subjunctives, {a) A{i)n't is merely col-
spelt), and hobnob {-bbed, -bbing). loquial, and as used for isn't is an
uneducated blunder and serves no
be. i. Number of the copula. 2 . Be useful purpose. But it is a pity that
and zvere, subjunctives. 3. Be + adverb a{i)n't for am not, being a natural
+ participle. 4 . Elliptical omissions. contraction and supplying a real want,
5. Confusion of auxiliary and copula- should shock us as though tarred with
tive uses. 6. Case of the complement. the same brush. Though /'/;; not serves
7. Forms. well enough in statements, there is no
1. For the number of the verb be- abbreviation but a{i)n't I? for am I not?
tween a subject and a complement of or am not I?; for the amn't I of Scot-
different numbers ( The zvages of sin is land and Ireland is foreign to the
death', The only obstacle are the wide Englishman. The shamefaced reluc-
ditches'), see NUMBER I . tance with which these full forms are
2 . For use and abuse of be and were often brought out betrays the speaker's
as subjunctives (// an injunction be sneaking fear that the colloquially re-
obtained and he defies it ; It were to be spectable and indeed almost universal
wished), see SUBJUNCTIVES. aren't I is 'bad grammar' and that
3. For mistaken fear of separating be ain't I will convict him of low breed-
from its participle etc. (// his counsel ing, {b) The present subjunctive has
still is followed; The right wholly to be be throughout (Be I fair or foul; If
bean 53 beg
thou be true; Be it so), the form beest, beautiful. But the home b. needs other
originally indicative but used for a growing greenery when the festive season
time as second singular subjunctive, arrives. / THE BED BEAUTIFUL.
being obsolete. The singular of the To see the English bed of supreme beauty
past subjunctive is zvere, wert, were (If you must take train . . . Such vulgariz-
I zvere you; Wert thou mine; It were ing adaptations of Bunyan have upon
zvise), were for the second person being readers the effect described in IR-
obsolete. RELEVANT ALLUSION.
bean. When the young person of today because. 1. After such openings as
says / haven't a bean, or, more prob- The reason is, The reason why . . . is,
ably, Actually I'm positively beanless, the clause containing the reason should
he is echoing an expression, Not zoorth not begin with because, but with that.
a bean, that can be tound in Langland For examples see REASON 3, and for
and earlier. The persistence of the old similar overlappings see HAZINESS.
symbol of worthlessness (cf. pepper- 2 . Because following a negative
corn) in our slang term for lack of clause is often a cause of ambiguity.
money contrasts oddly with the in- Does the because clause disclaim a
stability of those we use for money in reason why a thing was done or does
possession. Lolly, current when this it give a reason why a thing was not
article was written (1959), had within done? He did not oppose the motion
living memory a long series of pre- because he feared public opinion. Does
decessors including chink, dibs, dough, this mean that it was not fear of public
needful, oof, ready, rhino, spondulicks, opinion that made him oppose, or that
and tin. fear of public opinion made him refrain
from opposing? There is a similar
bear, vb. See FORMAL WORDS. For ambiguity in the following quotations,
p.p. see BORN(I-). and the fact that the reader is unlikely
to choose the wrong alternative is no
beat. The old p.p. beat, still the only excuse for offering it to him (see
form in dead-beat, lingers colloquially AMBIGUITY). He said he is taking no
also in the sense zcorsted, baffled (I'm inferiority complex into his discussions
absolutely beat), but it is unlikely that with Mr. Kruschev because the United
this is the origin of the expressions States is second best in the missile field. /
beat generation and beatnik. They The witness said that the case was not
probably come from beat rhythm, brought before the committee because of
and reflect passion for jazz rather than the incident the night before.
despair at the state of the world.
bedizen. The OED allows both ï and
beau-ideal. If the word is to be used 1, but prefers the f, and states that
it should be pronounced bô-îdc'al, and 'all English orthoepists' do so. But
written without accent. But neither in popular usage apparently does not;
its only French sense of ideal beauty, the COD now gives short i only.
nor in its current English sense of
perfect type or highest possible em- befal(l), befel(l). The second 1 should
bodiment of something, is there any be kept; see - L L - , - L - 3.
occasion to use it, unless as a shoddy beg. Such expressions as b. to state,
ornament. The English sense is based b. to acknowledge, b. to remain can
on the error of supposing ideal to be claim an honourable origin in that this
the noun (instead of the adjective) in use of beg (i.e. beg leave to) was
the French phrase; and the English prompted by politeness. The OED
noun ideal, without beau, is accord- quotes from Chatham Lett. Nephew
ingly the right word to use, unless 'There is likewise a particular attention
floivcr, perfection, paragon, pattern, required to contradict with good man-
pink, or some other word, is more ners ; such as begging pardon, begging
suitable. leave to doubt and such like phrases.'
begging 54 belly
But the beg-phrases of COMMERCIALESE belike. See ARCHAISM and WARDOUR
now serve merely to introduce a flavour STREET.
of stiffness and artificiality into what
should be spontaneous and friendly. belittle. The OED says 'The word
appears to have originated in U.S.;
begging the question. See MIS- whence in recent English use in sense
APPREHENSIONS, and PETITIO PRiNciPii, 3', which is 'depreciate, decry the im-
of which it is the English version. portance of. (Sense 1 is'to make small'
and sense 2 is 'to cause to appear small
begin, i. Past tense began, formerly by contrast, to dwarf.) It is only in
also (and still rarely) begun. 2 . For It sense 3 that we have adopted the word,
was begun to be built etc. see DOUBLE but we have done this so enthusiasti-
PASSIVES. See also COMMENCE. cally that we are inclined to forget the
old-established words, of which we
behalf and behoof are liable to con- have a large supply suitable for various
fusion both in construction and in contexts and shades of meaning—cry
sense. On his etc. behalf, or en down, decry, depreciate, deride, dis-
behalf of all etc., means as repre- parage, lower, make light of, minimize,
senting him, all, etc. (/ can speak poohpooh, ridicule, run down, slight.
only on my own behalf; Application was
made on behalf of the prosecutor) ; on is belles-lettres survives chiefly in pub-
the normal preposition; the phrase lishers' circulars, library catalogues,
does not mean, except additionally and and book reviews, its place having been
by chance, for the advantage of, and it taken elsewhere by literature (some-
is still in common use. Behoof, now an times pure literature) used in a
archaism, means simply advantage. special sense; that sense is, as denned
For or to his etc. behoof, or for or by the OED, 'Writing which has claim
to the behoof of all etc., means for to consideration on the ground of
or to the advantage of him, all, etc. beauty of form or emotional effect'.
(For the behoof of the unlearned; Like other words that require a
To the use and behoof of him and his speaker to attempt alien sounds (such
heirs; Taking towns for his own behoof); as the ending -etr is), belles-lettres can
for and to are the prepositions. never become really current. Its right
to live at all, by the side of literature,
beholden, beholding. As past parti- depends on the value of a differentia-
ciple of behold, beholden is now obso- tion thus expressed by the OED:
lete except in poetry. In the sense 'But it is now generally applied (when
bound by gratitude (which it got when used at all) to the lighter branches of
behold could still mean hold fast) it is literature or the aesthetics of literary
still in use, though archaic by the side study'; i.e. Paradise Lost is litera-
of obliged. Beholding in that sense is an ture rather than belles-lettres, though
ancient error due to ignorance of how The Essays of Elia is both. This re-
stricted application, however, itself
beholden got its meaning, and is now needs defence, b. properly including
obsolete. the epic as much as the toy essay, just
behoof. See BEHALF. as literature does. We could in fact do
very well without b., and still better
behove, behoove. The first spelling without its offshoots belletrist and belle-
is the better; indeed the second is vir- tristic. See also LITERATURE.
tually obsolete except in U.S., where
it is preferred. As to pronunciation, belly is a good word now almost done
the OED says 'Historically it rimes to death by GENTEELISM. It lingers in
with move, prove, but being now main- speaking of animals, ships, and aero-
ly a literary word, it is generally made planes and in proverbs and phrases, to
to rime with rove, grove, by those who which the second world war added
know it only in books'. one or two—the soft underbelly of
beloved 55 benign
the Axis, the bellyaching of officers who circumstances, the Stuarts, tyranny,
questioned their orders. But on the protection, one's wing, one's thumb,
whole the process goes on, and the road a cloud. Cf. also BENEATH.
to the heart lies less often through the
b. than through the stomach or the beneath has still one generally current
tummy. The slaying of the slayer at- sense—too mean(ly) or low for (He
tempted by tummy, though half- married b. him; It is b. contempt; It
hearted and facetious, illustrates the would be b. me to notice it). Apart from
vanity of genteel efforts; a perpetual this it is now little more than a poetic,
succession of names, often ending in rhetorical, or emotional substitute for
nursery ineptitudes, must be contrived. under(neath) or below.
Stomach for belly is a specially bad Benedick, not Benedict, is the spelling
case, because the meaning of stomach in Much Ado, and should always be the
has to be changed before it can take the spelling when the name is used generi-
place of b. in many contexts. The ten- cally for a confirmed or captured
dency, however, is perhaps irresistible. bachelor; but Benedict is often used
See EUPHEMISM. (Penalize the recalcitrant Benedicts by
beloved, when used as a past participle putting a heavy tax upon them) either
(b. by all; was much b.)} is disyllabic (and probably) in ignorance, or on the
(-uvd); as a mere adjective (dearly b. irrelevant ground that Shakespeare
brethren; the b. wife of), or as a noun might have done well to use the more
(my b.), it is trisyllabic (-ûvëd); the first etymological form in -ct.
of these rules is sometimes broken in benign, benignant, malign, malig-
ignorance of usage, and the second nant. The distinction between the
for the sake of the emphasis attaching long and short forms is not very clear,
to what is unusual. Cf. blessed, cursed. nor is any consistently observed. But it
below, under. There is a fairly clear may be said generally that benign and
distinction between the prepositions, malign refer rather to effect, and benig-
worth preserving at the cost of some nant and malignant to intention or
trouble. But the present tendency is disposition : Exercises a benign or malign
to obscure it by allowing under to en- influence; A benignant or malignant
croach; and if this continues b. will deity. An unconscious possessor of the
seem more and more stilted, till it is evil eye has a malign but not a malig-
finally abandoned to the archaists. The nant look; discipline is benign rather
distinction is that b., like its contrary than benignant, indulgence benignant
above (cf. also the Latin infra and rather than benign. The difference is
supra), is concerned with difference of the same in kind, though less in degree,
level and suggests comparison of inde- as that between beneficent, maleficent,
pendent things, whereas under, like its and benevolent, malevolent. It is to be
contrary over (cf. also the Latin sub and noticed, however, (1) that the impulse
super), is concerned with superposition of personification often substitutes the
and subjection, and suggests some -ant forms for the others, e.g. as epi-
interrelation. The classes b. us are thets of destiny, chance, etc. ; (2) that
merely those not up to our level; those the distinction is less generally main-
u. us are those that we rule. B. the tained between benign and benignant
bridge means with it higher up the than between the other two (e.g. of
stream; u. the bridge, with it overhead. benign appearance is common, where
Contexts in which b. is both right and benignant would be better); (3) that
usual are b. par, b. the belt. Contexts nevertheless in medical use as epithets
in which u. has encroached are men of diseases, morbid growths, etc., the
b. 4$, b. one's breath, no one b. forms are benign (as would be ex-
a bishop, incomes b. £500. Contexts pected) and malignant (contrary to
in which u. is both right and usual the rule). This use of malignant is
are u. the sun, the sod, the table, the perhaps a stereotyped example of the
bereaved 56 betterment
personifying tendency, which benign meaning made to order (bespoke goods,
escaped because benignant, a compara- boots, etc.) in contrast with ready-made,
tively recent formation, did not exist and even this is now old-fashioned.
when the words were acquiring their bestir is now always used refiexively
medical sense. See also MALIGNANCY. (must b. myself), and never, idiomati-
bereaved, bereft. The essential prin- cally, as an ordinary transitive verb;
ciple is perhaps that bereavedis resorted stirred should have been used in The
to in the more emotional contexts, be- example of the French in Morocco has
reft being regarded as the everyday bestirred Italy into activity in Africa.
form (cf. BELOVED). The result in prac- bet. Both bet and betted are in idio-
tice is that (i) bereft is used when the matic use as past tense and p.p. He bet
loss is specified by an o/-phrase, and me £5 I could not; They betted a good
bereaved when it is not, the latter deal in those days; I have bet £500
naturally suggesting that it is the great- against it; How much has been bet on
est possible (Are you bereft of your him?; The money was all betted away.
senses ? ; The blozv bereft him of conscious- These examples, in which it will prob-
ness; A bereaved mother; Weeping be- ably be admitted that the form used is
cause she is bereaved) ; but (2) bereaved better than the other, suggest that bet
is sometimes used even before o/when is preferred in the more usual con-
the loss is that of a beloved person (A nexion, i.e. with reference to a definite
mother bereft, or bereaved, of her chil- transaction or specified sum, and betted
dren ; Death bereft, or bereaved, her of when the sense is more general.
him). See -T AND -ED.
bête noire. See FRENCH WORDS. Those
beseech. Besought is the established who wish to use the phrase in writing
past and p. participle, thonghbeseeched, must not suppose, like the male writer
on which the OED comment is merely quoted below, that the gender can be
'now regarded as incorrect', still oc- varied: From the very first, and for some
curs, probably by inadvertence, and reason that has always been a mystery to
Milton has beseecht. me, I was his bête noir.
beside(s).The forms have been fully bethink has constructions and mean-
differentiated in ordinary modern use, ings of its own, and can never serve as
though they are often confused again a mere ornamental substitute for think,
in poetry, and by those who prefer the as in They will bethink themselves the
abnormal or are unobservant of the only unhappy on the earth.
normal. (1) Beside is now only a pre-
position, besides having all the adverbial better. The idiomatic phrase had
uses; besides would have been normal better requires care. See HAD I .
in And what is more, she may keep her better, bettor. See -OR. According
lover beside, j We talked of thee and none to the OED the tendency was towards
beside. (2) Beside alone has the primary -or. But that was in 1888, and the ten-
prepositional senses 'by the side o f (Sat dency seems now to be the other way;
down beside her; She is an angel beside the COD prefers -er.
you), 'out of contact with' (beside one- betterment. The use of the word
self, the question, the mark, the purpose). in general contexts, apart from its
(3) Besides alone has the secondary technical application to property, is an
prepositional senses 'in addition to', example of SAXONISM. The late Lady
'except'; it would have been normal Victoria devoted her entire life to the b.
in Other men beside ourselves. / / have of the crofters and fishermen. If the
no adviser beside you. For besides = writer had been satisfied with the
'as well as' see WELL. English for betterment, which is im-
bespeak. The p.p. form bespoke per- provement, he would not have been
haps lingers only, beside the now usual blinded by the unusual word to the
bespoken, as an attributive adjective fact that he was writing nonsense ; the
between 57 between
lady's effort was not to better or repeat b. with the second term in
improve the crofters, but their lot. long sentences must be resisted;
B. you and b. me is at once seen
between is a sadly ill-treated word; to be absurdly wrong; the following is
the point on which care is most neces- just as bad: The claim yesterday was
sary is that numbered 6. i. B and for the difference b. the old rate, which
among. 2. B. you and I. 3. B. each, was a rate by agreement, and b. the
every. 4. B. . . . and b. 5. Difference b. new, of which the Water Board simply
6. B. . . . or etc. sent round a notice. See OVERZEAL.
1. B. and among. The OED gives a 5. Difference b. B., used after words
warning against the superstition that like difference, seems to tempt people
b. can be used only of the relationship to put down for one of the terms the
between two things, and that if there exact opposite of what they mean:
are more among is the right preposition. My friend Mr. Bounderby would never
'In all senses between has been, from see any difference b. leaving the
its earliest appearance, extended to Coketown lhands' exactly as they were
more than two. . . . It is still the only and requiring them to be fed with
word available to express the relation turtle soup and venison out of gold
of a thing to many surrounding things spoons (for leaving read refusing to
severally and individually; among ex- leave). / There is a very great dis-
presses a relation to them collectively tinction between a craven truckling to
and vaguely: we should not say the foreign nations and adopting the
space lying among the three points or a attitude of the proverbial Irishman at a
treaty among three Powers' But the fair, who goes about asking if anybody
superstition dies hard. Seventy years would like to tread on the tail of his coat
after those words were written the fol- (read avoiding for adopting).
lowing sentence cannot escape suspi- 6. B. . . . or etc. In the commonest
cion of being under its influence : The use of b., i.e. where two terms are
peaceful, independent, and self-governing separately specified, the one and only
status of Cyprus is conditional on the right connexion between those terms
continuance of cordial relations among is and. But writers indulge in all sorts
Britain, Greece, and Turkey. of freaks; the more exceptional and
i.B.you and I, which is often said, per- absurd of these, in which against,
haps results from a hazy recollection whereas, and to are experimented with,
of hearing you and me corrected in the are illustrated in : It is the old contest
subjective. See I for fuller discussion. b. Justice and Charity, b. the right to
3. B. each, every. B. may be carry a weapon oneself against the power
followed by a single plural (Jb. two to shelter behind someone else's shield
perils) as well as by two separate (here ELEGANT VARIATION has been at
expressions with and (b. the devil and work; to avoid repeating between . . .
the deep sea). Its use with a single and is more desirable than to please
expression in which a distributive the grammarian). / He distinguishes b.
such as each or every is supposed to certain functions for which full and
represent a plural is very common rigorous training is necessary, whereas
(Ruskin has b. each bracket); but its others can very well be discharged by me
literal absurdity offends the purists and who have had only the limited training
it is best avoided. A batsman who tried (read and others that can). / Societies
to gain time by blowing his nose b. every with membership b. one thousand to five
ball (after every ball). The absence thousand. These are freaks or accidents ;
of professional jealousy that must exist the real temptation, strong under cer-
in future b. each member of our profes- tain circumstances, is to use or for and;
sion (b. the members, or, if emphasis is They may pay in money or in kind is
indispensable, b. each member . . . and wrongly but naturally converted into
the rest). The choice is b. payment in money or
in kind. So Forced to choose b. the
4. B. . . . and b. The temptation to
betwixt 58 bid
sacrifice of important interests on the can never know where we are. If it
one hand or the expansion of the were not for bicentenary, which lacks
Estimates on the other. / Our choice a vernacular equivalent, there would
lies b. forfeiting the liberties of two be no reason why all the bi- hybrids
million West Berliners or the survival should not be allowed to perish, and
of the rest of us. These again are the natural and unambiguous two-
simple, requiring no further cor- hourly and half-hourly, fortnightly and
rection than the change of or to half-weekly, two-monthly and half-
and. Extenuating circumstances can monthly, half-yearly and half-quarterlyt
be pleaded only when one or each two-yearly and half-yearly, of which
of the terms is compound and has its several are already common, be used
parts connected by and, as in: The regularly in place of them and the
question lies b. a God and a creed, or a words (biennial, bimestrial) on which
God in such an abstract sense that does they were fashioned; these latter have
not signify (read b. a God and a creed now almost become ambiguous them-
on the one hand, and on the other a God selves from the ambiguity of the mis-
in such etc.). / The conflict, which was shapen brood sprung of them. They
previously b. the mob and the Autocracy, cause confusion in the most surprising
is now b. the Parliament and the King places. An annual bulletin is our first
or the Parliament and the Bureaucracy aim; but biennial issues may become
(this means that the question now is possible if the Association enlarges as we
whether Parliament and King,or Parlia- hope. (From a bulletin issued by the
ment and Bureaucracy, shall rule, and International Association of Univer-
this way of putting it should be substi- sity Professors of English.) Biannual,
tuted: The conflict was previously b. mob probably invented to stand to biennial
and Autocracy/ but the question etc.) as half-yearly to two-yearly, is some-
times confused with and sometimes
betwixt. See ARCHAISM. But the distinguished from it. Half-yearly is
phrase betwixt and between, meaning the right word.
an intermediate position, survives as
a colloquial cliché. bias makes preferably -ased, -asing.
See -s, -ss-.
beverage. See PEDANTIC HUMOUR,
and WORKING AND STYLISH WORDS.
bicentenary, bicentennial. See
CENTENARY.
beware is now not inflected, and biceps, triceps. If plurals are wanted,
is used only where be would be it is best to say -cepses, the regular
the verb part required with ware English formation; not -cipites (the
meaning cautious, i.e. in the impera- true Latin), both because it is too
tive (B. of the dog!), infinitive (He cumbrous, and because Latin scholars
had better b.), and present subjunctive do not know the words as names of
(Unless they b.). Bewaring, I beware ox muscles. But biceps as a plural, origi-
bewared, was bewared of, etc., are nating as a mere blunder (cf. FORCEPS),
obsolete. is common and may oust others. See
bi- prefixed to English words of time LATIN PLURALS 4 .
(bi-hourly, bi-weekly, bi-monthly, bi- bid. 1. In the auction sense the past
quarterly, bi-yearly) gives words that and p.p. are both bid (He bid up to
have no merits and two faults: they £10; Nothing was bid).
are unsightly hybrids, and they are 2 . In other senses, the past is usually
ambiguous. To judge from the OED, spelt bade and pronounced bad (or
the first means only two-hourly; the now increasingly bad); the p.p. is
second and third mean both two- bidden, but bid is preferred in some
weekly, two-monthly, and half-weekly, phrases, especially Do as you are bid.
half-monthly; and the last two mean 3 . Bid one go etc. has been displaced
only half-quarterly, half-yearly. Un- in speech by tell one to go etc., but
der these desperate circumstances we lingers in literary use. The active is
bide 59 big
usually followed by infinitive without friend, landowner, majority, school-
to {I bade him go), but the passive by to master, shot{shootcr), nuisance, stranger,
{He was bidden to go). brute, fool, haul, race (contest), under-
4. For the use of the noun as a space- taking, success, linguist, age. Here large
saver See HEADLINE LANGUAGE. could be substituted with landowner,
majority, haul, and undertaking, but
bide. Still current in Scotland {bide a merely because a large quantity of
wee), but in England, apart from land, votes, fish, or money is involved;
archaism and poetic use, the word is big could stand with the same four on
now idiomatic only in b. one's time, the same ground; it is increasingly
and its past in this phrase is bided. used also with most of the others. This
biennial. See BI-. is unfortunate; a great fool should
mean a very foolish fool, and a big fool
big, great, large. The differences in one whose stature belies his wits.
meaning and usage cannot be exhaus- 3. A great has the meaning eminent,
tively set forth; but a few points may of distinction, and the g. the meaning
be made clear. See also SMALL. chief, principal, especial {a g. man', g.
Roughly, the notions of mere size houses', a g. family; theg. advantage, or
and quantity have been transferred thing, is); and from these comes the
from great to large and big; great use of great as a distinctive epithet {the
is reserved for less simple meanings, g. auk; G. Britain; Alexander the G.;
as will be explained below. Large the Lord G. Chamberlain), with the
and big differ, first, in that the latter idea of size either absent or quite sub-
is more familiar and colloquial, and ordinate. In these senses large cannot
secondly, in that each has additional be used, though it would stand with
senses—large its own Latin sense of many of the same words in a different
generous (cf. LARGESS), and big certain sense {a g. family has distinguished,
of the senses proper to great, in which but a I. family numerous, members).
it tends to be used sometimes as a Here again the substitution of big for
colloquial and sometimes as a half- great makes for confusion; a big man
slang substitute. It will be best to should refer to the man's size, or be
classify the chief uses of great as the extended only (as in the big men of the
central word, with incidental com- trade; cf. large with landowner etc. in
ments on the other two. 2) to express the quantity of his stock
1. With abstracts expressing things or transactions. But thanks no doubt
that vary in degree, great means a high to the fondness of modern journalism
degree of {g. care, ignorance, happiness, for short words and snappy phrases big
tolerance, charity, joy, sorrow, learning, is now so often used as a distinctive
facility, generosity, comfort). Big is not epithet instead of great, even when
idiomatic with any of these; and difference of size is not the salient
though large is used with tolerance, point of distinction, that it is losing its
charity, and generosity, it is in a special slangy flavour. The big race, a big
sense—broad-minded or prodigal. occasion, The Big Five (banks).
With words of this kind that happen 4 . Finally, great does sometimes
themselves to mean size or quantity mean of remarkable size—the sense
{size, quantity, bulk, magnitude, amount, that it has for the most part resigned
tonnage) large and big are sometimes to large and big; but it is so used only
used, though neither is as idiomatic as where size is to be represented as
great, and big is slangy or at best causing emotion. Large and big give
colloquial. the cold fact; great gives the fact
2 . Great may be used not to imply coloured with feeling; e.g. He hit me
size, but to indicate that the person with a great stick is better than with
or thing in question has the essential a large or big stick, if I am angry about
quality of his or its class in a high its size; but in Perhaps a big or large
degree; so a g. opportunity, occasion. stick might do it would be impossible
bilateral 60 blessed
to substitute great. Similarly Big dogs stay, on both sides of the Atlantic.
are better out of doors, but / am not Perhaps it could claim in self-defence
going to have that great dog in here; His that it contains an implication not
feet are large or big, but Take your great necessarily present in two-party, name-
feet off the sofa. What a great head he ly that of agreement between the two.
has! suggests admiration of the vast
brain or fear of the formidable teeth bishopric. See SEE.
it probably contains, whereas What a bitumen. Of the alternative pronun-
large head he has! suggests dispassion- ciations bitumen and bit'umen the
ate observation. OED originally preferred the first, but
bilateral, unilateral, multilateral. the second is now more usual; the
These words, firmly established in the COD gives no other. See RECESSIVE
ACCENT.
jargon of physiology and diplomacy,
especially in the phrase u. disarmament, bivouac. Participles -eked, -eking; see
are in danger of becoming POPULAR- -C-, -CK-.
IZED TECHNICALITIES and driving out
the old-fashioned words two-sided, black(en). See -EN VERBS.
one-sided, and many-sided. That their blame. / am to b. is an illogicality long
use should have led a much respected established as idiomatic. Don't b. it on
newspaper to insert so surprising a me is a colloquialism not yet recognized
headline as BILATERAL TRI- by the dictionaries, a needless variant
ANGLE IN SOUTH AMERICA of don't b. me for it, and not to be
is the greater reason for avoiding them. encouraged.
billet doux. Pronounce bi'lldbH'. The blank verse. Strictly, any unrhymed
plural is billets doux, but should be verse; but in ordinary use confined to
pronounced bVlïdoU'z. the five-foot iambic unrhymed verse in
billion. It should be remembered which Paradise Lost and the greater
that this word docs not mean in part of Shakespeare's plays are writ-
American use (which follows the ten.
French) what it means in British. For -ble. See -ABLE.
us it means the second power of a
million, i.e. a million millions blended, blent. Blended is now the
(1,000,000,000,000); for Americans it everyday form {carefully blended teas;
means a thousand multiplied by itself he successfully blended amusement with
twice, or a thousand millions instruction); but blent survives as a
( 1,000,000,000), what we call a milliard. participial adjective in poetic, rhetori-
Since billion in our sense is useless cal, and dignified contexts (pity and
except to astronomers, it is a pity that anger blent).
we do not conform. blessed, blest. The attributive adjec-
tive is regularly disyllabic (blessed inno-
bill of rights. This term, when used cence; what a blessed thing is sleep!;
in U.S., ordinarily refers not to the tlie blessed dead; every blessed night;
famous statute passed by the English not a blessed one), and so is the plural
Parliament in 1689 but to the Amend- noun with the, which is an absolute
ments to the U.S. Constitution adopted use of the adjective. But the mono-
in 1791 to prevent the Federal Govern- syllabic pronunciation is sometimes
ment from encroacliing on the liberties used in verse, or to secure emphasis, or
of the people. in archaic phrases; the spelling is then
bipartisan. This unlovely substitute blest: our blest Redeemer; that blest
for two-party had made enough pro- abode; Blest Pair of Sirens. The past
gress by 1933 to be recognized by the tense, past participle, and predicative
OED Supp., whose earliest example is adjective are regularly monosyllabic;
dated 1920. It seems to have come to the spelling is usually blessed in the
blessedness 61 bond washing
past tense, blest in clearly adjectival rotundifolia, with fewer, larger, and
contexts, and variable (usually blessed) thinner-textured flowers than the
in the p.p. (He blessed himself; God has other.
blessed me with riches ; He is blessed, or
blest, with good health, in his lot, etc. ; boatswain. The nautical pronuncia-
Blessed, or blest, if I kfiozv ; Those who tion (bô'sn) has become so general that
win heaven, blest are they; It is tzvice to avoid it is more affected than to use
blest); in the beatitudes and similar it.
contexts, however, blessed is usual. bodeful is a modern stylish substitute
Blessed sometimes makes -est; see -ER for ominous; 'very frequent in modern
AND -EST 4 . poets and essayists' said the OED in
blessedness. For single b., see WORN- 1888, but its popularity has since
OUT HUMOUR. waned. See WORKING AND STYLISH
WORDS, and SAXONISM.
blink. That is the dark side, and nothing
is to be gained by blinking at it. To con- bog(e)y, bogie. The OED prefers
done an offence is to wink at it. But to bogy for the bugbear, and bogie in
refuse to recognize an unpleasant fact rolling-stock. The name of the imagi-
is to blink it, not to blink at it. See nary golfing colonel is usually spelt
ANALOGY. Bogey.
blithesome is a NEEDLESS VARIANT of bona fide(s). Bona fide (pronounce
blithe; see -SOME. bônâ fîdè) is a Latin ablative meaning
in good faith. Its original use is accord-
blond(e). The practice now usual is to ingly adveroial (Was tJie contract made
retain the -e when the word is used bona fide?); but it is also and more
either as noun or as adjective of a commonly used attributively like an
woman or the lace and drop it other- adjective (Was it a bona fide contract?).
wise (the blonde girl ; she is a blonde ; sJie In this attributive use the hyphen is ad-
has a blond complexion; the blond races). missible, but not usual ; in the adverbial
bloom, blossom. Strictly bloom n. use it is wrong. Bona fides is the noun;
and v. refers to the flower as itself the the mistake is sometimes made by
ultimate achievement of the plant, and those who know no Latin of supposing
blossom n. and v. to the flower as fides to be the plural of finie: The fact
promising fruit. The distinction is per- that Brant ing accepted the chairmanship
haps rather horticultural than literary of the Committee should be sufficient
or general; at any rate it is often neg- evidence of its bona-fide. / His bona fides
lected. But The roses are in bloom, The zcere questioned.
apple-trees are in blossom, and other
uses, confirm it; and in figurative con- bond(s)man. The two forms are
texts, the blooming-time or bloom of a properly distinct, bondsman meaning
period of art is its moment of fullest a surety and being connected with the
development, when its blossoming-time ordinary bond and bind, and bondman
or blossom is already long past. meaning a villein, serf, or man in
bondage, and having (like bondage)
bloom (in the foundry). Sec REVIVALS. nothing to do with bond and bind. But
blue. The OED derives the slang verb bondsman is now rare in its true sense,
(— squander) from blozv, implying that and on the other hand is much more
blue comes from a misunderstanding of used than bondman in the sense proper
the past tense blczv. But the forms are to the latter.
now always blue, blued. bond washing and dividend strip-
bluebell. In the south this is the wild ping. Most of us are familiar with
hyacinth, Scilla nut am; in the north, these terms, but few know much more
and especially in Scotland, it is another about them than that they arc devices
name for the harebell, Campanula for the legal avoidance of taxation. In
bonne bouche 62 bottleneck
the course of the duel provoked by dundant both. 3. Common parts in
them between the tax avoider and the both . . . and phrases.
legislature they have developed a pro- 1. Both . . . as well as. To follow b.
tean variety of detail, but their essence by as well as instead of and, as is often
remains the same. In their original done either by inadvertence or in pur-
and simplest form they were collusive suit of the unusual, is absurd; how
transactions by which a person liable absurd is realized only when it is
to high rate of surtax would avoid remembered that the as well of as well
liability by selling investments cum as is itself the demonstrative to which
dividend and buying them back at a the second as is relative, and can stand
lower price after the dividend had been in the place occupied by both instead
paid to the purchaser; in this way he of next door to as. The metrostyle will
converted what would have been tax- always be of exceeding interest, b. to the
able income in his hands into a non- composer as well as to the public. / Which
taxable gain. The other party to the differs from who in being used b. as an
deal would be either a tax-exempt body adjective as well as a noun. In these
(e.g. a charity) or someone (e.g. a examples either omit both or read and
dealer in securities) who, unlike the for as well as; as well, it will be seen,
ordinary taxpayer, was taxable on his can be shifted into the place of both if
gains from transactions in securities the object is to give timely notice that
and so could set off his loss on resale the composer or the adjective is not the
against his liability. Thus, provided whole of the matter.
that the difference between the two 2 . Redundant both. The addition of
prices, with incidental expenses, did both to equal(ly), alike, at once, between,
not exceed the amount of the dividend, or any other word that makes it need-
the only loser would be the Revenue. less, is at least a fault of style, and at
worst (e.g. with between) an illogicality.
bonne bouche. The meaning of the In the examples, both should be omit-
phrase in French is not that which we ted, unless the omission of the other
have given it; but variation of meaning word(s) in roman type is preferable or
or form is no valid objection to the use possible : If any great advance is to be
of a phrase once definitely established; at once b. intelligible and interesting. /
see  L'OUTRANCE. We find b. Lord Morley and Lord
Lansdowne equally anxious for a work-
born(e). The p.p. of bear in all senses able understanding. / The International
except that of birth is borne (I have Society is not afraid to invite compari-
borne with you till nozv; Was borne sons between masters b. old and new.
See also FALSE EMPHASIS 2 .
along helpless) ; borne is also used, when
the reference is to birth, (a) in the 3. Common parts in both . . . and
active (Has borne no children), and (b) in phrases. Words placed between the
the passive when by follows (Of all the both and the and are thereby declared
children borne by her one survives); the not to be common to both members;
p.p. in the sense of birth, when used accordingly, He was b. against the
passively without by, is born (Was born Government and the Opposition is
blind; A born fool; Of all the children wrong; the right arrangements are
born to them; The melancholy born Oj (a) he was b. against the Government
solitude). and against the Opposition, (b) he was
against b. the Government and the
botanic(al). The -ic form is 'now Opposition, preferably the latter.
mostly superseded by botanical, except bother. See POTHER.
in names of institutions founded long
ago, as "The Royal Botanic Society" ' bottleneck does not seem ever to have
—OED. See -IC(AL). been used in its literal sense. The
OED (1888), which gives some fifty
both. i. Both . . . as well as. 2 . Re- other bottle- compounds, makes no
bounden 63 brain compounds
mention of it. Nor is it so used today, original form burn, means a stream ; but
but it is much in demand figuratively. outside Scotland is now applied as a
In the OED Supp., where the first current word only to the streams of the
example of its use is dated 1896, it is chalk downs, full in winter and dry in
defined as 'a narrow or confined space summer; it serves in poetry as an orna-
where traffic may become congested'; mental synonym for brook. The second
and this, with good reason, has re- means properly a boundary (from
mained a common use. During the French borne) as in The undiscovered
second world war it was a favourite country from whose borne No traveller
way of describing any obstruction that returns, but is used almost solely, with
impeded the flow of production or the a distorted memory of that passage, in
supply of some needed commodity; in the sense of destination or goal. The
this sense it has been overworked, as OED prefers bourn stream, and bourne
popular new metaphors usually are goal, and the differentiation would be
(cf. CEILING, TARGET, and see META- useful.
PHOR), and has brought deserved
derision on those who have done b r a c e , n.(= two). See COLLECTIVES 5.
violence to the metaphor by speaking
of the biggest b. when they mean the brachylogy. Irregular shortening
most constrictive, or describing a down of expression. Less sugar, This is
universal shortage as a world-wide b., no use, and A is as good or better than B,
or demanding that bb. should be ironed are brachylogies for Less of sugar, This
out. is of no use, and A is as good as or
bounden is still used in bounden duty better than B ; the first is established
though not in in duty bound. It is also as idiomatic; the second is at worst a
used alternatively with bound as the STURDY INDEFENSIBLE; the last is still
p.p. of bind in the sense beholden (I am regarded by many as illegitimate.
much bounden, or bounds to you) ; but brackets. See STOPS, and for use in
the whole verb, including the p.p., is
a mere ARCHAISM in this sense. the sense of class, see GROUP.
bounteous, -iful. See PLENTEOUS. brain(s), in the sense of wits, may
often be either singular or plural, the
bourgeois, a French word meaning latter being perhaps, as the OED sug-
'a member of the mercantile or shop- gests, the familiar and the former the
keeping class of any country' (OED), dignified use. Some phrases, however,
should have been one that commanded admit only one or the other, e.g. to
respect for solid worth. In fact, as have a tune on the b., but (although the
C. S. Lewis has pointed out, it has had physical object is otherwise always b.)
the unfortunate experience of being to blow one's bb. out.
applied first by the class above the
bourgeoisie to mean 'not aristocratic, brain compounds. The OED (1888)
therefore vulgar' and then by the class lists a large number of è.-compounds
below it to mean 'not proletarian, of which few are in common use
therefore parasitic, reactionary'. today. For instance, the jilted heroine
As the name of a printing type the no longer gets b. fever, as she was
word is anglicized and pronounced prone to do in the Victorian novel,
bërjois'. and the poet's b. brat of 1630 is now,
bourn(e). There are two words, which more politely, a b. child. In 1932 the
were originally burn and borne, but are OED Supp. added, among others, the
now not distinguished, consistently at now popular b. wave (originally a
any rate, either in spelling or in pro- telepathic message but now a 'sudden
nunciation. The first, which survives inspiration or bright thought') and
in place-names (e.g. Bournemouth, b. storm ('a succession of sudden and
Eastbourne) and retains in Scotland its severe paroxysms of cerebral dis-
brake 64 breakdown
turbance'), sometimes, it is said, used brash. ' The Quiet American', Graham
in U.S. as a verb for a process of in- Greene's scathing denunciation of the
ducing the birth of a collective b. United States' brash and clumsy politi-
child. Bb. trust, b.-washing, and cal warfare against communism in SE.
b. drain are still more recent. The Asia. I One feels that the late Tommy
first was originally applied to the Handley, in his brash proletarian way,
body of advisers appointed by Frank- really invented 'One-upmanship' in his
lin Roosevelt after his first election as power to master every situation. /
President, and was later adopted in Bagehot had no enthusiasm whatever
Britain as the name for broadcast for ''democracy', which he equated with
discussions by small groups of poly- the brash and vulgar American republic!
maths. B.-washing came from America Did Mr. Butler resent the brash zeal
as a response to the need for a con- with which Mr. Nabarro rushed into the
venient word to describe certain delicate negotiations about making drip-
modern methods of indoctrination, feed oil heaters safer? This adjective,
especially those employed by the called by the OED 'obs. or dial.' in
Chinese on prisoners of war in 1888, but persisting as a U.S. col-
Korea. The phrase itself is as old as loquialism, has been taken up by
Shakespeare. 'It's monstrous labour', British journalists and given so much
said Octavius at the carouse on Pom- work to do that the dictionaries are
pey's Galley, 'when I wash my brain finding it hard to keep abreast.
and it grows more foul'. B. drain is Definitions they have tried include
not, as might be thought, the final active, bold, callow, cheeky, forward,
stage of b. washing. It is a com- hard, harsh, hasty, impetuous, insolent,
pendious expression of concern at the quick, rash, rough, saucy, sharp, sudden,
tendency of promising young British tactless, and tart. That is a lot to pack
scientists to go and work in America. into one monosyllable. No wonder the
word is popular.
brake, break, nn. The words mean- Brash has several other meanings.
ing (i) bracken, (2) thicket, (3) lever, In the sense of assault it is obsolete,
(4) crushing or kneading or peeling or but the noun meaning a slight feverish
harrowing implement, (5) steadying- attack or an eruption of water is still
frame, though perhaps all of different current; so is the collective word
origins, are spelt brake always. The meaning fragments of disintegrated
word that means checking-appliance is rock or hedge-clippings. The OED
now invariably brake, but break occa- leaves open the question with which of
sionally occurred in the 19th c. owing these words, if any, the now popular
to a probably false derivation from to adjective is connected.
break (the OED refers it to no. 3 above,
which it derives from OF brae = F brass tacks. See RHYMING SLANG.
bras arm). The word meaning horse- brave in the sense of fine or showy is
breaker's carriage-frame, and applied an ARCHAISM, and in the sense of
also to a large wagonette, and now pre- worthy a GALLICISM; make a b. show,
served in the type of motor-car that however, is fully current, and Miran-
has taken the place of the wagonette as da's b. new zvorld has been given a fresh
a shooting b. varies; brake is certainly lease of life by Aldous Huxley.
more usual for the latter. The word
meaning fracture etc. is always braze. See REVIVALS.
break.
break. 1. For p.p. see BROKE(N).
branch. For synonymy see FIELD. 2. For spelling of* nouns see BRAKE,
BREAK.
bran(d)-new. The spelling with -d is
right (fresh as from the furnace); but breakdown. This POPULARIZED TECH-
the d is seldom heard, and often not NICALITY from statistics, having the
written. charrn of novelty, is apt to make those
breakthrough 65 Britisher
who use it forget the danger that its brinkmanship. American brinkman-
literal meaning may intrude with ludi- ship has not led to British panic. Thus
crous effect. A complete b. of our exports The Times, whose leader-writers are
to dollar countries is unfortunately im- never shy of giving currency to a
possible. I The houses should be broken neologism if they think it useful. To
down into types. / The b. of patients by add the suffix -ship to a noun is a
the departments under whose care they recognized way of producing a com-
were before discharge should be strictly pound that means 'the qualities or
followed. I Statistics of the population of character associated with, or the skill
the United States of America, broken or power of accomplishment of, the
down by age and sex. This use of b. is person denoted by the noun' (OED),
established and unexceptionable, but and in most of these compounds that
humdrum words like classify are safer, noun ends -man—statesmanship, horse-
manship, seamanship, etc. The conceit
breakthrough. This military meta- of making FACETIOUS FORMATIONS by
phor has become a VOGUE WORD since treating -manship as the suffix was in-
the second world war, applied especi- vented by Stephen Potter with his
ally to some signal achievement in Gamesmanship, Lifemanship, and One-
scientific research. It is an apt meta- upmanship, and he has had many imi-
phor, and has no need to be bolstered, tators; brinkmanship is said to have
as it often is, by adjectives such as been coined by Adlai Stevenson. Few
major. But, like all vogue words, it is of these pleasantries are likely to prove
being overworked. more than jocular and transitory slang,
breeches etc. The singular noun and but brinkmanship is evidently felt to
its derivatives (breechloader, breech- supply the need for a word denoting
ing, etc.) have -êch- in pronuncia- the qualities or character associated
tion] breeches the garment has always with one whose conduct of his coun-
-ïch-, and the verb breech (put child try's foreign policy puts anxious spec-
into bb.) followed this, but the modern tators in mind of a man precariously
practice of putting small boys into balancing himself on the edge of a
breeches as soon as they can stand has precipice.
made the word obsolete. 'Breeches is
a double plural, the form breek being Britain, British, Briton. For the
itself plural; as feet is from foot so is relation of these to England, English-
breek from brook.'—Skeat. (man), see ENGLAND.
brevet, n. and v. Pronounce brë'vët, Briticism, the name for an idiom
not brève't; the past and p.p. are ac- used in Great Britain and not in
cordingly breveted, see -T-, -TT-. America, is a BARBARISM; it should
be eitherBritannicism or Britishism, just
brier, briar. For the word meaning as Hibernicism or Irishism will do, but
thorny bush, the spelling brier is nearer not Iricism. Gallicism and Scot(t)icism
the original and preferable; the name cannot be pleaded, since Gaulish and
of the pipe-wood is an entirely different Scotch are in Latin Gallicus and
word; it is also best spelt brier, but Scot(t)icus, but British is Britannicus.
briar is more usual. The verbal critic, who alone uses such
brilliance, -cy. See -CE, -CY. words, should at least see to it that
they are above criticism.
brindle(d), brinded. The original
form brinded is archaic, and should be Britisher 'was an American term that
used only in poetry. Brindled, a later had a currency in the U.S. in the late
variant of it, is now the ordinary adjec- 18th and 19th cc. but is practically
tive, and bundle, a BACK-FORMATION never heard today. The ordinary
from this, and convenient as a name American . . . accords the Irish
for the colour and the dog, should be separate recognition but all other male
used only as a noun. inhabitants of the British Isles are
broad 66 brochure
Englishmen to him' (Evans). If this (2) Some words with which one of
is so, it is time that British writers re- the two is idiomatic, but the other not
conciled themselves to relinquishing impossible, are : (preferring broad) ex-
the word in its convenient function of panse, brow, forehead, lands, estates,
announcing that the user of it is brim (though when the brim is very
American. broad the hat becomes a wide-awake),
mind, gauge; (preferring wide) opening,
broad, wide. Both words have gap, gulf, culture.
general currency; their existence side (3) Some illustrations of the differ-
by side is not accounted for by one's ence in meaning between broad and
being more appropriate to any special- wide with the same word; the first two
style. What difference there is must be may be thought fanciful, but hardly
in meaning; yet how close they are in the others : A w. door is one that gives
this respect is shown by their both entrance to several abreast, a b. door
having narrow as their usual opposite, one of imposing dimensions; a w. river
and both standing in the same relation, takes long to cross, a b. river shows a
if in any at all, to long. Nevertheless, fine expanse of water; a w. generaliza-
though they may often be used in- tion covers many particulars, a b.
differently (a b. or a w. road; three feet generalization disregards unimportant
to. or b.), there are (i) many words with exceptions; a page has a b. margin, i.e.
which one may be used but not the a fine expanse of white, but we allow
other, (2) many with which one is more a w. margin for extras, i.e. a substantial
idiomatic than the other though the difference between the certain and the
sense is the same, (3) many with which possible costs; a w. distinction or differ-
either can be used, but not with pre- ence implies that the things are very far
cisely the same sense as the other. These from identical, but a b. distinction or
numbered points are illustrated below. difference is merely one that requires
The explanation seems to be that no subtlety for its appreciation; a b.
wide refers to the distance that sepa- view implies tolerance but a w. view
rates the limits, and broad to the ampli- scope only.
tude of what connects them. When it
does not matter which of these is in broadcast. For past tense see FORE-
our minds, either word does equally CAST.
well; if the verges are far apart, we broccoli (not -oco-, nor -lo) is the best
have a w. road; if there is an ample spelling. The word is an Italian plural,
surface, we have a b. road ; it is all one. and is generally used collectively like
But (1) backs, shoulders, chests, spinach etc. ; but if a or the plural is
bosoms, are b., not w., whereas eyes wanted, a broccoli, two broccolis, are the
and mouths are w., not b.; at w. inter- forms.
vals, give a w. berth, a w. ball, w. open,
in all of which b. is impossible, have brochure, pamphlet. The introduc-
the idea of separation strongly; and tion of the word b. in the 19th c. was
to. trousers, w. sleeves, w. range, w. in- probably due to misconception of the
fluence, w. favour, w. distribution, the French uses. In French b. is used
to. world, where b. is again impossible, where the French p. (chiefly applied to
suggest the remoteness of the limit. scurrilous or libellous or violently
Of the words that admit b. but refuse controversial pamphlets) is inap-
w. some are of the simple kind (b. propriate. The sense 'a few leaves of
blades, spearheads, leaves; the b. arrow), printed matter stitched together' has
but with many some secondary notion always belonged in English to p.,
such as generosity or downrightness or though it has by the side of this general
neglect of the petty is the representa- sense the special one (different from
tive of the simple idea of amplitude the French) 'p. bearing on some ques-
(b. daylight, B. Church, b.jests, b. farce, tion of current interest (esp. in politics
b. hint, b. Scotch, b. facts, b. outline). or theology)'. 'Dans sa brochure
broider(y) 67 burgle
appelée en anglais pamphlet', quoted going back over 200 years; but one of
in French dictionaries from Voltaire, those synonyms is generally preferable,
gives us the hint that the two words especially when the idea of large size
had the same meaning. But because of inherent in bulk makes that word un-
the special sense of pamphlet, brochure suitable.
has now found a useful place in our bumble-bee, humble-bee. See
language to denote a commercial NEEDLESS VARIANTS. Neither form,
pamphlet, e.g. of a travel agency. however, though there is no differ-
broider(y). See ARCHAISM, POETIC- ence of meaning, is a mere variant
ISMS. of the other ; they are independent
formations, one allied with boom, and
broke(n). The form broke, now obso- the other with hum. The first form has
lete or a blunder in most senses, now virtually driven out the second.
lingered until recently as p.p. of
break — dismiss the service {he was bunkum, buncombe. The first spell-
broke for cowardice) and is still idio- ing is the prevalent one, often shor-
matic in the slang phrase (stony) broke. tened to bunk. The second, from an
brood. Those who did not die young American place-name, is the original;
frequently got chubby, but you needn't but the word is equally significant with
brood about that now. One may b. on either spelling, and no purpose is
or over something, but not about it. served by trying to re-establish the less
See CAST-IRON IDIOM.
usual.
brow. In the sweat of thy brow is a bur, b u r r . The word meaning prickly
MISQUOTATION (face). seed-vessel etc. is usually, and might
conveniently be always, bur; the word
brusque, though formerly so far describing northern pronunciation is
naturalized as to be spelt brusk and always burr; in all the other words,
pronounced brusk, is now usually pro- which are less common, burr is usual
nounced brobsk. and might well be made universal.
brutal, brute, brutish. Brutal differs burden, burthen. The second form
from brute in its adjectival or attribu- is, even with reference to a ship's
tive use, and from brutish, in having carrying capacity, for which burden is
lost its simplest sense 'of the brutes as now often used, a NEEDLESS VARIANT;
opposed to man' and being never used and in other uses it is an ARCHAISM.
without implying moral condemnation.
Thus, while brute force is contrasted bureaucrat etc. The formation is so
with skill, brutal force is contrasted irregular that all attempt at self-
with humaneness. In torturing a respect in pronunciation may as
mouse, a cat is brutish and a person well be abandoned. We must be
brutal. content to accept the popular pronun-
ciations bû'rôkrât, bûrô'krâsï, and bûrô-
buck. See HART. krâ'tic.
buffalo. PI. -oes; see -O(E)S I . burgh, burgher. Burgh is the Scot-
buffet. The OED pronounces this tish equivalent of the English borough
bû'fït in the sense sideboard or cup- and is so pronounced. Burgher, an
board, and as French in the sense archaism, is pronounced ber'ger.
refreshment bar. But we ordinarily burgle. See BACK-FORMATION. A verb
follow the U.S. practice of calling being undoubtedly wanted, and words
both boofd and reserving bùfït for the on the pattern of burglarize being ac-
blow ceptable only when there is no other
bulk. The bulk of in. the sense of most, possibility (see NEW VERBS IN -IZE), it
the greater part, the majority (We have is gratifying that burgle has outgrown
disposed of the bulk of the surplus stocks) its early facetiousness and become
can be supported by good authority generally current.
burlesque 68 but
burlesque, caricature, parody, always take an objective case (No one
travesty. For b. as a type of stage- saw him but me, as well as / saw no one
performance see COMEDY ETC. In but him), or whether it is a conjunction,
wider applications the words are and the case after it is therefore vari-
often interchangeable; a badly con- able (/ sazv no one but him, i.e. but I did
ducted trial, for instance, may be see him; No one saw him but I, i.e. but
called a b., a c, a p., or a t., of / did see him). The answer is that but
justice; a perverted institution may was originally a preposition meaning
be said, without change of sense, to outside, but is now usually made a
b., c, p., or t., its founder's intentions; conjunction, the subjective case being
and, the others having no adjectives preferred after it when grammatically
of their own, the adjective burlesque needed. Out of a large collection of
can serve them, as well as its own examples of but followed by an in-
noun, in that capacity (a b. portrait, flected pronoun, 95 % showed the con-
poem, etc.). Two distinctions, however, junctional use; Whence all b. he (not
are worth notice: (i) b., c, and p., him) had fled exemplifies, in fact, the
have, besides their wider uses, each a normal modern literary use though the
special province; action or acting is OED says that the prepositional use is
burlesqued, form and features are cari- equally correct. The fact seems to be
catured, and verbal expression is paro- that all but him is used (a) by those
died; (2) travesty differs from the who either do not know or do not care
others both in having no special prov- whether it is right or not—and accord-
ince, and in being more used than they ingly it is still gcod colloquial—, and
when the imitation is intended to be (b) by the few who, being aware that
an exact one but fails. See also b. was originally prepositional, are also
HUMOUR, WIT, etc. proud of their knowledge and willing
burnt, burned. Burnt is the usual to air it—and accordingly it is still
form, especially in the p.p.; burned pedantic-literary. It is true that the
tends to disappear, and is chiefly used conjunctional use has prevailed owing
with a view to securing whatever im- partly to the mistaken notion that No
pressiveness or beauty attaches to the one knows it b. me is the same sort of
unusual; see -T AND -ED questionable grammar as It is me; but
it has prevailed, in literary use, and it
b u r r . See BUR. is in itself legitimate ; it would there-
burst, bust. In the slang expressions fore be well for it to be universally
b. up, b.-up, go a b., on the b., etc., the accepted.
spelling bust is established and should 2 . Redundant negative after but. But
be used by those who use the phrases. (now rare), but that (literary), and but
So too bronco-buster and block-buster. what (colloq.)? have often in negative
and interrogative sentences the mean-
business, busyness. The second ing that. . . not. But just as / shouldn't
form, pronounced bï'zïnïs, is used as wonder if he didn't fall in is often heard
the simple abstract noun of busy (the in speech where didn't fall should be
state etc. of being busy) so as to dis- fell, so careless writers insert after but
tinguish it from the regular busitiess the negative already implied in it.
with its special developments of mean- Examples (both wrong) : Who knozvs b.
ing. that the whole history of the Conference
but. 1. Case after b. = except. 2 . Re- might not have been changed? j Who
dundant negative after b. 3. Illogical b. knows but what agreeing to differ may
4. Wheels within wheels. 5. B. . . . not be a form of agreement rather than
however. 6. B. which and b. beginning a form of difference?
a sentence. For similar mistakes, see HAZINESS
1. Case after but — except. The and NOT 4.
question is whether b. in this sense 3. Illogical hut. A very common and
is a preposition, and should therefore exasperating use of but as the ordinary
but 69 by
adversative conjunction is that re- sionally occur (e.g. It is not an ever-
ferred to in NOT 5 and more fully illus- green, as is often represented; b. its
trated below. A writer having in his leaves fall in the autumn, and are re-
mind two facts of opposite tendency, newed in the spring), it may be well to
and deciding to give them in two put down the right and wrong types in
separate and complete sentences con- the simplest form: (right) It is not
nected by but, forgets that the mere black, but white: It is not black; it is
presence of the opposed facts is not zvhite: It is not black; but it is nearly
enough to justify but; the sentences black : (wrong) It is not black, but it is
must be so expressed that the total white: It is not black, b. it is nearly
effect of one is opposed to that of the white.
other. He must not be seduced into 4 . Wheels within wheels. A few
throwing in an additional circumstance examples will show the disagreeable
in one (usually the second) of his sen- effect produced when, inside one of the
tences that will have the unintended contrasted sentences connected by but,
effect of neutralizing the contrast : In an internal contrast, also indicated by
vain the horse kicked and reared, b. he but, is added: But he did not follow up
could not unseat his rider (if the kicking his threats by any prompt action against
was in vain, the failure to unseat in- the young king, b. zvent off to Germany
volves no contrast ; either in vain or but to conclude the campaign against his
must be dropped). / Pole zvas averse to brother Lewis of Bavaria. B. on arriv-
burning Cranmer, b. it zvas Mary zvho ing in Bavaria he did not strike down
decided that his recantation zvas not his enemy, b. made a six months' truce
genuine and that lie must die (The fact with him. / You have come not to a
in contrast with Pole's averseness is scattered organization, b. to an organi-
Cranmer's having to die; this may be zation which is in its infancy, b. which is
given simply—but Cranmer zvas burnt, yet real.11 gazed upon him for some time,
or with additional details—it zvas de- expecting that he might awake; b. he did
cided etc., or even Mary decided etc.—, not, b. kept on snoring, j The reformers
as long as the opposition between the affirm the inward life, b. they do not
sentences remains; but it zvas Alary trust it, b. us-: outzvard and vulgar means./
zvho decided at once makes the second There zvas a time zvhen golf was a Scot-
sentence harmonious instead of con- tish speciality, b. it has follozved Scottish
trasted with the first ; correct to and it precedents in spreading over the whole
ti'as Mary zvho decided, or but Mary country south of the Tweed. B. we are
decided), j The task is not easy, but Air. glad that it is a Scot who has ventured
A's production never looked like being to blame golf.
equal to it (Mr. A's failure is in har- 5. But. . . Jiozvever is perhaps always
mony, not in contrast, with the diffi- due to mere carelessness : / / any real
culty mentioned in the first part of the remedy is to be found, zve must first
sentence. Either substitute and for diagfiose the true nature of the disease;
but or read but Air. A might have made b. that, however, is not hard. / B. one
more of it than he did). [ It is in no spirit thing, hozvever, had not changed, and
of hostility to the Committee of Union that zvas . . . / The enemy's cavalry
and Progress that these lines arc zvritten; withdrew zvith losses, b. they returned,
but it is a sincere appeal to the men of hozvever, reinforced by . . .
courage and goodzvill at Salonica to 6. For but which see WHICH WITH AND
strive to set their house in order (Either OR BUT, and for the superstition about
omit but, or convert the two sentences beginning a sentence with but or and
into one by writing but in sificere see AND 5.
appeal; we then have the correct form
It is not black, but zvhite instead of the buz(z). See -z-, -zz-.
incorrect It is not black, but it is zvhite). by, prep., owing to the variety of its
Since less excusable blunders than senses, is apt to be unintentionally used
these, due to gross carelessness, occa- several times in the same sentence;
by 70 caddis
when the uses are parallel and the except by-election with its awkward
repetition intentional (We can now conjunction of vowels, might surely be
travel by land, by sea, or by air), treated as eligible for promotion to the
monotony is better than the ELEGANT first.
VARIATION (by land, on the sea, or
through the air) often affected. But by by and l a r g e , in its popular sense of
land, sea, or air is better than either, more or less, on the whole, has wan-
and such accidental recurrences of by dered even further from its original
as here shown are slovenly (cf. OF): meaning than most POPULARIZED TECH-
The author's attempt to round off the NICALITIES. It is a nautical term for
play by causing Maggie to conquer by sailing alternately close to the wind
making John laugh by her poor joke and with the wind abeam or aft. The
about Eve was not worthy of him. / Pal- phrase seems to have settled down com-
merston wasted the strength derived by fortably to its new job, and is doing no
England by the great war by his brag. harm to anyone except to sailors, who
are annoyed at the ignorance that this
by, bye, by-. The spelling, and usage use of it betrays.
in regard to separating the two parts,
hyphening them, or writing them as
one word, are variable. As the noun
and adjective are merely developments
of the adverb or preposition, it would
C
have been reasonable to spell always cabal, cabbalist(ic), cabbala, etc.
by; but bye for the noun is too firmly These are the right spellings, though
established in some uses to be abol- the words are from the same source.
ished (e.g. a bye at cricket and drawing Cabal, as a word for a secret faction
or playing off a bye in a competition), is earlier than the 'Committee for
and it would be convenient if the noun Foreign Affairs' of Charles I I with
were always bye, and the adjective and which it is usually associated; that the
adverb always by. But by the by is initial letters of the names of the mem-
usually so written, though the second bers of that body formed the word was
by is a noun, perhaps on the analogy a coincidence.
of by and by, where both are adverbs. cable(gram). The verb cable (trans-
By(e)-law is probably a corruption of mit, inform, etc., by cable) is both con-
the obsolete byrlaw, the local custom venient and unobjectionable ; cablegram
of a township; it is often given an e, is not only a BARBARISM, but a needless
though the OED puts by-law first. one, since cable (cf. wire vb. and n.)
Bye-bye is also unconnected with by. serves perfectly as a noun also in the
as a nursery word it is a sound in- sense submarine telegram.
tended to lull a child to sleep (cf.
lullaby) and as a farewell it is a cachet (except in the medical sense) is
clipping of good-bye, which is itself mainly a LITERARY CRITICS' word (bears
a contraction of God be with you. the c. of genius etc.) and should not be
As to the hyphening of by as a prefix, allowed to extrude native words ; stamp,
the authorities, as is usual with hyph- seal, sign manual, are usually good
ens, are not agreed. If we choose the enough for English readers. See
COD as our guide we shall find that FRENCH WORDS; and, for synonymy,
we may write as single words bygone, SIGN.
bypass, bypath, byplay, bystander, by-
street, and byword, but we should use a cachinnate, -ation, -atory. See
hyphen in by-blow, by-election, by-lane, POLYSYLLABIC HUMOUR.
by-law, by-name, by-product. If, as caddie, caddy. The golf-attendant
suggested in the article HYPHENS, un- has -ie; the tea-box has -y.
necessary hyphens ought to be avoided,
all the members of the second class, caddis is preferable to caddice.
cadre 71 camelopard
cadre, being an established military calibre. This spelling, and the pro-
technicality, should be anglicized in nunciation kâ'liber, are now estab-
sound and pronounced kah'der, in lished, though the French pronuncia-
plural kah'derz ; the French pronuncia- tion lingered for the human quality
tion is especially inconvenient in words after it had disappeared for the internal
much used in the plural. diameter. See -RE AND -ER.
café is naturalized in the sense coffee- caliph is the spelling and kâ'lïf the
house or restaurant—so thoroughly pronunciation put first by the OED,
naturalized indeed as to be kâfto many which states, however, that 'orientalists
road-transport workers. In the sense now favour Khalîf'i see DIDACTICISM.
coffee it is a FRENCH WORD.
calligraphy etc. should not be altered
caffeine. See -IES, -EIN, where the to calig-. Greek compounds are made
pronunciation kâfën' is recommended. either with KOXXL- from KÔLXXOS beauty,
cagey is an American colloquialism of or with KaXo- from KOX6S beautiful.
recent date (it is not to be found in the Choice is therefore between calligraphy
1928 Webster or the 1933 OED Supp.) and calography ; and as the actual Greek
that has won popularity in Britain also. compounds were KaXXiypa<f>la etc., cal-
It is used as a synonym of wary or ligraphy is obviously right.
close, applied especially to one who, for callus. PI. -uses; see -us. The word
fear of being indiscreet, is uncommu- is often wrongly spelled callous from
nicative or evasive when asked for confusion with the adjective.
information
calmative, being queer both in pro-
calcareous, -rious. The first form is nunciation (kâ'lmatïv, not kah'mattv)
definitely wrong, the ending being from and in formation (there is no Latin
Latin -arius, which gives -arious or word for -ative to be attached to),
-ary in English; but it is so firmly should be left to the doctors as a
established that a return to the correct technical term, if even they have a use
but now obsolete second form is out for it beside sedative.
of the question.
caloric, calorie. Caloric, originally a
calculate. 1. C. makes calculable', see name for the supposed form of matter
-ABLE 1. 2 . The American colloquial- to which the phenomena of heat and
ism is an example of SLIPSHOD EXTEN- combustion were once ascribed, and
SION; the sense I consider-as-the- later for heat generally, is now little
result-of-a-calculation passes into the used except in its compounds, such as
simple sense I consider. We shall win, calorimeter. Calorie is a term for any
I c, by a narrow majority shows the one of several thermal units, especially
normal use, the assumption at least for the unit of heat or energy produced
being that the numbers have been by any food substance. Like caloric in
reckoned and compared. We shall be in its day, calorie seems to be a tempta-
time, I c. is (according to British usage) tion to those given to PEDANTIC HU-
correct if the time wanted and the time MOUR, who now find the same satisfac-
at disposal have been worked out in tion in saying intake of calories instead
detail, but wrong if it is a mere general of eating as their predecessors did in
expression of sanguineness. This use saying caloric instead of heat.
of calculate has never found favour in
Britain, and is now said to be passing cambric. Pronounce kâ-.
out of use in U.S. Figure is sometimes camellia. The spelling with -11- is
used there in the same loose way, and quite fixed, and the mispronunciation
is open to the same criticism. See also -më- now so prevalent as to be justified
RECKON. by usage.
calculus. The medical word has pi. camelopard does not contain the
-lïi the mathematical, -luses. See -us. word leopard, and should be neither
Canaan(ite) 72 canvas(s)
spelt nor pronounced as if it did. More has swallowed a more, f Although
Pronounce kamè'lopard, if there should the latter were overwhelmingly superior
be occasion to use this now archaic or in numbers, the former had the advantage
facetious name for giraffe. of being under one control, and that cf
Napoleon himself. That has swallowed
Canaan(ite). The pronunciation ka- a that ; the full form would be 'and that
nyan is a quite justifiable escape from control the control of, which gives
the difficult and unEnglish kâ'nâ-ân; 'and that that o f ; but this cannibal
kd'nâ-ân passes into kâ'nâyân, and may perhaps be thought to have con-
that into kd'nyan. The pronunciation sumed himself rather than another
ka'nân, the ordinary clerical one, is a of his kind. / The most vital prob-
simpler evasion. lem in the etymological study of
canard should be anglicized, and have English place-names is the question as to
the d of the sing, and the ds of the pi. what extent personal names occur in
sounded. place-names. To has swallowed a to, as
its way is when employed by question-
candelabrum. Pronounce -dbrum. As-to writers.
The pi. -bra is still preferred to -brums;
the false sing, -bra with pi. -bras should cannibalize, meaning to use one of
not be used. a number of similar machines to pro-
candid is a WORSENED WORD. It origi- vide spare parts for the others, is one
nally meant kindly, un censorious j Jane of the more felicitous of the NEW
Austen so uses it. The change came VERBS IN -IZE.
during the 19th c. 'To be candid, in cannon. 1. For plural see COLLEC-
Middlemarch phraseology, meant to TIVES 3. 2 . As the natural name for the
use an early opportunity of letting your thing, c. is passing out of use (though
friends know that you did not take a revived for the armament of military
cheerful view of their capacity, their aircraft) and giving place to gun, which
conduct or their position.' Today / is now the regular word except when
must be candid is invariably a warning context makes it ambiguous.
of unpleasantness to follow.
canon, canyon. The second is recom-
canine. The pronunciation kd'nin (not mended. Pronounced kâ'nyon.
kant'n, nor kâ'nîn) is both the common-
est and the best. Feline, bovine, asinine, cant. For meaning and use see JAR-
leonine, are enough to show that RECES- GON.
SIVE ACCENT is natural; and, if kâ is due
cantatrice, on the rare occasions when
to dread of FALSE QUANTITY, it is cer-
it is used, is ordinarily pronounced as
tainly not worth fighting for on that Italian (-êchâ), sometimes as French
ground. (-es) ; singer, or vocalist, should be pre-
cannibalism. That words should de- ferred when it is not misleading ; other
vour their own kind is a sad fact, but English substitutes, as songstress, female
the guilt is perhaps less theirs than singer, are seldom tolerable, but soprano
their employers' ; at any rate the thing etc. may be a way out. See FEMININE
happens: As to which additional com- DESIGNATIONS.
modities the guaranteed price should be
applied, Mr. Gaitskell said that such a canton(ment). The noun canton is
fundamental issue should be discussed usually kan'tôn, sometimes kântô'n.
between the next Labour government and The verb is in civil use kântô'n, but in
the industry. To has swallowed a to. j military use generally kantôô'n. The
Harvey, McDonald, and O'Neill make noun cantonment, which is military
up as powerful a trio of batsmen known only, is generally kanlôb'nment.
in modern test cricket. As has swallowed canvas(s). The material is now always
an as. I It is more or less—and certainly spelt -as; so also the verb meaning to
more than less—a standardized product. line etc. with c. ; for the plural of the
caoutchouc 73 capitals
noun, and for canvas(s)ed etc. in this titles of persons, ranks, offices, institu-
sense, see -s-, -ss-. The verb meaning tions, countries, buildings, books,
to discuss, ask for votes, etc., has plays, etc., whether general or par-
always -ss; so also has the noun rr.ean- ticular, singular or plural—and for the
ing the process etc. of canvassing in whole of such titles.
this sense. King of the Belgians, Dukes of Bur-
caoutchouc. Pronounce kow'chôôk. gundy, Admiral of the Fleet, a Prime
Minister, the Home Secretary, Bish-
caper (herb). See SINGULAR S. ops of Durham, the Attorney-
capita, caput. See PER. General, the Royal Society, the
North-West Frontier, the Western
capitalize, -ization, ist. Accent the Powers, St. Paul's Cathedral.
first, not the second syllables; see RE- [Some prefer lower case when the
CESSIVE ACCENT. titles are used generally or in the plural :
capitals. Apart from certain elemen- dukes of Burgundy, a prime minis-
tary rules that everyone knows and ter, bishops of Durham, an attorney-
observes, such as that capitals are used general.
to begin a new sentence after a full Against this practice is the fact that it
stop, to introduce a quotation, and for cannot be consistently followed with-
proper names and those of the days and out occasional ambiguity: for example,
months, their present use is almost as an admiral of the fleet is not necessarily
anarchic as that of HYPHENS . Uniform- identical with an Admiral of the Fleet,
ity is lacking not only in practice but nor a foreign secretary with a Foreign
also in precept: no two sets of style Secretary. Another recent tendency in
rules would be found to agree in every certain quarters is to capitalize only
respect. Rather than add to the con- half of a title, as in the following, which
fusion by attempting to prescribe a surely qualify as titles by now :
new code, this article will reproduce, south-east Asia, the western Powers,
with small adaptations approved by the welfare State.]
the author, the advice given by Mr. (ii) When only part of a title is given
G. V. Carey in the publications of the the practice of retaining a capital for
Cambridge University Press Punctua- the 'particular' but dropping it for the
tion and Mind the Stop:1 'general' is fairly common and, though
The use of Capitals is largely gov- any form of hair-splitting is liable to
erned by personal taste, and my own, cause more trouble than it is worth,
while not favouring seventeenth-cen- usually harmless. Thus:
tury excess, happens to favour even the Duke (also 'the Dukes' if they
less the niggardliness now sometimes have been specified), the Bishop, the
apparent. The printed page that is Admiral, the Cathedral.
starved of capitals suffers not merely But
in appearance (to my eye at any rate) kings, princes, dukes, a bishop, a
but also in function, for denial of capi- cathedral.
tals to well-known bodies, institutions, [On the other hand, the number of
officials and the like militates against anti-capitalists who would have lower
ready reference. The following sug- case for both sets of the above is far
gestions, while claiming no higher from negligible.]
status than that, aim at being at least (iii) In reference to institutions, bod-
systematic, logical, and unambiguous. ies, etc., it is desirable, when their
Appended in brackets are alternative names are repeated in shortened form,
usages that commend themselves to to retain the capital for the shortened
some, title. For example:
(i) Capitals are appropriate for full The Commissioners of Inland
1 Revenue reconsidered the matter.
The publishers are indebted to the Syndics . » . Eventually the Commissioners
of the Cambridge University Press for per-
mission to reprint these extracts. agreed to . . .
capitals 74 capitals
The Church Assembly met yester- applied to common objects, exchange
day at . . . One of the most impor- the capital for a small letter. Most of
tant problems considered by the them are place-names (or adjectives
Assembly was . . . formed therefrom) that have in course
A representative of the R.S.P.C.A., of time lost their purely local associa-
who attended, said that information tion. I have in mind 'india-rubber',
had reached the Society that . . . 'brussels sprouts', 'roman type',
[It would be not unusual to find, on 'french windows', Venetian blinds';
their recurrence, the commissioners, the and readers will no doubt be able to
society, though possibly not the assem- supply plenty of others.
bly . Which again implies inconsistency ; (vi) There is (or was until lately) a
whereas the retention of capitals makes convention in certain quarters of print-
also for easier reference and avoids ing the names of streets etc. as 'Regent-
possible ambiguity.] street', 'Portland-place', 'Shaftesbury-
(iv) With the fairly numerous words avenue', 'Berkeley-square', and so on.
that have a more restricted (or con- Why 'street', 'road', etc., should in this
crete) sense as well as a commoner (or one connexion fail to conform with the
abstract) sense, the invariable use of normal rule for the use of capitals in
lower case for the latter and capital for full titles has always been a mystery to
the former—irrespective of singular/ me; and the insertion of the hyphen
plural or particular/general distinc- seems peculiarly gratuitous. The streets
tions—is recommended. Such words, themselves are not labelled in this way,
amongst many others, are : nor do their names generally so appear
state (= condition, circumstances) on advertisements, buses, Under-
State ( = organized community) ; ground stations, notepaper headings,
power (= strength etc.) Power visiting-cards, and the like. The thing
( = powerful nation) ; seems quite pointless; and when we
government (= the function of get, for instance, 'Charing Cross-road'
governing) Government (= the —I have seen it printed even 'Charing
body That governs) ; cross-road'—the result is a silly ambi-
minister, ministry (religious) Minis- guity. There are signs that this irritat-
ter, Ministry (political) ; ing practice is beginning to decline, so
church (= the building) Church let us hope that 'Regent Street' and
(= the body); 'Shaftesbury Avenue' will soon be the
east, west, western, etc. (directional) invariable form and that we may say
East, West, Western, etc. (ethno- farewell to 'Leicester-square'.
logical); If this whole topic should seem to
underground (below ground, have been unduly laboured, some re-
generally) Underground (of rail- sponsibility belongs to the journal that
ways). I have always taken, and still take for
[The particular/general criterion al- the most part, as the soundest guide to
ready referred to is often applied here : modern usage. The Times in its treat-
e.g. the Government, but a government ment of capitals, especially under the
and governments', the Minister, but a headings (i) to (iii) above, now con-
minister and ministers—all in the politi- tinually bewilders me. In the same
cal sense. This is surely to draw the context it will print, repeatedly, Civil
dividing-line in the wrong place. The Service and Civil servant; the East and
same applies to the common practice Middle East appear to be legitimate,
of reverting to lower case when such a but not the West; East and West Ger-
word is used adjectivally, for example, many have now usually become east
a government appointment; to which a and west Germany (a first step towards
Government appointment is to be pre- reunification?); one recent leading
ferred.] article spoke of
(v) There are a few words normally . . . the Middle East or south-east
requiring an initial capital that, when Asia . . . complaints against France
carafe 75 carpet
in North Africa, the Dutch in West Those who so use it cannot claim the
Indies, and the South African Gov- support of Meredith's description of
ernment in south-west Africa. the huge bulk of Prince Lucifer
Again, from a parliamentary report : careening o'er Afric's sands, for it is
No formal request has been made by clear that the word there means
the Governor to the bishop for the leaning. Perhaps its popularity comes
archdeacon's removal. from a latent suggestion of simulta-
If there is method here, it is hard to neous careering and careening—of a
discern it. Let it be repeated: the pace so wild that the vehicle sways
employment of capitals is a matter not from side to side and takes its corners
of rules but of taste; but consistency is on two wheels. That explanation
at least not a mark of bad taste. seems to be favoured by the first
carafe. The chief use of c. was for- lexicographer to take note of the new
merly as a slightly genteel word for the meaning, with the definition 'to lurch
water-bottle that stood on every wash- or toss from side to side' (Webster).
hand-stand with an inverted tumbler caricature. See BURLESQUE.
over it. For that purpose the word has
fallen into disuse with the article of caries is a Latin singular meaning
furniture on which this kind of c. used decay. For pronunciation see -IES, EIN.
to stand; but the word is still common, carillon. The anglicized pronuncia-
without any taint of genteelism, for the tion kârï'lôn (or kâ'rïlôn) should be
vessel in which light table wines are preferred to the hybrid sound -ilyon.
often served.
cark(ing). The verb is practically ob-
caravanserai, -sera, -sary. The solete, and the adjective, surviving only
first spelling is the best. It should be as a stock epithet of care, should be let
pronounced -n in spite of Fitzgerald's die too.
rhyming it with day in The Rubaiyat.
carcass, -ase. The -ss form stands carnelian. See CORNELIAN.
first in the Oxford dictionaries; the carotid. Pronounce kârô'tïd; see
verb is always so spelt but -ase must be FALSE QUANTITY.
at least as usual for the noun.
careen. The only meanings known to carousal, carousel. These words are
the dictionaries up to the middle of often confused. Carousal (with the
the 20th c. were nautical. In the transi- stress on the second syllable) is an -AL
tive sense (the commonest) a ship was NOUN formed from carouse—unneces-
careened when she was turned over on sarily since carouse is itself a noun as
her side to clean or repair her hull; in well as a verb—and means a drinking-
the intransitive sense a ship careened bout; it is said to be derived from the
when she heeled over under sail. But German gar aus, 'no heel taps'. Carou-
the word had appeared] in U.S. fic- sel (with the stress on the last syllable),
tion in contexts in which it was clearly sometimes spelt carrousel, means a
intended to have a quite different tournament; in U.S. it is used for what
meaning—that of rapid movement. we call a merry-go-round. It comes
Henry heard the Ford taxi coming out of from the Italian corosello, which, ac-
the side street and saw it careening up on cording to Skeat, is a corrupt form of
to the dock. The taxi was conveying garosello = rather quarrelsome. 'No
gangsters from a bank they had robbed doubt', he adds, 'garoselo was turned
to a boat they hoped to escape in, and into corosello by confusion with cori-
as the bank's alarm siren was already cello, a little chariot or c a r . . . owing to
sounding we may presume that the the use of chariots at such festivities.'
author's intention was to indicate very carpet. On the c. (under discussion).
rapid movement indeed. Why this in- Now that the sense required for c , viz.
novation should have proved attractive tablecloth, is obsolete, we make the
to writers of fiction we can only guess. phrase serve a different purpose as a
carrel 76 case
slang expression for under reprimand; times to a perverted taste for long-
and if we must use a GALLICISM for windedness, PERIPHRASIS, or ELEGANT
under discussion we leave tapis untrans- VARIATION. It will be seen that in the
lated. case o/,the worst offender, can often be
simply struck out (brackets are used to
c a r r e l . See REVIVALS. show this), and often avoided by the
carte, quart(e), in fencing. The first most trifling change, such as the omis-
spelling, still the commonest except in sion of another word (also bracketed).
technical books following French Many examples are given, in the hope
authorities, should be preferred if only that any writer who has inspected the
as keeping the pronunciation right. misshapen brood may refuse to bring
more of them into the world: Older
cartel, in the old senses (a challenge, readers will, at least (in the c. of) those
or an agreement for the exchange of who abhor all Jingoist tendencies, regret
prisoners) is pronounced kar'tel; in that the authors have . . . / He has used
the modern sense of manufacturers'
combine it represents German Kartell, this underplot before in (the c. of) ' The
and was accordingly disposed at first Fighting Chance1'. / That he could be
to accent the last syllable, but has now careful in correcting the press he showed
moved far enough towards the old in(the c. of) the 'Epistle to John Driden'.l
pronunciation to give equal stress to In the cc. above noted, when two or more
both. handlings of the same subject by the
author exist, the comparison of the two
case. There is perhaps no single word usually suffices to show how little vamp-
so freely resorted to as a trouble-saver, ing there is in (the c. of) the latter. / (In
and consequently responsible for so the c. of) Pericles (, the play) is omitted. /
much flabby writing. The following (In the c. of) cigars sold singly (they)
extract from a legal treatise, in which were made smaller, j (In the c. of Purvey
the individual uses are comparatively his) name was first mentioned in con-
justifiable, shows how the word now nexion with Bible translation in IJ29
slips off the pen even of an educated (Purvey's). / There are many (cc. of)
writer : In the majority of cc. where re- children who have lost their parents and
prisals have been the object, the blockade (of) parents who do not know the where-
has been instituted by a single State, abouts of their children. / Mr. Mintoff
while in cc. of intervention several powers has demanded full employment in the c.
have taken part; this is not, however, of all dockyard employees (for all dock-
necessarily the c. yard employees). / This is the first
To obviate the suspicion of an intoler- disaster in the c. of a Viscount air-liner
ant desire to banish it from the lan- (to a Viscount air-liner). / In the c. of
guage, let it be admitted that case has no poet is there less difference between
plenty of legitimate uses, as in : In your the poetry of his youth and that of his
c. I would not hesitate', A bad c. of later years (No poet exhibits less). /
blackmailing; I am only putting a c; Even in the purely Celtic areas only in
Circumstances alter cc. ; In c. of fire, two or three cc. do the first bishops bear
give the alarm ; Take brandy with you Celtic names (only two or three of the
in c. of need; The plaintiff has no c. ; first bishops bear). / That in all public
What succeeds in one c. may fail in examinations acting teachers in every c.
another; Never overstate your c; In no be associated with the Universities (teach-
c. are you to leave your post; It would be ers be always associated). / In many
excusable for a starving man, but that (cc. of) largely frequented buildings, as
was not your c; There are seven cc. of much dust as this may be extracted every
polio. ; In any c. I will come. week. I His historical pictures were (in
The bad uses are due sometimes to many cc.) masterly (Many of his).
the lazy impulse to get the beginning The ELEGANT VARiATiONist, as was
of a sentence down and to let the rest implied above, is in clover with case;
work itself out as it may, and some- instance provides him with one of
casein 77 cases
those doubles that he loves to juggle a notion permanently valuable and in-
with, and be the case enables him to evitably present, or can we, and may
show his superiority to the common we as well, rid our minds of it? We
mortal who would tamely repeat a know that grammarians are often ac-
verb; we conclude with a few of his cused, and indeed often guilty, of fog-
vagaries : Although in eight cc. the tenure ging the minds of English children
of office of members had expired, in every with terms and notions that are essen-
instance the outgoing member had been tial to the understanding of Greek and
re-elected. / Thunderstorms have in Latin syntax, but have no bearing on
several cc. occurred, and in most instances English. We know that the work done
they have occurred at night, j In thirty- by the classical case-endings has been
two cc, there are Liberal candidates in in large part transferred in English to
the field, and in eleven instances Social- two substitutes : the difference between
ists supply the third candidate. / There the nominative and the accusative (or
are four cc. in which old screen-work is subject and object) is indicated mainly
still to be found in Middlesex churches, by the order in which it arranges
and not one of these instances is so much its words; and the dative, ablative,
as named. / This Conference will lay a locative, and such cases, are replaced
foundation broader and safer than has by various prepositions. We know that
hitherto been the c. (been laid). / It is not English had once case-forms for nouns
often worth while harking back to a as well as pronouns, and that neverthe-
single performance a fortnight old; but less it found them of so little use that
this is not the c. with the Literary Theatre it has let them all disappear. We know
Club's production of Salome (but it is that, if the novelists are to be trusted,
worth while). the uneducated find the case-endings
even of pronouns superfluous. 'Me
casein. For pronunciation see -IES, and my mate likes ends' said the ruffian
-EIN. who divided the rolypoly between him-
self and his ally and left their guest the
cases, i. General. 2 . The status of hiatus; he had no use for / , even when
case. 3. Temptations. the place to be filled was that which
1. General. The sense of case is not belongs to the subject, and the instinct
very lively among English-speakers be- of case, if it exists untaught, might have
cause, very few words having retained been expected to operate. We know,
distinguishable case-forms, it is much lastly, that not everyone who has learnt
more often than not unnecessary to grammar enough to qualify as journal-
make up one's mind what case one is ist or novelist is quite safe on his cases
using for the purpose of avoiding sole- when the test is a little more severe
cisms. Mistakes occur chiefly, though than in Me and my mate.
not only, with (a) the few words having
case-forms, mostly personal pronouns, Is the upshot that case is moribund,
and (b) the relative pronouns. Accord- that our remaining case-forms are
ingly, necessary warnings, with illus- doomed to extinction, that there is
trations and discussion, are given in the behind them no essential notion or
articles HE, I , LET, ME, SHE, THAN, THAT instinct of case itself, that no fuss
REL. PRON. 6, THEY 4 , US I , WE I , WHAT 3 , whatever need be made about the
WHO AND WHOM i, 2 . To those warn- matter, that the articles of which a list
ings the reader is referred for practical was given above are much ado about
purposes, and the present article can be nothing, and that the right pohcy is to
devoted to a confession of faith in case let the memory of case fade away as
as an enduring fact, a miscellaneous soon as we can agree whether / or me,
collection of quotations showing that it she or her, who or whom, is to be the
cannot quite be trusted to take care of survivor of its pair? Possibly it i s ;
itself, and a glance at the conditions SUBJUNCTIVES are nearly dead; case too
that make mistakes most likely. may be mortal; but that fight to a
2 . The status of case. Is case, then, finish between / and me and the other
cases 78 cases
pairs will be a lengthy affair, and for it is not to be that decides the case of
as long as it lasts the invisible cases will she and he; it is whom and impostor, and
have their visible champions to muster her and him must be substituted.
round. Meanwhile let me confess my C. It is hard not to sympathize with
faith that case visible and invisible is the victims of the next trap. One comes
an essential of the English language, round again to the problem of Kant—
and that the right policy is not to wel- he, too, a cosmopolitan like Goethe. / It
come neglect of its rules, but to de- is sad to look in vain for a perambulator
mand that in the broadcasts, the news- in Nursemaids' Walk, and to discover
papers, and the novels, from which only one solitary person, and he a sentry,
most of us imbibe our standards of on the steps of the Albert Memorial.
language, they should be observed. Appositions such as 'him, too, a cos-
3. Temptations. A. First in fre- mopolitan', 'and him a sentry', do
quency and deadliness comes the per- sound as if one was airing one's know-
sonal pronoun in a place requiring the ledge of the concords. Well, perhaps it
objective case followed by a relative is better to air one's knowledge than
that must be subjective. Examples: one's ignorance of them ; but the escape
Three years of dining are a preliminary from both is to be found in evading the
for he who would defend his fellows. / pronoun (another cosmopolitan, or also
Should not a Christian community re- a cosmopolitan) or sacrificing the appo-
ceive with open arms he who comes out sition (and he was a sentry).
into the world with clean hands and a D. The invisibility of case in nouns
clean heart? / They came to fight in order and pronouns tempts us to try some-
to pick up the challenge of he who had times whether they may not be made
said 'Our future lies on the water'. / to serve two masters, as in Oliver
In these the temptation has been to Cromwell's What you call a gentleman
regard he-who as a single word that and is nothing else, and St. Paul's Eye
surely cannot need to have the ques- hath not seen, nor ear heard, neither
tion of case settled twice over for it; have entered into the heart of man, the
and hazy notions of something one things which God hath prepared for
has heard of in classical grammar called them that love him. Modern examples
relative attraction perhaps induce a are: A plan which I liave often tried
comfortable feeling that one will be and has never failed me. / It gave a
safe whether one writes he or him. That cachet of extreme clericalism to the Irish
is a delusion; neither relative attraction party which it does not deserve, but
nor inverse attraction (the right term must prejudice it not a little in the eyes of
here) is a name to conjure with in English radicalism, j Yet the coal is
modern English grammar, though the there in abundant quantities, and there is
textbooks can muster a Shakespearian nothing the world wants so much or can
and Miltonic example or two; in mod- be dispensed with such handsome profit
ern grammar they are only polite names to those who produce it. In the verse
for elementary blunders. All the fore- from Corinthians, things has to serve
going examples should have him in- seen-and-heard as object, and have en-
stead of he. tered as subject. 1 Cor. ii. 9 is the
B. The next temptation is to assume, reference, and a glance at the R.V.
perhaps from hearing It is me with its which in italics shows that the
corrected to It is I, that a subjective Revisers did not regard its grammar as
case cannot be wrong after the verb passable. The NEB translators avoid
to be. I saw a young girl gazing about, the issue by recasting the sentence so
as to confine things to the subjective
somewhat open-mouthed and confused, case. The last example has the pecu-
whom I guessed {correctly) to be she liarity that the word whose case is in
whom I had come to meet. / It is not question, viz. that, not only has no
likely that other and inferior works were distinguishable cases, but is not on
done at the same time by an impostor show at all; but the sentence is un-
pretending to be he. / In these examples
cast(e) 79 cast-iron idiom
grammatical unless it is inserted twice and cast is the right form in such con-
—nothing that the world wants so much) texts as: reflections of a moral c,
or that can be dispensed. See also THAT heroines of such a c, a man of the c.
rel. pron. 6, WHAT 3, and WHICH 2 . of Hooker and Butler, my mind has a
E. Another trap is the compound melancholy c, his countenance was of the
subject or object; when instead of a true Scottish c, a strongly individual c.
single pronoun there are a pronoun of character, their teeth have a yellow-
and a noun to be handled, the case ish c.
often goes wrong where if the pronoun
had been alone there would have been caster, -or. The word meaning fine
no danger. By that time Mr. Mac- sugar, pepperbox, etc., and swivelled
donald will be in possession of the furniture wheel, should strictly be
decision of the Conservative Party, and caster, the first group being from the or-
it will then be for he and his advisers dinary sense of cast (throw) and the last
to take a decision. Even the divider of from an obsolete one (veer). But -or,
the rolypoly, who can easily be be- probably due to confusion with other
lieved to have said Me and my mate castors, is now usual.
likes, would never have said Me likes', cast-iron idiom. Between IDIOM and
still less could we have had here It will ANALOGY a secular conflict is waged.
be for he to take. Idiom is conservative, standing in the
F. Let Gilbert's future wife be whom ancient ways, insisting that its property
she may. This example is a little more is sacrosanct, permitting no jot or tittle
complicated, but of a kind that not in- of alteration in the shape of its phrases.
frequently presents itself. The tempta- Analogy is progressive, bent on extend-
tion is to look before and after, and ing liberty, demanding better reasons
doubt in which direction the governing than use and wont for respecting the
factor is to be found. We first, perhaps, established, maintaining that the mat-
put aside the error of supposing that be ter is what matters and the form can go
requires a subjective, i.e. who, and re- hang. Analogy perpetually wins, is for
member that let puts wife in the objec- ever successful in recasting some piece
tive, which raises a presumption that of the cast iron, and for that reason no
the same case will follow, i.e. whom. article in this book is likely to be
But then it perhaps occurs to us that sooner out of date in some of its exam-
the part to be played by who{m) is that ples than this. Idiom as perpetually
of complement to may (Jbe), which renews the fight, and turns to defend
ought to be in the same case as she. some other object of assault. 'I doubt
In this difficulty the last resource is to that it ever happened', 'He is regarded
write the sentence in full, Let Gilbert's an honest man', 'He was quoted to
tvife be her who she may be', and the have said', 'A hardly won victory',
insertion of the omitted her having 'Hanker to learn the truth', 'The state
provided the first be with the objective to which we have arrived', 'With a
complement that it requires, we find view of establishing himself'—all these,
ourselves able to write who as the sub- says Idiom, are outrages on English;
jective complement required by the correct them please to ' I doubt whether
second be. Who is in fact the gram- it ever happened', 'He is regarded as an
matical English; cf. WHOEVER. honest man', 'He was quoted as having
said', 'A hard-won victory', 'Hanker
cast(e). Caste is sometimes wrongly after learning the truth', 'The state at
written for cast in certain senses less which we have arrived', 'With a view
obviously connected with the verb cast to establishing himself. But why?
—mould, type, tendency, hue, etc. retorts Analogy. Is not to doubt to be
The confusion is the more natural unconvinced? Is not regarding consider-
since cast was formerly the prevalent ing} Is not quoting what a man has
spelling for the hereditary class also; said reporting it? Is not -ly the ad-
but the words are now differentiated, verbial ending, and is not won to be
castle 80 Catholic
modified by an adverb ? Is not hanker- THAT, CONJ. 2 ; UNIDIOMATIC - L Y ; a n d
ing the same as longing, and is to have VIEW.
arrived any different from to have
come} And if in view of is English, why castle. C. in the air is English; c. in
should with a view of be unEnglish? Spain is a GALLICISM. Both mean a
Away with such hair-splittings and visionary project.
pedantries! When one word is near
enough to another to allow me to use casualty means an accident. Its ex-
either, I propose to neglect your petty tention to include the victims of a
regulations for the appurtenances casualty {Casualties were taken to hos-
proper to each. pital) is recent but established.
Not that Analogy, and those whom it casuistic(al). The OED has four
influences, are offenders so deliberate quotations for each form; of the -ic
and conscious as this description of four, three are later than the 18th c ,
them might seem to imply ; they treat of the -ical four only one; from which
regard like consider not because they it would seem that -ic is the modern
choose to flout the difference that choice; see -IC(AL).
Idiom observes, but because it comes
natural to them to disregard distinctions catachresis. Wrong application of a
that they have not noticed. In ANAL- term, use of words in senses that do
OGY 2 it has been pointed out that not belong to them. The popular uses
Analogy has very important functions of chronic = severe, alibi = excuse,
to perform apart from waging its war mental — weak-minded, and mutual
upon Idiom; and therefore the admis- — common, are examples.
sion that this book is wholly partisan
in that war need not be interpreted as catacomb. Pronounce -5m.
a condemnation of analogy always and
everywhere. The Analogy that wars catchup. See KETCHUP.
against Idiom is unsound or hasty or
incomplete analogy. category is a philosophical term with
The cast-iron nature of idiom may a narrower meaning than class, but
now be illustrated by a few phrases, under the influence of LOVE OF THE
shortened down to the utmost, in LONG WORD it is used freely as a
which some change that to the eye of synonym of the simpler one. For the
reason seems of slight importance has sake of precision it would be better
converted English into something else : if category were used by no one who
He did it on his own ACCORD; CON- was not prepared to state (1) that he
TENTED himself by saying; LEST the last does not mean class, and (2) that he
state becomes worse than the first; Is knows the difference between the two;
to a great MEASURE true; Had every see WORKING AND STYLISH WORDS, and
MOTIVE in doing it; The RESENTMENT POPULARIZED TECHNICALITIES.
I feel to this Bill; We must RISE equal
to the occasion; Fell SHEERLY down; Catholic. It is open to Roman Catho-
Stood me in splendid STEAD; Guests lics to use C. by itself in a sense that
came by THE hundreds; You need not excludes all but themselves; but it is
BROOD about that now; He ADMITTED not open to others to use it instead
to his financial manipulations; It is not of Roman Catholic without implying
PROBABLE to happen. Discussion or that no other Church has a right
actual quotations for these lapses to the name of C. Neither the de-
will be found under the words in capi- sire for brevity (as in the C. countries)
tals ; and a few articles that have special nor the instinct of courtesy (as in / am
bearing on the present subject are: not forgetting that you are a C.) should
AIM; CLAIM; DOUBT(FUL); FACT; IN induce anyone who is not Roman C. to
ORDER THAT; OBLIVIOUS; PLEASURE; omit the Roman. The words should not
PREFER 3 ; REGARD 2', RESORT; SUCH I ; be hyphened.
catholic(al)ly 81 cease
catholic(al)ly. Both forms are rare, tending its meaning to cover first
and consequently no differentiation has processions in which no horses take
been established; a catholidy and a part and then, under the lead of Noel
catholically minded person may mean Coward, pageants generally. The word
either one of wide sympathies etc. or has become too popular, and is often
one inclined to Catholicism; today used where one of the older words—
catholic minded is more likely to be procession, display, pageant—would be
used than either. more suitable, as in the announcement
of a forthcoming cavalcade of motor-
catsup. See KETCHUP. scooters ridden by historical characters
cattle. The distinguisliing names by from Nero to Napoleon. But it is better
age and sex are sometimes puzzling to to accept the fact that cavalcade, like
those who do not live in the country. many other words, has broken its
They are: Bull an uncastrated male etymological bounds than to try to
reared for breeding; Bullock or steer drive it back with such a barbaric
a castrated male reared for beef; Calf weapon as motorcade, said to have been
an animal of either sex not more than a invented by the Salvation Army and
year old ; Cow a female that has calved ; shyly adopted by The Times with
Heifer a female that has not yet calved ; apologetic inverted commas. The
Ox an obsolete term on the farm; people of London will have a chance to
formerly applied to castrated males see a 'motorcade' when, in an open car,
that did the draught work later as- President Eisenhower and Mr. Mac-
signed to horses, and later still to millan lead a procession of cars from
tractors. London Airport to the American Em-
bassy. This word seems however to
cause. The main cause of the higher have since been making progress,
price of meat in France is due to the especially in America.
exclusion of foreign cattle. The main
cause is the exclusion; the price is due caveat. In Latin the a of the first
to the exclusion; out of two rights is syllable is short, and the word is often
made a wrong. See HAZINESS for this so pronounced in the phrase caveat
type of blunder; with reason it is still emptor. Otherwise the established
commoner than with cause. See REA- pronunciation is caveat. See FALSE
SON 3. QUANTITY.
fine, adj. Not to put toof. a point upon fire, in the sense expel or dismiss (a
it is an apology for a downright expres- person), is stillan American colloquial-
sion, and means 'to put it bluntly'. ism, though making headway among
See SUPERIORITY. us at the expense of the verb to
sack. 'Often with out', says the OED,
fine, n. In fine, a phrase now seldom but this is no longer true; a PHRASAL
used except in writing of a rather for- VERB seems to have had the unusual
mal kind, has entirely lost the sense, experience of being shortened to a
which it once had, of at last. It is still simple one. Fire out in the sense of
sometimes used for finally or lastly, i.e. expel by fire is as old as Shakespeare :
to introduce the last of a series of Till my bad angel fire my good one out
parallel considerations; but in the in- (Sonnet 144).
terests of clearness it is better that it firearms. See ARMS.
should be confined to its predominant
modern use, meaning in short or in first. 1 . For first etc. floor, see FLOOR.
fact or to sum up, and introducing a 2 . First thing is equally idiomatic with
single general statement that wraps up the first thing {shall do itf. t. when I get
in itself several preceding particular there). 3 . The first two etc., the two
ones. Cf. enfin. etc. first.When the meaning is the first
and seco'nd, not the possible but un-
finger. The fingers are now usually common one of 'the two of which each
firth 2 )o flair
alike is first', modern logic has decided fix, etc. I . Fixedness,fixity.Fixedness is
that the first two is right and the two preferable in the sense of intentness,
first, though the older idiom, wrong. perhaps from the connexion With, fixed-
Since many find themselves unable to ly ; in other senses the doubt about its
remember which is logical without pronunciation (it should have three
working it out, and disinclined to do syllables) has caused it to give place to
that afresh every time, the simplest fixity; compare Looking at her with
way is to suit the treatment of first two, mildfixednesswith The unbending fixity
f. three, and}, four (beyond which the of a law of nature.
doubt hardly arises) to that of larger 2 . Fix, ox fix up, is in U.S. 'a service-
numbers ; no one would say the 23first able word-of-all-work which saves the
instead of the first 23, and neither trouble of finding the specific term
should one say the two first instead of for almost any kind of adjustment
the first two. or repair' (MAU). Only American
4 . Firstly), secondly, lastly. The examples are given in the OED Supp.,
preference for first over firstly in but the temptation it offers to the lazy
formal enumerations is one of the has proved irresistible, and it is now a
harmless pedantries in which those common colloquialism in Britain. Fix-
who like oddities because they are odd ings (trimmings) is still an American-
are free to indulge, provided that they ism.
abstain from censuring those who do 3. Fixation. Most literary men know
not share the liking. It is true that the some Latin; that Latin is chiefly of the
Prayer Book, in enumerating the causes classical kind, and a little of it is enough
for which matrimony was ordained, to make them aware thatfigere, and not
introduces them with First, Secondly, fixare, is the classical Latin for fix.
Thirdly ; it is true that firstly is not in Consequently they have always felt
Johnson; it is true that De Quincey an instinctive repugnance to the word
labels it 'your ridiculous and most fixation, and, perhaps unreasonably,
pedantic neologism of firstly'; but the preferred to say fixing instead of it
boot is on the other leg now. It is the whenever they could, leaving fixation
pedant that begins his list with first ; mostly to those who need it in technical
no one does so by the light of nature; contexts. A technical term of chem-
it is an artificialism. Idioms grow old istry, it has now been borrowed by
like other things, and the idiom-book the psychologists and, in the sense
of a century hence will probably not in which they use it, has become a
even mention first, secondly. POPULARIZED TECHNICALITY. The Com-
missioners on local government seem to
have acquired a fixation about county
firth, frith. Firth is both the older boroughs.
form and the prevailing one.
fish. For pi. see COLLECTIVES 3. fiz(z). See -z-, -zz.
flotsam and jetsam. The distinction fly. i . The noun is used as a COLLEC-
is between goods found afloat in the sea TIVE for the insect parasite and the
and goods found on land after being injury it causes to plants and animals
cast ashore. The original sense of jet- (There is a lot of fly on the roses).
sam was what had been jettisoned or 2. The verb makes is flown as well as
thrown overboard. The words are has flown; see INTRANSITIVE P.P.
generally used in combination—almost 3. Fly a kite means (a) raise money
as SIAMESE TWINS—often figuratively, by accommodation bill, (Jb) make an
e.g. of human down-and-outs. announcement or take a step with a
view to testing public opinion. Cf.
flour, meal. Flour is boulted meal, i.e. ballon d'essai.
meal from which the husks have been 4 . Fly-leaf is a blank leaf in a
sifted out after grinding. Meal is the printed document, especially one be-
ground product of any cereal or pulse. tween the cover and the title-page of
Flour used by itself means wheat-flour; a book, or at the end of a circular or
applied to other kinds it is qualified leaflet; it is not another name for a
—corn-flour (i.e. maize), rye-flour, etc. leaflet, which is, however, sometimes
Meal when used of wheat has wheat called a fly-sheet.
prefixed. 5. h fly-wheel is one whose sole func-
tion is by its inertia and momentum to
flout. See FLAUNT. make the movement of the shaft that
works it continuous and regular; hence
flower-de-luce. See FLEUR-DE-LIS. its metaphorical use.
fluid, gas, liquid. Fluid is the wide 6. Vor flyer see FLIER.
term including the two others; it de- 7. Vor fly zxidflee see FLEE.
notes a substance that on the slightest foam, froth. The natural definition
pressure changes shape by rearrange- of foam would be the froth of the sea,
ment of its particles; water, steam, oil, and that of froth the foam of beer. That
air, oxygen, electricity, ether, are all is to say, foam suggests the sea, froth
fluids. Liquids and gases differ in that suggests beer, and while one word is
the first are virtually incompressible, appropriate to the grand or the beauti-
and the second elastic; water and oil ful or the violent, the other is appro-
are liquid and fluid, but not gaseous; priate to the homely or the ordinary or
steam and air and oxygen are gases the dirty. One demands of foam that it
and fluids, but not liquids. be white ; froth may be of what colour
fob 203 follow
it pleases. Froth may be scum, but giving two leaves or four pages (in
foam, though it may become scum, / . , made of ff.), (also / . volume etc.)
ceases to be foam in the process. It is a book or volume in f.; similarly
perhaps also true that froth is thought of smaller sheets and books resulting
of mainly as part of a liquid that has from various foldings and named after
sent it to the top, and foam as a sepa- the number of leaves to the sheet: the
rate substance often detached from its most usual are quarto or 4W, folded
source in the act of making. But the twice into four leaves, and octavo or
difference is much less in the meanings $vo, thrice into 8.
than in the suitable contexts
folk has almost passed out of the
fob. See FOIST. language of the ordinary educated
focus. 1 . The noun has pi. -cuses or person in England, so far as he
-ci (pron. -st) ; the verb makes focused, talks unaffectedly; people has taken
-casing ('in England commonly, but its place. Even such well-worn
irregularly, written focussed, -ing'— phrases as menfolk, womenfolk, old
OED); see -s-, -ss-. folks, little folks, north-country folk,
2. The verb is liable to loose applica- cannot now be used without suggesting
tion, as in: At one moment it seemed to a touch of the archaic or the sentimen-
be quite near, and at the next far away; tal : / do not believe that there is a single
for the ears, unaided by the eyes, can but beer-drinker who would not have pre-
imperfectly focus sound or measure its ferred that the Chancellor's concession
distance. The f. of a sound being 'the on beer should have gone to help the old
point or space towards which the folk. I But where does the lonely 50s. a
week old-age pensioner come in his or her
sound-waves converge' (OED), ears desire for the modern amenity of tele-
cannot f. sound except by taking their vision? Who can better enjoy it, ease
owner to the right point. The eyes do their lonely hours, or keep in touch with
measure distance by focusing, having the world than these folks? The word is
an apparatus for the purpose ; the ears current in the use, imitated from the
do not. German, of such compounds as folk-
foetid. See FETID. song, folk-dancing, and folklore, but
here too it implies something belong-
foetus, fetus. British dictionaries ing to an earlier period. It survives
favour foetus, American the ety- more strongly in America, e.g. in the
mologically preferable fetus. phrase We're just folks, i.e. unpreten-
tious, and in the vocative (Hullo
foist. The general public is much too folks', good night folks) that American
easily foisted off with the old cry of the entertainers and their English imita-
shopman that 'there's no demand for that tors use to their audiences.
kind of thing'. The public can be fobbed
off with something, or the something
can be fobbed off on the public; but follow. As follows. The main regula-
foist off has only the second of these tions of the new Order are as follow:
constructions; see ANALOGY and First . . . I The principal items of
OBJECT-SHUFFLING. reductions stand as follow:
In all such contexts, as follows should
folio. PI. -os; see -O(E)S 4. Uses of be written. The OED ruling is : 'The
the word are many and varied. The construction in as follows is impersonal,
chief of these are: (Accounting) two and the verb should always be used
opposite pages, or single page, of in the singular.' And among its
ledger used for the two sides of quotations is one from a Rhetoric of
account; (Parliamentary and Legal) 1776: 'A few late writers have in-
number of words (72 or 90) as unit considerately adopted this last form'
of length in document; (Bookbinding) [as follow] 'through a mistake of the
once-folded sheet of printing-paper construction.' However, persons who
follow 204 foot
are pluming themselves on having gress is surely natural; but it is equally
detected a vulgar error that they can natural in His words were so as I shall
amend are not likely to admit that it is tell you, or His words were so as it shall
a mare's-nest on the unreasoned ipse be told, or His words were so as the tale
dixit of an 18th-c. rhetorician, or even follows, whence His words were as fol-
of a 20th-c. OED ; and some discussion lows. It is true that, when the idiom
will be necessary. Unfortunately, full was being evolved, it was open to its
demonstration is hardly possible; but makers to say, instead of were so as the
several considerations raise separate tale follows, zvere so as words follow; but
presumptions in favour of follows: they chose otherwise, hundreds of
years ago, and the idiom is now fixed.
1. It is certain that we all say as fol- No one would want to change it except
lows by the light of nature ; it is only to under the impression that it was un-
the sophisticated intelligence that as grammatical ; to show that it is no more
follow occurs (or would the reformers ungrammatical than the innovation is
prefer occur?). enough to condemn the latter.
2. Similar but more obvious mal-
treatment of other phrases suggests following, used as a preposition. In
that the correctors of this may also be the article UNATTACHED PARTICIPLES
mistaken, though it does not prove the reader is reminded that 'there is a
that they are. Consider for instance continual change going on by which
the phrases id est and so far as concerns. certain participles or adjectives acquire
Section 15 (4), which deals with persons the character of prepositions, no longer
(ea sunt, all present and future members needing the prop of a noun to cling to.
of societies) entitled to receive medical . . . The difficulty is to know when this
attendance. The author of this (why, development is complete.' Has / .
by the way, does he stop short of achieved this status? That it is freely
ii sunt or eae sunt}) would presumably so used is notorious ('loosely' says the
like Byron to have said Arcades ambo, SOED, 'with slightly formal effect',
ea sunt blackguards both; but id does says the COD). Often it is merely a
FORMAL WORD for after, as PRIOR TO is
not mean that Arcadian or those Arca- for before, and as such deserves the same
dians, it means that phrase. Many of condemnation. Its prepositional use,
these stalks were failures, so far as con- like that of prior to, can be justified
cern the objective success; what the only if it implies something more than
writer means is not so far as the stalks a merely temporal connexion between
or the failures concern success, but so two events, something more than after
far as our discussion concerns it. The but less than in consequence of. It can
familiar as regards is liable to the same do so in the newspaper report Follow-
mutilation. ing the disturbances in Trafalgar Square
3. The phrase as follows, which is last night six men will appear at Bozo
very old, no doubt originated in sen- Street this morning, but not in the
tences where there was no plural in broadcast announcement Following
the neighbourhood to raise awkward that old English tune we go to Latin
questions. The OED quotes (1426) America for the next one. The second
Was done als herfastfolowys ( = as here quotation illustrates the absurdity into
directly follows), and (1548) He openly which a speaker may be led by addic-
sayde as foloweth. He spoke as follows tion to/., with its lingering participial
may be taken as the type; that is ob- sense, as a formal word for after. We
viously not a piece of normal grammar; were not following the old English
what would be the normal way of put- tune; we were leaving it well behind.
ting it? He spoke thus, which is, at full
length, He spoke so as I shall tell you, or foot. vb. The bill, or the cost, foots up
He spoke so as it shall be told, or He to £50 means that £50 is the amount
spoke so as the tale follows, whence, by at the f. of the paper on which the addi-
ellipse, He spoke as follows. This pro- tion is done. The origin of Who willf.
footing 205 forceful
(i.e. pay) the bill? is not so clear; per- question, for it touches us not as Liberals
haps pay the sum to which it foots or Conservatives, but as citizens.
up or perhaps undertake responsi-
bility by initialling or signing it at for- and fore-. The prefix of the
foot. Both phrases are good colloquial words forbear (vb), forbid, forby (Scot,
English but the first has gone out of for besides etc.), forfend, forgather
fashion; adds or tots would be a more (assemble), forget, forgive, forgo (relin-
usual word today. quish), forlorn, forsake, and forswear,
is unconnected with the English words
footing. We have not the smallest doubt for and fore, and means away, out,
that this is what will actually happen, completely, or implies prohibition or
and . . . we may discuss the situation on abstention. All these should be spelt
the f. that the respective fates of these with for-, not fore-. On the other hand
two bills will be as predicted. To give / . the noun for(e)bears, and foregoing and
the sense of assumption or hypothesis is foregone in the foregoing list, a foregone
a SLIPSHOD EXTENSION; the writer, in conclusion, contain the ordinary fore,
fact, on however intimate a f. he may and should be spelt with the e. Foreclose
be with lobby prophets, is on a slippery and forfeit contain another prefix again
f. with the English vocabulary. (Lat. foris outside), though foreclose
has had its spelling affected by natural
for, conj. Two questions of punctua- confusion with English fore. All the
tion arise. F. is a coordinating con- words, whether established or made
junction, i.e. one that connects two for the occasion, compounded with
independent sentences; it is neither, fore, as forebode, forewarn, foreman,
like therefore and nevertheless, strictly fore ordained, are spelt with the e and
speaking an adverb though serving a should have the for- sound distinct.
conjunctive purpose; nor, like since
and because, a subordinating conjunc- forbears, n. See FOREBEARS.
tion that joins a mere clause to a sen-
tence; hence the two points. forbid. i.forbad(e). The pronuncia-
1. Whereas in Therefore A is equal tion is -ad, not -ad, and the spelling
-ad is, to judge by the OED quota-
to B, and in Nevertheless he did it, it is
a mere matter of rhetoric, depending tions, nearly twice as common as -ade.
2 . Unlike his predecessor, Pope John
on the emphasis desired, whether a uses the telephone sparingly ...; etiquette
comma shall or shall not follow there-
fore and nevertheless, it is with for a forbids anyone from calling him. To f.
one from doing is an unidiomatic con-
matter of grammatical correctness that struction on the ANALOGY of prohibit
there should be no comma; For, within or prevent.
it is a house of refinement and luxury is
wrong.This naturally does not apply to forceful, forcible. The main distinc-
places where a comma is needed for tion in sense is that, while forcible con-
independent reasons, as in For, other veys that force rather than something
things being equal, success is a fair test. else is present, forceful conveys that
2. Whereas since and because, con- much as opposed to little force is used
necting a clause to a preceding sen- or shown; compare forcible ejection
tence, are rightly preceded by a comma with a forceful personality. There the
only, the presumption with for, which words could not be interchanged with-
connects two sentences, is that a semi- out altering the meaning, but elsewhere
colon should be written. This does not it is often immaterial, so far as sense
rule out the comma, which will often goes, which word is used. The sense
pass when the for sentence is a short distinction, however, is the less impor-
one; but in such passages as the fol- tant part of the matter. By usage,
lowing the comma is clearly inade- forcible is the ordinary word, and
quate, and in general the semicolon forceful the word reserved for ab-
should be regarded as normal, and the normal use, where its special value
comma as the licence : This is no party depends partly on its infrequency
forceps 206 foregone conclusion
and partly on the more picturesque by forerunners and predecessors, are the
suggestion of its suffix. Unluckily English words, though ancestors may
writers have taken to exploiting, and sometimes be avoided from modesty,
in the process destroying, this special as seeming to claim an ancestry, i.e.
value, by making a VOGUE WORD of forebears of a superior sort. By his fore-
forceful and always using it in place bears Lord Tankerville is connected with
of forcible. If this continues we shall the ancien régime of France. His great
shortly find ourselves with a pair of grandfather, the Duc de Grammont...
exact synonyms either of which could (read ancestors). / Birmingham is now
well be spared, instead of a pair serving being afforded an opportunity for offer-
different purposes. Such writers injure ing some kind of posthumous reparation
the language, which perhaps leaves for the great wrong its forbears inflicted,
them cool; but they also injure their close upon 120 years ago, on the illus-
own interests ; by avoiding the obvious trious Dr. Priestley (For its forbears
word they lose more in the opinion of read it. Birmingham's forbears would
the educated than they gain in that of be not an earlier generation of Birming-
the ignorant. In the first of the follow- ham people, but any villages that may
ing extracts forceful is right, but in the have stood where Birmingham now
other two there is no need whatever to stands.)
say it instead of the natural forcible :
Certainly he was a forceful and forecast. So far as the operation of
impressive personality at a time when the guillotine resolution on the Bill can
the stature of international statesmen be forecasted, it seems probable that...
was not particularly great. / M. If etymology is to be our guide, the
Briand had rightly calculated that he question whether we are to say forecast
would have the people of France or forecasted in the past tense and par-
behind him in his forceful endeavour to ticiple depends on whether we regard
restore order, j It is his programme to the verb or the noun as the original
urge upon the Throne peaceful abdica- from which the other is formed. If the
tion as the only alternative to forceful verb is original (= to guess before-
hand) the past and p.p. will be cast, as
expulsion. it is in that verb uncompounded; if the
forceps. Plural the same; but see verb is derived ( = to make a forecast)
SINGULAR - S . they will be forecasted, the ordinary in-
fore. To the fore originally meant flexion of a verb. The verb is in fact re-
at hand, available, surviving, ex- corded 150 years earlier than the noun,
tant. In being borrowed by English and we may therefore thankfully rid
from Scottish and Irish writers as a ourselves of the ugly forecasted; it may
picturesque phrase, it has suffered a be hoped that we should do so even if
change of meaning and is now estab- history were against us, but this time it
lished in the sense of conspicuous. is kind. The same is true of broadcast;
and broadcasted, though dubiously
for(e)bears. As to the form, the recognized in the OED Supp., may be
prevalent but not sole modern spelling allowed to die.
is without the e; but the e seems better
both as separating the noun from the
verb forbear and as not disguising the forecastle. Pronounce fô'ksl; some-
derivation (forebeers, those who have times so spelt, fo'c's'le.
been before); see FOR- AND FORE-. forego go before, forgo relinquish. See
As to the use of the word by English FOR- AND FORE-.
writers, its only recommendation is
that, being Scottish and not English, foregone conclusion. The phrase is
it appeals to the usually misguided used when an issue supposed to be still
instinct of NOVELTY-HUNTING. Ances- open has really been settled before-
tors, forefathers, and progenitors, sup- hand, e.g. when a judge has made up
plemented when the tie is not of blood his mind before hearing the evidence;
forehead 207 foreword
or again, when an event is so little lous-minded'. They deserve rather to
doubtful that the doubt is negligible. be commended for their good sense in
But this was not the meaning of the availing themselves of a ready means
phrase in its original setting (Othello, of avoiding the incongruity of asking
III. iii. 434) where Othello says that for the Christian names of someone
Cassio's dream denoted a foregone who may not be a member of the
conclusion. The precise significance Christian faith. Forename is no neo-
of conclusion may be debatable, but the logism : a translation of the Latin prae-
purport of the passage is clear enough: nomen, it has been an English word for
Othello meant that the source of over 400 years, and goes well with
Cassio's alleged dream must have been surname. But to ask for 'Christian
previous actual experience of being names or other forenames', as at least
in bed with Desdemona. one form does, is indeed to be
'meticulous-minded'; forenames will
forehead. See PRONUNCIATION I . do for all.
foreign danger. Those who use forenoon. The Church Congress sat in
words or phrases belonging to lan- two sections this forenoon ... The after-
guages with which they have little or noon programme was divided into three
no acquaintance do so at their peril. sections. Even in contexts that, by the
Even in e.g., i.e., and et cetera, there occurrence as here of afternoon in con-
lurk unsuspected possibilities of ex- trast, most suggest the use of/., the
hibiting ignorance. With toto caelo, natural English is morning. F. is still
bête noire, cui bono, bona fide, qua, and current in Scotland and Ireland and
pace, the risk is greater ; and such in the Royal Navy, but elsewhere has
words as alibi and phantasmagoria, fallen out of use as the name for the
which one hesitates whether to call first half of daylight. Perhaps this is
English or foreign, require equal cau- because the definition of both by refer-
tion. See all or any of the words and ence to noon suggests a sharpness of
phrases mentioned, and FLAIR. TWO or division that we no longer observe. We
three specimens follow, for those who ordinarily regard the morning as end-
do not like cross-references : / suggest ing at the time of our midday meal and
that a Compulsory Loan be made pro the afternoon as beginning at the time
ratio upon all capital (pro rata). / Rica- when we have finished it—or ought to
soh, another of his bêtes noirs (noires). / have finished it—and call the period
A man who claimed to be a Glasgow between them lunch-time or dinner-
delegate, but whose bona fides were dis- time, according to our feeding habits.
puted, rose to propose the motion (was). /
We are calmly told that Cambridge was for ever.
neither worse nor better than the rest of Forever; 'tis a single word!
the world; in fact, it was, we are assured, Our rude forefathers deem'd it two:
in petto the reflex of the corrupt world Can you imagine so absurd
without (in petto is not in little, but in A view?
one's heart, i.e. secretly). / THE
TRAMP AS CENSOR MORES And nevermore must printer do
(morum). As men did longago; but run
'For' into 'ever', bidding two
forename. Officials who prepare the Be one.
forms we have to fill up to get some- Calverley's fears have proved ground-
thing we want—a premium bond, for less. 'Two words' says the Authors*
instance, or our name on the register
of electors—have taken to asking us to and Printers' Dictionary firmly, a hun-
give not our Christian names, as we dred years later.
used to do, but our forenames. This has foreword, preface. F. is a word in-
provoked some criticism of them for vented in the 19th c. as a SAXONISM
being what one critic called 'meticu- by anti-latinists, and caught up as
forgo 208 formal words
a VOGUE WORD by the people who love our thoughts, like our children, to put
a new name for an old thing. P. has a on their hats and coats before they go
500-year history behind it in English, out; the policeman who has gone to the
and, far from being antiquated, is still scene of disturbance will tell the magi-
the name for the thing. The vogue strate that he proceeded there; a
now seems to be passing, and it looks Minister of the Crown may fore-
as though a decent retirement might see the advantages of his policy and
be found for / . by confining it to the outline it to his colleagues but in
particular kind of preface that is presenting it to Parliament he may
supplied by some distinguished per- visualize the first and adumbrate the
son for a book written by someone second. These outdoor costumes are
else who feels the need of a sponsor. often needed; not only may decency
be outraged sometimes by over-plain
forgo. See FOR- AND FORE-. speech; dignity may be compromised
forgot, as a past participle for the if the person who thinks in slang writes
current forgotten, is now, except in un- also in slang. To the detective who has
educated speech, a deliberate archaism. arrested a receiver of stolen property
it comes natural to think and speak of
forlorn hope is not an abstract phrase the culprit as a fence but that is not
transferred by metaphor to a storming what will appear on the charge-sheet.
party, but has that concrete sense in its What is intended in this article is not
own right, and only gets the abstract to protest against all change of the
sense of desperate enterprise etc. by indoor into the outdoor word, but to
misunderstanding. Hope is not the point out that the less of such change
English word, but is a mis-spelling of there is the better. A short haphazard
the Dutch hoop = English heap', the selection of what are to be taken as
forlorn hope is the devoted or lost band, formal words will put the reader in
those who sacrifice themselves in lead- possession of the point; a full list
ing the attack. The spelling of hope would run into thousands. It must be
once fixed, the mistake was inevitable; observed that no general attack is being
but it is well to keep the original mean- made on these words as words; the
ing in mind; see TRUE AND FALSE attack is only on the prevalent notion
ETYMOLOGY. that the commoner synonyms given
formalism, formality. It is only after each in brackets ought to be
from the more abstract sense offormal- translated into them: accommodation
ity, from formality as the name of a (rooms); adumbrate (outline); bear
quality and not of an action, that for- (carry); cast (throw); cease (stop);
malism requires to be distinguished; commence (begin); complete (finish);
and there, while formality means the conceal (hide); desist (stop); dispatch
observance of forms, formalism is the (send off); donate (give); endeavour
disposition to use them and belief in (try) ; evince (show) ; expedite (hasten) ;
their importance. Formality is the out- extend (give) ; felicitate (congratulate) ;
ward sign of formalism; see -ISM AND locate (find) ; obtain (get) ; proceed (go) ;
-ITY. purchase (buy); remove (take away);
repast (meal); seek (try, look for);
formal words. There are large num- summon (send for); sustain (suffer);
bers of words differing from each other transmit (send); valiant (brave); veri-
in almost all respects, but having this table (true); vessel (ship); visualize
point in common, that they are not the (foresee).
plain English for what is meant, not There are very few of our notions
the forms that the mind uses in its that cannot be called by different
private debates to convey to itself what names; but among these names there
it is talking about, but translations of is usually one that may be regarded as
these into language that is held more the thing's proper name, its Kvpiov
suitable for public exhibition. We tell Svofj.a or dominant name as the Greeks
former 209 forward(s)
called it, for which another may be in scientific writings. See LATIN
substituted to add precision or for PLURALS.
many other reasons, but which is forswear. For a forsworn lover, wit-
present to the mind even behind the ness, etc., see INTRANSITIVE P.P.
substitute. A destroyer is a ship, and,
though we never forget its shiphood, forte, person's strong point. For the
the reader is often helped if we call spelling, which should have been (but
it a destroyer; a vessel also is a ship, is not) fort, cf. MORALE. Pronounce
but the reader is not usually helped fort, unlike the musical term for'të.
by our calling it a vessel. Though
to evince is to show, it does not help forth. And so f. is (cf. and the like) a
him to call showing evincing; what convenience to the writer who does not
happens is first the translation of show wish to rehearse his list at length, but
into evince by the writer, and then the shrinks from the suggestion, now so
retranslation of evince into show by the firmly attached to etc. as to disqualify
reader. Mind communicates with mind it for literary use, that he breaks off
through a veil, and the result is at best because it is too much trouble to pro-
dullness, and at worst misunderstand- ceed. The slightly antique turn of the
ing. The proper name for a notion phrase acquits him of unceremonious-
should not be rejected for another ness ; and so on is in this respect mid-
unless the rejector can give some better way between and so forth and etc
account to himself of his preference fortuitous means accidental, un-
than that he thinks the other will designed, etc. That it is sometimes con-
look better in print. If his mental name fused with fortunate, perhaps through
for a thing is not the proper name, or mere sound, perhaps by the help of
if, being the proper name, it is also lucky, is plain from : AW s well that
z/wproper, or essentially undignified, ends well, and his divorced wives, whom
let him translate it ; but there is nothing the autobiographer naively calls Divor-
to be ashamed of in buy or see that they cees Nos. 1, 2, and 3, seem to have borne
should need translating into purchase no kind of ill-will to their more fortunate
and observe ; where they give the sense successor. Reviewing my own Algerian
equally well they are fit for any com- experiences, I must say that I should not
pany and need not be shut up at home. have expected so fortuitous a termina-
Few things contribute more to vigour tion of a sotnezvhat daring experiment. /
of style than a practical realization that When first produced, its popularity was
the Kvpia 6v6fiaTa, the sovereign or limited. Nevertheless it may now sail
dominant or proper or vernacular or into a more fortuitous harbour on the
current names, are better than the strength of its author's later reputation.
formal words. See also GENTEELISMS For such mistakes see MALAPROPS.
and WORKING AND STYLISH WORDS.
fortune. The verb (it fortuned that, I
fortuned upon) is an ARCHAISM and a
former. For the f. as a pronoun, see POETICISM.
LATTER. When the reference is to one
of three or more individuals, the first, forward(s), adv. The OED says:
not the f., should be used: Among the 'The present distinction in usage be-
three representatives of neutral States, tween forward and forwards is that the
Dr. Castberg and Dr. Nansen stand for latter expresses a definite direction
Norway and M. Heringa for Holland; viewed in contrast with other direc-
the former is so convinced of . . . tions. In some contexts either form
may be used without perceptible dif-
formidable. For pronunciation see ference of meaning; the following are
RECESSIVE ACCENT. examples in which only one of them
can now be used: "The ratchet-wheel
formula. The plural -las has be- can move only forwards" ; "the right
come more common than -lae except side of the paper has the maker's name
foul 2 :o framework
reading forwards"; "if you move at all The step is easy, though illegitimate,
it must be forwards" ; "my companion from The comparison is o. a. f. (i.e.
has gone forward" ; "to bring a matter complete at all points) to The things
forward"; "from this time forward"' compared are o. a. f. (i.e. alike at all
To this it must be added that there is points), and thence to o. a. f. with.
a tendency, not yet exhausted, for for- Whether this is or is not its origin,
ward to displace forwards, and that o. a. f. with is now an established
since the publication of the OED idiom.
there has been change. The reader
will notice that, while he can heartily fowl. The collective use of the singular
accept the banishment offorwards from (see COLLECTIVES, all the fish and f. in
the last three examples, he may well the world) still exists, but is not com-
ask himself whether forward is not mon except in compounds such as
possible in some or all of the first guinea-fowl, wildfowl.
three. But the phrase backwards and fracas. Pronounce frà'kah; pi. spelt
forwards is still so written. The old fracas, and pronounced frâ'kahz.
pronunciation for'ad survives only at
sea but the colloquialism can't get any fraction. The use of/, in the sense of
forrader may be heard anywhere. a small f., however illogical, is now so
common that it can fairly claim to rank
foul, adv. See UNIDIOMATIC -LY. as a STURDY INDEFENSIBLE. ( The number
foulard. The OED gives precedence of red squirrels is now only a f. of what
tofôôlahroverfôôlar'd but the dis now it used to be.) Those who use PER-
usually sounded. CENTAGE in the same way cannot have
the same indulgence.
fount(ain). Fount (apart from its use
in typography, where it is another fragile. i . Like many other adjectives
word, connected with the metal-cast- ending -He (e.g. docile, sterile, fertile),
ing found and pronounced font) is the fragile, after some hesitation, has come
poetical and rhetorical form of foun- down firmly in favour of the long i in
tain; to use it in ordinary contexts, as its second syllable in Britain, though
for the reservoir of a fountain pen, is not in America. See -ILE.
VULGARIZATION. Nor is it suitably 2 . fragile, frail. Frail is wider both in
chosen in A good test of the standing application and in sense. Whatever is
of any force, service, or profession is to fragile is also frail, but a woman may
ask a man: 'Would you choose it now be frail (i.e. weaker than others in
as a career for your son?' Getting the moral strength) who cannot be called
right answer to that question is a strong fragile (i.e. weaker in physical strength).
but neglected fount of recruits. Where, as in most cases, either word is
applicable, there is a certain difference
four. On all fours, apart from its of sense between (fragile) liable to snap
literal application to a person crawling, or break or be broken and so perish
has now for its chief use the meaning and (frail) not to be reckoned on to
of correspondence between two things resist breakage or pressure or to last
at all and not merely some points long; that is to say, the root idea of
(The cases are not o. a.f.; The analogy break is more consciously present in
suggested is not o. a. f. with the actual fragile owing to its unobscured con-
facts). This seems due to a misunder- nexion with fragment and fracture.
standing of the earlier but now less
familiar metaphorical use by which a framework. Few modern clichés
theory, tale, plan, etc., was said to run have become more pervasive than the
or be o. a. f. when it was consistent phrase within the framework of. Like
with itself or proof against objections most clichés, it can sometimes be used
or without weak points—in fact did happily, as it is in He notes that The
not limp like a dog on three legs or Cloud describes the contemplative life
rock like a table with one leg too short. w. t. f. o. Christian orthodoxy and the
framework 2 1 frantic
Bible, but evidently he believes that for the future of broadcasting (as part of the
the purposes of psychological study the whole future). / Perhaps we should
framework can be disregarded. More take it as an encouraging sign that the
often it is a reach-me-down periphrasis search for an alternative to framework
for some more simple way of saying is occasionally pursued to fanciful
what needs to be said. Since with the lengths. In fact the Prime Minister
forces at its disposal the maintenance of interferes with senior Ministers less than
law and order could not be achieved w.t.f. some of his predecessors. He has a keen
0. the ordinary law, the Government had regard for the traditional landscape of
to resort to emergency powers (under the Cabinet government.
ordinary law). / These scandals can only
be dealt with w. t.f. o. the Trade Union Frankenstein. / tell you this country
organization (by the Trade Unions may have to pay a long price for Carson-
themselves). / He tells the story of ism, and if Toryism returned to power
Hannibal's crossing of the Alps w. t.f. 0. tomorrow the Frankenstein of its own
his own journey (in the light of his own creating will dog its steps. A sentence
journey). / Any negotiations for German written by the creatress of the
bases in foreign countries should be car- creator of the creature may save
ried out w. t. f. 0. NATO (through some of those whose acquaintance with
NATO). / His willingness to talk with all three is indirect from betraying the
Molotov and Chou En-Lai, to consider fact: 'Sometimes I endeavoured to
their objectives w. t. f. 0. normal diplo- gain from Frankenstein the particulars
matic enterprise, aroused serious doubts of his creature's formation; but on
in the minds of many Americans (as part this point he was impenetrable '
of normal diplomatic enterprise). / The (Frankenstein or The Modern Prome-
belief that the penal code as it exists at theus by Mary Shelley). Frankenstein
present w. t.f.o. the traditional concept is the creator-victim; the creature-
of criminal responsibility produces the despot and fatal creation is Franken-
social behaviour we wish our society to stein's monster. (Lord Beveridge was
possess (in conformity with the tradi- sad, even soured, in later years about the
tional concept). Even those who inflationary and inconsistent ways in
choose the metaphor deliberately, and which others had evolved his Franken-
not because it is the first thing that stein's monster—the 'Welfare State'.)
comes into their heads, would be wise The blunder is very common indeed—
to refrain for a time ; it has become so almost, but surely not quite, sanc-
trite that the very sight of it may tioned by custom: If they went on
nauseate the sensitive reader. It is strengthening this power they would
sometimes varied by using another create a F. they could not resist. I In a
word instead of framework—usually concentration camp at the edge of
context, setting, or climate—but this Elisabethville there were 40,000 Baluba
rarely avoids the reproach that it intro- tribesmen, and nothing could be done
duces a periphrastic vagueness into about them. They were like Franken-
what ought to be a plain statement. steins.
It is necessary to think of literature as
existing not in isolation but as central to frantic. 1 . Frantically, franticly. The
the play of historical and political ener- first is now standard; -ically is almost
gies. In the context of Russian literature universal as the adverbial form of ad-
this might almost be regarded as a truism. jectives in -ic, and there is no gain (as
(About Russian literature.) / In the good there is with politicly and politically<t
old days this could have been treated as where two meanings have to be dis-
an ample margin for concessions to the tinguished) in keeping up two forms.
taxpayer, but no such hopes can be enter- 2 . Synonyms are frenzied, furious,
tained in the present context of affairs (in mad, passionate, rabid, raging, raving,
present conditions). / This will have to wild. Of these '.frantic zr\d frenziedhoxh
be reviewed within the whole context of mean beside oneself or driven into
temporary madness by a cause either
free French words
specified or apparent from the context of the select few to whom French is
(frantic with pain, excitement, etc. ; the second nature when he is not one of
frenzied populace refused him a hearing) ; those few (and it is ten thousand to one
in mere exaggerations, e.g. when joy is that neither you nor he will be), is
the cause, frantic is the word. Furious inconsiderate and rude.
implies no more than anger that has got i . USE OF FRENCH WORDS. It would
out of hand—or, of inanimate things, be a satisfaction to have a table divided
a degree of force comparable to this. into permissible words, forbidden
Passionate applies primarily to persons words, and words needing caution;
capable of strong emotions, especially but anyone who starts sanguinely on
if they are also incapable of controlling the making of it is likely to come, after
them, and secondarily to the sort of much shifting of words from class to
action that results. Rabid now usually class, to the same conclusion as the
implies the carrying to great excess of writer of this article—that of the thou-
some particular belief or doctrine, re- sand or so French words and phrases
ligious, political, social, medical, or the having some sort of currency in Eng-
like (a rabid dissenter, tory, teetotaller, lish none can be prohibited, and few
faddist; rabid virulence). Raging chiefly can be given unconditional licences ; it
describes the violence in inanimate is all a matter of the need, the audience,
things that seems to correspond to and the occasion. Only faddists will
madness in man (cf. furious; a raging engage in alien-hunting and insist on
storm, pestilence, toothache). Raving is finding native substitutes for words
an intensifying epithet for madness that supply a real need: those for
or a madman. The uses of mad and instance for which there are no English
wild hardly need setting forth. synonyms with exactly the same shade
of meaning, such as blasé, chic, and
free, i . Freeman, free man. The single naif; or those that we have adopted as
word has two senses, (a) person who the standard name for the thing, such
has the 'freedom' of a city etc., and as ballet, coupon, debris; or those that
(b) person who is not a slave or serf, form part of" the language of diplo-
citizen of a free State; in other senses macy, such as bloc, démarche, pour-
(at last I am a free man, i.e. have retired parlers, or those that express com-
from business, lost my wife, etc.) the pendiously what would otherwise need
words should be separate. circumlocution, such as enfant terrible,
2. Free will, free-will, freewill. The tête-à-tête, rendezvous. Only fools will
hyphened form should be restricted to think it commends them to the English
the attributive use as in a free-will reader to decorate incongruously with
offering, the free-will theory. In non- such bower-birds' treasures as au pied
philosophical use free will should de la lettre, à merveille, bien entendu, les
be written, and the OED prefers it convenances, coûte que coûte, quand
even for the philosophical term. See même, dernier ressort, impayable, jeu de
HYPHENS. mots, par exemple, robe de chambre, sans
doute, tracasseries, and sauter aux yeux;
French words. Use and Pronuncia- yet even these, even the abominations
tion. Display of superior knowledge beginning and ending that list, are in
is as great a vulgarity as display of place as supplying local colour or for
superior wealth—greater indeed, inas- other special reasons on perhaps five
much as knowledge should tend more per cent, of the occasions on which
definitely than wealth towards dis- they actually appear. Every writer
cretion and good manners. That is the who suspects himself of the bower-
guiding principle alike in the using and bird instinct should make and use his
in the pronouncing of French words in own black list, and remember that
English writing and talk. To use French acquisitiveness and indiscriminate dis-
words that your reader or hearer does play are pleasing to contemplate only
not know or does not fully understand, in birds and savages and children.
to pronounce them as if you were one
French words 213 friable
2 . PRONUNCIATION. TO say a French word in English if he would neither
word in the middle of an English sen- exhibit a conscious superiority of
tence exactly as it would be said by a education nor be suspected of boor-
Frenchman in a French sentence is a ish ignorance; it is at least as im-
feat demanding an acrobatic mouth; portant that those who know the
the muscles have to be suddenly ad- foreign language should mitigate their
justed to a performance of a different precision as that those who do not
nature, and then as suddenly recalled should be enlightened. Broadcasters,
to the normal state. It is a feat that conscious of the critical millions listen-
should not be attempted. The greater ing to them, seem specially apt to be
its success as a tour deforce, the greater carried away by their anxiety to pro-
its failure as a step in the conversational nounce impeccably. It is, of course, a
progress; for your collocutor, aware tricky business, for we have no system.
that he could not have done it himself, Sometimes when naturalizing a foreign
has his attention distracted whether he word we take over its foreign pronun-
admires or is humiliated. All that is ciation (debris, blasé); sometimes we
necessary is a polite acknowledgement anglicize it (baton, calibre) ; sometimes
of indebtedness to the French language what looks like the same word is given
indicated by some approach in some a different pronunciation in different
part of the word to the foreign sound, associations (prë- for prima donna but
and even this only when the difference prï- for prima facie). The broadcaster,
between the foreign and the corre- determined to be on the safe side, tends
sponding natural English sound is too to give a foreign pronunciation to every
marked to escape a dull ear. For in- word that has a foreign look, and so,
stance, in tête-à-tête no attempt need when taken unawares, may find him-
or should be made to distinguish self slipping into such absurdities as
French ê from English â, but the calling saying Capuld for Capulets, confëdong
it tatahtd't instead of the natural Eng- for confidant, Blongsh for Blanche and
lish tàtâtâ't rightly stamps it as foreign; msh for niche. See also DIDACTICISM.
again, tour de force is better with no
unEnglish sound at all; neither r need frequentative. F. verbs are formed
be trilled, and tour and force should with certain suffixes to express repeated
both be exactly like the English words or continuous action of the kind de-
so spelt. On the other hand, there are noted by the simple verb. The chief f.
some French sounds so obviously alien suffixes in English are -le, -er, as in
to the English mouth that words con- sparkle, chatter, dribble (drip). Most of
taining them (except such as are, like the nouns in -sation,-tation, come from
coupon, in daily use by all sorts and Latin fréquentatives in -50, -to, as con-
conditions of men) should either be versation (L verto turn, versor move
eschewed by English speakers or have about), hesitation (L haereo stick, hae-
these sounds adumbrated. They are sito keep sticking).
especially the nasalized vowels (an, en,
in, on, un, am, etc.), the diphthong en, fresco. PI. -os or -oes; the COD puts
the unaccented e, and u; to say bong them in that order. See -O(E)S.
for bon is as insulting to the French Freudian English. See POPULARIZED
language as to pronounce bulletin in TECHNICALITIES.
correct French is insulting to the man
in the English street; and kooldësâ'k friable. Confusion between the com-
for cul-de-sac is nearly as bad. Anyone mon word meaning crumbly and the
in need of particular guidance will find -able adjective from to fry is not likely
in an appendix to the COD a list of enough to justify the irregular spelling
foreign words used in English with fry able for the latter, though oddly
both their anglicized and their foreign enough the OED's first quotation for
pronunciations. The former show how friability illustrates the possibility:
a speaker should pronounce each Codfish for . . . friability of substance is
commended.
friar 214 function
f r i a r , monk. By the word/, is meant which it prefers o, from the rest. But
a member of one of the mendicant usage has not conformed; the ordinary
orders, i.e. those living entirely on pronunciation is now frûn'tyër in
alms, especially 'the four orders' of Britain and frùntër' in U.S.
Franciscans(grey),Dominicans(black),
Carmelites (white), and Augustinians. froth. See FOAM.
M. is used sometimes of all male mem- fruition is not a synonym offructifica-
bers of religious orders including friars, tion, though both are derived from the
but properly excludes the mendicants. same Latin word fruor, fruition from
The general distinction is that while its sense of enjoying and fructification
the monk belongs essentially to his from its sense of bearing fruit. Fruition,
particular monastery, and his primary often wrongly supposed to be asso-
object is to make a good man of him- ciated with the English word fruit, is
self, the friar's sphere of work is out- the enjoyment that comes from the
side, and his primary object is to do fructification of hope, especially from
a good work among the people. possession.
frith. See FIRTH. fryable, fryer. See FRIABLE and DRY.
fritillary. The OED prefers the accent fugacious. Chiefly in PENDANTIC
on the second i; and there it is likely to HUMOUR. Cf. sequaceous.
remain, in spite of the M. Arnold line
(/ know what white, what purple fritil- fugue makes fugal, fuguist.
laries); the difficulties of articulation -ful. The right plural for such nouns
presented by an attempt to stress the as handful, spoonful, cupful, basketful,
first syllable are too great; cf. LABORA- is handfuls etc., not handsful etc. See
TORY and GLADIOLUS. See RECESSIVE PLURAL ANOMALIES.
ACCENT.
fuliginous. Chiefly in POLYSYLLABIC
frivol. See BACK-FORMATION. HUMOUR. At present it is af., not to say
friz(z). See -z-, -zz-. mysterious, matter.
frock was originally a male garment, full for fully, meaning quite or com-
especially the mantle of a monk or priest pletely, is idiomatic in such phrases as
(hence to unfrock), then the smock- / . twenty miles (cf. full fathom five), f.
frock that was the overall of an agricul- grown, f. blown, and sometimes with
the sense of quite sufficiently or rather
tural labourer, and finally thefrock-coat too, such as / . early, f. ripe. In the
that was for many years the uniform of sense very, as in / . fain, f. many a,
the man-about-town. Discarded by / . weary, where fully cannot be substi-
men, the word has gained increasing tuted, it is poetical.
favour with women. It was applied in
the 19th c. (at first as a nurseryism) ful(l)ness. Use - / / - ; see DULLNESS,
to little girls' dresses; they 'went out and -LL-, -L-, 4.
of frocks' when they 'put their hair
full stop. See STOPS; and PERIOD IN
up'. The extension of the word to
ABBREVIATIONS.
dresses for grown-ups was described
by the OED in 1901 as 'recent'; its fulsome. Though the OED recog-
progress has been rapid, and a cotton nizes only the pronunciation fùl-, fool
frock in particular is seldom called is now general.
anything else, although the higher
'creations' of the dressmaker's art re- function. 1 . That such and such a thing
main dresses and gowns. 'is a function o f such another or such
others is a POPULARIZED TECHNICALITY :
frontage, frontal, frontier, frontis- A man's fortitude under given painful
piece. It seems best to make the o in conditions is af. of two variables. As not
all these conform to that in front (u, not everyone can cope unaided with mathe-
0). The OED separates frontier, in matical technicalities, the following
fundamental 215 fused participle
may be useful: 'When one quantity between funebrial and funerary, of
depends upon another or upon a sys- which the first is so rare as to be
tem of others, so that it assumes a defi- pedantic and the second is generally
nite value when a system of definite associated with urn.
values is given to the others, it is called fungus. PI. fungi (pronounced -jï or,
a function of those others.' Knowledge less commonly, funguses).
of the mathematical meaning may help
writers to avoid using it merely as a furiously. Some British journalists
showy substitute for depends on. find it so amusing that the Frenchman
2. Function has also the wider sense should say penser furieusement where
of the kind of activity proper to a per- we say think hard, and donner furieuse-
son or thing, the way in which his or ment à penser for puzzle, that they bore
its purpose is fulfilled. The f. of a us intolerably with their discovery Ça
policeman is to preserve law and order; donne furieusement à penser is quoted,
the f. of a clock is to tell the time. As a translated, paraphrased, and alluded
noun with this meaning/, is old; as a to, till we are all heartily sick of it; see
verb it is comparatively new and is GALLICISMS. That word 'although*
having its full share of the popularity caused us f. to think, but when we come
that novelty brings. We got on quite to read the leading article in The Times
well without it for a long time and we we fancy that we get a clue to what may
should be the better if it could have a be meant. / That sentence of Professor
close season; then we might remember Dicey*s makes one think f. / The reduc-
the old words, and say that the clock is tion in the majority from 6,000 to 1,400
going, the buses are running, the shops has given many Coalition members f. to
are open, the heating system is working, think.
the medicine is acting, the heart is furore. Three syllables (jûlor'P).
beating, the markets are operating, and f u r r y . See PRONUNCIATION 7.
soon.
3. The noun meaning a social or further, adj. and adv. See FARTHER.
ceremonial occasion (originally a cere- furze, gorse, whin. The first two
mony in the Roman Catholic Church) would appear to be that very great
is suitable only for gatherings of im- rarity, a pair of exact synonyms, mean-
portance conducted with ceremony; ing the same thing and used indiffer-
for ordinary social occasions party is ently in all localities and all contexts.
the right word The third differs not in sense, but in
fundamental. See BASAL, BASIC for being chiefly in use in Scotland, Ire-
the choice between these words. land, and the North of England.
funebrial, funeral (adj.), funerary, fuse. 1 . The verb makes fusible', see
funereal. The continued existence of -ABLE 2 .
the first and third words, which no one 2 . The derivations of the fuse (electri-
uses if he can help it, is due to what has cal) and the fuse (explosive) are differ-
happened to the other two. Funeral, ent. The former is the verb fuse (from
though originally an adjective, has so \jdX. funderè), to melt by heat, used as
far passed into a noun that it can no a noun. The latter is so named solely
longer be used as an adjective except from its shape (Lat. fusus a spindle);
in the attributive position, as in funeral See TRUE AND FALSE ETYMOLOGY.
customs, the funeral procession ; funereal fused participle is a name given to
has become so tied to the meaning as the construction exemplified in its
of a funeral, gloomy enough for a fun- simplest form by ' I like you pleading
eral, that it can no longer be used to poverty', and in its higher development
mean simply of or for a funeral. In by 'The collision was owing to the sig-
such a sentence as The origin of the nalling instructions laid down by the
custom is , it only remains, if an international regulations for use by
adjective must be found, to choose ships at anchor in a fog not having been
fused participle 216 fused participle
properly followed'. The name was in- type, all exhibit both the bracketing
vented ( The King's English, 1906) for capacity that makes this construction
the purpose of labelling and so making fatally tempting to the lazy writer, and
recognizable and avoidable a usage con- its repulsiveness to a reader who likes
sidered by the authors of that book to clean sentences. In the last two may
be rapidly corrupting modern English be observed a special fault often at-
style.* A comparison of three sentences tending the fused participle—that the
will show the meaning of the term. reader is trapped into supposing the
1. Women having the vote share construction complete when the noun
political power with men. is reached, and afterwards has to go
2 . Women's having the vote reduces back and get things straight.
men's political power. No one is better qualified than Mr.
3. Women having the vote reduces Charles Whibley to write the biography
men's political power. of W. E. Henley; and there is some likeli-
In the first, the subject of the sen- hood of the life-story of that influential
tence is women, and having {the vote) is and strenuous littérateur from his hand
a true participle attached to women. appearing before the close of the year. /
In the second, the subject is the verbal The machinery which enables one man to
noun or gerund having {the vote), and do the work of six results only in the
women's is a possessive case (i.e. an others losing their job, and in skill men
adjective) attached to that noun. The have spent a lifetime acquiring becoming
grammar in these two is normal. In suddenly useless, j Regulations for per-
the third, the subject is neither women mitting workmen who are employed
(since reduces is singular), nor having under the same employer, partly in an
(for if so, women would be left in the air insured trade and partly not in an in-
without grammatical construction), sured trade, being treated . . . as if they
but a compound notion formed by were wholly employed in an insured
fusion of the noun women with the trade. / A dangerous operation, in which
participle having. Participles so con- everything depends upon the General
structed, then, are called fused parti- Election, which is an essential part of
ciples, as opposed to the true participle the operation, being won. / We have to
of No. 1 and the gerund of No. 2 . account for the collision of two great
We are given to ridiculing the cum- fleets, so equal in material strength that
brousness of German style, and the the issue was thought doubtful by many
particular element in this that attracts careful statisticians, ending in the total
most attention is the device by which destruction of one of them . . . .
a long expression is placed between a It need hardly be said that writers
noun and its article and so, as it were, with any sense of style do not, even if
bracketed and held together. Where they allow themselves the fused parti-
we might allow ourselves to say This ciple, make so bad a use of the bad
never to be forgotten occasion, the Ger- thing as is shown above to be possible.
man will not shrink from The since But the tendency of the construction
1914 owing to the world-war befallen is towards that sort of cumbrousness,
destruction of capital; only a German, and the rapidity with which it is gain-
we assure ourselves, could be guilty of ing ground is portentous. A dozen
such ponderousness. But the fused years ago, it was reasonable, and pos-
participle is having exactly the same sible without much fear of offending
effect on English as the article-and- reputable writers, to describe as an
noun sandwich on German, the only 'ignorant vulgarism' the most elemen-
difference being that the German de- tary form of the fused participle, i.e.
vice is grammatically sound, while the that in which the noun part is a single
English is indefensible. The examples word, and that a pronoun or proper
that follow, in which the two members name; it was not very easy to collect
of each fused participle are in roman instances of it. Today, no one who
* But see note at end of article. wishes to keep a whole skin will ven-
fused participle 217 fused participle
ture on so frank a description. Here to sense-fusion, but did not combine
are some examples, culled without any it with grammar-confusion ; The deaths
difficulty whatever from the columns of the Caesars had such effects is occisi
of a single newspaper, which would be Caesares effecerunt (not effecit) ; but the
very justly indignant if it were hinted fused-participlists say Women having
that it had more vulgarisms than its con- the vote reduces (not reduce), and You
temporaries. Each, it will be seen, has a saying you are sorry alters (not alter) the
different pronoun or name, a sufficient case. The Latin parallel is therefore of
proof in itself of abundant material. no value, and with it goes the only
We need fear nothing from China palliation of the bad grammar.
developing her resources (China's)./ And now, in order that the reader
Which will result in many having to go may leave this disquisition sick to
into lodgings (many's). / It should result death, as he should be, of the fused
in us securing the best aeroplane for mili- participle, a few miscellaneous speci-
tary purposes (our). / It is no longer mens are offered : We cannot reckon on
thought to be the proper scientific atti- the unrest ceasing with the end of one
tude to deny the possibility of anything strike, or on its not being renewed in
happening (anything's). / They wish to the case of other trades (Compare unrest
achieve this result without it being neces- with its). I It may be that this is part of
sary to draw up a new naval programme the meaning and instinctive motive of
(its). / / insisted on him at once taking fish such as the perch, going in shoals at
the bill down (his). / The reasons which all. I Developments have occurred in
have led to them being given appoint- consequence of the action of one of the
ments in these departments (their). / He accused, a man 31 years of age, and an
is prepared to waive this prohibition upon ex-student of several colleges, having
you giving him a written undertaking as turned approver. / The holiday habit is
follows (your). growing upon us, possibly owing partly
It is perhaps beyond hope for a to the persistent and recurrent habit of
generation that regards upon y ou giving Christmas Day falling at the week-end./
as normal English to recover its hold This habit of Ministers putting forth
upon the truth that grammar matters. their ideas through newspaper articles
Yet every just man who will abstain sometimes produced curiousresults. I Some
from the fused participle (as most good similar scheme can be introduced without
writers in fact do, though negative the school doing so suffering pecuniary
evidence is naturally hard to procure) loss. I Good criticism combines the subtle
retards the progress of corruption ; and pleasure in a thing being well done with
it may therefore be worth while to take the simple pleasure in it being done at
up again the statement made above, all. / There is a big enough area for the
that the construction is grammatically speed men even in the narrow limits of
indefensible. At the first blush every- these isles, without them making the
one probably grants this ; it is obvious, exquisite little corner of English lakeland
in any sentence so made as to afford a the special field for their trials. / The
test (e.g. Women having the vote reduces truth of the old saw about being a better
men's power), that the words defy thing to wear out than to rust out. / The
grammatical analysis. But second same objections apply to the patient
thoughts bring the comforting notion telling the head attendant as to his telling
that the fusion must after all be legiti- the medical officer (compare patient with
mate; it is only our old friend occisus his).
Caesar effecit ut, which means not Note. The foregoing article is repro-
Caesar when killed, but The killing duced just as Fowler wrote it, except
of Caesar, had such and such results ; why that some illustrations have been
should not Women having mean The omitted and others shortened. It
possession by women of, if occisus Caesar provoked some controversy.
can mean The killing of Caesar? The Jespersen (SPE Tract XXIV) vigor-
answer is that the Romans did resort ously defended the construction con-
fused p a r t i c i p l e 218 Gallic
demned by Fowler. He gave numerous premature death prevented anything^
examples of its use by famous authors coming of the scheme", which can
from Swift to Shaw; he made light of hardly be called English' (Onions).
the argument that it defied grammatical
analysis, and maintained that it repre-
sented 'the last step in a long line of
development, the earlier steps of which
. . . have for centuries been accepted by
everybody. Each step, including the gag. See CLOSURE for the parliamen-
last, has tended in the same direction, tary sense.
to provide the English language with a
means of subordinating ideas which is g a i n s a y is a LITERARY WORD, and now
often convenient and supple where little used except in negative contexts
clauses would be unidiomatic or negli- such as There is no gainsaying it, With-
gible.' Fowler in his rejoinder (SPE out fear of being gainsaid, That can
Tract XXV) admitted that he had scarcely be gainsaid.
underestimated the extent of its use, gala. The pronunciation^^- is oust-
but was otherwise unshaken. 'I confess', ing the gâ- still preferred by most
he said, 'to attaching more importance to dictionaries.
my instinctive repugnance for without
you being than to Professor Jespersen's gallant. The ordinary pronunciation
demonstration that it has been said by is gâ'lânt. Certain senses, 'politely at-
more respectable authors than I had tentive to women', 'amorous', 'ama-
supposed.' tory', are traditionally distinguished
Thirty years later the dust had still by the pronunciationgâlâ'nt; but these
not settled. During the passage senses, and still more the special ac-
through the House of Lords of the cent, are perhaps moribund. In its
Homicide Act, 1957, a noble lord, ordinary sense too the word is becom-
who must have been a disciple of ing old-fashioned and is rare except in
Fowler, moved to purge the Bill of conventional uses such as The honour-
a fused participle by substituting able and gallant member and in citations
other's for other in the clause providing of acts of bravery. See WORSENED
that it should no longer be murder for WORDS.
one party to a suicide pact to be 'a gallery, galley. Que diable allait-il
party to the other killing himself. He faire dans cette galère? is a famous line,
was unsuccessful. But Fowler would and so often applicable that it is often
have been unlikely to accept even the applied. It is not possible for anyone
House of Lords as a final court of who has seen it in its original place to
appeal on such a point. be unaware that galère means galley;
It is clear that Fowler was right in and therefore to put it, or an allusion
deprecating the use of the fused par- to it, into English with gallery betrays
ticiple with a proper name or personal infallibly the jackdaw with borrowed
pronoun in a simple sentence: upon plumes. To write galerie (Mr. M.,
your giving is undoubtedly more idio- who has at least escaped being mixed
matic than upon you giving. But it is up in that galerie) is to say 'Yes, I know
by no means so clear that when a more the French', and so to add the sin of
complicated sentence makes a posses- lying to the peccadillo of pretension.
sive impossible we must deny our- But then, whether one is caught out
selves the convenience of writing We with gallery or galerie, one can always
have to account for the collision of two explain 'It was the printer; I wrote
great fleets . . . ending in the total galley, or galère'. See GALLICISMS, and
destruction of one of them . . . . Or even FOREIGN DANGER.
when a possessive, though not im-
possible, is ungainly. 'If this rule were Gallic, Gallican, Gaulish, French.
pressed, we should have to say: "His Gallican is a purely ecclesiastical word,
Gallicisms 219 galore
corresponding to Anglican. Gaulish daughter of joy, gilded youth, the half-
means only 'of the (ancient) Gauls', world, colour of rose, do one's possible,
and is, even in that sense, less usual to return to our muttons, suspicion (=
than Gallic. The normal meaning of soupçon), and success of esteem.
Gallic is the same as that of Gaulish, To advise the abandonment of all
but it is also much used as a synonym Gallicisms indiscriminately would be
in some contexts for French. It means absurd. There are thousands of English
not simply 'French', but 'characteristi- words and phrases that were once
cally', 'delightfully', 'distressingly', or Gallicisms, but, having prospered, are
'amusingly', 'French'—'so French, you no longer recognizable as such; and
know', etc.—or again not 'of France', of the number now on trial some will
but 'of the typical Frenchman'. We doubtless prosper in like manner. What
do not, or should not, speak of Gallic the wise man does is to recognize that
wines or trade or law or climate, but the conversational usage of educated
we do of Gallic wit, morals, politeness, people in general, not his predilections
and shrugs; and the symbolic bird is or a literary fashion of the moment, is
invariably die Gallic cock. So far as the naturalizing authority, and he will
Gallic is used for French without any therefore adopt a Gallicism only when
implication of the kind suggested, it is he is of opinion that it is a Gallicism no
merely a bad piece of ELEGANT VARIA- more. To use Gallicisms for the worst
TION Or AVOIDANCE OF THE OBVIOUS. of all reasons—that they are Gallicisms
—to affect them as giving one's writing
Gallicisms. By Gallicisms are here a literary air, to enliven one's dull stuff
meant borrowings of various kinds with their accidental oddities, above
from French in which the borrower all to choose Gallicisms that presup-
stops short of using French words pose the reader's acquaintance with
without disguise. the French original: these are confes-
1. One form consists in taking a sions of weakness or incompetence. If
French word and giving it an English writers knew how 'leap to the eye' does
termination or dropping an accent or leap to the eye of the reader who, in
the like, as in actuality and redaction. dread of meeting it, casts a precaution-
ary glance down the column, or how
2 . Another in giving to an existent furious is the tliinking that 'give
English word a sense that belongs to it furiously to think' stirs in the average
only in French or to its French form Englishman, they would leave such
only, as in assist (be present at), im- paltry borrowings alone for ever.
payable ( = priceless for absurdity, im-
pudence, etc.), arrive {= attain success Some of the Gallicisms here men-
etc.)> exposition ( = exhibition), and tioned, as well as others, are com-
actual ( = concerned with the present, mented upon in their dictionary places.
topical, The most actual and instructive Words and phrases for which the
article is on broadcasting). reader is simply referred without com-
3. Another in giving vogue to a word ment to this article are to be regarded
that has had little currency in English as undesirable Gallicisms. See also
but is common in French, such as FRENCH WORDS.
veritable and envisage.
4 . Another in substituting a French gallop makes -oped, -oping', see -P-.
form or word that happens to be Eng- -pp-; so does galop, the dance, used as
lish also, but in another sense, for the a verb.
really corresponding English, as when gallows, though originally a plural
brave is used for honest or worthy, or form, is now singular (set up a g. etc.);
ascension for ascent. the plural is usually avoided, but when
5. Another in literally translating a unavoidable is gallowses.
French word or phrase, as in jump or
leap to the eyes, to the foot of the letter, Gallup poll. See POLLSTER.
give furiously to think, knight of industry. galore, an Irish or Gaelic word, and
galumph 220 Gaulish
no part of the Englishman's natural the popular pronunciation of MAR-
vocabulary, except as a jocular collo- GARINE?) is a strong argument for writ-
quialism (whisky galore!), is chiefly ing jail.
resorted to by those who are reduced
to relieving dullness of matter by garage, like many other French words
oddity of expression. in constant necessary use (e.g. billet-
doux, bulletin, cadre, chaperon, commis-
g a l u m p h . See FACETIOUS FORMATIONS. sionaire, cordon, coupon, liqueur, restau-
rant, valet), might well be complete-
gambit is a type of chess opening in ly anglicized in pronunciation (gâ'rïj)
which a player sacrifices a piece or and is in fact often so spoken. But the
pawn in the hope of greater gain later, compromise gâ'rahzh or gârahj' is
and, by reasonable extension, the first more usual.
move, especially with an implication
of cunning, in any contest or negotia- garble. The original meaning is to
tion. To use the word merely as a sift, to sort into sizes with a view to
showy synonym of opportunity is an using the best or rejecting the worst.
example of that SLIPSHOD EXTENSION The modern transferred sense is to
that almost always goes with POPULAR- subject a set of facts, evidence, a re-
IZED TECHNICALITIES. Germanfirmsare port, a speech, etc., to such a process
being attracted to Canada by such ob- of sifting as results in presenting all
vious gambits as the huge growth of of it that supports the impression one
Toronto. wishes to give of it and deliberately
omitting all that makes against or quali-
gamesmanship. See BRINKMANSHIP. fies this. Garbling stops short of falsi-
gamut. For synonyms, in the ex- fication and misquotation, but not of
tended sense, see FIELD. misrepresentation; a garbled account
is partial in both senses. To use garbled
gang agley is a BATTERED ORNAMENT. in the sense of inaccurate or confused
gangway. Below the g., as a parlia- without any element of the tendentious
mentary phrase, used to be applied to is a SLIPSHOD EXTENSION.
members whose customary seat did garden. For the G. in philosophy, see
not imply close association with the ACADEMY.
official policy of the party on whose
side of the House they sat, and to some garret, attic. The two words mean
extent this implication survives: it is the same thing, but the former is
still customary for a minister who usually chosen when poverty, squalor,
resigns to take the end seat of the etc., are to be suggested.
fourth row below the gangway. See
also AISLE. gar(r)otte. The right spelling is gar-
rotte.
gaol, gaoler, jail, jailor, etc. 'In
British official use the forms with G g a s . See FLUID. AS an abbreviation of
are still current; in literary and jour- gasoline (U.S. for petrol) it has gained
nalistic use both the G and the J forms little foothold in Britain except in the
are now admitted as correct, but all jocular colloquialism Step on the gas.
recent dictionaries give the preference gaseous. i . The pronunciations
to the latter.'—OED. In the British recognized by the OED are gâ'shïs,
prison service both terms are now gd'sïûs, in that order of preference, but
obsolete for the agent noun. Their dis- gd- is now commoner.
appearance is an example of the working 2 . gaseous, gassy. Thefirst,prevails in
of EUPHEMISM. Gaoler was superseded scientific use ; the further the substitu-
by warder, and warder in turn by prison tion of gassy for it can be carried, the
officer. It may be added that the very better.
anomalous pronunciation of g soft be-
fore a or o (only in MORTGAGOR and in Gaulish. See GALLIC.
geezer 2 21 -genie
geezer, i.e. queer character (usually company will only darken counsel in an-
old g.) was originally guiser or mum- other; most audiences are acquainted
mer. It has no connexion with GEYSER. with the qualities of a Samson, fewer
with those of a Dominie Sampson
gelatin(e). The form without final -e and fewer still with those of IthurieVs
is only in scientific (or pseudo-scien- spear. Nevertheless, to some audience
tific) use in Britain, though standard or other each of these may well be,
U.S. The OED gives only the pronun- apart from any decorative value at-
ciation -in, but -en is now commoner. taching to it, the most succinct and
See -IN AND -INE. intelligible name for what is meant.
gemma. PI. -ae. It is for the writer to see that he does
not try Ithuriel's spear on those whose
gender, n., is a grammatical term only. knowledge stops short at Samson; for
To talk of persons or creatures of the if the test reveals them as ignoramuses
masculine or feminine g., meaning of the they will not like it, or him.
male or female sex, is either a jocularity It is perhaps worth while to call atten-
(permissible or not according to con- tion to a practical difference between
text) or a blunder. the useful and the decorative allusions.
genealogy. See -LOGY. When an allusive term is chosen be-
cause it best or most briefly conveys
general. For the use of hyphens in the meaning, triteness is no objection
such compounds as Attorney G., Lieu- to it; intelligibility is the main point.
tenant G., see HYPHENS 2 , and for the But the choice for decorative purposes
plurals see PLURAL ANOMALIES. is a much more delicate matter; you
must still be intelligible, but you must
generalissimo. PI. -05; see -O(E)S 7. not be trite. The margin in any audi-
generic names and other allusive ence between what it has never heard
commonplaces. of and what it is tired of hearing of is
When Shylock hailed Portia as A rather narrow; it is necessary to hit it
Daniel come to judgement, he was using between wind and water.
a generic name in the sense here in- These few remarks may suffice on the
tended; the History of Susanna was in unanswerable question whether allu-
his mind. We do the same when we sive terms should be sought or avoided.
talk of an Croesus or a Jehu or a Hebe The purpose of this article is not to
or a Nimrod or of Bruin, Chanticleer, answer it, but to point out that, if they
and Reynard. When we talk of a Bar- are used, it is inexcusable and suicidal
mecide feast, of IthurieVs spear, of a to use them incorrectly; the reader
Naboth's vineyard, of being between who detects his writer in a blunder
Scylla and Charybdis, of Procrustean instantly passes from the respect that
regulations, or Draconian severity, or beseems him to contempt for this fel-
an Achilles' heel, we are using allusive low who after all knows no more
commonplaces. Some writers revel in than himself. It is obvious that the
such expressions, some eschew them domain of allusion is full of traps,
of set purpose, some are ill provided particularly for the decorative allusion-
with them from lack of reading or ist, who is apt to take the unknown for
imagination; some esteem them as the fine, and to think that what has just
decorations, others as aids to brevity. impressed him because he knows little
They are in fact an immense addi- about it may be trusted to impress his
tion to the resources of speech, but readers. For an example or two see the
they ask to be employed with dis- articles BENEDICK, FRANKENSTEIN, DEV-
cretion. This article is not intended I L ' S ADVOCATE, IRRELEVANT ALLUSION,
either to encourage or to deprecate and MISAPPREHENSIONS.
their use ; they are often in place, and
often out of place; fitness is all. An -genie is a suffix used by scientists to
allusion that strikes a light in one form adjectives with the meaning 'of,
genie 2 '.2 genteelism
pertaining to, or relating to, generation each other to potatoes, of which they
or production' (OED Supp.). Few of may have sufficient, but never enough,
these are in ordinary use; pathogenic do not^o to bed but retire for the night:
(causing disease) is probably the best and have quite forgotten that they
known. Now that pseudo-scientific could ever have been guilty of sitting-
jargon is all the rage, however (see room, napkin, and dirty clothes where
POPULARIZED TECHNICALITIES), we may nothing will now do for them but
soon have a crop of new -genie words, lounge, serviette, and soiled linen.
following the lead of the already com- The reader need hardly be warned
mon use of photogenic (a word of long that the inclusion of any particular
standing in the sense 'productive of word in the small selection of genteel-
light') as an attribute of" one who, in isms offered below does not imply that
more homely but more suitable phrase, that word should never be used. All or
'takes well'. If people must coin these most of these, and of the hundreds that
words, we might at least ask that they might be classed with them, have their
should be properly made; we should proper uses, in which they are not gen-
not be invited to swallow such a BAR- teel, but natural. Lounge is at home in
BARISM as crimogenic by an author hotels, step in the dancing class,
who, since he does write criminology retire for the superannuated man,
and not crimology, ought to have known and so forth; but out of such con-
better. texts, and in the conditions explained
above, the taint of gentility is on
genie. Pronounce jë'nï pi. genii pron. them. To illustrate a little more
jê'nïï; see LATIN PLURALS. Another in detail, 'He went out without shut-
form is jinnee, pi. jinn (often used also ting the door' is plain English; with
as singular). closing substituted for shutting it be-
comes genteel; nevertheless, to close
genius. PI. -uses; the form genii is now the door is justified if more is implied
used only as pi. of genie (or ofgenius in than the mere not leaving it open:
the sense of genie); see LATIN PLURALS. 'Before beginning his story, he crossed
For g. and talent, see TALENT. the room and closed the door', i.e.
gent (= gentleman). Apart from com- so placed it as to prevent eavesdropping ;
mercial jargon (gents' underwear etc.) 'Six people sleeping in a small room
and the colloquial EUPHEMISM The with closed windows', i.e. excluding
Gents, this abbreviation is now only air. Or again, 'The schoolroom roof
used as a jocular term of praise in the fell in, and two of the boys (or girls,
phrase a perfect gent. or children) were badly injured';
scholars for boys etc. would be a
genteel is now used, except by the genteelism, and a much more flagrant
ignorant, only in mockery. A WOR- one than closing in the previous exam-
SENED WORD. ple; yet scholar is not an obsolete or
archaic word ; it is no longer the natural
genteelism. By genteelism is here to English for a schoolboy or schoolgirl,
be understood the rejecting of the that is all. The point is that, when the
ordinary natural word that first sug- word in the second column of the list
gests itself to the mind, and the that follows is the word of one's
substitution of a synonym that is thought, one should not consent to
thought to be less soiled by the lips displace it by the word in the first
of the common herd, less familiar, column unless an improvement in the
less plebeian, less vulgar, less im- meaning would result. The reader will
proper, less apt to come unhandsomely easily increase the list for himself; he
betwixt the wind and our nobility. The may also be disposed to amend it by
truly genteel do not ask but enquire, omission. Genteelisms, if they attain a
invite one to step, not to come this way, wide enough currency, soon rub their
may detect an unpleasant odour but not taint off by use.
a nasty smell, never help, but assist
gentle 223 gentlewoman
Genteelisms Normal words ways of trying to create a sense of
assist help intimacy between themselves and their
bosom breast readers, and if the gentle reader is now
close shut invoked it will only be by way of a
couch sofa jocular archaism.
enquire ask
dentifrice tooth-powder gentleman. Our use of g., like that
desire want of ESQUIRE, is being affected by our
expectorate spit progress towards a classless society,
hard of hearing deaf but in the opposite way: we are all
help servant esquires now, and we are none of us
lady dog bitch gentlemen any more. The word has re-
lingerie underclothes mained in the vocative plural for those
lounge sitting room addressing a male audience or writing
odour smell a formal letter, as a title of a courtly
paying guest lodger office (g. in waiting, g. usher, etc.), as
perspire sweat a distinguishing sign on a public con-
require want venience (though here Men seems to
retire go to bed be displacing it) and, until recently, as
scholar schoolboy, -girl an anachronism in the cricket match
serviette table napkin Gentlemen v. Players', elsewhere in
soiled linen dirty clothes sport those who used to be called ££. to
step, yb. come, go distinguish them from professionals
sufficient enough have long been given the more suitable
See also EUPHEMISM, FORMAL WORDS,
designation amateur. But as merely a
word for an adult of the male sex g. has
and WORKING AND STYLISH WORDS. become taboo. A girl may say 'He's
gentle. I . The gentle art. This phrase, ever such a nice man or chap or fellow
long a favourite with anglers as an (though the last is becoming dated),
affectionate description of their pur- but not, as she would once have done,
suit, was cleverly used by Whistler in gentleman, unless his age warrants the
his title The Gentle Art of Making addition of old.
Enemies. The oxymoron was what gentlemanly, gentlemanlike. If the
made it effective; but imitators, ugly -like form were understood to
aware that Whistler made a hit with suggest, while the other did not, a
the gentle art, and failing to see how he warning that all is not gold that glitters,
did it, have now, by rough handling there would be sufficient justification
on inappropriate occasions, reduced it for their coexistence; but the OED
tO a BATTERED ORNAMENT (cf. IRRELE- quotations do not bear out, nor does
VANT ALLUSION).Thus : We have not the the OED emphasize, such a distinction.
smallest doubt that this is what will It seems right, then, that -like should
actually happen, and without any undue be fading away. But since we cannot
exercise in the gentle art of intelligent say ladyly, ladylike must be the corre-
anticipation, we may discuss the situa- sponding adjective for the other sex.
tion. I In a Committee the gentle art See SUPERFLUOUS WORDS.
of procrastinating may prove very
deadly to progress. gentlewoman, lady. The first has
2 . Gentle as what the OED calls a no sense that does not belong to the
form of polite or conciliatory address second also, but /. has half a dozen for
(Have patience, gentle friends) lingered which g. will not serve—the Virgin,
in writers' apostrophes to their gentle titled woman, wife, an alternative to
readers after it had disappeared from madam as a mark of respect (Thank
general use. Victorian novelists, es- you, Lady), a woman or girl described
pecially Thackeray, were much given politely or sometimes as a genteel-
to it. Authors have now invented other ism or jocularly (a perfect lady) in the
genuine 224 gerund
vocative plural {Ladies and Gentlemen) and the word is sometimes even spelt
and in numerous compounds—Lady so, perhaps from a false analogy with
in Waiting, Lady Mayoress, etc. It jerrybuilding etc.
follows that in the one sense common
to both (fern, of gentleman, i.e. woman gerund. 1. G. and gerundive. 2 . G.
of good birth and breeding, or woman and participle. 3. G. and infinitive.
of honourable instincts) g. is some- 4. G. and possessive.
times preferred as free of ambiguity 1. Gerund, gerundive. The second
or as more significant. It is, however, word is of importance only with regard
an old-fashioned if not quite archaic to the languages that possess the thing,
word, and as such tends to be degraded of which English does not happen to
by facetious use, and to have asso- be one. But since its occasional use
ciated with it stock epithets, of which for the other word gerund, which M
some are derisive or patronizing (an- of importance in English grammar,
cient, decayed, and distressed) and may cause confusion, the difference
others are resorted to as protests between the Latin gerund and gerun-
against such use (true. Nature's, etc.). dive should be explained. The gerund
It is therefore to be used with caution. is a noun supplying a verb's infinitive
or noun-form with cases; thus amare
genuine. See AUTHENTIC. to love has the gerund amandi of lov-
genus. Pronounce je-; pi. genera, ing, amando by loving, amandum the
pron. jën-; see LATIN PLURALS and -us. act of loving; correspondingly the
word loving as a noun (but not as an
geo-. A warning is not superfluous adjective) is the gerund in English,
against the slovenly pronunciation/o^- though it is of the same form as the
in geography and jom- in geometry. participle. From the same stem as
Geology does not seem to offer the amandi etc. is formed in Latin an ad-
same temptation. jective amandus lovable, and this in
geographic(al). The short form 'now Latin grammar is named the gerundive
somewhat rare except in Geographic as being formed from the gerund. The
latitude'—OED. See -IC(AL). It is now English adjectives formed in -ble from
still rarer. verbs, like lovable, might well enough
be called gerundives from their simi-
geometric(al). 1. The long form larity in sense to the Latin gerundive;
prevails, and there is no difference in but they are not in practice so called,
meaning; see-ic(AL). 2 . G. progression. and the -word gerundive has accordingly
For the misuse of this, see PROGRES- no proper function in English grammar.
SION.
2 . Gerund and participle. The Eng-
g e r m . See MICRO-ORGANISM. lish gerund is identical in form, but
only in form, with the active parti-
German. High and Low G. High G. ciple; loving is a gerund in 'cannot
is the language known ordinarily as help loving him', but a participle in
German; Low G. is a comprehensive 'a loving husband'. A grammarian
name for English, Dutch, Frisian, quoted by the OED says 'Gerundives'
Flemish, and some G. dialects. The [by which he means gerunds] 'are
words High and Lozo are merely geo- participles governed by prepositions;
graphical, referring to the Southern but, there being little or no occasion to
or mountainous, and the Northern or distinguish them from other parti-
low-lying, regions in which the two ciples, we seldom use this name'. The
varieties developed. distinction is, on the contrary, of great
gerrymander. Strictly the g should importance, and the occasion for mak-
be hard; the word derives from the ing it constantly occurs. In the article
electoral manipulations of Governor FUSED PARTICIPLE an attempt is made
Gerry of Massachusetts. But the erro- to show the fatal effects on style of
neous pronunciation/ is now universal, disregarding it.
gerund 225 gerund
3. Gerund and infinitive. Among the You have likened the resistance of
lapses that are concerned not with par- Ulster Unionists to be driven out of the
ticular words but with a whole class Constitution of Great Britain to the
of phrases, and that, without being economic opposition of a number of scat-
describable as grammatical blunders, tered citizens to a reform of the tariff "(to
reveal a writer's ignorance of idiom, being driven. Refusal, reluctance).
few are more insidious than failure to
recognize when the gerund with a Specimens after adjectives
preposition is required rather than an A simplicity that seems quite unequal
infinitive. / look forward to meet, or to to treat the large questions involved (to
meeting, him} I aim to remove, or at treating. Incompetent). / The navy is
removing, the cause ? The duty is laid on not equal in numbers or in strength to
us to do, or of doing, our best} perform the task (to performing. Suffi-
The variety of cases in which the cient).
question arises is so vast, and the rules
that should answer it would be so Specimens after verbs
many and need so many exceptions, He confesses to have seen little of the
that it is better not to try to formulate great poets of his time (to having. Pro-
any. Three general remarks may suf- fess). / The cab-drivers object to pay
fice instead, to be followed by some their proportion of the increase (to pay-
specimens. A. There is very little ing. Refuse). / All the traditions in
danger of using the gerund, but much which she has been brought up have not
of using the infinitive, where the other succeeded to keep her back (in keeping.
would be better. B. Lapses are usually Availed). / Mr. Lloyd is committed to
due not to deliberate choice of the introduce a new tax on capital gains (to
worse, but to failure to think of the introducing. Pledged).
better. C. The use of the infinitive is 4 . Gerund and possessive. The ger-
often accounted for, but not justified, und is variously describable as an -ing
by the influence of ANALOGY; because noun, or a verbal noun, or a verb
able, or sufficient, or adequate, to per- equipped for noun-work, or the name
form is English, we assume that equal of an action. Being the name of an
to perform, which is to bear the same action, it involves the notion of an
meaning, must be English too. In the agent just as the verb itself does. He
specimens, where analogy seems to went is equipped for noun-work by
have been at work, the analogous word being changed to his going, in which
is suggested in the correction bracket. his does for going the same service as
he forgoes, i.e. specifies the agent. With
Specimens after nouns the verb the agent is usually specified,
But they have been blocked by the but not always; it is seldom, e.g., used
objections of farmers and landlords to with the imperative (go, not go you or
provide suitable land, and by the reluc- you go) because to specify the agent
tance of local authorities to use their would be waste of words. With the
powers of compulsion (to providing. gerund it is the other way; the agent is
Hesitation, refusal. Observe that the usually not specified, but sometimes
infinitive after reluctance is quite idio- must be, i.e. a possessive must some-
matic). / 1 refer to the growing habit of times be inserted; and failure to dis-
a few hooligans to annoy and assault tinguish when this is required and
those who .. .(of annoying. Tendency)./ when it is superfluous leads to some
They have been selected with a view to ugly or unidiomatic writing. Scylla is
illustrate both the thought and action of omission of the possessive when the
the writer's life (illustrating. So as or in sense is not clear without it; Charybdis
order to). / Russia assures us that she has is the insertion of it when it is obvious
no intention to encroach upon it (of en- waste of words ; but these are only the
croaching. But idiom after intention is extremes, rarely run into. Jones won by
lessfixedthan after most such nouns). / Smith's missing a chance; if you omit
gerund 226 gesticulation
Smith's, and say Jones won by missing was necessary because there is a com-
a chance (as in fact he did, only the mon type of sentence in which the
missing was not his), Scylla has you. possessive is regularly omitted, and
If you say He suffers somewhat, like the which would have seemed to contra-
proverbial dog, from his having re- dict the rule if 'the subject' had been
ceived a bad name, you and your his allowed to pass as sufficient. That type
are in Charybdis. The second is a real is seen in This danger may be avoided
extract; of Scylla it was necessary to by whitewashing the glass; the agent of
invent an illustration; but even Cha- the whitewashing is not the same as
rybdis is rare. What is not rare is some- the subject, i.e. danger, but is the same
thing between the two. It will be as the agent in avoiding, i.e. the owner
noticed that the reason why that his of the plants that are not to be
(with having received) was felt to be so scorched; consequently the possessive
intrusive is that the receiver is the is not required.
same person as the subject of the A few wrong forms are added without
sentence; compare Smith's missing, comment: Sure as she was of her never
where Smith's was indispensable just losing her filial hold of the beloved. /
because the misser was not the subject / cultivated a cold and passionless ex-
of the sentence. Hence has come a sub- terior, for I discovered that by assuming
conscious assumption that the posses- such a character certain persons would
sive will be omitted if, and only if, the talk more readily before me. / After fol-
agent it would have specified is the lowing a country Church of England
same as the agent in the action denoted clergyman for a period of half a century,
by the main verb, i.e. either the sub- a newly appointed, youthful vicar,
ject, or, if the verb is passive, an agent totally unacquainted with rural life,
following by or perhaps not even ex- comes into the parish. / Grateful thanks
pressed. The following sentences are to the three Musketeers who carried
bad because they flout this assumption; Mrs. Pride home after breaking her
and, though they escape both Scylla leg on Wednesday (from a 'personal
and Charybdis, neither leaving out an column', quoted by Punch, whose
essential possessive nor using a super- comment is 'Least they could do').
fluous one, they offend against idiom
by jumping from one agent to another gesticulation, gesture. The usual
without giving notice : By conniving at relation between the two is that of
it, it will take too deep root ever to be abstract to concrete: gesticulation is
eradicated (By our conniving would the using of gestures, and a gesture is
give the necessary notice. We shall root an act of gesticulation. On the other
it too deeply would avoid the jump. hand, gesture also is sometimes used
But better abandon the gerund and as an abstract, and then differs from
write If connived at). \ Why should not gesticulation in implying less of the
the punishment for his death be confined excited or emotional or theatrical or
to those guilty of it, instead of launching conspicuous. Similarly, if a gesticula-
expeditions against three tribes? (Why tion is preferred to a gesture, it is in
should we not confine, or instead of our order to imply those characteristics.
launching or instead of expeditions' The use of gesture in political and
being launched. The first is best). / By diplomatic contexts, = advance, mani-
allowing month after month to pass with- festation of willingness to treat or com-
out attempting to defend our trade, von promise or make concessions, exhibi-
Tirpitz had some excuse for supposing tion of magnanimity or friendliness,
that we recognized it to be indefensible etc., is so recent that the OED (1901)
(By our allowing—clumsy—, or—bet- has no example of it. It dates from the
ter—we gave von Tirpitz some excuse). first world war (the earliest example
'The agent in the action denoted by in the OED Supp. is 1916), and is
the verb' was spoken of above, and not apparently a GALLICISM, having been
simply 'the subject'. This complication substituted for the French beau geste.
get 227 gimmick
get. 1. Have got for possess has long ghetto. PL -os; see -O(E)S 6.
been good colloquial English, but its
claim to be good literary English is not ghoul. Pronounce go~dl.
universally conceded. The OED calls gibber, gibberish. The first is usually
it 'familiar', the COD 'colloquial'. It pronounced with soft g, and occasion-
has, however, the authority of Dr. ally spelt ji-', the second is pronounced
Johnson (fHe has got a good estate' does with hard g, and was sometimes spelt
not always mean that he has acquired, gui- or ghi- to mark the fact. It is
but barely that he possesses it), and has doubtful whether one is derived from
long been used by many good writers. the other. For gibberish, lingo, etc., see
Philip Ballard in a spirited defence, JARGON.
citing not only Johnson but also
Shakespeare, Swift, and Ruskin, con- gibbous. Pronounce with hard g.
cludes 'The only inference we can
draw is that it is not a real error but a gibe, gybe, jibe. All three spellings
counterfeit invented by schoolmasters'. can be found for both the nautical
Acceptance of this verdict is here term and the verb meaning to taunt.
recommended. Perhaps the intrusion The standard are gybe for the former
of got into a construction in which have and gibe for the latter. The pronuncia-
alone is enough originated in our habit tion is always with soft g.
of eliding have. I have it and he has it gill, ravine, and gills of fish, have g
are clear statements, but if we elide we hard. Gill, the measure, has g soft; so
must insert got to avoid the absurdity has Gill, now usually Jill, the stock
of I've it and the even greater absurd- name for a lass (Jack shall have Jill;
ity of He's it, with its ambiguity naught shall go ill), and so ordinarily,
between has and is. See also DO 2 . though not invariably, has Gillian,
2. For got to = must (I've got to go from which it is derived.
now) no higher claim can be made than gillie has g hard; gillyflower has g soft.
good colloquial.
3. Gotten still holds its ground in gimmick. An early definition of this
American English. In British English Americanism in a dictionary of its
land of origin is any small device,
it is in verbal uses (i.e. in composition
with have, am, etc.) archaic and especially one used secretly or in a
affected; but as a mere participle or tricky manner. That is substantially
adjective it occurs in poetical diction the same definition as is given by the
(On gotten goods to live contented) and older dictionaries for dodge in its
in mining technicalities ( The hewer is colloquial use. But the new word has
far outdistanced the old in popularity.
paid only for the large coal gotten; There
is no current wage rate per ton gotten) It entered Britain after the second
and in the cliché ill-gotten gains. world war and quickly became a
4. Get-at-able. See COME-AT-ABLE. VOGUE WORD; it must have passed in
record time through the slang and
geyser. Dictionaries differ in their colloquial stages to the dignity of use
preferences between gaz-, gêz-, and without inverted commas in leading
giz.- For the thermal spring gdz- articles and review's in The Times. Its
seems usual in Britain and giz- in only modern rival to that distinction is
U.S. For the waterheating apparatus KNOW-HOW; the meteoric rise of these
in Britain gêz- is universal. two words perhaps gives a clue to our
mid-20th-c. sense of values. Gimmick
-g-, -gg-. Words ending in g preceded is now used especially of a device
by a single vowel double the g before 'adopted for the purpose of attracting
a suffix beginning with a vowel : wag- attention or publicity'—COD. The
gery, priggish, froggy, sluggard, sand- variety of the following quotations
shows how widespread the demand
bagged, zigzagging, periwigged, leap- for
frogging, humbugged. it is. The ideas were not Mr. Colin
gimp 228 glacial
Wilson's own. His original contribution very easily distinguished from gal,
was the 'outsider' gimmick. / The was at one time general in upper-
gimmick the White House advisers are class society and, though now dying,
most fearful of is the amendment is still affected by some persons who
tacked on in the House. \ There are aim at peculiar refinement. Novelists
great risks involved, and not the least who write gurl as a representation of
that politics may be turned into a branch coarse speech are presumably of this
of entertainment where the slogan is refined class.
worth more than the argument, the
jester more than the thinker, the give. 1. Give one right, in the sense
gimmick more than the policy. / Over the justify him or allow that he is in the
years the Federal German defence budget right, is both French {donner droit à
has been shamelessly robbed by the other quelqu'un) and German (einem Recht
ministries, and has in fact proved a geben); but it is not English, and the
useful gimmick to help balance the OED appears to quote no example of
federal budget. / Some Labour men have it. In the first passage below it has
been speculating on the need for a new been resorted to under the ELEGANT-
gimmick to project Labour more posi- VARIATION impulse, justify having been
tively as an alternative government. already used up : The local Liberals and
They have struck on the idea of making the Chief Whip who supported them
Mr. Bevan party chairman during from headquarters are abundantly justi-
election year. / The particular gimmick fied in their belief that a radical candi-
of the new brand is the addition to date had a better chance of winning this
custard powder, blancmange and corn- particular constituency than a Labour
flour of glucose, which it is claimed one, and the working-class voters have
makes them less liable to form lumps, j themselves given them right, j M. Mil-
This Eastern love of horror qualifies the lerand is much praised in France for
argument that horror films are solely the having resisted Mr. Lloyd George's
gimmick of an industry in decline, j A efforts, and M. Clemenceau apparently
lot of gimmicks are being tried out; one gives him right. It sounds rather less
of them is the Common Market, j Some odd with the definite article—/ give
had seen in Mr. Macmillan's Moscow him the right of it—but is still a
talks an inspired gimmick. / The deriva-
GALLICISM.
tion is obscure; it is usually regarded
as a corruption of gimcrack, but the g 2 . Give to think. The phrase is com-
is hard. mented on in the article GALLICISM as
one of the two or three that surpass all
other Gallicisms for ineptitude. It has,
gimp, g y m p . Spell gi- and pro- however, had a lamentable vogue, and
nounce g hard. a few examples follow; others will be
found under FURIOUSLY. This is a
gingerly. This word, which is at least powerful impressionistic sketch, true to
four centuries old, has probably no life, which gives to think. / In every
connexion with ginger; see TRUE AND chapter the author has that to say which
FALSE ETYMOLOGY. Skeat connects it arrests attention and gives to think. /
with gang (going). It has long been But what we are told as to coal and
used in the sense in which the trans- cotton gives furiously to think, as they
lators of the Old Testament used say in France. This last gentleman
delicately to describe the way in which seems to think he has got hold of a
Agag obeyed Samuel's summons to striking novelty; he is mistaken.
come and be hewed in pieces.
gipsy. See GYPSY. glacial, glacier, glacis. Of the differ-
ent pronunciations of these words
girl rhymes with curl, zvhirl, and pearl, offered us by the dictionaries, those
with the first syllable of early, not of here recommended are glâ'shïal, glâ'-
fairly. But a pronunciation gairl, not sier, and glâ'sê.
glad(den) 229 glossary
glad(den). See -EN VERBS for the dis- apportioned among its constituent
tinction. units, not an aggregate figure arrived
at by adding together the estimated
gladiolus. To give this word the four values of the several units. Global,
short syllables that it has in Latin, and moreover, seeking wider fields, has
pronounce glâ'dïôlûs is more than can now established itself, unnecessarily
reasonably be expected from the but firmly, as a synonym for what
human tongue: we must choose be- we used to call world-wide. Mondial
tween gladi'olus and gladiolus. The is also available for writers who dis-
latter is preferred by the OED and all like both words.
gardeners. PI, -li or -luses. See LATIN
PLURALS, and RECESSIVE ACCENT. gloss, gloze. The two nouns gloss (a,
= comment; b, = lustre) are of differ-
gladsome. See -soiViE. ent origins, the first Greek, the other
Scandinavian; but the meaning of the
glamour makes glamorous ; see -OUR- first, and of its derived verb gloze, has
AND - O R - . no doubt been considerably affected
(see TRUE AND FALSE ETYMOLOGY) b y
glimpse. I . As nouns glance and g.
are synonyms only in a very loose ignorance of this fact. Greek yXœaaa,
sense ; the glimpse is what i s seen by the tongue, had as secondary senses, word
glance, and not the glance itself. You or locution, word needing explana-
take or give a glance at something, but tion, marginal word serving as ex-
get a glimpse of it; the following planation, comment. The notions of
sentences are not English : Was there a falsity or misrepresentation or imputa-
member of either House who gave a tion or explaining away by which it
glimpse at this schedule to see for himself (and still more gloze) is now so often
whether all these documents deserved to coloured are not essential to it. But the
be destroyed? / A glimpse at the map zvill development of a word meaning ex-
show why Turkey was not receiving planation into one meaning misrepre-
munitions from Germany or Austria at sentation is not unnatural even without
that time. the help of this misunderstanding, and
the confusion of the two nouns has
2. Glimpse as a transitive verb (catch meant that in popular as opposed to
a glimpse of) was known in the 18th c. learned speech the first gloss is seldom
but seems to have fallen into disuse without the suggestion of something
until it was usefully reintroduced from sophistical. The two verbs, gloss (or
America in the 20th. gloze), to comment, and gloss, to put a
lustre on, have been even more closely
glissade. Pronounce glisah'd. See assimilated into the meaning of ex-
-ADE, -ADO.
tenuate in a specious way, especially
global. The original meaning, now the PHRASAL VERB gloss or gloze over.
archaic, was globular. Towards the
end of the 19th c. it acquired a new glossary, vocabulary. Both are par-
one: 'pertaining to or embracing the tial dictionaries, and to that extent
totality of a group of items, categories synonymous; but the g. is a list to
or the like' (OED Supp.). With that which a reader may go for explanation
meaning it was a useful word, but of vernacular words (e.g. archaic, dia-
there seems to be a curious attraction lect, or technical) likely to be unfami-
in it (cf. OVERALL) that leads to its liar to him (see GLOSS), while v. supplies
misuse for aggregate or total, with the reader of a book in a foreign language
which it is properly in antithesis. For (e.g. a school edition of a classic) with
instance, the compensation paid to the the English equivalents of the words
coal industry on nationalization was a used in it. The g. selects what is ob-
globalfigurerepresenting the estimated scure; the v. assumes that all is obscure.
value of the industry as a whole, to be V. has also the meaning of the whole
glycerin(e) 230 Gr(a)ecism
stock of words used by a nation, by remarks: 'The Scotch pronunciation
any set of persons, or by an individual. is (gôf) ; the pronunciation (gôf), some-
For lexicon etc. see DICTIONARY. what fashionable in England, is an
attempt to imitate this'. This fashion
glycerin(e). In pharmacy, manuals has now passed.
of chemistry, etc., -in was preferred
until it was superseded by glycerol. In goloptious, golup-. See FACETIOUS
everyday use -ine is much commoner, FORMATIONS.
and -in something of an affectation;
see -IN AND -INE. goodness knows has two curiously
gnaw has p.p. gnawed or gnawn. The divergent senses. In Goodness knows
OED examples from the 17th and who it can have been it means God only
later centuries show -ed eleven times, knows, and I do not; in Goodness knows
and -n six; half the six are içth-c. it wasn't me it means God knows and
(Jefferies, Southey, Browning), but the could confirm my statement. Ambi-
-n form may nevertheless be regarded guity is unlikely, but not impossible.
as an ARCHAISM.
(The equivalent Irish euphemism is
The dear knows, i.e. the dear God.)
gnomic. Pronounce nom-. Gnomic
literature is writing that consists of or goodwill, good will, good-will. Ex-
is packed with maxims or general cept in the attributive use (as a good-
truths pithily expressed. The gnomic will token, that is, as a token of good
aorist in Greek is the use of the aorist will), the choice should be between the
—a tense normally referring to the unhyphened forms, see HYPHENS. Good
past—to state a fact that is true of all will is required when the notion is vir-
times, e.g. in proverbs. Men were tuous intent etc., and goodwill is better
deceivers ever. when it is benevolence, business asset,
etc.
go, v. Goes without saying is a GALLI-
CISM, but one of those that are vir- gormandize, gourmandise. The
tually naturalized, ceasing to serve as first is the English verb, the second the
meretricious ornaments, and tending French noun.
to present themselves as first and not
second thoughts. Still, the English gorse. See FURZE.
stalwart has 'needless to say', 'need
hardly be said', 'of course', and other gotten. See GET.
varieties to choose from.
gourd. The OED gives precedence to
gobbledygook, see JARGON. the sound gôfd over goord but the latter
is now probably commoner.
godlily. See -LILY.
gourmand, gourmet. The first
God's acre, as a name for churchyard ranges in sense from greedy feeder
or cemetery, though its beauty may be to lover and judge of good fare; the
admitted, has not succeeded in estab- second from judge of wine to con-
lishing itself in English. It is not a noisseur of delicacies. The first usually
phrase of home growth, but a transla- implies some contempt, the other not.
tion from German; and it is interesting
that of four quotations for it in the governance has now the dignity of
OED only one shows it used simply, ARCHAISM, its work being done, except
without a reference to its alien nation- in rhetorical or solemn contexts, by
ality. Such a preponderance may be government and control.
accidental, but remains significant.
Gr(a)ecism, gr(a)ecize, Gr(a)eco-,
golf. The OED gives precedence to etc. The spelling^ra;- is recommended ;
the natural pronunciation (golf), and see JE, Œ. See also GRECIAN.
grammar 231 Grecian
grammar, syntax, etc. There was in England). Fortunately in this mat-
a time when grammar, in its broadest ter, as in others, the Englishman has
sense, might have been loosely defined stoutly defended the liberty of the in-
as the science of language. In these dividual. It is, for instance, despite the
days of scientific specialization that grammarians, not thanks to them, that
will no longer do. The science of lan- over the centuries our language has
guage is philology, or, in more recent won ease and grace by getting rid of al-
jargon, linguistics. Grammar is a branch most all its case-inflexions; some day
of that science, and can be defined as perhaps this good work will be com-
the branch that deals with a language's pleted, and we shall no longer be faced
inflexions {accidence), with its phonetic with the sometimes puzzling task of
system {phonology), and with the ar- choosing between who and whom. But
rangement of words in sentences (syn- it is going too far, if we give the word
tax). Other branches of linguistics are: grammar its proper meaning, to say, as
Morphology—How words are made. Orwell said, that grammar is of no
Orthoepy—How words are said. importance so long as we make our
Orthography—How words are written. meaning plain. We have developed our
Composition—How words are fused own 'noiseless' grammar, as Bradley
into compounds. called it; what are generally recognized
Semantics—How words are to be for the time being as its conventions
understood. must be followed by those who would
Etymology—How words are derived write clearly and agreeably, and its
and formed. elements must be taught in the schools,
Of these, orthography, accidence, and if only as a code of good manners. For
syntax, as the bare essentials for writ- some legacies from the Procrustean
grammarians see FETISHES and SUPER-
ing and reading, represent for most of
us the whole of grammar; and morpho- STITIONS.
logy, orthoepy, phonology, and SEMAN-
TICS, are meaningless terms to the gram(me). There seems to be no
average person. The last deserves to be possible objection to adopting the
more widely studied as a means of more convenient shorter form, except
promoting clarity of thought and an that the -me records the unimportant
antidote to the habit of attributing a fact that the word came to us through
numinous value to words. French,
It has become fashionable to speak
disrespectfully of grammar—a natural gratis. Pronounce ô, not a, still less
reaction from the excessive reverence ah. See LATIN PHRASES.
formerly paid to it. The name Gram-
mar School remains to remind us that grave, v. (carve etc.). P.p. graved or
the study of Latin grammar was once graven, the second much the com-
thought to be the only path to culture. moner; but the whole verb is archaic
We took a long time to realize that except so far as it has been kept alive
there is not much sense in trying to in particular phrases, especially graven
apply the rules of a dead synthetic image by the Second Commandment.
language to a living analytical one;
perhaps we have not yet quite aban- g r a y . See GREY.
doned the attempt. 'The vulgar
grammar-maker, dazzled by the glory great. For the differences between g.,
of the ruling language, knew no better big, and large, see BIG. For theg. Cham,
than to transfer to English the scheme the g. Commoner, see SOBRIQUETS.
that belonged to Latin. What chance
had our poor mother-tongue in the Grecian, Greek. The first is now
clutch of this Procrustes?' (J. W. curiously restricted by idiom to archi-
Hales, quoted by the Departmental tecture, facial outline, the Grecian
Committee on the Teaching of English bend and knot, Grecian slippers, and
Greek g 232 group
one or two other special uses. We and later English lexicographers, who
usually speak of Greek history, fire, have all given the preference to gray.'
calends, lyrics, tyrants, Church, dia- OED.
lects, aspirations, but Grecian noses
and brows, colonnades and pediments, greyhound is known to be uncon-
may still be heard of; a boy in the nected with grey, though the meaning
highest form at Christ's Hospital is of its first part is doubtful; see TRUE
known as a Grecian, and a Greek AND FALSE ETYMOLOGY.
scholar may be described as a good
Grecian. See also HELLÈNE. gridiron, griddle, grid. What the
light of nature would suggest as to
Greek g. There is something to be their relations would be that grid was
said for retaining the hard sound of g the original word, griddle its diminu-
even before e, i, and y, in such Greek- tive, and gridiron a compound of it
derived words as are not in popular but with iron. Inquiry seems to reveal, on
only in learned, technical, or literary the contrary, that grid is a mere curtail-
use. To those who know some Greek ment of gridiron, which in turn has
the sound of -ôji in pedagogy or jëri- in nothing to do with the word iron, but
geriatrics or fini- in gynaecology either is a corruption of the earlier form
obscures the meaning, which they gredire, a variant of gredile (the source
would catch with the aid of the hard g, of griddle). The particular question is
or, if they happen to be prepared for it of no practical importance, but is here
and so do not miss the meaning, is still mentioned as illustrating well the kind
repulsive. To those who do not know of mistake, sometimes dangerous,
Greek, the sound of the words is im- against which a knowledge of etymo-
material, and they might allow the logy may be a protection; see TRUE AND
other party the indulgence of a harm- FALSE ETYMOLOGY.
less pedantry that affects after all but
a few words. A list of deserving cases grievous. The mispronunciation grie-
is given below with the pronunciations vious is surprisingly common, presum-
reminiscent of the Greek origin. In ably owing to the analogy of previous
support of the proposed hard g it may and other words with a long stressed
be pleaded that the ch representing vowel before the adjectival suffix, e.g.
Greek chi is often or usually hard in devious and abstemious, HEINOUS is
similar cases (diptych, trochee, trichino- another word that is sometimes given
sis, tracheotomy, pachyderm, catechism, a superfluous i, especially when mis-
etc.). pronounced he-, and the vulgarism
Specimen words: anagoge', anthro- mischievious has not wholly dis-
pophagi', antiphlogistin; demagog{ic)(y) ; appeared.
geriatrics', gynaecology, hegemony,
{hemi)(para)plegia ; (laryn)(menin)gitis, griffin, griffon, gryphon. Griffon is
etc.; misogynist; monologist', paralog- the regular zoological form, i.e. as the
ism ; pedagog(ic)(y) ; philogynist. name of a kind of vulture ; it is also a
It should now be added that this breed of dog. For the fabulous crea-
advice was given in the nineteen- ture griffin is the ordinary, and gryphon
twenties. Since then the words ending an ornamental spelling.
-gitis have firmly adopted the pronun-
ciation deprecated; for most of the group, bracket. This is the century
others the issue remains in the balance, of the common man, with the ideal of
with a general tendency towards the a classless society before him. It is also
soft g. a scientific age, and we like to show
that we think scientifically and express
grey, g r a y . 'In Great Britain the form ourselves accordingly. There is a scien-
grey is the more frequent in use, not- tific flavour in the word group and a
withstanding the authority of Johnson stronger one in bracket, suggesting
grow 233 gunwale
those mathematical formulae in which established in all. Those who wish to
economists convey their meaning to avoid mistakes have in fact only to use
one another and conceal it from ordi- -ee always.
nary people. So where our fathers The contexts in which -y may still be
would have said class we use one of reasonably preferred are those in
these words. The poor are no longer which the sense desired is rather the
with us, or the rich either, or the young act or fact of giving security than the
or the old; we must all be sorted into security given or its giver; for in-
our proper groups or brackets. With stance, 'willing to enter into a -y\
the advance of the social sciences we 'contracts of -y\ 'a league of -y', 'an
are in fact being more classified than act of -y\ 'treaties of -y\ 'be true to
ever before, but the old word will no one's -y', in all of which -y is a verbal
longer do; it has become indelicate. noun and means guaranteeing.
Six of the suicides were of under-
graduates who had been to higher- guer(r)illa. The original spelling is
income-group schools, and five from with -rr-, not -r-; and the original
among those who had been to lower- meaning is not a person, but a kind of
income-group schools. I Will the Chan- fighting, guerrillero being the word for
cellor of the Exchequer consider the the person. But the -r- is four times as
financial hardships of the small-income common as the -rr- in the OED
groups. I It is some comfort to learn quotations, and we should assert our
that among the juvenile delinquents right to spell foreign words as we
the eight to thirteen bracket is the only choose when we have adopted them
one that involved more arrests. / Those (cf. MORALE). And as to the meaning,
at the lowest level of the income bracket the phrase g. warfare is now so
should have been relieved of income tax firmly established in place of g. itself
altogether. / He would not reveal the that the use of g. as a personal noun
price, but said it was well within the may be considered almost an inevitable
million pound bracket. / It is not neces- BACK-FORMATION from it. The best
sary today to be in the surtax bracket course is to accept the spelling
in order to stalk in Scotland. Those guerilla, and the sense (as old as
examples show what may happen when Wellington's dispatches and still very
EUPHEMISM and POPULARIZED TECHNI- much alive) 'irregular fighter'. See
CALITIES work together to corrupt plain RESISTANCE.
speech.
guillemot. Pronounce gi'limot.
grow. For a grown man etc. see
INTRANSITIVE P.P. guillotine. For the parliamentary
sense, see CLOSURE. Pronounce gï'lôtën.
groyne. It appears that the word
usually so spelt, and meaning break- gulf, bay. Apart from the fact that
water, is of different origin from groin each has some senses entirely foreign
the part of the body or of a vault ; the to the other, there are the differences
separate spelling is therefore useful. (1) that g. implies a deeper recess and
narrower width of entrance, while b.
gryphon. See GRIFFIN. may be used of the shallowest inward
curve of the sea-line and excludes a
guarantee, guaranty. Fears of landlocked expanse approached by a
choosing the wrong one of these two strait; and (2) that b. is the ordinary
forms are natural, but needless. As word, while g. is chiefly reserved as a
things now are, -ee is never wrong name for large or notable instances.
where either is possible. As a verb,
-y is called by the OED 'now rare, g u m m a . PI. -as or -ata. See LATIN
superseded by -ee\ and -ee should PLURALS.
therefore always be used. As a noun,
-y is correct in some senses, but -ee is gunwale, gunnel. The pronunciation
gutta-percha 234 hackneyed phrases
is always, and the spelling occasion-
ally, that of the second. H
gutta-percha. Pronounce -châ. habiliments. See POLYSYLLABIC HU-
MOUR.
guy. The noun in Britain means some-
one of grotesque appearance like the habitude. In some of its obsolete
conventional effigies of Guy Fawkes. senses (relation to, intimacy or fami-
In America it has no disparaging im- liarity) the word was not exchangeable
plication; it is as colourless as our with habit. But in the senses that have
chap; indeed, as Chesterton has re- survived it is difficult to find or frame a
corded, to be called a regular guy is sentence in which habit would not do as
'one of the most graceful of compli- well or better, the only difference being
ments'. The meaning of the verb (to a slight flavour of archaism attaching
make fun of) is the same in both to habitude. The following examples
countries. from the OED are chosen as those in
which, more than in the rest, habit may
gybe. See GIBE. be thought inferior to habitude; In the
new land the fetters of habitude fall off. /
gymnasium. PI. -urns or -a; as the All the great habitudes of every species
name of a German place of education of animals have repeatedly been proved
the plural is Gymnasien. to be independent of imitation. / They
gytnp. See GIMP.
can be learned only by habitude and con-
versation. The sense constitution or
gyp. See SCOUT. temperament, though not called obso-
lete in the OED, is very rare, and
gypsy, gipsy. In contrast with the habitude may fairly be classed as a
words into which y has been intro- SUPERFLUOUS WORD.
duced instead of the correct i, appa-
rently from some motion that it has a hackneyed phrases. When Punch set
decorative effect (sylvan, syphon, syren, down a heading that might be, and
tyre, tyro, etc.)3 there are a few from very likely has been, the title of a whole
which it has been expelled for no book, 'Advice to those about to marry',
better reason than that the display of and boiled down the whole contents
two ys is thought an excessive indul- into a single word, and that a surprise,
gence in ornament. In gypsy and pygmy the thinker of the happy thought de-
the first y is highly significant, remind- served congratulations for a week. He
ing us that gypsy means Egyptian, and hardly deserved immortality, but he
pygmy foot-high (Gk. -nvyixt] elbow to has—anonymously, indeed—got it; a
knuckles). It is a pity that they should large percentage of the great British
be thus cut away from their roots, and people cannot think of the dissuasive
the maintenance of the y is desirable. 'don't' without remembering, and,
The OED's statement is: 'The preva- alas ! reminding others, of him. There
lent spelling of late years appears to are thousands for whom the only sound
have been gipsy. The plural gypsies is sleep is the sleep of the just, the light at
not uncommon, but the corresponding dusk must always be dim, religious ; all
form in the singular seems to have beliefs are cherished, all confidence is
been generally avoided, probably be- implicit, all ignorance blissful, all isola-
cause of the awkward appearance of tion splendid, all uncertainty glorious,
the repetition of y'. See Y AND I. all voids aching. It would not matter
if these associated reflexes stopped at
gyves. The old pronunciation was the mind, but they issue by way of the
with the g hard, as indicated by a tongue, which is bad, or of the pen,
former spelling gut-', but the g is now which is worse. King David must
soft. surely writhe as often as he hears it told
hackneyed phrases 235 had
in Sheol what is the latest insignifi- sence. / Consummation devoutly to be
cance that may not be told in Gath. wished. / Cups that cheer but not
How exasperating it must be for King inebriate. / Curate's egg. / Damn with
Canute to be remembered only by faint praise. / Defects of his qualities. /
those who have forgotten the purpose Dim religious light. / Explore every
of his little comedy on the beach. How avenue. / Fair sex. / Feast of reason. /
many a time must Mahomet have Few and far between. / Filthy lucre. /
regretted his experiment with the Free gratis and for nothing. / Guide
mountain as he has heard his accep- philosopher and friend. / Hardy
tance of its recalcitrance once more annual. / His own worst enemy. / Ill-
applied or misapplied! And the witty gotten gains. / In a Pickwickian sense.
gentleman who equipped coincidence / Inner man. / Irony of fate. / Last but
with her long arm has doubtless suf- not least. / Leave no stone unturned. /
fered even in this life at seeing that Leave severely alone. / Method in his
arm so mercilessly overworked. madness. / More in sorrow than in
Hackneyed phrases are counted by anger. / More sinned against than
the hundred, and those registered sinning. / Neither fish flesh nor good
below are a mere selection. Each of red herring. / Neither rhyme nor
them comes to each of us at some reason. / Not wisely but too well. /
moment in life with, for him, the Observed of all observers. / Of that
freshness of novelty upon it; on that ilk. / Of the persuasion. / Olive
occasion it is a delight, and the wish to branches. / Powers that be. / Psycho-
pass on that delight is amiable. But we logical moment. / Shake the dust
forget that of any hundred persons for from off one's feet. / Sleep the sleep of
whom we attempt this good office, the just. / Speed the parting guest. /
though there may be one to whom our Splendid isolation. / Strain every
phrase is new and bright, it is a stale nerve. / Take one's name in vain. /
offence to the ninety and nine. Tender mercies. / There's the rub. /
The purpose with which these phrases To be or not to be. / Through thick
are introduced is for the most part that and thin. / Tower of strength. /
of giving a fillip to a passage that might Weaker vessel. / Wheels within wheels.
be humdrum without them. They do / Wise in his generation. / Withers are
serve this purpose with some readers unwrung. See also BATTERED ORNA-
—the less discerning—though with the MENTS, CLICHÉ, IRRELEVANT ALLUSION,
other kind they more effectually dis- WORN-OUT HUMOUR.
serve it. But their true use when they
come into the writer's mind is as had. 1. had, had have. There are two
danger-signals; he should take warn- dangers—that of writing had . . . have
ing that when they suggest themselves where had is required, and that of
it is because what he is writing is bad writing had where had . . . have is
stuff, or it would not need such help. required. The first has proved fatal in
Let him see to the substance of his cake Had she have done it for the Catholic
instead of decorating with sugarplums. Church, she would doubtless have been
In considering the following selection, canonized as St. Angela; and in Had
the reader will bear in mind that he I have been in England on Monday, I
and all of us have our likes and our should certainly have been present at the
dislikes in this kind; he may find pet first performance. This is no better than
phrases of his own in the list, or miss an illiterate blunder, and easily shown
his pet abominations ; he should not on to be absurd. Had she, had I, are the
that account decline to accept a caution inverted equivalents of if she had, if
against the danger of the hackneyed I had; no one would defend If she had
phrase. Acid test. / Balm in Gilead. / have done, nor if I had have been, and
Blessing in disguise. / Blushing hon- it follows that Had she done. Had I
ours thick upon him. / Clerk of the been, are the only correct inverted
weather. / Conspicuous by his ab- conditionals
had 236 half
The other wrong form is seen in ' The possible. Another example like the
country finds itself faced with arrears of 'arrears' one of the wrong omission of
legislation which for its peace and com- have is : The object of his resistance was
fort had far better been spread over the to force Great Britain to expend men
previous years''. It ought to be had far and material in dealing with him which
better have been spread; but the demon- had better been utilized elsewhere.
stration is not here so simple. At the 2. Had in parallel inverted clauses.
first blush one says: This had is the Had we desired twenty-seven amend-
subjunctive equivalent of the modern ments, got seven accepted, and were in
would have, as in If the bowl had been anticipation of favourable decisions in
stronger My tale had been longer', i.e. the other twenty cases, we should think
had far better been spread is equivalent . . . To write Had we desired and were
to would far better have been spread. in anticipation is wrong (see ELLIPSIS 6);
Unfortunately for this argument it to write Had we desired and were we in
would involve the consequence that anticipation, though legitimate, is not
You had far better done what I told only heavily formal, but also slightly
you must be legitimate, whereas we misleading, because it suggests two
all know that You had far better separate conditions whereas there is
have done is necessary. The solution only a single compound one. This
of the mystery lies in the peculiar common difficulty is best met by
nature of the phrase had better. You avoiding the inversion when there are
had better do it; It had better be done; parallel clauses; write here / / we had
You had better have done it; It had desired and were in anticipation.
better have been done; it will be granted
at once that these are correct, and that haem-, haem-, hem-. See fc, Œ. The
have cannot be omitted in the last two.
But why? Because the word had in this compounds are usually haem- in Brit-
phrase is not the mere auxiliary of ain and hem- in U.S.
mood or tense, but a true verb mean- hail, vb. H. fellow well met is now
ing find; You had better do it = You chiefly used as an adj., and should be,
would find to-do-it better; You had in that use, hail-fellow-well-met.
better have done it — You would find
to-have-done-it better.
hair-do. This now common com-
To return to the arrears of legislation pound noun has reached the dictiona-
sentence, those arrears would find to- ries, and deserves to supersede the
have-been-spread-over-the-previous- alien coiffure and to be written hairdo.
years far better, i.e. would have been
in a better state if they had been so half. 1 . A foot and a h., One and a h.
spread. This reminds us that there is feet. In all such mixed statements of
another possible way of arriving at integers and fractions (j\ mill., 3J
the same sense; The arrears would doz., 27 £ lb., etc.), the older and better
have been better if they had been form of speech is the first—a foot and
spread is compressible into The ar- ah., seven millions and a quarter, etc.
rears had been better spread; better In writing and printing, the obvious
then agrees with arrears, not with convenience of the second form, with
to-have-been-spread. But that the figures instead of words, and all figures
writer did not mean to take that way is naturally placed together, has made
proved by the impossible order 'had it almost universal. It is a pity that
better been' instead of 'had been speech should have followed suit; the
better' (cf., in Othello, Thou hadst been 1 i ft. of writing should be translated
better have been born a dog); he has in reading aloud into afoot and a half;
perhaps combined the two possible and when, as in literary contexts,
forms, one idiomatic, and the other at words and not figures are to be used,
least grammatical, into a third that is the old-fashioned seven millions and a
neither idiomatic, grammatical, nor quarter should not be changed into the
hallelujah 237 hamstringed
seven and a quarter millions that is only halliard. See HALYARD.
due to figure-writing. But perhaps the
cause is already lost; we certainly can- hallmark. For synonymy see SIGN.
not say a time and a half as large
instead of one and a half times. For halloo etc. The multiplicity of forms
sing, or pi. after one and a half, use is bewildering; there are a round dozen
pi. noun and sing. vb. One and a half at the least—hallo, halloa, halloo, hello,
months is allowed for completion. hillo, hilloa, holla, holler, hollo, holloa,
2. The intruding a. President Eisen- hollow, hullo. Holler may perhaps be
hower had a private meeting which put aside as an American verb, hillo
lasted a half an hour. / The industry and hilloa as archaic, and hollow as
could have produced a half a million confusable with another word. Hello,
tons more. / The six o'clock news formerly an Americanism, is now
follows in a half a minute. This vulgar- nearly as common as hullo in Britain,
ism seems to be getting curiously (Say who you are; do not just say 'hello'
common. is the warning given in our telephone
3. H. as much again is a phrase liable directories) and the Englishman can-
to misunderstanding or misuse. The not be expected to give up the right to
train fares in France were raised this say hello if he likes it better than his
year 2 5 % , and have again been in- native hullo. Subject to this, the best
creased by half as much again. That selection from the variants to provide
should mean by a further 3 7 | % , for an interjection, a noun, and a verb
making altogether 6 2 ^ % ; the reader is perhaps this : Hullo for the interjec-
is justified, though possibly mistaken, tion and for the noun as the name of
in suspecting that 12 £ (half as much, the interjection; halloo for the noun as
not half as much again) was meant, the name of a shout, and for the verb
making altogether 3 7 \ % instead of in dignified contexts; holla (with past
621. The phrase is better avoided in holla'd) for the verb in colloquial con-
favour of explicit figures when such texts. We thus get: Hullo! is that you?;
doubts can arise. See MORE 7 for He stopped short with a hullo; The
similar ambiguities. minstrel heard the far halloo; Do not
halloo until you are out of the wood; He
4. Half-world = demi-monde. See holla'd out something that I could not
GALLICISMS. catch. The forms hallo(a), holler, and
5. Better half = wife. See WORN-OUT hollo(a), would thus be got rid of as
HUMOUR. well as hillo(a), and hollow.
6. Half-weekly, -yearly, etc. For the
superiority of these to bi-weekly, bi- halo. PI. -oes, see -O(E)S I ; adj. halo'd,
annual, etc., see BI-. see -ED AND 'D.
7. Halfpennyworth is best written
ha'p'orth and pronounced ha'path but halyard, halliard. The first spell-
hâ'pnîworth is now often heard. ing is better, not on etymological
8. H. of it is, h. of them are, rotten. grounds, but as established by usage.
See NUMBER 6 (b). It is true that the original form
9. For half-breed, half-caste, see is holier or hallyer — the thing one
MULATTO I , 4 . hales with, and that -yard is no better
than a popular-etymology corruption;
hallelujah, alleluia, alleluya. 'Now but tilting against established perver-
more commonly written as in the A.V. sions (cf. AMUCK, and see DIDACTICISM)
of the O.T. hallelujah'—OED. That is vanity in more than one sense.
spelling is preserved in the H. Chorus,
but it is alleluia in Hymns Ancient and hamstringed, hamstrung. See the
Modern, and alleluya in the English discussion of FORECAST(ED). With h., no
Hymnal and Songs of Praise. In the doubt of the right form is possible; in
Book of Revelation A.V. and N.E.B. to hamstring, -string is not the verb
give alleluia and R.V. halleluja. string; we do not string the ham, but
hand 238 happening(s)
do something to the tendon called the hang. Past and p.p. hanged of the
hamstring; the verb, that is, is made capital punishment and in the impre-
not from the two words ham and string, cation; otherwise hung.
but from the noun hamstring', it must
therefore make hamstringed. On bow- hanging-up. The indicating of your
string vb, where the notion that -string grammatical subject and leaving it to
is verbal is not quite so obviously hang up and await your return from an
wrong, the OED says 'The past tense excursion is not common in modern
and p.p. ought to be bowstringed, but writing; it belongs rather to the old
bozvstrung is also found'. The case for days of the formal period. When a
hamstringed is still clearer, but ham- writer of today does try his hand at
strung is a strong rival, if it has not it, he is apt, being a novice in the
actually won. See also STRING, STRUNG. period style, to overdo things; the
subject and verb are here italicized for
hand. I . Hand and glove, h. in glove. the reader's assistance : 'A stockbroker
Both forms are common; the OED friend of the Z—s and of the Y—s, and
describes the second as 'later', and then Lord Z— himself, passed through
h. and glove gives best the original the box before the interest of the
notion, as familiar as a man's h. and audience, which had languished as
glove are, while h. in glove suggests, Lady Z— resumed her place at the
by confusion with h. in h. (which is Solicitors' table, and "Babs", in her
perhaps responsible for the in), that demure grey hat, with the bright
the h. and the glove belong to different cherries, and her deep white fichu,
persons. H. and glove is therefore to be struggled through the crowd from the
preferred, but h. in glove seems to be body of the Court in answer to the call
the popular choice. of ' 'Miss Z— X—' ', revived.' Hanging-
2 . At close h. Those zvho follow the up may also result, especially in OFFI-
intricacies of German internal policy at CIALESE, from a writer's failure to look
close h. are able to . . . seems to be an where he is going and just meandering
unidiomatic mixture of from close at h. along until he reaches the verb with a
and at close quarters. bump. 'The cases where a change in the
3. Get the better h. If the Imperial circumstances affecting the fire pre-
troops get the better h., the foreigners vention arrangements at the premises
would be in far greater danger similarly is such that, if the number of hours
stated in the certificate were recalcu-
mixes get the better of with get the lated, there would be a reduction (or
upper h. an increase) in the number of hours of
4 . Handful makes -Is; see -FUL. Fireguard duty which the members
handicap. The use of handicapped as concerned would be liable to perform
a euphemism descriptive of children for the local authority in whose area
not fully equipped mentally or physi- they reside, stand, however, in an en-
cally is recent. It has been criticized tirely different position/
as an unsuitable metaphor on the
ground that in the ordinary use of the haply. See WARDOUR STREET.
word in sport the competitor with the
greatest handicap will be the one with happening(s). It is only in the 20th c.
the greatest natural ability. This is that the word has set up for itself—i.e.
splitting hairs ; the usage is established has passed from a mere verbal noun
and convenient and the OED dates that anyone could make for the occa-
from 1823 the use of the word in the sion if he chose, but very few did
general sense of 'any encumbrance or choose, into a current noun requiring
disability that weighs upon effort'. a separate entry in the dictionaries.
There is nothing to be said against it
handsel, hansel. The OED gives on the score of correctness, but it is a
precedence to the first; h. makes -lied child of art and not of nature. It comes
etc., see - L L - , - L - . to us not from living speech, but from
hara-kiri 239 Harley Street
books; the writers have invented it, earned. / It must be remembered that
how far in SAXONISM {event is the Switzerland is not a rich country, and
English for it), and how far in NOVELTY- that she is hardly hit by the war. / That
HUNTING, is uncertain. We cannot help is the fruit of the hardly contested Octo-
laughing to see that, while the plain ber battles. For more examples of the
Englishman is content that events misuse of hardly see UNIDIOMATIC -LY.
should happen, the Saxonist on one 2 . Hardly . . . than. This, and scarcely
side requires that there should be ... than, are among the corruptions for
happenings, and the anti-Saxonist on which ANALOGY is responsible; hardly
the other that things should eventuate. . . . when (or before) means the same as
The purpose of the quotations ap- no sooner . . . than, and the than that
pended is to suggest that the use of the fits no sooner ousts the when that fits
word is an unworthy literary or jour- hardly. The OED marks the phrases
nalistic affectation : There was, first of (under than) with the § of condemna-
all, one little happening which I think tion; but the mistake is so obvious that
began the new life. / Mr. William Moore it should not need pointing out. It is,
{who has up to now played singularly however, surprisingly common: The
little part in recent happenings) said... / crocuses had hardly come into bloom
So clear and vivid are his descriptions in the London parks than they were
that we can almost see the happenings as swooped upon by London children. /
he relates them, j There have been Scarcely had they arrived at their
fears expressed of terrible happenings quarters on Ruhleben racecourse than
to crowded liners. their relations came to visit them.
3. For without hardly, see WITHOUT 4 .
hara-kiri. Pronounce -kï'rï. The Equally bad is no — h., as in There is
popular form hari-kari is a blunder. no industry h. which cannot be regarded
as a key industry. There is h. any is the
harbour. See PORT. English.
hardly. I . Hardly, hard. i. Hardly Harley Street. One would naturally
. . . than. 3. Without h., no — hardly. suppose a Harley Street physician to be
1. Hardly, hard. Except in the sense one who has a consulting room in that
scarcely, the idomatic adverb of hard street. But those who use the phrase
is hard, not hardly : 'We worked hard, (mostly journalists) clearly do not in-
lodged hard, and fared hard'—DeFoe. tend it to have so narrow a connotation.
It is true that in special cases hardly Harley Street is only one of numerous
must be substituted, or may be, as in streets lying within that part of the
What is made slowly, hardly, and hon- borough of St. Marylebone from
estly earned—Macaulay; if Macaulay which it has long been customary for
had not wanted a match for his two most London consultants to practise;
other adverbs in -ly, he would doubt- there is also for instance the no less
less have written hard. But there is now important Wimpole Street—'that long
a tendency, among those who are not unlovely street' where Tennyson used
conversant enough with grammar to to call on Arthur Hallam and Brown-
know whether they may venture to ing on Elizabeth Barrett. Perhaps the
print what they would certainly say, part is used as a name for the whole
to amend hard into hardly and make (an example of SYNECDOCHE) ; if so the
the latter the normal wording. It is attribute signifies no more than that
even more advisable with hard than the person to whom it is applied is a
with other such adverbs to avoid the -ly consultant practising in London and
alternative, since, as the following quo- therefore probably to be found in that
tations show, a misunderstood hardly district. But it seems to be generally
will reverse the sense : For attendance intended to imply the enjoyment of a
on the workhouse he receives £105 ayear, fashionable and lucrative practice. To
which, under the circumstances, is hardly give it that meaning is to ascribe to
harmony 240 haziness
Harley Street an exclusiveness it have. 1 . No legislation ever has or ever
never possessed. In any case it is a will affect their conduct. For this com-
foolish and misleading phrase that we mon mistake see ELLIPSIS 2 .
could well do without. 2 . Some Liberals would have pre-
ferred to have wound up the Session
harmony, melody, counterpoint. before rising. For this mistake see PER-
When the first two words are used not FECT INFINITIVE 2 .
in the general sense, which either 3. For if the Turks had reason to
can bear, of musical sound, but believe that they were meditating the
as the names of distinct elements in forcible seizure of Tripoli, it was not to
music, h. means 'the combination of be expected that facilities for extending
simultaneous notes so as to form Italian influence would readily have
chords'—OED, and m. 'a series of been accorded. Would have been, as
single notes arranged in musically ex- often happens, is wrongly substituted
pressive succession'—OED. C. means for would be.
the combination of a melody with one 4 . For does not have etc. instead of
or more other melodies. has not etc., see DO 2 , and for the
wrong use of do as a substitute for
harness. Him that putteth on his h. is have see DO 3.
a MISQUOTATION (girdeth).
haven. See PORT
hart, stag, buck, hind, doe. The haver. Almost all Englishmen, misled
following definitions based on the by the picture this word conjures up of
OED will make the distinctions clear : simultaneous hovering and wavering,
Hart—The male of the deer, esp. of think it means to vacillate, and per-
the red deer; a stag; spec, a male deer sist in so using it to the indignation
after its fifth year. of the Scots, who know that its true
Stag—The male of a deer, esp. of the meaning is to blather, not to swither.
red deer; spec, a hart or male deer of
the fifth year. hay. Look for a needle in a bottle of h.
Buck—The he-goat, obs. . . . The Thus is the original form of the saying,
male of the fallow-deer. (In early use bottle being a different word from the
perh. the male of any kind of d e e r . ) . . . familiar one, and meaning truss; but
The male of certain other animals having become unintelligible it is
resembling deer or goats, as the rein- usually changed into bundle of hay or
deer, chamois. In S. Africa (after haystack.
Dutch bok) any animal of the antelope
kind. Also, the male of the hare, the haziness. By this is meant a writer's
rabbit, and the ferret. failure to make a clear line between
Hind—The female of the deer, esp. different members of a sentence or
of the red deer; spec, a female deer in clause, with the result that they run
and after its third year. into one another. If he does not
Doe—The female of the fallow deer; know the exact content of what he
applied also to the female of allied has set down or is about to set down,
animals, as the reindeer The female either the word or words that he is
of the hare, rabbit, and ferret. now writing will not fit without
overlapping, or a gap will be left be-
ha(u)lm, haunch, haunt. The -aw- tween them. This sounds so obvious
sound has prevailed over the variant that it may seem hardly worth an
-ah-. article; but even the more flagrant
transgressions of the principle are so
hautboy, oboe. Pronounce hô'boi, numerous as to make it plain that a
c'bô', they are adapted spellings, obso- warning is called for. Those more
lete and current respectively, of the flagrant transgressions are illustrated
French hautbois. first.
he 241 headline language
It is a pity that an account of American where him is required is, however,
activities in aircraft production cannot much commoner in print. The mis-
yet be described (overlapping; account is take occurs when the pronoun is to
contained in described', omit an account stand in some out-of-the-way or
of, or change described to given), j The emphatic position; it looks as if
need of some effort, a joint effort if writers, pulled up for a moment by
possible, is an urgent necessity for all the the unusual, hastily muttered to
interests concerned (need and necessity themselves 'Heedless of grammar,
overlap). / It is almost incomprehensible they all cried "That's him!"', and
to believe at present that such works as thanked God they had remembered to
his Five Orchestral Pieces can ever put 'he' : The bell will be always rung by
undergo such a total change of character he who has the longest purse and the
as to . . .(to believe is part of the con- strongest arm. / The distinction between
tent of incomprehensible). / The welfare the man who gives with conviction and
of the poor and needy was a duty that he who is simply buying a title. / One of
devolved especially on those who had a its most notable achievements was the
seat in that House (gap; it is not the virtual 'warning off' Newmarket Heathy
welfare, but the securing of the wel- though not in so many words, of a Prince
fare, that is a duty). / The mischief of Wales, he who was afterwards George
aimed at by the Act was to prevent the Fourth, j Even Dickens, usually
members of local authorities who had impeccable in points of grammar, was
occasion to enter into contracts from tempted into writing Clennam had
being exposed to temptation. (The mis- never seen anything like his magnani-
chief aimed at was the exposure to mous protection by that other Father,
temptation, not its prevention). / The he of the Marshalsea. See CASES 3 c,
rather heavy expense of founding it could SHE 2 , and THEY 4 .
have been more usefully spent in other
ways (spend money; incur expense). / headline language. It would be un-
Hitherto the only way of tackling the reasonable to criticize headlines for not
evil was by means of prohibiting the conforming to literary standards, or
exportation from certain places (way and even for lacking any grammatical struc-
means overlap; the only way of tackling ture. If sometimes there is a touch of
was to prohibit ; it could only be tackled vulgarity in them, that is not likely
by means of). to lessen their appeal to the average
Certain words seem to lend them- newspaper reader. If they should occa-
selves especially to this sort of hazi- sionally convey no immediate mean-
ness, as AGO with since, BUT with ing, they are the more likely to excite
superfluous negative, PREFERABLE with curiosity about the articles they profess
more, REASON and CAUSE with BECAUSE to describe, and so to serve as a cor-
Or DUE, REMAIN w i t h CONTINUE, SEEM rective of the habit of relying wholly
with appear and TOO illogical. Exam- on newspaper headlines for a know-
ples will be found under the words ledge of what is happening in the
printed in small capitals. See also world. It is not beyond guessing that
LEGERDEMAIN a n d PLEONASM. JOBLESS JUMPS means that there
has been an increase in unemployment,
he. We all claim, by quoting The Jack- or that POLIO JABS FOR ALL
daw of Rheims, to know the grammar means that vaccine against poliomye-
of he and him, and perhaps have thus litis is to be available for everyone. But
paradoxically helped That's him to the it is not self-evident that PAIRS
status of idiomatic spoken English SWITCH RIDDLE OF 38 MAJOR-
it has now won. Nevertheless a less ITY refers to an allegation that a drop
pardonable him occasionally appears; in the government's majority to 38 was
for instance : It might have been him and due to the failure of certain members
not President Wilson who said the other of parliament to observe their pairing
day that. . . The tendency to use he arrangements, or that W. H. SMITH
headline language 242 Hebrew
OFFER SUCCESS means that an These tricks, when allowed to affect
issue of shares by that company has literary style, destroy both precision
been over-subscribed, or that THREE and elegance ; sentences stumble along
AFRICA PROBE CHAIRS STILL painfully and obscurely in synthetic
EMPTY means that three members lumps instead of running easily and
have still to be appointed to the Com- lucidly with analytical grace. The cor-
mission on Central African Federation, ruption has gone far, affecting espe-
or that CLUBS RAP SOCCER cially political speeches, official writ-
PROBE is shorthand for 'The chair- ing, and commercialese. Examples,
men of the League Clubs regard the with tentative translations, are : Where
Football League's inquiry into the retirement dissatisfaction existed ad-
state of English association football as vance activity programming had been
little more than an impertinent intru- insignificant. (The people who were
sion into their authority'. The people unhappy after retirement were those
who devise the headlines may be pre- who had taken little trouble to plan
sumed to know their job. But when their activities beforehand.) / Major
the peculiarities of headline language vehicle expansion projects must^ depend
begin to corrupt literary style it be- on steel availability. (Major projects for
comes a matter of public interest, and expanding the production of vehicles
protest is legitimate. must depend on how much steel is
The main peculiarities are two; both available.) / See also ABSTRACTITIS,
come from the need to economize HYPHENS 5 , NOUN ADJECTIVES, a n d
space. One is the constant use of short PREPOSITION DROPPING.
general-purpose words, mostly worn so
smooth with over-use that any precise heap. There are heaps more to say, but
meaning they may once have had has I must not tax your space further. Are,
been obliterated. Thus bid stands for or is} see NUMBER 6.
any form of human effort, ban for any
sort of restriction or prohibition, cut or heave. Past and p.p. heaved or hove.
slash for a reduction in prices or wages They are to some extent differentiated.
or anything else, QUIZ for any kind of He heaved a sigh as he hove in sight. /
interrogation, especially by the police The boat was hove to and the anchor
(who are cops if constables and sleuths if heaved overboard.
detectives), and swoop for the activity
that may have preceded it. Any violent Hebrew, Israeli, Israelite, Jew,
accident to a vehicle is a crash; to Semite. Persons to whom all these
criticize is to rap; all agreements words are applicable are thought of by
and treaties are pacts; all ambassa- the modern Englishman as Jews; if he
dors and others on a mission abroad uses in speech one of the other words
are envoys; couples may be wed but instead of Jew, it is for some reason,
never married, and one may quit one's known or possibly unknown to himself.
occupation but not abandon or resign He may be deliberately discarding Jew
it. The other peculiarity is the in favour of whichever of the others
omission of articles and conjunctions he first thinks of, and that either at
and prepositions, leading, especially the bidding of ELEGANT VARIATION or
the last, to a monstrous abuse of our NOVELTY-HUNTING or facetiousness, or
ancient and valuable right to use for the better reason that Jew has cer-
nouns as attributive adjectives. MAC- tain traditional associations, such as
MILLAN REFUSES BANK usury or anti-Christianity, that are un-
RATE RISE LEAK PROBE will suited to the context. Or on the other
serve as an illustration, PROBE is the hand he may be not merely avoiding
general-purpose headline word for an Jew, but choosing one rather than
investigation or inquiry, and the use another of the alternatives for its own
of bank-rate, rise, and leak as attribu- sake. Hebrew suggests the pastoral
tive adjectives saves three prepositions. and patriarchal, or again the possession
hecatomb 243 hedonist
of a language and a literature ; Israelite usage colloquial; the COD has down-
the Chosen People and the theocracy graded it to slang. Now a h. flush is one
and him in whom was no guile ; Israeli that is accounted for not, like other
a citizen of the modern state of Israel flushes, by exceptional and temporary
and Zionist one who was active in the vigour or emotion, but by the habit
founding of it; Hebraism scholarship (Gk. l£is) of body called consumption.
and Judaism strict religious observ- The nearest parallel to this queer
ance; Semite the failure of a nation development seems to be the use of
to assimilate its Jews. The fact re- CHRONIC for severe, the only difference
mains that Jew is the current word, being that while that is confined to the
and that if we mean to substitute uneducated or facetious this has had
another for it, it is well to know the luck to capture a wider area.
why we do so. A remark or two of the
OED bearing on the distinctions may hecto-. See CENTI-.
be added: (On Hebrew) 'Historically,
the term is usually applied to the early hedonist, Cyrenaic, epicurean,
Israelites ; in modern use it avoids the utilitarian. The first (literally, 'ad-
religious and other associations often herent of pleasure') is a general name
attaching to Jew' (it is also the only for the follower of any philosophy, or
word for the language, ancient or any system of ethics, in which the end
modern) ; (on Jew) 'Applied compara- or the summum bonum or highest good
tively rarely to the ancient nation be- is stated as (in whatever sense) plea-
fore "the Exile, but the commonest sure.
name for contemporary or modern The Cyrenaic (follower of Aristippus
representatives of the race; almost of Cyrene) is the hedonist in the word's
always connoting their religion and natural acceptation—the pleasure-
other characteristics which distinguish
them from the people among whom seeker who only differs from the ordi-
they live, and thus often opposed to nary voluptuary by being aware, as a
Christian, and (esp. in early use) ex- philosopher, that the mental and moral
pressing a more or less opprobrious pleasures are pleasanter than those of
sense'. the body.
The epicurean (follower of Epi-
curus), bad as his popular reputation
hecatomb. Pronounce -dm. The word is, rises above the Cyrenaic by identi-
has no connexion with tomb : it comes fying pleasure, which remains nomi-
from the Greek ZKCLTOV — 100 and nally his summum bonumy with the
jSoù? = ox, and means the sacrifice of practice of virtue.
a large number of victims, originally The utilitarian (follower of Bentham
a hundred oxen. and J. S. Mill), by a still more sur-
prising development, while he remains
hectic. For a h. moment. / M. Coué faithful to pleasure, understands by it
was taken up by some of our h. papers, not his own, but that of mankind—
and then dropped because he did not do the greatest happiness of the greatest
what he never professed to do. / They number.
have got pretty well used to the h. undu- It will be seen that the hedonist um-
lations of the mark. The blossoming of brella is a broad one, covering very
h. into a VOGUE WORD, meaning ex- different persons. Both the epicurean
cited, rapturous, intense, impassioned, and the utilitarian have suffered some
wild, uncontrolled, and the like, is wrong in popular usage; it has been
very singular. The OED (1901) shows generally ignored that for Epicurus
hardly a trace of it, and explains its one pleasure consisted in the practice of
quotation of the kind ('vehement and virtue. We now apply epicure to one
h. feeling') as an allusion to the h. flush who is given to refined enjoyment of
—no doubt rightly. The 1933 Supp. food and drink; and the utilitarian
adds several examples and calls the is unjustly supposed (on the foolish
hegemony 244 help
ground that what is useful is not sense is almost the same as that of
beautiful and that beauty is of no seeming, though with slightly less im-
use) to rate the bulldozer higher plication that the appearance and the
than Paradise Lost. It may be worth reality are different; apparent in this
while to quote the OED's statement sense means much the same as pre-
of 'the distinctive doctrines of Epi- sumptive, but in the other something
curus:—i. That the highest good very different; hence the error.
is pleasure, which he identified with
the practice of virtue. 2 . That the heliotrope. The prefixes heli- and
gods do not concern themselves at helio- are from different Greek words,
all with men's affairs. 3. That the eXt^ — twisted and ijXiov = sun. The
external world resulted from a for- Greek value of the initial vowel is
tuitous concourse of atoms'. ordinarily retained in the English com-
pounds (e.g. helicopter, heliograph) ; for
hegemony. The pronunciation hêgë'- heliotrope, however (the plant that
tnônï is recommended; see GREEK G. turns to the sun), though the dictiona-
ries recognised the long e, the short is
hegira. Pronounce hë'jïra (not ir'a). more usual, and is the pronunciation
heinous is a word that those who approved by the experts who in 1928
speak it find exceptionally puzzling. drew up recommendations to the BBC
Hâ- hé- and ht- may all be heard, about the pronunciation of some
sometimes, for greater variety, with a doubtful words.
terminal -ious instead of ~ous. H à- is hellebore. Pronounce hë'lïbôr.
right.
heir. H. apparent, h. presumptive. Hellene, Hellenic etc. The function
These phrases are often used, when of these words in English, beside Greek
there is no occasion for either and heir etc., is not easy to define; but the use
alone would suffice, merely because of them is certainly increasing. They
they sound imposing and seem to im- were formerly scholars' words, little
ply familiarity with legal terms. And used except by historians, and by
those who use them for such reasons persons concerned not so much with
sometimes give themselves away as Greeks in themselves as with the effects
either supposing them to be equivalent of Greek culture on the development
or not knowing which is which. Thus : of civilization in the world {Hellenism).
By the tragedy of the death of the Crown With the modern spread of education,
Prince Rudolph in 1889 the Archduke the words have been popularized in
Ferdinand became the Heir Apparent to such connexions (e.g. H. cruise, H.
the throne. Rudolph, it is true, was heir games, H. Journal). At the same time
apparent; but by his death no one the national aspirations of Greek irre-
could become h. a. except his child or dentists called newspaper attention
younger brother (whereas Ferdinand to pan-Hellenism and to the name by
was his cousin), since the Emperor which the Greeks and their king call
might yet conceivably have a son who themselves; so that the proportion
would displace anyone else. An h. a. is of people to whom Greek means some-
one whose title is indefeasible by any thing, and Hellene and Hellenic nothing,
possible birth; anh. p. is one who will is smaller than it was. Nevertheless,
lose his position if an h. a. is born. Greek remains the English word, into
Mistakes are no doubt due to the whose place the Greek words should
double sense of the word apparent. Its not be thrust without special justifica-
tion. See also GRECIAN, GREEK.
old sense, retained in h. a., and still
possible elsewhere in literary use, but
avoided for fear of confusion with the hello. See HALLOO.
other and prevailing sense, is manifest help, n. For help = servant see
or unquestionable. But the current
DOMESTIC.
help 245 Herculean
help, v. Than, and as, one can help. h e m - . See HAEM-, HAEMORRHAGE, and
Don't sneeze more than you can help, &, Œ.
Sneeze as little as you can h., are to
be classed as STURDY INDEFENSIBLES. hempen. See -EN ADJECTIVES.
Those who refrain from the indefen-
sible, however sturdy it may be, have no hendiadys. The expressing of a com-
difficulty in correcting: Don't sneeze pound notion by giving its two consti-
more than you must, Sneeze as little tuents as though they were indepen-
as you can. Out of Don't sneeze if you dent and connecting them with a
can help it is illogically developed conjunction instead of subordinating
Don't sneeze more than you can help, one to the other, as 'pour libation from
which would be logical, though not bowls and from gold' — from bowls of
attractive, if cannot were written for gold. Chiefly a poetic ornament in
can. And out of Don't sneeze more than Greek and Latin, and little used in
you can help by a further blunder English; but 'nice and warm', 'try and
comes Sneeze as little as you can help ; do better', 'grace and favour', instead
a further blunder, because there is not of 'nicely warm', 'try to do better',
a mere omission of a negative—'you 'gracious favour', are true examples. It
cannot help' does not mend the matter should be noticed that such combina-
—but a failure to see that can without tions as brandy and soda, assault and
help is exactly what is wanted : the full battery, might and main, toil and moil,
form would be Sneeze as little as you spick and span, stand and deliver, since
can sneeze little, not as you either can, their two parts are on an equal footing
or cannot, keep from sneezing. The and not in sense subordinate one to
OED, which stigmatizes the idiom as the other, do not fit the name, and
'erroneous', quotes Newman for it: should not be called by it. See SIAMESE
Your name shall occur again as little as TWINS.
I can help, in the course of these pages
(where as little as may be would have her. 1. Case. For questions of her and
done, or, more clumsily, if the / is she, see SHE, and cf. HE.
wanted, as little as I can let it). A future 2 . For questions of her and hers (e.g.
edition of the OED will be able to add Her and his tasks differ), see ABSOLUTE
Sir Winston Churchill to the defenders POSSESSIVES.
of this sturdy indefensible : They will 3. For her and she in irresolute or
not respect more than they can help illegitimate personifications (e.g. The
treaties extracted from them under United States has given another proof
duress. of its determination to uphold her
neutrality. / Danish sympathy is writ
Another indefensible use of help, not large over all her newspapers), see
yet, we may hope, too sturdy for its PERSONIFICATION.
growth to be checked, is the expression
cannot help but be, a curious confusion Herculean. The normal sound of
between cannot help being and cannot words in -eon is with the -e- accented
but be. I When we look back over past and long; so Periclê'an, Cythere'an,
ages . . . we cannot help but be impressed Sophoclê'an, Medicë'an, Tacitë'an,
with the supreme difficulties our an- pygmë'an, and scores of others. Of
cestors had to overcome . . . I cannot words which, like Herculean, vacillate
help feeling.... / The speaker's second between this sound and that given by
thoughts were clearly right. shifting the accent back and making
the -e- equivalent to 1, most develop a
helpmate, helpmeet. The OED's second spelling to suit; so Caesarean
remark on the latter is: A compound or Caesarian, cyclopean or -pian, Aris-
absurdly formed by taking the two totelean or -Han. Herculean, like pro-
words help meet in Gen. ii. 18, 20 ('an tean, changes its sound without a
help meet for him', i.e. a help suitable change of spelling; and many people
for him) as one word. in consequence doubt how the words
heredity 246 hinge
should be said. Hercule'an seems now hesitance, hesitancy, hesitation.
to be commoner and there is nothing The last has almost driven out the
against it; on the contrary its ponder- others; -ce may be regarded as obso-
ousness seems to suit the meaning lete, but -cy is still occasionally con-
better than Hereu'lïan does. But Her- venient when what is to be expressed is
cu'ltan is not a modern blunder to be not the act or fact of hesitating, but the
avoided; it has long-standing authority. tendency to do so. Two examples from
In the only three verse quotations the OED will illustrate: She rejected
given by the OED, -ë'an is twice im- it without hesitation. / That perpetual
possible, and once unlikely: hesitancy which belongs to people whose
Robust but not Herculean—to the intelligence and temperament are at
sight variance.
No giant frame sets forth his common
height.—Byron Hibernian differs from Irish(man) as
Let mine out-woe me; mine's Hercu- GALLIC from French, and is of the
nature of POLYSYLLABIC HUMOUR.
lean woe.—Mar s ton
So rose the Danite strong, hiccup makes -uping, -uped; see -P-,
Herculean Samson, from the harlot- -pp-. The spelling -ough is a perversion
lap of popular etymology, and 'should be
Of Philistean Dalilah.—Milton abandoned as a mere error'—OED.
heredity. The word is now used, by hide, vb. P.p. hidden or hid, the latter
good writers, only in the biological still not uncommon.
sense, i.e. the tendency of like to beget
like. The extract below, where it has highbrow. See INTELLIGENT, INTEL-
been substituted for descent solely be- LECTUAL.
cause descendant is to follow, illustrates
well what happens when zeal for ELE- highly. 1 . It should be remembered
GANT VARIATION is not tempered by that high is an adverb as well as highly,
discretion : The Aga Khan .. .is unique and better in many contexts; e.g. It is
because of his heredity—he is a lineal best to pay your men high; High-yielding
descendant of the Prophet Mohammed— securities', see UNIDIOMATIC -LY. 2 .
though he is more noteworthy because of Though highly in the sense to a high
his being the leader of the neo-Moslems. degree is often unobjectionable
(a highly contentious question', highly
hermetically. This word is now so farmed land), it, like DISTINCTLY, some-
constant a partner of sealed that one times suggests, when used with adjec-
would almost suppose sealing that was tives of commendation, a patronizing air
not hermetic to be a botched job, just (a highly entertaining performance), and
as a part seems no longer to be a part is best avoided in such connexions by
unless it is integral or a danger a danger those who wish to give genuine praise.
unless it is real. The word is not de-
rived from the Greek god Hermes. He hillo(a). See HALLOO.
had remarkable talents—before he was
a day old he had invented a musical him. See HE.
instrument and done some cattle- hind, deer. See HART.
rustling—but it was his Egyptian
counterpart Thoth, or Hermes Tris- hindsight, originally another name
megistos, that was the specialist in for the backsight of a rifle, acquired
magic and alchemy whose skill in its figurative use towards the end of
fusing metals enabled him to make the 19th c. and has become deservedly
airtight containers. popular for the quality that finds ex-
pression in being wise after the event.
h e r r . See MYNHEER. Write as one word.
h e r s . See ABSOLUTE POSSESSIVES. hinge, vb., makes hinging; see MUTE E.
hippopotamus 247 hoist
hippopotamus. PI. -muses better than son. The following quotation shows
-mi. See -us. the word in a quite different sense, in
which it would not have been worth
his. I . A graceful raising of one's hand inventing—why not accuracy} If it
to his hat. For the question between is given two or more senses liable
his and one's in such positions, see to be confused it loses the only
ONE 7 . merit it ever had—that of express-
2 . The member for Morpeth has long ing a definite compound notion un-
been held in the highest respect by all mistakably in a single word: He is
who value sterling character and whole- compelled to speak chiefly of what he
hearted service in the cause of his fel- considers to be exceptions to St. Paul's
lows. For this type of mistake see strict historicity and fairness; and he
PRONOUNS. tells us that he is far from intending to
historic(al). The DIFFERENTIATION imply that the Apostle is usually un-
between the two forms has reached historical or unfair.
the stage at which it may fairly be said hither, described by the OED as 'now
that the use of one in a sense now only literary', is even in literature, out-
generally expressed by the other is side of verse, almost disused. ('Now
a definite backsliding. The ordinary usually here* says the COD). It is
adjective of history is historical; historic still tolerable, perhaps, in one position,
means memorable, or assured of a i.e. as the first word in an inverted sen-
place in history, now in common use tence following a description of the
as an epithet for buildings worthy of place referred to—Hither flocked all the
preservation for their beauty or in- . . . Elsewhere, it produces the effect of
terest; historical should not be substi- wARDOUR STREET English, being used
tuted for it in that sense. The only mainly by the unpractised writers who
other function retained by historic is bring out their best English when they
in the grammarians' technical terms write to the newspapers. The same is
historic tenses, moods, sequence, present, true of thither; but, as often happens
etc., in which it preserves the notion with stereotyped phiases, hither and
appropriate to narration of the past, thither retains the currency that its
especially in the expression h. present, separate elements have lost. See SIAM-
a device for imparting vividness to a ESE TWINS.
narrative which is not now so popular hock, hough. Except in Scotland, the
with story-tellers as it once was. older spelling hough is now pronounced
Although both adjectives are now like hock, which 'has largely super-
always aspirated when not preceded seded' it (OED) in spelling also; it is
by the indefinite article, the use of an better to abandon the old spelling.
with them lingers curiously. See A, AN.
hodge-podge. See HOTCHPOT(CH).
historicity. The earliest OED ex-
ample of this ugly word is dated 1880; hoi polloi. These Greek words for the
but, being effective in imparting a majority, ordinary people, the man in
learned air to statements intended to the street, the common herd, etc.,
impress the unlearned, it has had a meaning literally 'the many', are
rapid success, and is now common. It equally uncomfortable in English
has, however, a real use as a single whether the (= hoi) is prefixed to
word for the phrase historical existence, them or not. The best solution is to
i.e. the having really existed or taken eschew the phrase altogether, but it is
place in history as opposed to mere unlikely to be forgotten as long as
legend or literature. To this sense, in Iolanthe is played. ' ' Twould fill with
which it makes for brevity, it should joy and madness stark the Hoi Polloi
be confined. The historicity of St. Paul (a Greek remark)'.
should mean the fact that, or the ques- hoist was originally a variant past par-
tion whether, St. Paul was a real per- ticiple of the now obsolete verb hoise.
holla 248 homophone
Both it and hoised were current at the equivalent in meaning and use, are
turn of the 16th c. "fis sport to see the rare, and the word is applied more
engineer hoist with his own petard (i.e. frequently to pairs or sets in which
blown up by his own bomb), Hamlet the equivalence is partial only; see
III. iv. 206. / When they had hoised the SYNONYMS.
mainsail to the wind, Acts xxvii. 40. At
the same time hoist was already in use homophone. 'When two or more
as a verb in its own right: Shall they words different in origin and significa-
hoist me up and show me to the shouting tion are pronounced alike, whether
variety of censuring Rome? Ant. and Cl. they are alike or not in their spelling,
V. iii. 5 5 . they are said to be homophonous, or
homophones of each other. Such words
holla, holler, hollo(a), hollow. See if spoken are of ambiguous significa-
HALLOO. tion.' This definition opens Robert
Bridges's essay on English Homo-
Holland. See NETHERLANDS. phones published in 1919 as Tract II
h o m e , n., makes homy, not homey; of the newly formed Society for Pure
see -EY AND -Y. The adverbial use of English. He went on to emphasize that
home in the sense of at home (/ shall true homophones must be different
stay home) is an Americanism; in the words that have, or have acquired, an
sense of to home (/ shall go home) it is illogical fortuitous identity of sound;
idiomatic in both countries. See PRE- the term should not be applied to
POSITION DROPPING.
words that were originally the same but
have acquired different meanings, even
h o m o - etc. The prefixes homoeo- (as though they may be spelt differently.
in homoeopath), homoio- (as in homo- For instance draft and draught, both
iousian), and, much more common, meaning something drawn (however
homo- (as in homosexual) are all from different a thing), are not homophones
the Greek word meaning same; it is a as are air and heir, son and sun, vane
vulgar error to suppose that in the and vein.
last it comes from the Latin homo = Of homophones thus defined Bridges
man. In all these compounds except compiled lists containing 835 entries
homoeopath etc. the first 0 is short in involving about 1,775 words, and on
English, as in Greek. this evidence he submitted and argued
the following propositions : that homo-
homonym, synonym. Any con- phones are a nuisance ; that English is
fusion between the two is due to the exceptionally burdened with them;
fact that s. is a word of rather loose that they are self-destructive and tend
meaning. Broadly speaking, homo- to become obsolete; that this loss
nyms are separate words that happen threatens to impoverish the language,
to be identical in form, and synonyms and that the 'South English dialect'
are separate words that happen to (now often called the 'Received Pro-
mean the same thing. Pole, a shaft or nunciation') is a direct and chief cause
stake, is a native English word; pole, of homophones by its smudging of
the terminal point of an axis, is bor- unaccented vowels (e.g. lesson and
rowed from Greek; the words, then, lessen), the loss of trilled r (e.g. source
are two and not one, but being identi- and sauce), and the failure to pro-
cal in form are called homonyms. On nounce the h in wh- (e.g. whether and
the other hand cat, the animal, and cat, weather).
the flogging instrument, though they For some later trends in English
are identical in form and mean differ- pronunciation, which on the whole
ent things, are not separate words, but Bridges might have thought faintly
one word used in two senses; they are encouraging, see the articles PRONUN-
therefore not homonyms. True syno- CIATION, RECEIVED PRONUNCIATION,
nyms, i.e. separate words exactly and RECESSIVE ACCENT.
hon. 249 hope
hon. That this prefix may be an that one deserves more honour for break-
abbreviation of either honourable or ing than for keeping ; but it is almost
honorary is a source of some confusion always quoted in the wrong and very
to foreigners. It stands for honourable different sense of a dead letter or rule
in reports of debates in the House of more often broken than kept. So: The
Commons, where members may not Act forbids entirely the employment of
be referred to by name, except by the boys . . . (by way of trade or for the
Speaker, but must be called the honour- purpose of gain'. Therefore, unless the
able member for . . . (hon. and gallant if Act be honoured more in its breach than
a member of the Armed Forces, hon. in its observance, the cherubic choirboy
and learned if a lawyer). It stands for . . . is likely . . . to be missing from his
honorary when prefixed to the holder accustomed place in cathedral and
of an office (hon. secretary, hon. trea- church. For similar mistakes, see MIS-
surer, etc.) and indicates that he is APPREHENSIONS.
unpaid. As an abbreviation of honour-
able it is also a courtesy title of the hoof. PI. -fs, sometimes -ves; see
sons and daughters of viscounts and -VE(D).
barons and of the younger sons of hope. In the OED, the examples illus-
earls, as well as of the holders of cer- trating the use of the verb are nearly 60
tain high offices, especially Puisne in number; of all these not a single one
Judges in England and Lords of Ses- bears the slightest resemblance or gives
sion in Scotland. (Privy Councillors any hint of support to any of the sen-
and peers below the rank of marquess tences here to be quoted. This seems
are right honourable; so are Lords worth mention as showing how mod-
Justices of Appeal, the Lord Mayor of ern these uses are; in 1901, the date of
London, and the Lord Provost of H in the OED, they could apparently
Edinburgh and a few other civic digni- be ignored. That they were not quite
taries ; marquesses are most honourable non-existent even then is shown by
and a duke his grace.) The Hon., when
used as a courtesy title, requires the the fact that one of the offenders
person's Christian name or initial, not quoted below is Emerson, but it may
his surname alone (the Hon. James ovj. be safely assumed that they were rare ;
Brown, not the Hon. Brown), a com- nowadays the newspapers are full of
mon mistake is to suppose that the them and have been for years.
Christian name is unnecessary before First, two examples of the passive use
a double-barrelled surname. The same of hope which has naturally followed
applies to the prefixes REVEREND and SIR. the similar use of fear discussed in the
article DOUBLE PASSIVES: NO greater
thrill can be hoped to be enjoyed by
honeyed, honied. The first is better. the most persistent playgoer of today
honorarium. PI. -turns or -ia. The than . . . I There was a full flavour
COD follow the OED in still giving about the Attorney-General's speech
precedence to the pronunciation with against him in the Assize Court at
a sounded h. This, and the pi. -ia% Launceston which cannot be hoped to
seem proper tributes to the word as a be revived in these indifferent times.
distinguished foreigner but there is Secondly, ANALOGY has been at work,
now no hope that it can retain the h and as hope and expect are roughly
sound that all other words beginning similar in sense, the construction
honor- have dropped. proper to one (/ expect them to succeed)
is transferred to the other (I hope them
hono(u)r. 1 . Keep the -u-; but see to succeed, whence They are hoped to
-OUR AND -OR. 2 . A custom more succeed) with which it is far from
honoured in the breach than the obser- proper; so: / need not say, how wide
vance. Whoever will look up the the same law ranges, and how much it
passage (Hamlet I. iv. 16) will see that can be hoped to effect. / In the form of
it means, beyond a doubt, a custom a bonus intended to cover the rise, hoped
hopeless 250 hovel
to be temporary, in the cost of living. / horse makes horsy, not horsey, see -EY
A luncheon at which the King is hoped AND - Y .
to be present. But the notion that,
because hope means hopefully expect, hose (stockings) is archaic, or a shop
therefore it can have the construction name.
that that phrase might have is utterly
at variance with the facts of language. hospitable. The stress should be on
Thirdly, writers have taken a fancy hos-, not on -pit-. For doubtful cases of
to playing tricks with 'it is hoped', and such stress see RECESSIVE ACCENT, but
working it into the sentence as an es- the stress on hos- is as old as Shake-
sential part of its grammar instead of speare and Drayton (lines quoted in
as a parenthesis; the impersonal it is OED).
omitted, and is (or are) hoped is forced hospitaller is better than -aler; see
into connexion with the subject of the -LL-, - L - .
sentence, with deplorable results. See
also IT i. The final arrangements for hotchpot,hotchpotch,hodgepodge,
what is hoped will prove a 'monster hotpot. The first is nearest to the
demonstration'. / Who has held two of original form (Fr. hochepot = shake-
the most distinguished positions under pot) ; 2 , 3, and possibly 4, are succes-
the Crown, and whose self-sacrificing sive corruptions dictated by desire for
services for the Empire may be hoped expressiveness or meaning when the
even yet not to be at an end. In the real sense was forgotten. Hotpot is
first example, it should be re- standard in cookery; for other purposes
instated; in the second, read are not hotchpotch is now the prevailing form,
even yet, it may be hoped, at an end. and it would be best if the two later
ones might perish. Hotchpot, being a
hopeless. See DESPERATE. technical legal term, would naturally
horrible, horrid etc. The distinctions resist absorption in hotchpotch, but
between the two are (i) that horrid is might be restricted to its special use.
still capable as an archaism in poetical
use of its original sense of bristling or hotel. The old-fashioned pronuncia-
shaggy; and (2) that while both are tion with the h silent (cf. herb, hospital,
much used in the trivial sense of dis- humble, humour) is almost dead, though
agreeable, horrible is still quite common an otel may still be heard, perhaps
in the graver sense inspiring horror, because it is less trouble to say than
which horrid tends to lose, being 'es- a hotel.
pecially frequent as a feminine form of hough. See HOCK.
strong aversion'—OED. In this re-
mark there is still some truth, though housewife(ry). The shortened pro-
not so much as when it was written. nunciation (hù'zïf or hù'zwïf), which
Horrifying retains its old force better is almost invariable for the sewing-
than either of them, and not even for case, is now obsolete for the human h.
an adjective appropriate to nuclear war Its displacement by how'swif was in
is there any justification for picking part brought about in the 16th c ,
horrendous out of the oblivion into when housewife and hussy were still
which it has rightly fallen. By a tacit realized to be the same word a
understanding not to resume tests the distinction between the two was felt
U.S. and Russia could go far to slowing to be the reputable matron's due. The
the absurdly costly and horrendous case for it is even stronger today,
spiral. I President Kennedy, grappling when housewife is a highly respectable
with the horrendous problems of the statutory occupation. Similarly how'-
thermonuclear arms race, must at times swïfrï has superseded hù'zïfrï.
be sorely tempted to see specifically
European anxieties as tiresomely peri- hovel, hover. The dictionaries still
pheral. give alternative pronunciations (hôv-
howbeit 251 hugeous
and hùv-) for both words. But hùv- of the conjunction—that these .. .front
(preferred by the OED for hover in is in effect a single word—is sound
1901) is certainly dying. See PRONUN- only against a suggestion that it should
CIATION 5. be placed after attacks; it, or Neverthe-
less, or All the same, could have stood
howbeit, according to the OED, is at the head of the sentence. The undue
archaic in one of its senses (neverthe- deferring of however usually comes
less) and obsolete in the other (al- from the same cause as here, i.e. the
though). The archaic has its place in difficulty of slipping it in where it
modern writing, the obsolete has not; interrupts a phrase, and should be
see ARCHAISM and WARDOUR STREET. recognized as a danger to be avoided.
Those who, without much knowledge 4 . However too early. It should be
of the kind of literature in which borne in mind that the placing of how-
archaism is in place, are tempted to ever second in the sentence has the
use this word should carefully note the effect, if the first word is one whose
distinction. It is often a delicate matter meaning is complete (e.g. He as com-
to draw it aright; but there is little pared with When), of throwing a
doubt that the OED has done so here. strong emphasis on that word. Such
emphasis may be intended, or, though
however. Several small points require unintentional, may be harmless; but
mention. 1. however, how ever, how ... again it may be misleading. Emphasis
ever. In everyday talk, how ever is on he implies contrast with other
common as an emphatic form of the people; if no others are in question,
interrogative how {How ever can it have the reader is thrown out. The Action
happened?). Being purely colloquial, it Commission wished to get permission
should not appear in print except when for meetings and had telephonic com-
dialogue is to be reproduced. This does munication with Wallraff, who de-
not apply to cases where ever has clared that he would not negotiate
its full separate sense of at any time with the zvorkmen. He, however, would
or under any circumstances, but it is receive the Socialist members of Parlia-
then parted from how by some other ment. The only right place for however
word or words. We believe that before not there is after would, the contrast being
many years have passed employers and between between him and anyone else, but
would not and would. The mis-
employed alike will wonder however take is made with other conjunctions
they got on without if, this should have of the kind usually cut off by commas,
been how they ever got on; the other but is especially common with however
order is an illiteracy in itself, and the and therefore.
offence is aggravated by the printing
of however as one word. See EVER. 5. For however as a cause of ambi-
2 . But with however. But it must guity see FALSE SCENT.
be remembered, however, that the
Government had no guarantee. / But
these schemes, however, cannot be carried hue. For synonymy see TINT.
out without money. And for other
examples of this disagreeable but hugeous. Those who use the form
common redundancy see BUT 5. Either perhaps do so chiefly under the im-
but or however suffices; one should be pression that they are satirizing the
taken, and the other left; sitting on ignorant with a non-existent word, as
two stools is little better than falling others of their kind do with mischevious
between them. or underconstumble or high-strikes for
3. However too late. These extrava- mischievous, understand, and hysterics.
gant German counter-attacks in mass on It is in fact a good old word, and corre-
the Cambrai front, however, materially sponds rather to vasty and stilly by the
helped the French operations in Cham- side of vast and still; but it is practi-
pagne. The excuse for such late placing cally obsolete, and, as its correctness
huguenot 252 hussy
robs it of its facetious capabilities, it Church upon men's beliefs; hence
might be allowed to rest in peace. the meaning free-thinker. The third
meaning—Comtist—was a new depar-
huguenot. Pronounce hûg'ënôt in ture, unconnected in origin with the
preference to -nô. first two, though accidentally near one
hullo. See HALLOO. of them in effect, but intelligible
enough on the face of it. As to the
humanist. The word is apt to puzzle fourth, it requires no comment.
or mislead, first because it is applied to
different things, and uncertainty about humanity. For the Humanities, or
which is in question is often possible, Literae humaniores, as an old-fashioned
and secondly because in two of these name for the study of classical litera-
senses its relation to its parent word ture, history, and philosophy, see
human is clear only to those who are HUMANIST.
acquainted with a long-past chapter of humble-bee. See BUMBLE-BEE.
history. The newspaper reader some-
times gets the impression that humanist humour, n., makes humorous and
means a great classical scholar. Why? humorist but humourless and humour-
he wonders, and passes on. Another some; see -OUR- and -OR-. Except
time he gathers that a humanist is a by a few old-fashioned people humour
sceptic or an agnostic or a freethinker and its derivatives are now always
or something of that sort, you know; given the h sound.
again he wonders why, and passes on.
Another time he feels sure that a hu- humour, wit, satire, s a r c a s m , in-
manist is a Pragmatist or Positivist or vective, irony, cynicism, the s a r -
Comtist, and here at last, since he knows donic. So much has been written upon
that Comte founded the Religion of Hu- the nature of some of these words, and
manity, there seems to be some reason upon the distinctions between pairs or
in the name. And lastly he occasionally trios among them (wit and humour,
realizes that his writer is using the sarcasm and irony and satire), that it
word in the sense in which he might would be both presumptuous and un-
have invented it for himself—one for necessary to attempt a further disquisi-
whom the proper study of mankind is tion. But a sort of tabular statement
man, the student, and especially the may be of service against some popular
kindly or humane student, of human misconceptions. No definition of the
nature, a humanitarian, in fact, in the words is offered, but for each its motive
popular sense of that word, as in The or aim, its province, its method or
Congo is not a unitary State, and it is means, and its proper audience, are
sad that humanists like Mr. N.-B. . . . specified. The constant confusion be-
seek to force one group into the domina- tween sarcasm, satire, and irony, as
tion of another. well as that now less common between
wit and humour, seems to justify this
The original humanists were those mechanical device of parallel classifica-
who in the early Middle Ages, when tion; but it will be of use only to those
all learning was theology, and nearly who wish for help in determining
all the learned were priests or monks, which is the word that they really
rediscovered pre-Christian literature, want. See also SATIRE.
turned their attention to the merely
human achievements of Greek and hundred. See COLLECTIVES 4.
Roman poets and philosophers and
historians and orators, and so were hussy, huzzy. In the OED examples,
named humanists as opposed to the the spelling with -ss- occurs nearly five
divines; hence the meaning classical times as often as that with -zz- and
scholar. But this new-old learning may now be regarded as established.
has, or was credited with, a ten- The traditional pronunciation (hu'zt,
dency to loosen the hold of the cf. HOUSEWIFE) is giving way before
hybrids and malformations 253 hybrids and malformations
MOTIVE METHOD
or AIM PROVINCE or MEANS AUDIENCE
humour Discovery Human nature Observation The sympathetic
wit Throwing light Words and ideas Surprise The intelligent
satire Amendment Morals and manners Accentuation The self-satisfied
sarcasm Inflicting pain Faults and foibles Inversion Victim and bystan-
der
invective Discredit Misconduct Direct statement The public
irony Exclusiveness Statement of facts Mystification An inner circle
cynicism Self-justification Morals Exposure of na- The respectable
kedness
The sardonic Self-relief Adversity Pessimism Self
hù'sï, which, with the assistance of the born it may be hoped, are breathalyser
spelling, will no doubt prevail. and triphibious.) An ill-favoured list, of
which all readers will condemn some,
hybrids and malformations. In and some all. It will not be possible
terms of philology, hybrids are words here to lay down rules for word-
formed from a stem or word belonging formation, which is a complicated
to one language by applying to it a business; but a few remarks on some
suffix or prefix belonging to another. of the above words may perhaps
It will be convenient to class with these instil caution, and a conviction that
the words, abortions rather than hy- word-making, like other manufactures,
brids, in which all the elements belong should be done by those who know
indeed to one language, but are so put how to do it. Others should neither
together as to outrage that language's attempt it for themselves, nor assist
principles of word-formation. English the deplorable activities of amateurs by
contains thousands of hybrid words, giving currency to fresh coinages before
of which the vast majority are unobjec- there has been time to test them.
tionable. All such words as plainness or A great difficulty is to distinguish,
paganish or sympathizer, in which a among the classical suffixes and pre-
Greek or Latin word has become Eng- fixes, between those that are, though
lish and has afterwards had an English originally foreign, now living English,
suffix attached to it, are hybrids tech- and those that are not. Of the former
nically, but not for practical purposes. class -able and dis- have already been
The same is true of those like readable, mentioned as examples; to the latter
breakage, fishery, disbelieve, in which -ation, -ous, -ic, and a- (not), may be
an English word has received one of confidently assigned. But others are
the foreign elements that have become not so easy to place; how about -nee
living prefixes or suffixes; -able, -age, {-once and -ence)} An electrician, in
-ery, dis-, though of Latin-French need of a technical term, made the
origin, are all freely used in making word impedance. ' I want a special
new forms out of English words. word' we may fancy him saying 'to
At this point it may be well to clear mean much the same as hindrance, but
the ground by collecting a small sample to be sacred to electricity ; I will make
of words that may be accused of being it from impede ; hinder makes hindrance,
misformed in either of the senses so let impede make impedance.'' And
explained above—i.e. as made of why not? Impede and -nee are both
heterogeneous elements, or as having from Latin, so why should it be wrong
their homogeneous elements put to- to combine them ? Again, if -ance is a
gether in an alien fashion: amoral, living suffix it can be put straight on to
automation, backwardation, bi-weekly, a verb that is now English even if it
bureaucracy, cablegram, climactic, was not so by origin; and hindrance,
coastal, coloration, dandiacal, flotation, forbearance, furtherance, and riddance,
funniment, gullible, impedance, pacifist, all from English verbs, are enough to
speedometer. (Extreme examples, still- prove that -ance is a living suffix. So it
hybrids and malformations 254 hygiene
might plausibly be argued. The answer meter and speedometer), with their im-
to the first argument is that if these possible English vowels, that imitate
combinations are made they should be the form of the Greek compounds such
made correctly; the word should have as barometer and thermometer. The
been impedience (cf. expedient). As to wordmakers have missed an oppor-
the second argument it is no longer tunity with meter', we have an English
true to say that -ance is a living suffix; METER that we use in gas-meter and
suffixes, like dogs, have their day, and water-meter; why could they not have
to find whether -ance's day is today given us flood-meter and speed-meter, as
we need only try how we like it with a they later gave us ohmmeter and am-
few English verbs of suitable sense, say meter, instead of our present mon-
stoppance (cf. quittancé), hurriance (cf. strosities? The classical connecting
dalliance), dwellance (cf. abidance), vowel -0- is quite out of place at the
keepance (cf. observance). By all means end of an English word ; gasometer gave
let the electricians have their imped- the analogy, but gas, being a word
ance, but in the interests of both elec- native in no language, might fairly be
tricity and English let it be confined to treated as common to all, including
the former. Greek, whereas flood and speed, with
Another suffix that is not a living one, their double-letter vowels, were
but is sometimes treated as if it were, stamped as English. See -0-.
is -al; and it will serve to illustrate a It will not be worth while to pursue the
special point. Among regrettable for- matter further, or to explain in detail
mations are COASTAL, creedal, and why each wordin the above 'ill-favoured'
tidal. Now, if -al were to be re- list is a correct or incorrect formation,
garded as a living suffix, it would be since complete rules cannot be given.
legitimate to say that coast and creed The object of the article is merely to
are now English words, and could have suggest caution. A reference to it with-
the suffix added straight to them; but out comment against any word in this
if it is tried with analogous English book indicates that that word is, in the
words {shore, hill, belief, trust), the re- author's opinion, improperly formed
sulting adjectives shoral, hillal, belief al, for a reason connected with the making
and trustai, show that it is not so. The of words from different languages, but
defence, then, would be different— not necessarily specified in so slight
that coast and creed are of Latin origin, a sketch as this. And the article is
and so fit for the Latin suffix. But then intended only for the serious word-
comes in the other requirement—that maker. It would be naive to tilt at the
if both elements are Latin, they should surprising compounds that manu-
be properly put together; coastal(is) facturers sometimes invent for their
and creedal(is) are disqualified at sight products, as for instance when
for Latin by the -oa- and -ee-; costal -matic or -vator is treated as a living
and credal would have been free from suffix to indicate that the article so
that objection at least. Such words described works automatically or
may be described as not hybrids cultivates the land. Such conceits are
but spurious hybrids; and whether in the same class as facetious mis-
the qualification aggravates or lessens spellings like eezi, kleen, and nu;
the iniquity is a question too hard sensitive people may find them dis-
for a mere grammarian. All that tasteful, but they are unlikely to
can be said is that the making of words corrupt the language. See also
that proclaim themselves truly or false-
BARBARISMS.
ly as hybrids by showing a classical
suffix tagged on to some purely English
vowel combination is a proof of either hygiene, hygienic. Hï'jïën, hïjïë'nic
ignorance or shamelessness. The best are the orthodox pronunciations, but
examples of such curiosities are per- the temptation to simplify the double
haps those words in -ometer(z.g.floodo- vowel sound ïë into ë has proved too
much for us, and this is now recog-
hypallage 255 hyphens
nized by the dictionaries (cf. rabies, get all-German talks started on some-
species, etc.). See -IES, -EIN. AS the thing like their terms and in There
form of hygiene often puzzles even is stodge as well as sublimity hidden
those who know Greek, it is worth away in Bach's 200-odd cantatas.) ' I am
while to mention that it is the French in revolt about your hyphens' wrote Sir
transliteration of Gk. vyieivrj (réxv-r)), Winston Churchill to Sir Edward
(art) of health. Marsh. 'One must regard the hyphen
as a blemish to be avoided wherever
hypallage. An inversion of the natural possible.' The purpose of this article
relation of two terms in a sentence, is to suggest certain conclusions that
especially the transfer of epithets, as seem to flow from acceptance of this
when Virgil speaks of 'the trumpet's dictum. No one should presume to do
Tuscan blare' instead of 'the Tuscan even this dogmatically. There will re-
trumpet's blare', or Spenser of 'Sans- main ample room for differences of
foy's dead dowry', i.e. dead Sansfoy's opinion whether in particular cases a
dowry. hyphen is needed as an aid to being
hyper baton. Transposition of words understood, and individual judgement
out of normal order, as in Browning's will decide.
title Wanting Is—What?, or in That x. The primary function of the
whiter skin of hers than snow. hyphen is to indicate that two or more
words are to be read together as a
hyperbole. Use of exaggerated terms single word with its own meaning. It
for the sake not of deception, but of is always used in such phrasal com-
emphasis, as when 'infinite' is used for pounds as stick-in-the-mud, ne'er-do-
great or 'a thousand apologies' for an well, happy-go-lucky.
apology. 2 . Composite nouns consisting of a
hyper-, hypo-. The ordinary pro- noun preceded by an attribute can be
nunciation of the first syllable of words treated in one of three ways. Some can
with one of these préfixes is hip- ; for be left alone without risk of ambiguity,
hyper- this is invariable. But hypocri(te) post office and motor car for instance.
(sy) etc. are always hip- (the hypocritical Some cannot. In cross word, meaning
being thus distinguished from the the puzzle, and black cap, meaning the
hypercritical), and hip- is an alternative bird, the words must somehow be
recognized by the COD for all the visually linked so as to make the dis-
other hypo- compounds though not for tinction that is made in speech by
hypo itself as a curtailed word. stressing the first. Usually such com-
posite words are first hyphened and
hyphens. No attempt will be made then, if appearances permit, made into a
here to describe modern English usage single word, as crossword and blackcap
in the matter of hyphens; its infinite have been. 'My feeling' says Sir Win-
variety defies description. No two dic- ston in his protest against hyphening
tionaries and no two sets of style rules 'is that you may run them together or
would be found to give consistently leave them apart, except when nature
the same advice. There is, however, revolts.' And if it is right to rid our-
one principle that seems to command selves of hyphens as far as possible the
at least lip service from all authorities. sooner they are run together the better.
This is that the hyphen is not an Combinations of a noun with an
ornament but an aid to being under- agent-noun take more kindly than
stood, and should be employed only most to consolidation, e.g. bookbinder,
when it is needed for that purpose. doorkeeper, housemaster, pallbearer,
(For instance, to take random exam- platelayer. In other compounds nature
ples from contemporary writing, the does sometimes revolt. Seaplane and
sense is radically altered if the seaside make pleasant enough words;
hyphens are omitted in The Russians seaair and seaurchin do not. But we can
would be well content if they could often fall back on the alternative : sea
hyphens 256 hyphens
air and sea urchin are not ambiguous. sky-high),orsLd)ective+participle(e<wy-
What is an aesthetically tolerable com- going, nice-mannered), or noun+par-
pound is a question that everyone will ticiple (weight-carrying, battle-scarred)
have his own ideas about. There are or verb+adverb (made-up, fly-over) or
some who would reject such com- phrases such as door-to-door, up-to-
pounds as publichouse, porthole, and date. Noun and participle compounds
loophole, lest they should seem to sug- are specially likely to need clarifying
gest the pronunciations -chouse, -thole, hyphens. The tailor-made dresses, / He
and -phole; others may think this over- was surprised to come across a man-
nice. (The COD would have us write eating tiger, I Near the hotel is a large
public house and loop-hole', it admits moor reserved for shooting-visitors : these
porthole though insisting on mast- do not give the same sense without the
head.) In America they are less hyphens.
squeamish than we are, and do not When the first word of the compound
shrink from such forms as coattails is an adverb no hyphen is ordinarily
and aftereffects. needed, though one may often be
Compounds in which the attribute found there. It is the business of an
follows the noun (e.g. court martial, adverb to qualify the word next to it;
heir apparent) can ordinarily do with- there should be no risk of misunder-
out hyphens, though a precisian will standing. To quote Sir Winston again,
hyphen or consolidate them when they ' Richly embroidered seems to me two
are used as verbs or in the possessive words, and it is terrible to think of
case (he mil be courtmartialled: the linking every adverb to a verb by a
heir-apparent's death). Nor, on the hyphen.' But this will have to be done
principle suggested in this article, is when the adverb might be mistaken
there any need for the hyphens often for an adjective. A little used car is not
used in compound designations of rank necessarily the same as a little-used car
or office such as Attorney General, or a hard working man as a hard-
Lord Lieutenant, Vice Admiral, Under working man or extra judicial duties as
Secretary, and scores of others. Here extra-judicial duties. In pretty fair guess
both practice and precept are chaotic. on the other hand, pretty is unmistak-
Even if we pin our faith to a single ably an adverb and the reader does not
current work of reference, it is not easy need the guidance of a hyphen. So is
to discover a uniform principle under- over in the sentence others may think
lying such decisions as that we must this over-nice written earlier in this
hyphen Field-Officer but not Field article, but there the hyphen saves the
Marshal, Quartermaster-General but reader from being put momentarily on
not Attorney General, Commander-in- a false scent by think this over. This
Chief but not Secretary of State, possible confusion between adjective
Lieutenant-Governor but not Lieuten- and adverb probably accounts for the
ant Colonel, Lord-Lieutenant but not unnecessary hyphen that often appears
Lord Mayor. And if we try to get more with well and ill, and for the distinction
light by turning to another no less drawn by the textbooks between well-
authoritative work of reference it is known (attribute) and well known
discouraging to be told that, on the (predicate).
contrary, we must hyphen Field- It is true that combinations of two
Marshal but not Field Officer, and or more words needing hyphens when
that, in general, the advice there given used attributively can usually do with-
has little in common with that of the out them as predicates. An ill educated
first except its apparent arbitrariness. man is ambiguous but the man is ill
3 . Composite adjectives when used educated is not. We must write Up-to-
attributively are usually given hyphens, date figures, a balance-of-payments
mostly with good reason. They may be crisis, the Africa-for-the-Africans slo-
adjective + adjective (red-hot, dark- gan. But hyphens would be worse than
blue) or noun+adjective (pitch-dark, useless in The figures are up to date, a
hyphens 257 hyphens
crisis over the balance of payments, the daily of vowels, may be an impedi-
slogan 'Africa for the Africans'. ment, but we are tco timid about this.
4. In composite adjectives, as in the Having swallowed coeval and coeffi-
nouns, hyphens can often be got rid of cient, we are unreasonable to strain
by consolidation, especially of the at coeducational. There is no risk
participial compounds. Panicstricken, of puzzling the reader if we write
thunderstruck, seaborne, aircooled, and preeminent or cooperative, though con-
many others may be so written. Adjec- sideration for him may make us write
tives and nouns formed from phrasal the abbreviation of the latter as co-op.
verbs (a put-up job, a knock-out) must We already write coalesce and coaxial
obviously keep their hyphens unless without fearing that they may suggest
they can be consolidated. Here again coal or coax; perhaps some day we
the Americans are ahead of us : they may write coworker, as Americans
make one word offrameup for instance. already do, without feeling nervous
We, if the COD is right, boggle even about the cow. Some new words with
at pullover. The Times is to be con- awkwardly placed vowels undoubtedly
gratulated on defying the dictionaries need hyphens. We cannot yet do with-
and writing of breakthroughs, holdups, out one in de-ice, but in time deice
makeup, and takeovers. may look no odder than deist.
5. Carelessness, or perhaps a laudable There is no apparent justification for
desire to economize in hyphens, some- the hyphen that now accompanies all
times leads to the omission of one self- compounds except selfsame,
where it is manifestly a case of all or especially as it leads to the absurdity
none. Neither can be dispensed with of having to hyphen the un in such
in Two-year-old horses, three-quarter- words as un-self-conscious. Ex on the
hour intervals, submarine-cable-laying other hand readily coalesces except
ships. Some pretty problems in when used in the sense of quondam.
hyphening are set by the unpleasant Here it cannot do without a hyphen,
modern habit (see HEADLINE LANGUAGE) and if what it qualifies consists of more
of forgetting the existence of preposi- than one word they must be hyphened
tions and using a long string of words too, even though they are not naturally
as a sort of adjectival sea serpent (e.g. so. Ex-Prime Minister suggests a
a large vehicle fleet operator mileage minister who is past his prime, as pre-
restriction has now been made impera- first war suggests a war before the first
tive). Those who like writing in this one.
way can be left to solve their problems 7. The practice of using a hyphen
for themselves. Indeed many of our in the sense of to or and or with as in
difficulties with hyphens are of our the London-Birmingham motorway, the
own making; we can avoid them by Eisenhower-Dulles partnership, breaks
remembering prepositions and writing, down when one or more of the things
say, intervals of three quarters of an linked consists of two or more words.
hour instead of three-quarter-hour Thus the natural meaning of The
intervals. Chipping Norton-Chipping Camden
6. Prefixes follow a similar course. road is the road that runs from Chip-
The hyphen used at first is later dis- ping to Camden by way of Norton-
carded, and the word is joined up Chipping. To hyphen all the words is
except where nature revolts. Here too no remedy. Either a suitable conjunc-
the British, unlike the Americans, are tion or preposition must be substituted
curiously hesitant about taking the for the hyphen or, if a symbol is used
second step. Non-stop should be ready in the middle, it must be a dash, or
to follow the lead of nonsense, post- perhaps a stroke (virgule).
mortem that of postscript, pre-natal that 8. Chaplains (whole- or part-time)
of predecease, off-chance that of off- should be appointed. / Both four- and
shoot, by-product that of bystander, and six-cylinder models are made. The func-
so on. Awkward juxtapositions, espe- tion of a hyphen is to link a word with
hypocorisma 258 I
its immediate neighbour, and to sepa- you are little better than false knaves, and
rate them in this way in order to avoid it zvill go near to be thought so shortly.
doubling the linked word is a clumsy A less crude example: The N.C.B. are
device that should be avoided if pos- running the mines as a prosperous and
sible; which is the lesser evil is a viable industry.
matter of taste in each case. The
stuttering effect of the separations in
the following sentence is a warning
against choosing that alternative light-
I
ly. The era is one of the masses then; I . 1. Between you and I is a piece of
yet they are either tyrannized by the false grammar which, though often
totalitarians or un- or mis-managed by heard, is not sanctioned, like its oppo-
democrats, shoved from behind by des- sites It's me and That's him, even in
pots, or un- or mis-led by democratic colloquial usage. But it has distin-
Headers'. guished ancestry. Shakespeare wrote
For articles touching on particular All debts are cleared between you and I,
uses of the hyphen, see BY BYE BY-, and Pepys Wagers lost and won between
CO-, COMMON SENSE, EVERY ONE, FEL- him and, I. A similar lapse is seen in It
LOW, FREE, GOOD WILL, -LESS, -LIKE, was a tragedy of this kind which brought
MEAN TIME, M I S - , NO 5 , R E - , SECOND, home to my partner and I the necessity
- S - , - S S - , -SSS 2 , STATE, SUMMER, for . . . . I It was these gazelle that set
THREE QUARTER, TODAY ETC., WELL AND Charles and I talking of hunting.
WELL-, WILD. These solecisms, which would never
be committed if the pronoun of the
hypocorisma. Use of pet names, first person stood alone (brought home
nursery words, or diminutives, or the to I; set I talking), are curiously
like, either simply, as Molly for Mary, common when it is the second of
comfy for comfortable, hanky for hand- two words governed by a verb or
kerchief, etc., or by way of euphemism, preposition. It is as though and I were
as fib for lie, undies for underclothes. treated as a suffix to the preceding
hypothecate, i . H. makes -cable, word, forming a composite whole not
-tor; see -ABLE I , -OR. 2 . H. means admitting of inflexion. To Dickens it
only to mortgage or pledge. In the seems to have been natural that
following extract—The Nahua race, Nell's grandfather should say Leave
which, by tradition, served the Aztecs Nell and I to toil and work, and more
in much the same way as to origin as the than a hundred years later it seems to
hypothecated Aryans serve ourselves— have been no less natural for a broad-
it is used as a verb corresponding to caster giving a serious talk to say
hypothesis; if an allied verb is really These things are for the betterment of
necessary, hypothesize is the right you and I. Perhaps this use of / is
form, though it is to be hoped that partly due to a vague recollection of
we may generally content ourselves hearing me corrected when wrongly
with assume. used in a subjective partnership, as
Lydia Bennet should have been when
hypothetic(al). There does not seem she said Mrs. Forster and me are such
to have ever been any distinction in friends. See also LET and ME.
meaning, and the longer is now the 2 . / , like WE, is liable to be used
ordinary form; see -IC(AL). in successive sentences with different
hysteric(al). The short form has meanings. In the extract below, the
virtually gone out of use as an adjective ; first two Is mean the average moralist,
see -IC(AL). while the third means the reviewer of
Dr. Westermarck's book. It is an in-
hysteron proteron. Putting the cart sidious trap, but more often baited
before the horse in speech, as in Dog- with we, which frequently means in
berry's Masters, it is proved already that one sentence the editor of his paper,
259 -ic(al)
and in the next the country or the Party diate object is concerned. To those
or any other of the many bodies of who can afford time to think also of the
which he is a member : In this respect interests of the English language it may
Dr. Westermarck has given a less ade- be suggested that there are two desir-
quate account of the moral sentiment able tendencies to be assisted.
than Adam Smith, who declares that our The first of these is DIFFERENTIATION.
ideas of merit and demerit have a double There are many pairs in -ic and -ical,
origin, not only in sympathy with the re- each form well established and in con-
sentment of the sufferer, but in want of stant use, but with a difference of
sympathy with the motives of the doer. meaning either complete or incipient.
I condemn theft partly because I dislike The final stage of differentiation is
thieving and sympathize with the suffer- seen in politic and political, which are
er's claim to keep his property. I cannot not even content, as usual, to share an
help thinking that, though every now and adverb in -ically, but make politicly by
then he does justice to sympathy with the the side of politically. Between econo-
direct motives or impulses from which mic and economical the distinction is
action arises, Dr. Westermarck over- nearly as clear, though the seal has not
looks them in favour of retributive sym- been set upon it by a double provision
pathy with the recipient. of adverbs ; most writers are now aware
that the two words mean different
-i. For plurals with this ending see things, and have no difficulty in choos-
LATIN PLURALS. ing the one required. This can hardly
-iana. This suffix, applied to the name be said of comic(al), the short form of
of an author, originally meant writings which is often made to do the other's
or sayings by him. It was first used of work. And so the differentiations tail
Dr. Johnson; Johnsoniana, or a collec- off into mere incipiency. Every well-
tion of Bon Mots by Dr. Johnson and established differentiation adds to the
Others was the title of a book published precision and power of the language;
in 1776, during his lifetime. The suffix every observance of an incipient one
is still sometimes used in this sense helps it on the way to establishment, and
(Something of the Mencken of the final every disregard of it checks it severely.
phase would have rounded off the Menc- It is therefore clear that writers have
keniana very piquantly), but nowadays a responsibility in the matter.
it more often means writings about an The second laudable tendency is that
author: a modern dictionary definition of clearing away the unnecessary.
of Shakespeariana is 'a collective term When two forms coexist, and there are
for all literary matter on the subject of not two senses for them to be assigned
the poet and his works'. Thus, The to, it is clear gain that one should be
time is overdue for a closed season in got rid of. The scrapping process goes
Dickensiana. / Miss Hopkins adds a on slowly by natural selection; some-
facet to Bronteana and helps consider- times the determining cause is appar-
ably towards the final shaping. / He ent, as when hysteric, cynic, ondfanatic,
amassed a notable collection of contem- give way to hysterical, cynical, and
porary Mozartiana. Or it may be used fanatical, because the former have
of a period. Odds and ends of Vic- acquired a new function as nouns;
toriana in everything from short squibs sometimes the reasons are obscure, as
to full-length books pour from the when electric and dynamic supersede
British Press. the longer forms while hypothetic and
ibidem. Pronounce ibî'dëm. botanic are themselves superseded.
But that one or other should prevail is
-ic(al). A great many adjectives ap- a gain; and it is a further gain if the
pear with alternative forms in -ic and process can be quickened. With this
-ical. Often the choice between them end in view, this dictionary states about
on any particular occasion is im- many -ic(al) words, in their places,
material, so far as the writer's imme- which appears to be the winning side,
-1CS 260 ideologue
so that writers may be encouraged to wasted on me; Athletics are, or is,
espouse it. rampant in the big schools; Tactics are,
Separate entries will be found or is, subordinate to strategy. The rules
(omitting -ic, -ical) for botan-, casuist-, that seem to emerge are: (1) Singular
com-, cub-, cyn-, diabol-, dynam-, for the name of a science strictly so
econom-, electr-, fanat-, geograph-, used; Metaphysics, or Acoustics, deals
geometr-, hypothet-, hyster-, ident-, with abstractions, or sound. (2) Plural
lyr-, mag-, period-, philosoph-, sto-, for those same names more loosely
trag-. used, e.g. for a manifestation of quali-
ties; often recognizable by the pres-
-ics. i . -ics3 -ic. Among the names ence of his, the, etc. : His mathematics
of sciences, arts, or branches of study, are weak; Such ethics are abominable;
are a few words in -ic that rank as real The acoustics of the hall are faulty.
English; the chief are arithmetic, logic, (3) Plural for names denoting be-
magic, music, and rhetoric, but the nor- haviour or the like : Heroics are out of
mal form is -ics, as in acoustics, classics, place; Hysterics leave me cold. (4) The
dynamics, mathematics, physics, politics. presence of a singular noun comple-
The substitution of -ic for -ics (dia- ment often makes the verb singular:
lectic, gymnastic, linguistic, metaphysic, Mathematics, or even Athletics, is his
etc.) in compliance with French and strong point. (For the general rule in
German usage has the effect, whether such cases see NUMBER I . )
it is intended or not, of a display of
exotic learning, and repels the possibly idea. Humperdinck had the happy idea
insular reader who thinks that 'English one day to write a little fairy opera.
is good enough for him'. It should be Of writing is more idiomatic. See
added, however, that the -ic and -ics GERUND 3.
forms can sometimes be usefully kept
for separate senses; thus, dialectic identic(al). The short form has been
might be reserved for the art of logical so far ousted by the long as to be now
disputation and dialectics for a par- a mere ARCHAISM except in the language
ticular person's exhibition of skill in of diplomacy (identic note etc.), where
it ; conversely, ^personal ethic is an indi- it means the same in substance rather
vidual's code of ethics and a tactic a than completely identical in wording.
particular exercise of the art of tactics. See -IC(AL).
But it is not with many words, nor on
many occasions, that this need arises, identify. The extended use of identify
and it is not usually with this end in as a reflexive verb in the sense of to
view that the -ic words are made. associate oneself closely and insepar-
ably dates from the 18th c , but is only
2 . Grammatical number of -ics. This suitably used of some close, constant,
is not so simple a matter as it is some- and well-known association such as,
times thought. The natural tendency is say, that of Mr. Willett with the cam-
to start with a fallacy : We say Mathe- paign for summertime or of Mrs.
matics is (and not are) a science ; there- Pankhurst with that for women's suf-
fore mathematics is singular. But there frage, or in the intransitive sense in
the number of the verb, whether legiti- which psychologists use it. To treat
mately or not, is at least influenced, if identify with as a STYLISH WORD for
not determined, by that of a science. associate with or take part in, in a
The testing should be done with sen- temporary or casual way ( There was a
tences in which there is not a noun demonstration going on and the accused,
complement to confuse the issue: on arrival at the scene, identified himself
Classics are, or is, now taking a back with it), is a SLIPSHOD EXTENSION.
seat; Conies is, or are, easier than I
expected; What are, or is, his mathe- id est. See I.E.
matics like?; Politics are, or is, most ideologue, -logist, -logy, etc. So
fascinating; Your heroics are, or is, spelt, not ideal-. The words are formed
idiom 261 idiosyncrasy
from the Gk. îSea, and the Greek com- about particular specimens of it. The
bining vowel is with rare exceptions most that can be said is that what is
-0- for substantives of all declensions. idiomatic is far more often grammati-
See -o- and -LOGY. cal than ungrammatical; but this is
The modern vogue of the word ideo- worth saying, because grammar and
logy is a natural result of the decline of idiom are sometimes treated as incom-
religious faith. We have had to find a patibles. The fact is that they are dis-
word, free from the religious associa- tinct, but usually in alliance. To give
tions of faith and creed, for belief in a few illustrations : You would not go
those politico-social systems vaguely for to do it is neither grammatical nor
indicated by such words as democracy, idiomatic English; / doubt that they
socialism, communism, and fascism, really mean it, The distinction leaps to
which excite in their adherents a quasi- the eyes, and A hardly earned income,
religious enthusiasm. Ideology (the are all grammatical, but all for differ-
science of ideas) lay ready to hand, the ent reasons unidiomatic; It was not me,
more acceptable because it seemed to Who do you take me for?, There is heaps
suggest striving for an ideal. It was of material, are idiomatic but ungram-
therefore pressed into this new servicej matical; He was promoted captain,
which has now become its main occu- She all but capsized, Were it true, are
pation. both grammatical and idiomatic. For
examples of special idioms see CAST-
idiom. This dictionary being much IRON IDIOM.
concerned with idiom and the idio-
matic, some slight explanation of the idiosyncrasy, -cratic. The right
terms may perhaps be expected. 'A spelling (-sy, not -cy) is of some impor-
manifestation of the peculiar' is the tance, since the wrong one distorts the
closest possible translation of the Greek meaning for all who have a tincture of
word. In the realm of speech this may Greek by suggesting a false connexion
be applied to a whole language as pecu- with autocracy and the many other
liar to a people, to a dialect as peculiar words in -cracy. Those words are from
to a district, to a technical vocabulary Greek Kpâros power ; this is from Greek
as peculiar to a profession, and so forth. Kpâois mixture. Its meaning is peculiar
In this book, 'an idiom' is any form mixture, and the point of it is best
of expression that has established itself showninthewordsthatdescribeBrutus:
as the particular way preferred by His life was gentle, and the elements So
Englishmen (and therefore presumably mixed in him that Nature might stand
characteristic of them) over other up And say to all the world 'This was
forms in which the principles of a man'. One's idiosyncrasy is the way
abstract grammar, if there is such one's elements are mixed, and the near-
a thing, would have allowed the est synonyms for it are individuality,
idea in question to be clothed. personality or * make-up'. But since
'Idiom' is the sum total of such forms all these have positive implications
of expression, and is consequently the not present in idiosyncrasy, the con-
same as natural or racy or unaffected tinued existence of the latter in its
English; that is idiomatic which it is proper sense is very desirable, and it
natural for a normal Englishman to say should be kept to that sense. Thus it
or write. To suppose that grammatical is reasonable to say that a person has
English is either all idiomatic or all un- no personality or no individuality, but
idiomatic would be as far from the a person without an idiosyncrasy is in-
truth as to suppose that idiomatic Eng- conceivable. Since idiosyncrasy means
lish is either all grammatical or all un- all the ingredients of which a unit is
grammatical. Grammar and idiom are composed, and their proportions and
independent categories; being appli- reactions—a valuable compound no-
cable to the same material, they some- tion that we may be thankful to find
times agree and sometimes disagree compressed into a single word—it is a
idiosyncrasy 262 idola fori
pity that it is often used as a poly- because he wittingly put it there, but
syllabic substitute for various things because he could not keep it out (indivi-
that have good simple names of their dual. Here, at any rate, the writer
own; it is both pretentious and absurd could have kept idiosyncratic out). / To
to say that so-and-so is one of your be thinking and pondering, roving and
idiosyncrasies when you mean one of exploring between the lines of a book is
your habits, ways, fads, whims, fancies, a less arduous and fussy, a quieter and
or peculiarities. In each of the follow- more idiosyncratic enterprise (reward-
ing quotations a more suitable word is ing?). / He never hesitates at any joke,
suggested : It is an idiosyncrasy of this however idiosyncratic (however little
grumbler that he reads his own thoughts amusing to anyone but himself?).
into the minds of others (characteristic). /
For one reason or another—lack of idola fori, idols of the market
money, lack of meny sometimes the (place). This learned phrase (pro-
idiosyncracies [sic] of committees— nounce tdô'lâ fô'rï), in Latin or
the library has been far less useful English, is not seldom used by the un-
than it might have been to the serious learned, who guess at its meaning and
student (fads). I I do not find him, guess wrong. It is a legitimate enough
though he is very quick in observing phrase in writing meant for the edu-
outward idiosyncrasies, a truthful or an cated only, but hardly so in the ordi-
interesting student of the characters, the nary newspaper, where it is certain not
minds and hearts, the daily actions and to be understood by most readers, and
reactions, of men and women (peculiari- where it therefore tends to be given, by
ties). / Moreover, it [a liturgy] is desired SLIPSHOD EXTENSION, the false sense
as a protection against the idiosyncrasies that those who have never been told
of the minister, whether in his doctrine what it means may be expected to
or its expression (vagaries). / There are attach to it. That false sense is 'vulgar
several kinds of food freaks; some people errors' or 'popular fallacies', one of
have an idiosyncrasy to all fish, par- which expressions should be used
ticularly shellfish and lobsters (antipathy instead of it, since it in fact has a much
or allergy). more limited meaning than they, and
Idiosyncratic is the adjective of idio- one not obvious without explanation
syncrasy—unfortunately, because it S e e POPULARIZED TECHNICALITIES.
encourages by an accident the con- It is the third of Bacon's four classes
fusion between -crasy and -cracy. If of fallacies, more often mentioned
idiosyncrasy is a word that has a real than the other three because its mean-
value, but should be much less used ing seems plainer, though it is not so
than it is, idiosyncratic, its hanger-on, in fact. There are the idols (i.e. the
should be kept still more severely in fallacies) of the tribe, the cave, the
its place. The quotations show that market, and the theatre, which are
there is a danger of its getting more picturesque names for (1) the errors
vogue than it deserves ; what the reader men are exposed to by the limitations
feels is not that his author has used the of the human understanding (as mem-
word in a wrong sense—he has not— bers of the tribe of man) ; (2) those a
but that he would have done better to person is liable to owing to his idio-
circumvent, somehow, the need for it: syncrasy (as enclosed in the cave of
We continue to read for much the same self); (3) those due to the unstable
reason as incites a Purple Emperor to relation between words and their
feed on carrion, a cat on mice, a queen meanings (which fluctuate as the words
bee on nectar, the South Wind on a bank are bandied to and fro in the conversa-
of violets; we are in pursuit of the idio- tional exchange or word-market)', and
syncratic (ofwhat appeals to us). / What (4) those due to false philosophical or
we cannot help learning of their maker, logical systems (which hold the stage
or discoverer—his philosophy, his idio- successively like plays). The tribe is
syncratic view of things—is there, not the human mind, the cave is idiosyn-
idolatry 263 -ies
crasy, the market is talk, and the abbreviated form is now so unusual as
theatre is philosophy. Who would to convict one of affectation.
guess all that unaided? Who, on the 2 . i.e. means that is to say, and intro-
contrary, would not guess that an idol duces another way (more comprehen-
of the market-place was just any belief sible to the hearer, driving home the
to which the man in the street yields a speaker's point better, or otherwise
mistaken deference? The odd thing is preferable) of putting what has been
that no better instance could be found already said. It does not introduce an
of an idol of the market than the phrase example, and when substituted for e.g.
itself, oscillating between its real mean- in that function, as in the following
ing and the modern misuse, so that the extract, is a blunder: Let your principal
very person who pours scorn on idola stops be the full stop and comma, with a
fori is often propagating one in the very judicious use of the semicolon and of the
act of ridiculing the rest. Well, 'tis other stops where they are absolutely
sport to have the engineer hoist with necessary (i.e. you could not dispense
his own petard. The mistake is com- with the note of interrogation in asking
mon enough, but is not easily exhibited questions).
except in passages of some length, so 3. It is invariable in form ; the chang-
that one must here suffice; the ten- ing of it to ea sunt etc.—which deals
dency to exalt the man of action above with persons (ea sunt, all present and
the man of theory may be ill-advised, future members)—is due to the same
but it has nothing to do with shifting misconception (explained under FOL-
acceptations of words, and is not an LOW) as the incorrect as follow, cf. also
idolum fori : With us the active charac- INTER ALIA.
ters, the practical men, the individuals 4 . It is naturally preceded by a stop;
who, whether in public or in private it should not be followed by a comma
affairs, 'get on with the job', have always unless the sense requires one, to intro-
held the first place in esteem; the theorists duce a parenthesis for instance. He
and philosophers a place very secondary attacked reactionaries, i.e. those whose
by comparison. It is not easy to account opinions differed from his own, but He
for this common estimate. For one thing, attacked reactionaries, i.e., it would
as soon as inquiry is made into it, the seem, those whose opinions etc.
belief proves to be without foundation—
just one of the idols of the market-
place. -ies, -ein. Until recently the dic-
tionaries prescribed a disyllabic pro-
nunciation of -ies for words of Latin
idolatry. See -LATRY. origin such as series, species, rabies,
idyl(l). The form with -// is now caries, scabies. But in fact few doctors
usual. The OED recognized only pronounce the second syllable of
one pronunciation, I-, not Ï-; on this, rabies and caries differently from
however, there is room for differ- that of herpes, and almost everyone
ence of opinion. (1) It is certain that takes the same liberty with series and
many people say ï'dïl; (2) with idol species. It is better to bow to the
and idle, both commoner words, ready inevitable than to persist in a vain
to confuse the hearer, a separate pro- attempt to preserve what we suppose
nunciation is all to the good, if there is to have been the way the Romans pro-
nothing against it; and (3) it has been nounced these words, and the dic-
pointed out in the article FALSE QUAN- tionaries now recognize ëz for most of
TITY that the length of the first syllable them, if only as alternatives.
in the Greek is nothing against its Words ending ein(e) (protein, caffeine,
being shortened in the English word. codeine) are rebelling in the same way,
Modern dictionaries recognize both. even though they are less commonly
used; en is likely to establish itself;
i.e., id est. 1. To write, or even to modern life is too hurried for these
say, this in the full instead of in the niceties.
if 264 if and when
if. To avoid possible ambiguity it may understanding with General de Gaulle
be prudent to confine if to its proper about how Britain might dispose of its
duty of introducing the protasis of a nuclear armoury if (and when) it joins the
conditional sentence, and not to use it common market. / They must, of course, be
as a substitute for though or whether or certain that they are getting what they are
(with not) to introduce a possible alter- bargainingfor, but (if and) when they have
native. Such experiences are agreeable, made sure of that, they would be wisely
if rare. (Though they are rare or only advised to pay the price.
if they are rare?) Please inform the It was admitted above that cases were
secretary if you intend to be present. conceivable in which the if and the when
(Whether you intend or only if you do might be genuinely and separately
intend?) He enjoyed a large, if not over- significant. Such cases arise when
whelming, practice in the best class of one desires to say that the result will
litigation. (Though not overwhelming or does or did not only follow, but
or you might almost call it overwhelm- follow without delay; they are not in
ing?) fact rare, and if a really good writer
allows himself an if and when, one such
if and when. Any writer who uses must have presented itself. But in
this formula lays himself open to en- practice he hardly ever does it even
tirely reasonable suspicions on the part then, because any strong emphasis on
of his readers. There is the suspicion the absence of delay is much better
that he is a mere parrot, who cannot given by other means, by the insertion
say part of what he has often heard of at once or some equivalent in the
without saying the rest also. There is result clause. So true is this that, when
the suspicion that he likes verbiage for the devotees of if and when have had
its own sake. There is the suspicion that the luck to strike a real opportunity for
he is a timid swordsman who thinks he their favourite, they cannot refrain
will be safer with a second sword in his from inserting some adverb to do over
left hand. There is the suspicion that again the work that was the only true
he has merely been too lazy to make up function of their and when; in the fol-
his mind between if and when. Only lowing quotations these adverbs that
when the reader is sure enough of his make and when otiose are in roman type :
author to know that in his writing none The electors knew perfectly well that
of these probabilities can be true does if and when the Parliament Bill was
he turn to the extreme improbability placed on the Statute-book it would
that here at last is a sentence in which immediately be used to pass Irish Home
if and when is really better than if or Rule. I If and when the Unionist Party
when by itself. win a General Election we are to have at
This absurdity is so common that once a general tariff on foreign manu-
it seems worth while to quote some factured goods. I It is true that if and
examples, bracketing in each either when an amendment giving women the
'if and' or 'and when', and asking vote is carried this amendment is thence-
whether the omission would in any forward to become part and parcel of
way change the meaning or diminish the Bill.
the force of the sentence : The Radicals When or if is not so purposeless as if
do not know quite clearly what they will and when; or if does serve to express
be at (if and) when the fight is renewed. / that the writer, though he expects his
It is to be hoped that the Labour Party, condition to be realized, has his doubts :
if (and when) they come to power, will An official pronouncement as to what
be courageous enough to free the ether particular items of socialist legisla-
from the bondage of commercialism. / tion it is proposed to repeal, when, or if,
But if (and when) the notices are ten- the opportunity arrives. As and when
dered it will be so arranged that they all and UNLESS AND UNTIL are open to the
terminate on the same day. j Mr. Mac- same objections as if and when, but are
millan should try to come to apreliminary much less common.
ignoramus 265 illegal
ignoramus. Formerly a law term, the meaning of ilk, and partly face-
meaning we don't know, endorsed on a tious; indulgence in such WORN-OUT
Bill of Indictment by a Grand Jury HUMOUR is much less forgivable than
unwilling to return a True Bill because for an Englishman not to know what
'they mislike their evidence as defec- a Scottish word means': The Walkers
tive or too weak to make good the are a numerous race . . . one of that ilk
presentment'. (Blount's Law Diet. has suggested that an ancestor probably
1691, quoted by Skeat.) Plural -uses. walked to the Crusades, / Lord's was
See LATIN PLURALS. simply the field rented out to the M.C.C.
by Thomas of that ilk. / Robert Els-
ignoratio elenchi. 'Ignoring of the mere, the forerunner of so many books
(required) disproof.' A fallacy that con- 'of that ilk'. / This publication was
sists in disproving or proving something undertaken by John Murray, the first
different from what is strictly in ques- of that ilk. / The mighty figures hold the
tion ; called in English the fallacy of centre of the stage, but the Bunters and
irrelevant conclusion. If the question is their ilk have a good right to frolic at
whether the law allows me to pollute their feet. / Part II of the Act, which
water passing through my garden, and dealt with multi-occupation, was designed
I show instead that it ought to allow to deal with Rachman and his ilk. This
me, since the loss to me by abstaining SLIPSHOD EXTENSION has become so
is a hundred times greater than my common that the OED Supp. was
neighbour's from the pollution, I am constrained to add to its definitions
guilty of i. e. 'also by further extension, often in
-He. In words with this suffix the trivial use,—kind, sort'. The COD
modern tendency, says the SOED, is calls it vulgar.
to pronounce -ïl, 'with some excep- illegal, illegitimate, illicit, unlaw-
tions, in all cases'. This tendency has ful. These words, though largely over-
continued, and many of the words lapping, have developed certain
whose conventional pronunciation was differentiations. Illegal is the most pre-
once -ïl have now -il as the preferred cise, with its meaning of contrary to
or only one; these include DOCILE, the law of the land. The scope of
domicile, FACILE, FERTILE, FRAGILE,
missile, mobile, prehensile, servile, illegitimate is wider; it includes not
only what is not authorized by law
STERILE, TACTILE, and VIRILE. (In
but also what is against propriety or
U.S. -ïl is more tenacious.) The few reason, and its possible application
that are normally pronounced -ël are ranges from a child born out of wed-
also variable ; dictionary authority can lock to a deduction not justified by
be found for -ïl and -il in imbecile, and, premises. Illicit also covers what is
though the dictionaries recognize impermissible though not necessarily
nothing but -ël for automobile, ïl is illegal, including logical fallacies; in
often heard. For PROFILE see that its sense of contrary to law it is applied
article. especially to activities that the law
ilex. PI. ilexes; see -EX, -IX, 3. allows only subject to compliance with
certain conditions, e.g. gambling and
ilk means same; it does not mean the manufacture and sale of alcoholic
family or kind or set or name. Of that drinks. (This meaning goes naturally
ilk is a form constructed for the case in with its derivation from Lat. licere,
which proprietor and property have permit.) Unlawful, with its sweeping
the same name; the Knockwinnocks of implication of comprising what is for-
that ilk means the Knockwinnocks of bidden not only by the law of the land
Knockwinnock. The common mal- but also by higher authority such as
treatments of the phrase, some of international law or divine ordinance,
which are illustrated below, are partly is falling into disuse in common
unconscious and due to ignorance of currency.
illegible 266 illogicalities
illegible, unreadable. The i. is not / for me when in company (Between
plain enough to be deciphered; the you and I).
u. is not interesting enough to be Me etc. for my etc. in gerund con-
perused. struction (Instead of me being dis-
missed).
illiteracies. There is a kind of offence Between . . . or for between . . . and
against the literary idiom that is not ( The choice is between glorious death or
easily named. The usual dictionary shameful life).
label for some specimens of it at least Neither with a plural verb (For two
is vulg. ; but the word vulgar is now so reasons neither of which are noticed by
imbued on the one hand with social Plato).
prejudices and on the other with moral
condemnation as to be unsuitable. The illogicalities. The spread of educa-
property common to these lapses seems tion adds to the writer's burdens by
to be that people accustomed to read- multiplying that pestilent fellow the
ing good literature do not commit critical reader. No longer can we de-
them and are repelled by them, while pend on an audience that will be satis-
those not so accustomed neither re- fied with catching the general drift and
frain from nor condemn them. They obvious intention of a sentence and not
may perhaps be more accurately as trouble itself to pick holes in our word-
well as politely called illiteracies than ing. The words used must nowadays
vulgarisms; their chief habitat is in the actually yield on scrutiny the desired
correspondence columns of the press. A sense; to plead that anyone could see
few familiar types may be here collected what you meant, or so to write as to
for comparison, with just enough in need that plea, is not now permissible;
the way of illustration to enable each all our pet illogicalities will have to be
usage to be recognized; actual quota- cleared away by degrees.
tions will be found under many of the Though Milton might be excused or
words mentioned in their dictionary even commended for calling Eve fairest
places. See also INCOMPATIBLES and of her daughters, the modern newspaper
STURDY INDEFENSIBLES. Some of the man must not expect pardon for simi-
examples listed in the former article lar conduct. Sir Ernest CasseVs Christ-
could equally well be classed as illitera- mas gift to the hospitals of £50,000 is
cies, and the reader may think that only the latest of many acts of splendid
some of those called sturdy indefen- munificence by which he has benefited his
sibles deserve the same sterner verdict. fellows before now. If it is the latest of
Likewise as a conjunction (Its ten- them, says the pestilent one, it is one
dency to wobble . , . /. its limited powers of them; if one of them, it was given
of execution). before now; but it is in fact given now,
However, whatever, whoever> etc., not before now; which is absurd.
interrogative when written as a single Take, again, the following comment
word (However did you find out?; on a quotation the commentator thinks
Whatever can this mean?). unjustified: Were ever finer lines per-
Same, such, and various, as pronouns verted to a meaner use? We know well
(Will submit same, or the same, for enough what he is trying to do—to
approval', Have no dealings with such', emphasize the meanness of the use—
Various have stated). and if that had been all it would have
Undiscriminating use of split infini- been better to write Never were lines
tives (Am ready to at once carry out my perverted to a meaner use', that com-
promise). ment would be made weaker, not
Re in unsuitable contexts (The stronger, if changed to never were fine
author's arguments re predestination). lines etc. and that again would be
Write with personal object only (in further weakened, not strengthened,
U.S. a common colloquialism) ( Though by a change of fine to finer', everything
she had promised to write him soon). that narrows the field of rivals for the
illogicalities 267 image
distinction of meanest perversion, as supporter of the Established Church;
fine and finer do progressively, has an he would maintain, not admit, that it is
effect contrary to what was intended. the only grievance, and should have
True, in this case, it would have been said 'what he admitted to be a griev-
worthwhile to insert/ine, since without ance, though it was the only one he
it perverted lacks point ; but the change could see'. / The gown is not normally
to finer weakens the force without worn in the proper manner by ladies in
adding to the accuracy. Richard I I I statu pupillari if it is worn with trousers.
says Was ever woman in this humour What then is the proper manner of
won? 1 to have said Princess, or prouder wearing a gown with trousers to which
Princess, instead of woman would have these ladies normally neglect to con-
made the marvel less and not greater. form?
Another common, and more con- Other examples or remarks will be
spicuous, illogicality is the unintended found in BUT 3, -ER AND -EST 7, 8,
anticlimax. Masters, it is proved already HAZINESS, HELP, REASON, STURDY IN-
that you are little better than false DEFENSIBLES, THOUGH 4 , TOO 2 , a n d
knaves, and it will go near to be thought YET.
so shortly. Dogberry felt no uneasiness
about putting it that way, and some illume, illuminate, illumine. The
writers seem to agree with him: A first is a POETICISM and the last ob-
scepticism about the result of military solescent. Illuminate is today the only
operations which must have had and current word for both literal and
probably has had a damping effect upon figurative senses.
the soldier (If it must have had, it cer-
tainly, not probably, has had). illusion. See DELUSION for the differ-
The abandonment of blind confidence ences between the two words.
in much less is another compliment that
will have to be paid to the modern illustrate. The pronunciation Vlustrât
reader's captious logic It is still usual (as opp. ïlù'strât) has been slowly ar-
to give no hearing to much more before rived at, but is now general; see RECES-
SIVE ACCENT. For illustrative the OED
deciding for its more popular rival : It
is a full day's work even to open, much gives ïlù'stratïv only; but thefixingof
less to acknowledge, all the presents. See t'lustrat has produced the alternative
MUCH 2 .
ï'iûstrâtïv now recognized by some
dictionaries.
A stray variety or two may now bring
this subject to an end, though it might i m - . For spelling of words with
be treated at much greater length: variants in em-, see EM- AND IM-. The
(From a notice in a public park) : Any following, not there mentioned, should
person not putting litter in this basket have im-, and not the rarely used or
will be liable to a fine of £5. Those who obsolete em-', imbrue, imbrute, impale,
have no litter must, it seems, go and imparadise, impark, impawn, imperil.
find some. / The schedule we shall have
to face will be a much longer one than it image. It has been said that people
would have been if we had undertaken can think only in images. If that is
the work this year, and longer still than true it must always have been so,
it would have been if we had been able to and cannot by itself account for the
do the work last year. We may deeply recent vogue of the word. This could
sympathize with a writer who has do the Liberals' own i. some harm in
brought himself to the pass of having blurring the party's distinctive theme. /
to choose between saying still more If the Church is to regain any power it
longer and being illogical, but we can- will need a complete face-lift of its i. j
not let him off that more. / That would The pay-pause has done much to under-
quite easily and fairly redress what he mine the Government's i. / Asked for a
admitted to be the only grievance he definition of his duties, the vice-chan-
could see in Establishment. The he is a cellor of one of the new universities
imaginary 268 imbalance
answered without hesitation 'A vice- meanings of the two are quite distinct,
chancellor is an i.-giver'. / The Austra- and never interchangeable. That is
lians have invented a literary i. of them- imaginary which exists only in some-
selves. Anyone can find half a dozen one's imagination; he (or his powers or
similar examples in almost any day's products) is imaginative who is able or
newspapers. The word, used thus, apt to form mental pictures. Any con-
means the 'idea'—the general im- fusion between the two is due to the
pression—of some person or institu- fact that there are things to which
tion received by the mind's eye of an either can be applied, though in differ-
outsider, and the image he sees will ent senses, and with some such things
determine for him whether the person the distinction is not always apparent.
is a good chap or a bad chap, the The difference between an imaginary
institution a good show or a bad show. and an imaginative person is clear
Perhaps it is television that has done enough, but that between imaginary
it. Politicians and advertisers and and imaginative distress is elusive; the
other advocates of themselves or their begging impostor exploits the former;
causes can now project their images the latter is created and experienced
into our very homes. This at least is by the tragic or lyric poet (Such a price
clear: that though we may not care The Gods exact for song, To become
very much nowadays about the gift of what we sing). The place is described
seeing ourselves as others see us, we with such wealth of detail as to lead one
put a high value on that of persuad- to the conclusion that it must have
ing others to see us as we see ourselves. existed; but, of course, on the other hand,
'Members of the British Insurance it may have been purely imaginative.
Association, it seems, are concerned Justifiable, or not?
about the public image of the insurer.
. . . It is perfectly understandable that imago. PI. imagines {-âjinêz) or-âgos.
insurers should want to appear, and S e e LATIN PLURALS.
remain, in the best possible light vis-à-
vis their clientele. Publishers, bar- imbalance. For several hundred
risters, chartered accountants, and years un has been used as the negativ-
architects probably feel the same way; ing prefix of the verb balance and its
although what may be termed the adjectival p.p., and when more recently
"ideal public image" may differ a bit as need was felt for a noun, unbalance
between these various professions. . . . naturally followed. In the present
But on one point they would all be century the medical profession, espe-
agreed. From the neck up the image cially the psychiatrists, have rejected
should be the kind of image that this word in favour of the neologism
inspires immediate and lasting con- imbalance. They may have had good
fidence.'— The Timess 29th June 1962. reason for wanting an esoteric word of
The use of image in this sense does their own ; the layman cannot presume
no violence to the language. It is one to say. If so they have been dis-
of those VOGUE WORDS (OVERALL and
PROPOSITION are others) whose mis- appointed, for their invention has been
chief lies not so much in misuse as in stolen by the economists, and is on the
way to becoming a POPULARIZED TECH-
over-use. They offer themselves as NICALITY. He described as the largest
handy reach-me-downs to people who single cause of imbalance the volume of
would do better to think exactly what unproductive expenditure which govern-
they want to say. If the writer who ments felt they had to undertake. \
said that the Government's image was Waste was also causing imbalance in
being 'undermined' had done this, he the less developed countries, j We must
might have expressed himself differ- also remember that the general im-
ently. See also PERSONA. balance which has always characterized
the development of the Soviet economy
imaginary, imaginative. The has not yet been fully overcome. There
imbroglio 269 immunity
seems no hope of rescuing unbalance notion of an external transcendent
from this usurper, but it is really too creator or ruler.'
much if the literary critics are content
with neither, and must coin another immense. The slang use in the senses
variant for themselves. Now Mr. excellent or amusing is an instance
Hughes comes along and begins to redress Of NOVELTY-HUNTING which has lost
this disbalance between romance and its freshness and grown stale, as such
reason. And, to make matters worse, perversions do, and is now rarely
this has been stolen too. / / car owner- heard except in the adverb immensely
ship is doubled in 10 or 12 years, the = extremely.
disbalance between on-peak and off-peak
traffic is likely to get worse. See also i m m o r t a l , as a compliment to an
IN- AND UN- a n d DE- AND DIS-.
author or one of his productions or
personages, requires to be used with
caution. Its real use is to make sure
imbroglio. Pronounce -ôlyô; pi. -os, that a reader who may or may not be
see -O(E)S 4. an ignoramus shall realize that the
person or book referred to is well
imbue. See INFUSE. known in the literary world, and that
without telling him the fact in too
immanent. The word is something patronizing a manner. But, delicate
of a stumbling-block; the unlearned as the device may originally have been,
hearer or reader is not sure whether it it is now too well known to escape
and imminent are the same or different ; notice; and whether the reader will be
the Latin scholar feels that he does not offended or not depends on the exact
recall immaneo in his Cicero, and depth of his ignorance. There are few
wonders whether {-ant and -ent often who will not be angry if they are
playing hide-and-seek with each other) reckoned to require 'the immortal
mdno may be the source instead of Shakespeare', or 'Don Quixote', or
mâneo. (The pronunciation immdn'ent 'Pickwick Papers'; those who can put up
was prescribed for BBC announcers in with 'the immortal Panurge', or 'Dob-
1928 'to avoid confusion with immi- bin', or 'Mrs. Poyser', will be rather
nent, but this has fallen flat.) Under more numerous; and so on in many
these circumstances it is thought by gradations. The author of the follow-
some that the divines and philosophers ing was probably ill inspired in im-
who chiefly affect the word should be mortalizing Cervantes; but not so ill
asked whether they would not gain in as if he had done the same—and he
intelligibility what they might Lose in might have—for Don Quixote : Lovers
precision by choosing according to of Don Quixote will remember that the
context between indwelling, pervading, immortal Cervantes fought with great
pervasive, permeating, inherent, and courage in this battle.
other words that do not mystify us.
'All which though I most powerfully
and potently believe, yet I hold it not immovable. Though the differentia-
honesty to have it thus set down', and tion between immovable (impossible to
shall not venture to label immanent and move) and irremovable (not liable to
immanence SUPERFLUOUS WORDS. The dismissal) is fully established, blunders
OED's note on the use of immanent sometimes occur; The President, save
may be useful to those who, not read- for successful impeachment, is immovable
ing philosophic and religious books, by Congress. / By suspending conscrip-
find the word an enigma when it makes tion and restoring the immovability of
one of its occasional appearances in the the judges.
newspaper: 'In recent philosophy ap- immunity, impunity. These words
plied to the Deity regarded as perma- are sometimes ignorantly confused.
nently pervading and sustaining the
universe, as distinguished from the Immunity means exemption from some
unpleasant or tiresome thing, as one
impassable 270 implicit
may become immune from small-pox impeachment. For own the soft :.,
by vaccination or from jury service s e e IRRELEVANT ALLUSION a n d HACK-
by attaining the age of 60. Impunity NEYED PHRASES.
means immunity from one particular
unpleasant or tiresome thing, namely impenitence, -cy. There is no per-
punishment. ceptible difference of meaning; -ce is
recommended; see -CE, -CY.
impassable, impassible. The two i m p e r i a l i s m . See WORSENED WORDS.
are different in derivation, spelling,
pronunciation, meaning, and currency. impertinent. See IRRELEVANT.
The first is ultimately from Latin
pando stretch, the second from Latin impetus. PI. -tuses, not -ti; see -us.
patior feel; in the first the second
syllable is (at least in Southern Eng- impinge makes -ging; see MUTE E.
land) pronounced pahs, while in the implement, n. and v. See NOUN AND
other it is always pas; the first means VERB ACCENT. The verb, meaning to
that cannot be passed, the second that carry out (a contract etc.), is of Scot-
cannot feel. The first is in common tish origin. The following quotation is
use, the second rare, having been from Elements of English Composition
superseded by impassive. by David Irving, 11th ed. 1841: 'To
implement, signifying to fulfil, is like-
impact (n.) means primarily the wise derived from the barbarous jargon
striking of one thing against another, a of the Scotish [sic] bar.' As recently
collision and, by extension, its effect as 1933 the SOED still called the
on the object struck. Used figuratively word chiefly Scottish. Since then
in this last sense, it has become a it has taken England by storm and
VOGUE WORD. There is no need to become almost a VOGUE WORD with
multiply examples ; some can be found politicians, officials, and the Press.
in almost any day's newspapers. It Undertakings, recommendations,
will be enough to quote four that promises, and obligations are never
happen to present themselves at the now fulfilled or carried out or kept or
time of writing. As a senator he had observed or performed or discharged;
been alarmed at the i. of the first implemented must always be the
Russian sputnik, j A committee is to be word. An occasional change would be
set up to investigate the i. of television on refreshing.
children, j Perhaps the best yardstick by
which to measure the i. of the tax implicit. / . and explicit; i. and implied;
reliefs is. . . . / Although the group i. faith etc. The human mind likes a good
profit before taxation is a record, the i. clear black and white contrast; when
of a considerably higher charge for over- two words so definitely promise one of
seas taxation has resulted in a lower these contrasts as do explicit and implicit,
net profit. In the first quotation and then dash our hopes by figuring in
(where the writer is referring to the phrases where the contrast ceases to be
reaction of American public opinion visible—say in 'explicit support' and
to the Russian achievement) the 'implicit obedience', with absolute or
metaphor is not yet 'dead' enough complete or full as a substitute that
(see METAPHOR 1) to be used without might replace either or both—we ask
incongruity of a moving physical with some indignation whether after
object. In the second the natural word all black is white, and perhaps decide
to which i. is preferred is effect, and that implicit is a shifty word with
in the third incidence. In the fourth i. which we will have no further dealings.
is used otiosely, as vogue words tend It is in fact noteworthy in more than
to be (cf. OVERALL); the omission of one respect.
the i. of would leave the sense un- First, it means for the most part the
changed and improve the style. same as implied, and, as it is certainly
imply 271 imprescriptible
not so instantly intelligible to the impost(h)ume. The h, which is not
average man, it might have been ex- pronounced, and often not written, is
pected to be so good as to die. That it better away, though the word is too well
has nevertheless survived by the side established to have its other corrup-
of implied is perhaps due to two causes. tions removed and its sound altered.
One is that explicit and implicit make a It should be, and was, apostem, from
neater antithesis than even expressed Greek àTToarruxa abscess; the h comes
and implied (all the conditions whether in by confusion with POSTHUMOUS,
explicit or implicit; but all the implied in which it is due to a false theory
conditions; implied is much commoner of the etymology.
than implicit when the antithesis is not
given in full). The other is that the impractical, un-. The second is
adverb, whether of implicit or of implied, better; see IN- AND UN-, and PRACTIC-
is more often wanted than the adjec- ABLE. The constant confusion between
tive, and that impliedly is felt to be (see practicable and practical is a special
-EDLY) a bad form; implicitly', pre- reason for making use of im- and un-
ferred to impliedly, helps to keep im- to add to the difference in the nega-
plicit alive. tives : Its inability to address itself to the
Secondly, there is the historical acci- questions of the hour produces the im-
dent by which implicit, with faith, pression that the Labour movement is all
obedience, confidence, and such words, impracticable agitation (read unprac-
has come to mean absolute or full, tical).
whereas its original sense was un-
developed or potential or in the germ. impregnate makes -natable (excep-
The starting-point of this usage is the tionally, see -ATABLE), since impreg-
ecclesiastical phrase implicit faith, i.e. nable would be inconvenient.
a person's acceptance of any article of
belief, not on its own merits, but as a imprescriptible is one of the words
part of, as 'wrapped up in', his general that are often used without a clear
acceptance of the Church's authority. conception of their meaning. A
The steps from this sense to unques- right or property or grant is impre-
tioning, and thence to complete or scriptible, if" it is 'not subject to
absolute, are easy; but not everyone prescription'. What then is prescrip-
who says that implicit obedience is the tion? If we exclude doctors' prescrip-
first duty of the soldier realizes that the tions, most people take it to mean
obedience he is describing is not 'uninterrupted use or possession from
properly an absolute one, but one that time immemorial, or for a period fixed
is based on acceptance of the soldier's by law as giving a title or right; hence,
status. See POPULARIZED TECHNICALI- title or right acquired by virtue of such
TIES. use or possession; sometimes called
positive prescription'—OED. But
imply. See INFER for confusion be- clearly 'not subject to prescription' in
tween the two. this sense does not give us the meaning
importune, v. The stress is variable, we want, but something very like the
and the OED allows it on either the opposite of it. The reading of the riddle
second or the third. Of the numerous requires a piece of legal knowledge that
verse quotations, there are twelve clear most of us do not possess, viz., that
for impor'tune, and four for importu'ne; there is another kind of prescription
Shakespeare, Spenser, Chapman, Gray, 'now commonly called negative pre-
and Byron, all favour the former. But scription', defined as 'Limitation or
the latter is now usual ; the COD puts restriction of the time within which an
it first and some dictionaries give no action or claim can be raised'—OED.
other. All imprescriptible right, then, is a right
not subject to negative prescription,
impost. See TAX. i.e. a right that is not invalidated by
impress 272 in- and un-
any lapse of time. See also INDEFEAS- inadvertence,-cy. The first is recom-
IBLE, INDEFECTIBLE and PRESCRIPTIVE mended; see -CE, -CY.
RIGHT.
-in and -ine. The distinction in
impress, n. For synonymy see SIGN. chemistry between the two termina-
tions is outside the scope of this dic-
impressible, impressionable. It is tionary. Although in certain words,
singular that the second form, adapted e.g. gelatine, glycerine, margarine, the
from the French, should have dis- -ine of popular use violates that
placed the first, which might have distinction, the correct spellings gela-
done the work quite well, although the tin etc. should be left to technical
French verb impressionner has failed to writers or kept for scientific moments,
produce a current English verb to and the -ine forms used without hesi-
impression. Whatever the reason, im- tation when we are not thinking in
pressionable is undoubtedly the estab- terms of chemistry—unless, indeed,
lished form. the word pedantry has no terrors for us.
On the question whether these and
in. i. In years. The play certainly opened similar words should be pronounced
to the noisiest first night i.y. j Kew, with -in or -en, or in some cases (e.g. the
73 hours sunshine, had its dullest March elements bromine, chlorine, fluorine,
in 13 years. / Cuba, the Congo, and and iodine) -in, modern dictionaries
Russia's charges of American 'aggres- vary greatly in their choices. Popular
sive action' have been giving the Security usage, except for a preference for -in
Council its busiest time i. y. These are in iodine, favours -en (e.g. margarine),
examples of the conquest of British and this is likely to prevail, as the dic-
idiom (for years) by American. See tionaries, agreeing for once, recognize
AMERICANISMS.
that it has in nicotine.
2 . The combinations inasmuch as,
in order that or to, in so far, in that, in- and un-. There is often a teasing
and in toto, are taken separately in uncertainty—or ««certitude—whether
their alphabetical places. the negative form of a word should be
made with in- (including il-, im-, ir-),
inadequate. Since otherwise the num- or with un-. The general principle that
ber of troops available might be inade- un- is English and belongs to English
quate to those ivhich might be brought words, and in- is Latin and belongs to
into the field against her. Though it is Latin words, does not take us far. The
true that adequate and inadequate second part of it, indeed, forbids in-
originally meant respectively made wholesome (since wholesome has cer-
equal and not made equal, and there- tainly no Latin about it) and thousands
fore might have been used as in this of similar offences ; but then no one is
quotation, modern practice has re- tempted to go astray in this direction.
stricted the words to the notion equal And the first part, which is asked to
or not equal to a requirement. Vague solve real problems—whether, for in-
additions like to the need, to the occasion, stance, unsanitary or insanitary is right
to the task, are still possible, though felt —seldom gives a clear answer. It for-
to be pleonastic; but direct compari- bids undubiiable, unejfable, uneyitable,
sons like that in the above extract, or and other such words of which the
like His revenues were found inadequate positive form does not exist as an Eng-
to his expences (Gibbon) are abandon- lish word; but about sanitary and the
ments of the DIFFERENTIATION that has rest it says you may consider them
taken place between adequate and English words and use un-, or Latin
equal, inadequate and unequal. His words and use in-. Fortunately the
resources were inadequate, or inadequate number of words about which doubts
to the occasion, but not inadequate to exist is not large ; for the great majority
those of his opponent. usage has by this time decided one way
in- and un- 273 in- and un-
or the other. Fashion has varied : 'The of the positive adjective, an un- form
practice in the 16th and 17th c ' says is sometimes used to discharge the
the OED 'was to prefer the form with merely negative function without risk
in-, e.g. inaidable, inarguable, inavail- of ambiguity; immoral having come to
able, but the modern tendency is to mean offending against morality, un-
restrict in- to words obviously answer- moral is called in to mean not moral
ing to Latin types, and to prefer un- in or outside the sphere of morality.
other cases, as in unavailing, uncertain, Others are inept and unapt', UN-
undevout\ ARTISTIC and inartistic; inhuman and
Before a list of doubtful pairs, with unhuman : UNMATERIAL and immaterial;
recommendations, is attempted, some UNRELIGIOUS and irreligious; UNSANI-
suggestive contrasts may serve to show TARY and insanitary; UNSOLVABLE and
the conflicting tendencies that are at insoluble.
work. First, markedly Latin endings, A list is now given of the words about
as opposed to nondescript ones, pro- which doubt is most likely, with a
duce in-\ unjust but injustice, unable statement of the prefix recommended
but inability, unquiet but inquietude, for each; the recommendations are
uncivil but incivility. Second, -ed end- sometimes supported by special rea-
ings have an aversion to in- : undigested sons, but sometimes merely based on
but indigestible, unanimated but inani- a general impression that one form is
mate, uncompleted but incomplete, un- more likely than the other to prevail.
determined but indeterminate, unsepa- (But in- has been making headway
rated but inseparable, undistinguished against un- in the words starred, and
but indistinguishable, unlettered but may win.)
illiterate, unlimited but illimitable, un- acceptable un- In- form labelled rare
redeemed but irredeemable, unreconciled in OED
but irreconcilable. Third, -ing endings •advisable un- As acceptable
have a similar aversion to in-', un- alterable un-
appeasable un- Delatinized by -eas-
ceasing but incessant, undiscriminating approachable un-
but indiscriminate. Fourth, in- tends communicative un-
completed un- The only indisputable
to be restricted to the forms that are in ed word is in-
closest to the Latin, even in the very experienced
open-minded -ble group : unapproach- consolable in- Established
able but inaccessible, undestroyable but controllable un- Much delatinized
•decipherable un-
indestructible, undissolvable but indis- describable in- Established
soluble, unbelievable but inconceivable, digested un- As completed
unprovable but improbable. Lastly, discriminating un- Words in -ing abhor
unaccountable but insurmountable, and in-
distinguishable in- Established
untnelodious but inharmonious, are edited un- See completed; French
examples of apparent caprice fixed by inédit has kept the
in- form in being
usage. effaceable in- Established
The commonest cause of error is thus *escapable un- Much delatinized
•essential un-
the existence of a familiar allied word excusable in- Established
beginning rightly with the prefix that, expensive in-
in the word actually used, is wrong. expressive un- Danger of confusion
with inexpressible
One other point is perhaps worth frequent in- Most -ent words so
stressing. It is a general truth that, navigable un-
while it is legitimate to prefix un-, practical un- As acceptable; and
confusion with im-
but not in-, to any adjective of what- practicable
ever form, those negative adjectives recognizable un-
in in- that exist are normally preferred responsive un- Danger cf confusion
to the corresponding un- forms; but with irresponsible
retentive ir- Most words in re- so
when an in- (or il- or im- or ir-) •substantial un-
adjective has developed a sense that supportable in- Established
is something more than the negation surmountable in- Established
susceptible in- Most -ible words so
inapt(ness)(itude) 274 incident
inapt(ness)(itude), unapt(ness), was playfully suggesting that a book-
inept(ness), (itude). In modern thief is not a human being, but a fiend
usage these overlapping words have or possibly a Platonic Idea; for so
sorted themselves out thus: in the eminent a person must be aware that
sense unfitted, inappropriate, unlikely incarnation of what is incarnate already
(to do something), the -apt- forms; is as idle as painting the lily, and much
in sense foolish, the -ept- forms. The more difficult. Some of us, however,
less suitable noun is chosen in de do need to be reminded that while a
Gaulle is said to have had an ineptitude person may be an incarnation of folly,
for happiness. or Folly clothed in flesh, it is meaning-
inasmuch as has two meanings : one less to call him the incarnation of a
the original, now rarely met with, i.e. fool, because all fools are flesh to start
to the same extent as or to whatever with and cannot be fitted with a new
degree or so far as {God is only God suit of it.
inasmuch as he is the Moral Governor inceptive, inchoative. Names given
of the world); and the other worn to verbs meaning 'to begin to do some-
down, with the notion of a correspon- thing'; in Greek -OKW and in Latin -sco
dence between two scales gone, and are the i. terminations, as yiyvwoKOi
nothing left but a four-syllable substi- learn (i.e. come to know), calesco grow
tute for since (/ am unable to reply that warm. The many English words in
I am much the better for seeing you, -esce, -escent, as recrudesce, iridescent,
inasmuch as I see nothing of you); this are from Latin verbs of this kind.
is the ordinary modern use, and its
only recommendation as compared inchoate means just begun, un-
with since is its pomposity. On the developed. Those who use it must be
other hand, the old sense has been on their guard against allowing the
supplanted by so far as and in so far as, analogy of incoherent to lead them
and is now unfamiliar enough to be either into writing incohate or into
misleading when a literary-minded supposing that it has an opposite,
person reverts to it. At any rate, choate. It comes from the Latin
Mr. Chamberlain's proposals, inasmuchinchoare, to begin, which does not
as they were intended to secure continuedconsist of a verb choare with a negative
loyalty and union amongst the Austra- prefix, but is one in its own right. Pro-
lian people, were considered altogether nounce irikôât.
unnecessary. Do we gather that the
proposals were in fact rejected, and the incident (adj.) incidental. Two ten-
reason for this was that their intention dencies may be discerned. One is for
was so-and-so? Or that, whether re- the shorter form with its less familiar
jected or accepted on other grounds, termination to be displaced by the
that intention was not held to justify longer; thus we should more usually,
them? In other words, does inasmuch though not more correctly, now write
as mean since, or so far as ? We cannot incidental in such contexts as (shor-
tell, without extraneous information. tened from OED examples): All the
A word that in one sense is pompous, powers incident to any government;
and in another obscure or ambiguous, Those in the highest station have their
and in both has satisfactory substi- incident cares and troubles; The expedi-
tutes, is better left alone. tion and the incident aggressive steps
taken; The incident mistakes which he
incarnation. This unfortunately is not has run into. The other tendency, cut-
the prisoner's first lapse from honesty, ting across the first, is a differentiation
for when the Chief Constable said ''he of meaning, based on no real difference
was the very quintessence of cunning and between the two forms, but not the
the incarnation of a book-thief, he was less useful on that account. This
not speaking without knowledge. Either is that, while incidental is applied to
the C.C. has been misreported or he side occurrences with stress on their
incidentally 275 include
independence of the main action, a fuller knowledge of the relevant facts.
incident implies that, though not Its much commoner use as a handy
essential to it, they not merely happen cliché for those who shrink from all
to arise in connexion with it but may positive statements deserved the tart
be expected to do so. A consequence rejoinder of Sherlock Holmes to Dr.
of this distinction is that incident is Watson that he would be better ad-
mostly used in close combination with vised to do so; and recalls Sir Winston
whatever word may represent the Churchill's protest that 'The reserve
main action or subject, and especially of modern assertions is sometimes
with to as the link; Youth and its pushed to extremes in which the fear
incident perturbations, or The en- of being contradicted leads the writer
thusiasms incident to youth. It would to strip himself of almost all sense and
be well if the swallowing up of meaning.'
incident by incidental could be checked,
and a continued existence secured to include, comprise. As used in the
it at least in the special uses indicated. newspapers, these may be called a pair
Half the money has gone in incidental Of WORKING AND STYLISH WORDS. T h e
expenses, and Our failure brought us an one used in ordinary life is include; the
incidental advantage; but Office and inferior kind of journalist therefore
the incident worries, and The dangers likes to impress his readers with com-
incident to motor-racing. prise. The frequent confusion between
The survival of incident as an adjec- comprise and compose (for which see
tive is, however, now threatened by its COMPRISE) is an indication that include,
familiar use as a noun in the sense which writer and compositor alike
of unfortunate occurrence, especially know all about, would be in general
as a euphemism for affray. During the a safer word. Given the two, however, it
second world war every fall of an
enemy bomb was officially called an would be possible to turn our super-
'incident', however disastrous its con- fluity to much better purpose than
sequences. as a chance for the stylish journalist.
When two words have roughly the
same meaning, examination will gener-
incidentally is now very common as ally reveal a distinction; and the
a writer's apology for an irrelevance. distinction in meaning between the
Naturally, those who find it most use- present two seems to be that comprise
ful are not the best writers. It is even is appropriate when what is in ques-
commoner in speech. It may have point tion is the content of the whole, and
as a convenient way of saying 'It occurs include when it is the admission or
to me to add', in place of the now out- presence of an item. With include,
moded 'By the way'. But more often it there is no presumption (though it is
is just a meaningless piece of padding, often the fact) that all or even most of
like actually. It is not easy, for in- the components are mentioned; with
stance, to see what purpose the word comprise, the whole of them are under-
was intended to serve in They are stood to be in the list. The Guards,
movements representing Majorca and for instance, include the Coldstreams
Minorca, in major and minor keys re- and the Life Guards, but comprise the
spectively, and blended into a finale Household Cavalry and the Brigade of
incidentally, or in You can re-read this Guards. Comprise is in fact, or would
acrostic incidentally on page 3 of the be if this partly recognized distinc-
'Radio Times'. See MEANINGLESS WORDS. tion were developed and maintained,
equivalent to be composed of, whereas
incline. 1 . See NOUN AND VERB ACCENT include is not. The following extracts
2. / incline—or am inclined—to think show comprise in contexts where include
is a formula that may pass if what is would be the right word : The German
intended is to express a provisional forces . . . exceed twenty-three corps;
opinion that might be changed by this number does not comprise the corps
incognito 276 incongruous vocabulary
operating in the Masurian Lakes, j The will be found in UNEQUAL YOKEFEL-
Commission points out that the ample LOWS, and see also ILLITERACIES.
crop of information it has gathered only
comprises irrefragably established facts. incompetence, -cy. The form recom-
mended is -ce, cf. COMPETENCE; in legal
incognito. The inflexions are of no use, however, -cy seems to be pre-
great importance; they are now little ferred.
used, and the abbreviation incog, will
serve for all. But they should be done incondite. Pronounce ïnkô'ndït (see
right if at all. Of the personal noun -ITE). The word is of the learned kind,
incognito, incognita, incogniti, are the and should be avoided except in what
masculine, feminine, and plural, man, is addressed to a literary audience. It
woman, people, of concealed identity. may not be out of place to mention
The abstract noun meaning anonymity that conditus composed, not conditus
etc., is incognito only, with possible seasoned, is the Latin source, and that
plural incognitos {never dropping their artless, rude, rough, unpolished, come
incognitos, or usually incognito). The near the sense.
adverb or predicative adjective {travel- incongruous vocabulary. Austria-
ling i.) is usually -to irrespective of Hungary was no longer in a position, an*
gender and number; if declined, it is she would, to shake off the German yoke.
like the personal noun. Be in a position to is a phrase of the
incommunicado is a word borrowed most pedestrian modernity; shake off
from the Spanish incomunicado to the yoke, though a metaphor, is one so
describe the condition of a prisoner well worn that no incongruity is felt
deprived of communication with the between it and the pedestrianism; but
outside world. Now that we have what is an' she would doing here? Why
anglicized it to the extent of doubling not the obvious even if she had the
its m, we might well round off the job desire} Or, if an' she would is too dear
by pronouncing it -ado instead of the to be let go, why not Austria now could
-ahdo still given by the dictionaries. not, an' she would} The goldfish an'
cannot live in this sentence-bowl un-
See -ADE, -ADO. less we put some water in with it, and
incompatibles. Under this heading gasps pathetically at us from the mere
are collected some phrases each con- dry air of be in a position. Only a child
sisting of ill-assorted elements. They would expect a goldfish to keep its
differ greatly both in degree of badness beauty when out of its right element;
and in kind ; neither point is here dis- and only the writer who is either very
cussed, and each phrase is set down in inexperienced or singularly proof
as few words as will enable the usage against experience will let the beauties
to be identified. Discussion of those of a word or phrase tempt him into
that contain an italicized word will be displaying it where it is conspicuously
found on reference to that word; the out of place. Minor lapses from con-
object of this list is to give the mis- gruity are common enough, and a
takes an extra advertisement. The tendency to them mars the effect of
phrases are: Almost quite; without what a man writes more fatally than
scarcely; finally scotched; decimate by occasional faults of a more palpable
kind, such as grammatical blunders;
SO°O; rather unique; somewhat amaz- but they do not lend themselves to
ing; more preferable; ago since; both exhibition in the short form here
. . . as well as; but that however is necessary. A few of the grosser and
doubtful; hardly-earned wages; a line more recurrent incongruities, con-
worth while pursuing; people seemed nected with particular words, must
to have been bolder in those days; suffice by way of illustration. The
makes one forget his manners ; I would words out of their element are printed
like; those kind of; no reason for undue in roman type, and under most of
alarm. Examples of other similar faults
incontinent 277 index
them, in their dictionary places, will him on the ANALOGY of indoctrinate.
be found further examples: Amongst Cf. INFUSE and imbue.
Smithfteld men ''boneless bag meat' has
completely ousted the sausage from its incur makes -rred, -rring; see -R-,
erstwhile monopoly of jest and gibe. / -RR-. For incurring see PRONUNCIA-
Christmas books are put in hand long TION 7.
ere the season comes round. / It is really indecorous. The orthodox pronun-
very difficult to imagine that the reply ciation used to be ïndëkôr'us, but
of the ballot can be aught but an answer ïndëk'ôrûs must now be at least as
in the affirmative. / Having in mind the common though most dictionaries still
approaching General Election, it appears give it second place.
to me that the result of same is likely to
be as much a farce as the last. / There indefeasible, indefectible. The
are, it may be noted, fewer marquesses distinction between the two, not
than any other section of the peerage always very carefully observed, may
save dukes. / The Covenanted Civil perhaps best be kept in mind by
Service with its old traditions and its associating them respectively with
hereditary hatred of interlopers, be they defeat and deficient. That is indefeasible
merchants, journalists, doctors, etc. {be which is not liable to defeat, i.e. to
they is nothing if not stiff, etc. nothing being impaired or annulled by attack
if not slack). See also WARDOUR STREET. from outside ; the word is a legal term
applied to rights, titles, possessions,
incontinent = straightway {Then and the like. That is indefectible which
was there with the angel An host incon- is not liable to become deficient, i.e.
tinent) is an archaic adverb. Its con- to failing for want of internal power;
nexion with the adjective now in use, the word was originally applied to
which is apt to suggest wrong guesses, qualities such as holiness, grace, vig-
is not a close one; the OED explains our, resolution, affection, or abun-
that it is from Latin in continenti tem- dance, and later, more loosely, treated
pore (in unbroken time), so that the as a synonym of perfect, faultless—
in- of the adverb is the preposition without defect. Neither word lends
meaning in, whereas that of the adjec- itself to the sort of everyday use seen
tive is the prefix meaning not. in: And yet Mr. Barnstaple had the
incrust, en-. Encrust, encrustment, most subtle and indefeasible doubt
whether indeed Serpentine was speaking.
but incrustation; see EM- AND IM-,
incubus. PI. -bi, or preferably -buses. independence, -cy. The -cy form
inculcate. One inculcates something has only some special senses—
upon or into someone. A curious mis- Congregationalism, an independent
State, and an independent income;
take often occurs, shown in the quota- and
tions following : A passer-by saved him, -ce, in these, though still preferred to
it is now usually displaced by
formed a close friendship with him, and Congregationalism, sovereign or inde-
inculcated him with his own horrible pendent State, and competency.
ideas about murdering women. / An
admirable training-place wherein to in- index. For pi. see -EX, -IX. 4. and
culcate the young mind with the whys LATIN PLURALS. For synonymy see
and wherefores of everything which con- SIGN. Index Expurgatorius is often used
cerns personal safety. It is possible loosely for the list of books that the
that the compositor found each time Roman Catholic Church forbids its
inoculate and printed inculcate, but members to read or permits them to
a more probable explanation is that read only in expurgated form. The
inculcate is one of the words liable to proper title of that book is Index
the maltreatment called OBJECT-SHUF- Librorum Prohibitorum; the Index
FLING, i. him with his own ideas being Expurgatorius lists the passages to be
substituted for i. his own ideas upon expunged
indifferent 273 Indirect question
indifferen(t)(ce)(cy). I . These were must be replaced by a preposition
useful words once: indifferent (sub- phrase (Hand that book to me; Call a
jective) with indifference for the person taxi for me). Variations are (1)
who feels no preference for either of when no direct object is expressed, as
a pair of things over the other, and You told me yourself, (2) when the
indifferent (objective) with indifferency direct object is a mere pronoun and is
for a pair of things for neither of which allowed to precede, as / told it you
a preference is felt. 'In choice of com- before (but not / told the story you
mittees for ripening business for the before), (3) when the i. o. is after a
counsel' wrote Bacon, 'it is better to passive verb, as It was told me in con-
choose indifferent persons than to fidence
make an indifferency by putting in
those that are strong on both sides'—
a warning as apposite today as three indirect question is the grammarian's
hundred years ago. But the words name for a modification of what was
have since lost most of their virtue. originally a question in such a way that
Indifferent in its objective sense and it no longer stands by itself as a sen-
indifferency are well on their way to tence, but is treated as a noun, serving
archaisms; and, though we still use for instance as subject or object to
indifferent and indifference in the sub- a verb outside of it. Thus: direct ques-
jective sense, they are becoming rather tion, Who are you?; indirect question,
stilted, in conversation at any rate. / asked who he was, or Tell me who you
/ am indifferent (or It is a matter of are, or Who you are is quite irrelevant.
indifference to me) whether you go or Two points arise, one of grammar, and
stay is now more naturally expressed one of style.
by / couldn't care less. The fact is that 1. It must be remembered that an
the whole family has been poisoned indirect question is in grammar equiva-
by the popular use of indifferent in the lent to one noun in the singular; the
sense of 'rather bad', a euphemistic number of its internal subject has no
extension of its meaning neither good influence on the number of the external
nor bad. This has gone to such lengths verb. To disregard this fact, as when
that clergy sometimes substitute im- rest is written instead of rests in the
partially in the Prayer for the Church following extract because terms hap-
Militant, lest the congregation should pens to be plural, is an elementary
be puzzled at their praying that justice blunder—What terms Bulgaria may
may be indifferently ministered. be ultimately given rest with the Peace
2 . In doing so it showed an indifference Conference.
for the interests of its passengers which 2. The point of style is of much
can only damage its reputation. Idiom greater interest. How far is it legiti-
requires to, not for. mate, in an indirect question, to sub-
stitute the order of words that properly
indirect object. The person or thing belongs to direct questions? The
secondarily affected by the action lamentable craze for INVERSION among
stated in the verb, if expressed by writers who are fain to make up for
a noun or pronoun alone (i.e. without dullness of matter by verbal contor-
to, for•, etc.) is called the i. o.; in Latin tions is no doubt responsible for the
and Greek it is recognizable, as it once prevailing disregard of the normal
was in English, by being in the dative, order in indirect questions; for inver-
while the direct object is in the accusa- sion, i.e. the placing of the subject
tive. The English dative now having later than its verb, is a mark of the
no separate form, the i. o. must be direct, but not of the indirect question.
Take these five types :
otherwise identified, and this is done
by putting it between the verb and the A. How old are you?
object (Hand me that book; Call me a B. Tell me how old you are
taxi), and if it is to follow the object, or Tell me how old are you?
indirect question 279 individual
C. He wondered how old she was how is it instead of how it is, to whom
or He wondered how old was she? does it owe instead of to whom it owes,
D. He doesn't know how old I am and by whom is it paid instead of by
or He doesn't know how old am I ? whom it is paid; but about the other
E. How old I am is my affair two, which, whether designedly or not,
or How old am I is my affair. act as advance-guard and rearguard
A is the direct question; in B , C, D, covering those between and almost
and E, the first form contains the preventing us from discovering their
normal, and the second the abnormal character, it is not so easy to say
form of the indirect question. It will whether they are abnormal or not.
be seen that the abnormal form be- That is a characteristic of the special
comes progressively disagreeable as we type of question consisting of subject,
recede from interrogative governing noun complement, and the verb be; in
verbs. In B all that is needed to set the answer to such questions, subject
things right is a comma after Tell me, and complement are transposable.
converting the indirect question into a Question, What are the duties?; an-
direct one by making tell me paratactic. swer, These are the duties, or The duties
But when we reach D the form might are these. The indirect question corre-
fairly be thought impossible. To con- sponding to the first form is Explain
tortionists all things may be possible, what are the duties, and to the second,
but readers possessed of the gram- Explain what the duties are ; and it can
matical sense, or of literary taste, will therefore hardly be said that one is
find the following examples of the more normal than the other. But to
abnormal order repugnant in the same questions made up of other elements
degree as the types to which the letters than subject+be + noun complement,
B etc. assign themj it is only the e.g. How is it constituted?, the two
encroachments of inversion in general answers (It is constituted thus, and Thus
that palliate this special abuse in in- is it constituted) are by no means trans-
direct questions. I have been asked by posable; one is plainly normal and the
the Editor to explain what are the duties other abnormal. This minor point has
of the Army towards the civil power, been discussed only because sentences
how is it constituted, to whom does it Like Explain what are the duties might
owe allegiance, by whom is it paid, and be hastily supposed to justify all other
what is the source of its authority uses of direct-question order in in-
(B. The reason why the first and last direct-question constructions. See also
clauses here are less distasteful than STOPS (Question Mark).
the others is explained later). / It
shows inferentially how powerless is that indiscreet, indiscrete, should be
body to carry out any scheme of its own distinguished in accent—ïndïskrê't,
(D. Normal order—how powerless ïndï'skrët; cf. DISCRETE.
that body is). / Experience has taught indiscriminate, undiscriminating
in what a restricted region can the State are the right forms. See -IN, -UN.
as trader or owner act to the general indisputable. The stress is on the
advantage (D. Normal order—the second syllable. See RECESSIVE ACCENT.
State can act to the general advantage
as trader). / How bold is this attack indissoluble. Indissoluble, though
may be judged from the fact that . . . not yet standard, is likely to prevail
(E. Normal order—How bold this over indissoluble. See RECESSIVE AC-
attack is). / Why should we be so penal- CENT.
ized must ever remain a mystery (E individual, n. The following remarks
Normal order—Why we should). concern the noun only, not the adjec-
The further remarks promised on the tive. 'Individual, which almost made
first example are these: three of the the fortune of many a Victorian novel-
five indirect-question clauses in that ist, is one of the modern editor's shib-
are clear cases of abnormal order— boleths for detecting the unfit'. So it
individual 280 indulge
has been said, but editors seem to relax very quietly to business yesterday after-
their vigilance occasionally, and the noon; all trace of the preceding sitting's
word slips through on its sad old errand violent protestation appeared to have
of soliciting a smile in vain. Here are been obliterated from the political mind;
a couple of passages in which the choice the only individual who attempted to
of it can have been dictated by nothing revive the spirit of animosity was Mr.
but WORN-OUT HUMOUR: It is a most . / We are little inclined to consider
spirited episode, with a supernatural the urgency of the case made out for the
ending according to Tom Causey; this patient agriculturalist; it would seem at
wily individual is the hero of some highly first sight as if the needs of this long-
diverting stories, j Taking a leaf out of suffering individual were such as could
the book of the individual who some be supplied by ... (as if his needs could).
years ago put forth his recollections under
the title 'Reminiscences of a Young
Man'. Its use contemptuously rather induction, deduction. The first is
than humorously (cf. Fr. individu) is reasoning from particular ('cited') cases
hardly less outmoded. That was the to general principles; inferring of a law
sense in which Mr. Jorrocks under- from observed occurrences. If I argue,
stood it when Mr. Moonface's refer- from the fact that all the MacGregors
ring to him as one provoked the retort I have known are Scotch, that Mac-
'You are another indiwidual' ; and that Gregor is a Scotch name, I make an
was no doubt the significance intended induction. Deduction is reasoning
by the M.P. who in more recent times from the general to the particular;
said of a leading article that he thought basing the truth of a statement upon
unsympathetic 'The individual who its being a case of a wider statement
wrote that leader does not live on known or admitted to be true. If I
£2. los a week.' argue that I shall die because I have
been credibly informed that all men do
The test for the right use of the word so, and I am a man, I am performing
as opposed to the 'colloquial vulgarism' deduction.
(OED) is the question whether the Whether the conclusion reached by
writer means to contrast the person he induction or deduction is true depends
calls an individual with society, the on many conditions, which it is the
family, or some body of persons. If he province of Logic to expound; but the
does, he may say individual with a clear broad difference between the two is
conscience ; if not, he must expect us that induction starts from known in-
to like his evocation of this ghost of a stances and arrives at a generalization,
past jocularity as little as we enjoy the or at the power of applying to new
fragrance of the smoking room visited instances what it has gathered from the
early next morning. A pair of examples old, while deduction starts from the
will make the difference clear. In the general principle, whether established
first, the individual member of parlia- by induction or assumed, and arrives
ment is directly contrasted with the at some less general principle, or some
House of Commons as a body, and is individual fact, that may be regarded
therefore rightly so called. In the as being wrapped up in it and there-
second it is true that there is a body of fore as having the same claim to belief
persons in question, but the individual as the general principle itself.
is so far from being contrasted with
this body that he is it; the right way
to have written the sentence is added indulge. But here and thereflashesout
in brackets, and the efficiency with a phrase or a sentence that strikes the
which his does all the work of of this note of emotion and pride in the achieve-
longsuffering individual (19th c. per- ments of our armies which the most
fume excepted) reveals the writer's reticent of men may indulge. That
style as one not to be imitated: passes the limit of what even this very
The House of Commons settled down elastic verb can be stretched to. You
industry 281 inexactitude
1
may i. your emotion, or i. in emotion, Where the bee sucks there suck I', its
or i. yourself in emotion; further, you effect is so great because it seems drama-
may i. in, or i. yourself in, a note of tically inevitable. / The mere matters of
emotion; but you cannot i. a note, arrangement, of line therein, show how
whether of emotion or of anything great was his power, how true his per-
else (you can only strike or utter or ception; he has the inevitableness of the
blow it), and no one who knows any Japanese, j Both themes are well, that
grammar would deny that which repre- is to say inevitably, worked out. / Miss
sents note, not emotion and pride. The may not always sing inevitably and
object of 1. as a transitive verb must bespontaneously, simply for the love of
either a person or at least something beauty. The COD at first called this
that can be credited with a capacity for use of the word 'critics' slang', but
being pleased or gratified; a passion, now recognizes it without comment.
a fancy, an emotion, may be gratified, What the critic means by inevitable
but not a note. The mistake is less a is perhaps this : surveying a work of art,
misunderstanding of the meaning of i. we feel sometimes that the whole and
than an example of HAZINESS, note of all the parts are sufficiently consistent
emotion being confused with emotion, and harmonious to produce on us the
and the confusion escaping notice effect of truth; we then call it, for
under cover of which. short, convincing: thus and thus, we
mean, it surely may have been or may
industry. The accentuation of the be; nothing in it inclines us to doubt.
second syllable, sometimes heard, is a To be convincing is but a step short of
solecism, perhaps due to analogy with being inevitable; when the whole and
industrial and industrious. the parts are so admirably integrated
-ine. For glycerin(e) etc. see -IN AND that instead of Thus and thus it may
have been we find ourselves forced to
-INE.
Thus and thus it must have been or was
ineffective, -fectual, -ficacious, or is3 when the change of a jot or tittle
-ficient. For distinctions see EFFEC- would be plain desecration, when we
TIVE. know that we are looking at the Platonic
idea itself and no mere copy, then
inept; See INAPT. the tale or the picture or the music
inevitable(ness). To those of us who attains to inevitableness. This is an out-
read reviews of books and picture- sider's guess at the meaning; whether
shows and acting and music it has been the guess is a good one or not, the
apparent for some time that these meaning seems to be one deserving
words have been added to what may expression in a single word—but only
be called the apparatus criticus, mak- on the condition that that word shall
ing up, with other LITERARY CRITICS' be strictly confined to the works or
WORDS, the reviewing outfit. A search parts of works that are worthy of it.
through all the English and French Now it is, in fact, so often met with
dictionaries within reach when this that one is compelled to infer the exist-
ence of a great deal more inevitability
book was being written showed them in 20th-c. art of all kinds than one at
all ignorant of the specialized modern all suspected; so many things seem
use; the OED in particular, dated 1901 inevitable to the critic in which the
for the letter I, has no inkling of it. reader could contemplate extensive
Even in 1933 the OED Supp. gave alterations without a pang.
only one illustration, and that puts the
word in inverted commas : Illustrations
of French wit . . . of the 'inevitable' inexactitude (Terminological). It [the
phrase, that gift to the world past all employment of indentured Chinese
praise. A further example or two may labour on the Rand] cannot in the
therefore be welcome : And even when opinion of His Majesty's Government
a song is introduced, such as Ariel's be classified as slavery in the extreme
inexpensive 282 infinite(ly)
acceptance of the word without some risk (-rrible) is described by the OED as
of terminological inexactitude. Thus a 'mongrel' between inferible and infer-
young Mr. Winston Churchill, Par- rable, neither of which has found
liamentary Under Secretary of State favour. See also CONFER(R)ABLE.
for the Colonies, addressing the House
of Commons as spokesman of a govern- inferiority complex. See COMPLEX.
ment that had just won an overwhelm-
ing victory in an election in which infinitely). There are naughty people
denunciation of their predecessors for who will say i. when they only mean
having sanctioned 'Chinese slavery' great or much or far. Their offence is
had played no small part. This piece here dealt with by a triple bench; the
of POLYSYLLABIC HUMOUR has worn first member is a correspondent of
better than most, thanks to the appeal a well-known journal; the second is its
of its sly whimsicality and the subse- editor, a meek man, it would seem; the
quent fame of its author. third is he who should have shared the
writing of this book, among whose
inexpensive. See DEAR. papers was found the cutting with his
comment appended.*
inexpressive, un-. The second is 1. Sir,—May I appeal to your love
recommended ; see IN- AND UN-. of accurate English against the com-
infantile, infantine. It would be mon use in writing, as in speaking, of
convenient if these words had deve- the word 'infinitely' as equivalent to
loped a DIFFERENTIATION of the same 'considerably' or 'indefinitely'?—you
kind as between CHILDISH and child- write that 'oil is infinitely less bulky
like. But this has not happened. Infan- than coal in proportion to the energy
tine is virtually obsolete, and -He is derived from it'. You write that 'the
used both as a term of contempt for habitual loafer does infinite mischief.
behaviour which, however natural in In the first case you intend 'consider-
infancy, does not befit those of riper ably* and in the second case you can
years (cf. puerile), and also in the sense, only mean that the mischief is indefi-
without any derogatory implication, of nite, sometimes great, sometimes no
pertaining to infancy, e.g. infantile worse than this letter from your
paralysis, as poliomyelitis used to be obedient servant, AN HABITUAL
called. LOAFER OF NECESSITY.
2 . We stand corrected. Our use was
infer I. makes -rredetc: see -R-,-RR-, a vulgarism. And yet we must not run
2. You clearly infer that your policy was into a taboo of this noble word. Swin-
influenced to some extent by your feeling burne uses it finely, accurately, and
of loyalty to the Labour Government. therefore without vulgarity, in the line
This misuse of i. for imply is sadly 'In the infinite spirit is room for the
common—so common that some dic- pulse of an infinite pain'. There the
tionaries give imply as one of the use is exact, because it does not imply
definitions of infer without comment. mere magnitude.—Ed.
But each word has its own job to do, 3. Rot. Infinite is no more a vulgar-
one at the giving end and the other at ism than any other deliberate exag-
the receiving {What do you imply by geration. And indefinitely is a totally
that remark? What am I to infer from wrong substitute; I have known at
that remark?) and should be left to do least one-person habitually use it, with
it without interference. ludicrous effect.
It was naughty of that Editor, though,
inferable, -rible, -rrable, -rrible. to say infinite and then take his punish-
The first (with stress on in- not -er-), ment lying down.
in the pattern of preferable, referable,
transferable, has deservedly prevailed * F. G. Fowler (d. 1918), brother of H. W.
Fowler and joint author with him of The
over its rivals, the chief of which King's English.
infinitive 283 infringe
infinitive. I . For unidiomatic in- Cats, him, greater, sued, are formed by
finitives after nouns that prefer the i. from, or are ii. of, cat, he, great,
gerund, as in the extract, see GERUND. and sue.
The habit of mapmakers to place lands
and not seas in the forefront has obscured inflict, owing especially to confusion
the oneness of the Pacific. The writer with afflict, is peculiarly liable to
probably wrote to place because he the misuse explained in the article
rightly disliked the repeated of in of OBJECT-SHUFFLING. The right con-
mapmakers of placing. But that is no structions are: he inflicted plagues
excuse. 2 . See SPLIT INFINITIVE. upon them, he afflicted them with
plagues, plagues were inflicted upon
infinitude does not appear to be now them, they were afflicted with plagues.
entitled to any higher rank than that Examples of the blunder: At least the
of a NEEDLESS VARIANT of infinity. It worst evils of the wage system would
might well have been differentiated never have inflicted this or any other
with the sense quality of being infinite, present-day community. / The miscon-
but it is too late for that now. Milton ception and discussion in respect of the
and Sterne, however, will keep it in portraits of Shakespeare with which the
being for poets toflyto and stylists to world is in such generous measure in-
play with when infinity palls on them flicted are largely due to . . . / Lively
An escape from -ity is sometimes wel- young girls are inflicted with stout
come: It is just this infinitude of possi- leather hand-bags.
bilities that necessitates unity and
continuity of command. inform, -ation. Inform, a FORMAL
WORD for tell, is too much used,
infirmity. 'The last i. of noble minds' especially in COMMERCIALESE and OF-
is a MISQUOTATION; the last word FICIALESE. There is something about
should be mind, and the first that. it that makes for verbiage. / have the
inflame etc. Inflammable, formed honour to inform you, I beg to inform
from the English verb, and used in you, I would inform you, are generally
i6th-i7th c c , has been displaced by unnecessary preludes to giving the
inflammable adapted from French or information promised, and the cliché
Latin. Inflammable and inflammatory for your information is always otiose,
must not be confused (see PAIRS AND if not absurd, unless it means 'for your
SNARES) as in Sir Edward Carson de- information only; you are not expected
clared before an inflammatory audience to take any action'. For your informa-
that in the event of the Parliament of tion this Council have two expert rodent
these realms doing certain things that were operators with vans, says a local author-
distasteful to him he would call out his ity's circular letter. If that is all the
Volunteers. It must have been a sup- Council have the operators for it seems
posed ambiguity in inflammable that a waste of ratepayers' money. More-
led to the coining of the word flam- over, constant reliance on inform leads
mable. But that could only make writers astray into unidiomatic con-
things worse, and flammable is now structions. Please inform your mes-
rare, usually in the compound non- senger to wait will not do. He might
flammable, a more compact version of be told or asked or instructed to wait,
non-inflammable. but if informed is used idiom requires
that he should wait.
inflection, -xion. The second is
better; see -XION. In its grammatical infringe. 1. / . makes infringeable (or
sense the word is the general name, preferably infringible), but infringing',
including declension, conjugation, and see MUTE E. 2 . / . , i. upon. Many of
comparison, for changes made in the those who have occasion for the word
form of words to show their gram- must ask themselves before using it
matical relations to their context or to what its right construction is. Do you
modify their meaning in certain ways i. (or i. upon) a rule? Do you i. (or «.
infuse 284 -ing
upon) a domain? Is the verb, that is, 3) the word for that cannot be fused,
transitive, or intransitive, or some- it is convenient as well as allowable
times one and sometimes the other? (see -ABLE 2 s.f.) to make from the verb
Latin scholars, aware that boihfrango infuse not infusible but inf usable. InfuS'
and infringo are transitive only, will able, then, = that can be infused;
probably start with a prejudice against infusible = that cannot be fused.
upon; but Latin is not English, as some 2 . Infuse, imbue. Infuse is one of the
of them know. A study of the OED verbs liable to the OBJECT-SHUFFLING
examples leaves no doubt about which mistake. You can i. courage into a
construction has predominated from person, or imbue or inspire him with
the 16th to the 19th c ; there are courage, but not infuse him with cour-
25 quotations for the transitive verb age. Examples proving the need of the
to 4 for on or upon. But 20th-c. caution : The work he did at one school
newspaper columns give a very differ- has been repeated at others, until young
ent impression; from them one would Australia has been infused with the
infer that infringe can no longer stand spirit of games. / One man, however, it
at all without upon : Is it wise to i. upon has not affected; say, rather, it has in-
their rights and susceptibilities? / You fused him with its own rage against
are infringing on our prerogative and itself. I He infused his pupils with a
trespassing on some of the ground that lively faith in the riches that were within.
we intend taking up later, j It is sud- This misuse has become so common
denly desired to i. upon and restrict my that the OED Supp. recognizes with-
Sovereign rights. out comment the meanings impregnate,
What seems to have been happening pervade, imbue for infuse.
is that (1) an imperfect knowledge of
Latin has suggested that infringo means -ing. I . 1 would also suggest that,
break in = intrude, whereas it really while admitting the modernity, the
means break in = damage or violate proofs offered by him as to the recent
or weaken; (2) it has therefore been date are not very convincing. For liber-
identified in sense with trespass and ties of this kind taken with the parti-
encroach and assimilated to them in ciple, see UNATTACHED PARTICIPLE.
construction, this being further helped 2 . For the difference between par-
by confusion with impinge upon; (3) ticiples in -ing and the gerund, see
pretentious writers like to escape from GERUND.
encroach and trespass, familiar words, 3. On the Press Association's Oldham
to i., which will better impress readers representative informing a leading
with their mastery of the unfamiliar. Liberal of.. ,,he replied.... For such
The advice here tendered is (1) to con- mixtures of participle and gerund, see
ceive i. as a synonym rather of violate FUSED PARTICIPLE.
and transgress than of encroach and 4 . In all probability he suffers some-
trespass; (2) to abstain altogether from what, like the proverbial dog, from his
i. upon as an erroneous phrase; (3) to having received a bad name. For the
use i. boldly with right, rule, law, use of his and other possessives in such
privilege, patent, sovereignty, boundary, contexts, see GERUND 4 .
restriction, constitution, or the like, as 5. Tender grammatical consciences
object; and (4) when the temptation are apt to vex themselves, sometimes
to insert on or upon becomes over- with reason and sometimes without,
powering, as it chiefly does before over the comparative correctness of
words like domain and territory, to be the -ing form of a verb and some other
contented with trespass or encroach part, especially the infinitive without
rather than say i. upon. to, in certain constructions. It is well,
on the one hand, not to fly in the face
infuse. 1 . Infusable, infusible. Fusible of grammar, but rather to eschew what
being the word for that can be fused, is manifestly indefensible ; and, on the
and infusible being therefore (see -ABLE other hand, not to give up what one
-ing 285 ingenious
feels is idiomatic in favour of an alter- is easi'y defensible but unidiomatic;
native that is more obviously defens- raise s less easily defensible, but
ible. Let us examine a few specimens. idiomatic; and raise has it.
(a) The wearing down phase by phase (c) Dying at their posts rather than
has been an integral part of the plan, surrendering). From this we can ex-
and it has enabled the attack to be kept tract some confirmation of the defence
up as well as insuring against hitches, j set up for raise in the previous example.
As well as closing the railway, it should There are misguided persons who
make the Danube impracticable for would actually write surrendering
traffic. We surely all condemn these there; but they are few, the rest of
two examples without a regret. As us feeling that we must either find a
well as is not a preposition, but a justification for surrender or else write
conjunction ; it therefore cannot govern it without justification. This feeling is
the gerunds insuring and closing, as strengthened if we happen to remem-
besides would have done. If ax well as K.r that we should have no such
is to be kept, insuring must become repugnance to rather than surrendering
insured to match enabled, and closing after a participle if the relation to be
close to match make. That the latter expressed were a quite different one;
change is not possible with the sen- compare acquiring rather than surren-
tence in its present order is irrelevant; dering with dying rather than sur-
so much the worse (unless besides is rendering; one must have its -ing, and
written) for the present order. The the other must not. Well, the justi-
grammatical conscience was there fication is the same as with raise : / am
asleep. doing more than raise; I will die rather
(b) But America is doing more than than surrender; it is true that the form
furnishing us with loans. / We are of surrender there is decided by will,
bound to suspect that Italy is doing like that of die, so that, when will die
something more than raise a diplomatic is changed to dying, surrender is left
question. These are not so simple. The depending on air; but meanwhile die-
grammatical conscience was certainly rather-than-surrender has become a
awake at one point, for furnishing re- single verb of which die is the con-
presents second thoughts; raise may jugable part: they died rather than
represent first thoughts, if conscience surrender; dying rather than surrender.
slept, or third thoughts if conscience
let raising have its say and then went ingeminate. The phrase ingeminate
deliberately back to the idiomatic raise. peace means to say Peace, peace ! again
Everyone's first idea in these sentences and again (Latin geminus twin); the
would be furnish, raise. 'But why in- following sentence looks as if i. were
finitive?' says Conscience. 'We must in danger of confusion with germinate
write out the sentence at length, clear- or generate or engender or some such
ing away doubts of the exact sense of word: We have great hopes that the
do, the part of speech of more etc. ; and result [of a discussion on a Royal Com-
we get—America is executing(doing) an mission's report] will be to i. peace and
achievement that is wider (more) than to avoid the threatened recurrence of
furnish us is wide', obviously furnish hostilities.
is impossible; write down furnishing, ingenious, ingenuous. Both words
which works out.' So far second have deteriorated: ingenious, once im-
thoughts. Third thoughts succeed in plying high intellectual ability, now
constructing a defence for raise or means no more than clever at con-
furnish, thus : / will raise the question; trivance; ingenuous, once implying
I will do-more-than-raise-the-question; noble in birth or character, now means
in this the hyphened group is one verb, little more than naïve. That ingenuity
and the part of it that takes inflexions should be the noun for ingenious, and
is do : I am-doing-more-than-raise-the- not for ingenuous as one might expect,
question. The summing-up is: raising is probably due to the frequent misuse
ingratiate 286 innuendo
of ingenuous for ingenious by Shake- where the i. is the power of forcing the
speare and others in the 17th c. In- enemy to conform to your first step, so
genuous has to make do with ingenuous- deciding the lines of a campaign or
ness. operation; (b) the political, where the
i., technically so called, is the right of
ingratiate has one sense and one some minimum number of citizens to
construction only in modern English; originate legislation ; (c) the two phrases
it is always reflexive and means only in which i. is chiefly used, 'take the i.',
to make (oneself) agreeable; even in i.e. act before someone else does so,
older English, the use shown below is, and 'of (or on) one's own i.', i.e. with-
to judge from the OED, unexampled: out a lead from someone else.
He set himself energetically to the art
of ruling his island and ingratiating his -in-law, describing relationship, was
new subjects. \ Even if it does i. thje mens formerly also used in the sense of" step-.
it will only be by alienating the women. To Sam Weller his father's second
wife was always mother-in-law; we are
inhabit. The use of this verb in the not told what he called his own wife's
sense of to house or accommodate or mother after he married. Today -in-
seat may be found in Shakespeare but law is never so used; my mother-in-law
has long been obsolete and there is no becomes so by my marriage, my step-
need to resuscitate it. Such modern mother by hers. The expression in-law
examples as the following are more derives from the Canon Law prescrib-
likely to be due to ignorance (cf. the ing the degrees of affinity within
similar confusion between compose and which marriage is prohibited.
COMPRISE) than to deliberate use of the
artifice of REVIVAL. This awesome sta- innate and instinct (adj.) have comple-
dium which, with its vast new treble- mentary uses, e.g. Courage is innate
decker stand can now inhabit 100,000 in the race, and A race instinct with
plus. I The chief aim of the new stand at courage. To exchange the words ( The
Lord's is to inhabit at the big matches leisurely solidity, the leisurely beauty of
the overflow from the Pavilion of the the place, so innate with the genius of the
8,000 full members. I Some other grounds Anglo-Saxon) is the same sort of mis-
which do not inhabit test matches are take as OBJECT-SHUFFLING.
still older.
innings. The pi. inningses is colloquial
initiate. 1. is liable to the OBJECT- only, innings (originally plural) being
SHUFFLING mistake; you i. persons or used for either number—an innings,
minds into things, not things into or several innings. In U.S. the singulai
persons or minds as in: The Russian inning is used.
Review, a quarterly which is doing so
much to i. into the minds of the British innocence, -cy. The latter is an
public what is requisite for them to archaism, chiefly kept alive by Ps.
know about the Russian Empire. Instil xxvi. 6. / will wash my hands in i.
is perhaps the word meant. See also innocent of, in the sense without
WORKING AND STYLISH WORDS. (windows innocent of glass) is a speci-
men of WORN-OUT HUMOUR. 'She might
initiative. The sense of i. has been profitably avoid such distortions as
narrowed down by modern usage. Tak- "windows i. of glass" and trays "guilt-
ing 'the first step' as the simple-word less of any cloth" '—says a Times
equivalent, we might understand that of review.
the first step as opposed to later ones, or
of the lead as taken by one person and innuendo. PI. usually -oes. As origin-
not another or others. Initiate has both ally used the word meant viz., to wit
meanings, but the latter is the only (Lat. by nodding towards) ; Skeat quotes
current sense of take the i. It appears an example from Blount's Gloss. 1674 :
in all the special uses; (a) the military, He (innuendo the plaintiff) is a thief.
in order that 287 in so far
Hence, by extension, the injurious give publicity to the corrupt practices that
implication contained in the paren- have insinuated into our national life.
thesis, and, by further extension, any This use of i. as an intransitive verb in
injurious insinuation. the sense of enter subtly is an ARCHAISM.
In modern idiom it is only transitive
in order that is regularly followed by or reflexive; in the sense of hint dis-
may and might; i. o. t. nothing may, or paragingly it takes a that- clause.
might, be forgotten. The use of the sub-
junctive without a modal auxiliary in so far. He must have a long spoon
(j. o. t. nothing be forgotten) is archaic. that sups with the devil; and the
In some contexts, but not in most, safest way of dealing with in so far is
shall and should may pass instead of to keep clear of it. The dangers range
may and might (i. o. t. nothing should from mere feebleness or wordiness,
be forgotten) but certainly the second, through pleonasm or confusion of
and perhaps the first also, of the shall forms, and inaccuracy of meaning, to
examples below is unidiomatic. The false grammar. The examples that
other examples, containing can and follow are given in that order; the
could, will and would, are undoubtedly offence charged against each is stated
wrong: The effort must be organized in a word or two, and the verdict is
and continuous i. o. t. Palestine shall left undiscussed for the reader to give
attract more and more of the race. / To for himself. If he is sufficiently in-
influence her in her new adolescence i. o. terested to wish for fuller treatment,
t. we shall once more regain the respect he should turn to FAR 4 , 5, where
and admiration we enjoyed under the old different uses of so far are considered.
Russia, j It will conclude before lunch- The prefixing of in is for the most part
time i. o. t. delegates can attend a mass not dictated by reasons either of gram-
meeting in London. / To supplement the mar or of sense, so that much of what
work of the doctors on the panel i. o. t. is there said applies to in so far also :
tvery insured person in London will be He did not, with such views, do much
able to obtain the very best medical to advance his object, save in so far that
attention. / If the duty had been left on his gracious ways everywhere won esteem
wheat i. o. t. the farmer could have and affection (Wordy. Read though for
purchased the offals at a reasonable save i. s. f. that). / The question , . . is
price . . I A special sign i. o. t. the not in any way essentially British, save
motorist would be able to stop in time. i. s. f. as the position of Great Britain in
These solecisms are all due to ANA- Egypt makes her primarily responsible
LOGY, in order that being followed by (Wordy. Read except that for save i. s.
what could properly have followed so f. as). I The large majority would reply
that. Although in order that has its in the affirmative, i. s. f. as to admit that
uses, as the examples show, that or so there is a God (Confusion between so
that is less stiff and should be pre- far as to and i. s.f. as they would). J No
ferred when it will serve. such department under present conditions
is really requisite, i. s. f. as the action of
in petto. See FOREIGN DANGER. the Commander-in- Chief is thwarted in
cases where he should be the best judge
inquire, -ry, en-. There is a ten- (Wrong sense. Read since for i. s. f.
dency, which deserves encouragement, as). I The officials have done their utmost
to differentiate enquir(e)(y) and in- to enforce neutrality, and have i. s. f.
quir(e)(y) by using en- as a FORMAL succeeded as the Baltic fleet keeps out-
WORD for ask and in- for an investiga- side the three-mile limit (Wrong sense.
tion, e.g. They enquired when the Court Read have so far succeeded that). / It
of Inquiry was to sit. has the character of a classic i. s. f. as
the period it covers (Ungrammatical.
insinuate. Since the outside world In so far as is not a preposition, and
looks to us for a moral lead, I hesitate to cannot govern period).
insouciance 288 institute
insouciance, -ant. The adjective is forts to instil them with culture by read-
usually, and the noun often, anglicized ing aloud Rosebery's Life of Pitt are
in pronunciation to ïnsôô's- entertainingly described. You can imbue
or inspire children with culture; but
instance. The abuse of this word in you can only instil it into them, not
lazy PERIPHRASIS has gone far, though them with it. See ANALOGY
not so far as that of CASE. Here are
two examples: The taxation of the instinct, intuition. See INTUITION.
unimproved values in any area, omitting
altogether a tax on improvements) instinctual. The adjective of instinct
necessarily lightens the burden in the is instinctive. Why anyone should have
instance of improved properties. / The thought it necessary to coin a new one
stimulation to improve land, owing to on the analogy of contractual, habituait
the appreciable rating of the same, is etc. is not clear; perhaps the psycho-
more clearly established whenever the logists wanted an adjective of their
outgo is very direct and visible, such as own. But those dictionaries that
in the instance of highly priced city recognize it do not give it any mark-
lands. In the first, in the instance of edly different meaning from that of
should be simply on; and in the second -ive. The SOED, for instance, defines
such as in the instance of should be -ive as 'of the nature of instinct,
as it is on. There is some danger that, operating or resulting from innate
as writers become aware of the suspi- prompting', and -ual, in its Addenda,
cions to which they lay themselves as 'of or pertaining to, involving or
open by perpetually using case, they depending on instinct'. It looks as if
may take refuge with instance, not -ual might be a SUPERFLUOUS WORD.
realizing that most instances in which The COD ignores it.
case would have damned them are also
cases in which instance will damn institute, institution. The two
them. The crossing out of one and nouns have run awkwardly into and
putting in of the other will not avail; out of one another. The neat arrange-
they must rend their hearts and not ment would have been for -ution to
their garments, and learn to write mean instituting, and -ute a thing
directly instead of in periphrasis. instituted; but -ution has seized, as
Instance has been called case's under- abstract words will, on so many con-
study; in the articles CASE, and ELE- crete senses that neatness is past pray-
GANT VARIATION, will be found many ing for. Institution is in fact the natural
examples of the substitution. English word capable of general use,
and -ute a special title restricted to,
instant. See COMMERCIALESE. and preferred for, certain institutions.
An -ute is deliberately founded; an
instantly, instantaneously. Instant- -ution may be so, or may have estab-
ly is virtually a synonym of at once, lished itself or grown. Cricket, five-
directly, and immediately, though per- o'clock tea, the House of Lords, Eton,
haps the strongest of the four. Instan- Guy's Hospital, the National Gallery,
taneously is applied to something that marriage, capital punishment, the Law
takes an inappreciable time to occur, Courts, are all -utions and not -utes.
like the taking of an instantaneous Whether a particular -ution founded
photograph, especially to two events for a definite purpose shall have -ute
that occur so nearly simultaneously or -ution in its title is a matter of
that the difference is imperceptible. chance or fashion—Commonwealth
(formerly Imperial) -ute, but the Royal
instil(l). The OED gives precedence -ution ; The -ute of Metals but the
to -il. In either case, -lied, -lling; see British Standards -ution. A child is to
-LL-, -L-. The word is liable to the be got into some -ution, and is placed
OBJECT-SHUFFLING confusion. Her ef-
in the National -ute for the Blind or
insufficient 289 intelligentsia
the Masonic -ution for Boys. Accoun- inseparable companion of part. See
tants, architects, and journalists have ADJECTIVES MISUSED.
their -utes, engineers, surveyors, and
valuers their -utions. The usual name intelligent, intellectual. While an
for new formations is -utes, and they intelligent person is merely one who
now greatly outnumber the -utions. is not stupid or slow-witted, an intel-
lectual person is one in whom the part
insufficient. But Austria also excludes fromplayed by the mind as distinguished
altogether a food-product like meat, of the emotions and perceptions is
greater than in the average man. An
which she produces insufficient. This intellectual person who was not intelli-
noun use ( = not enough or too little) gent would be, though not impossible,
is worse than the corresponding use a rarity ; but an intelligent person who
Of SUFFICIENT. is not intellectual we most of us flatter
insular is a mild pejorative, bestowed ourselves we can find in the looking-
normally with condescension. It is tory glass. Intelligent is always a commenda-
characteristic of the British that, al- epithet; though sometimes a patronizing
though quick to discern intellectual the possession intellectual, though implying
and moral virtues in small self-suffi- all like to have,of qualities we should
cient primitive communities, such as munist ideologyis tainted in the com-
by its use in disparag-
the Tibetans and the Esquimaux, they ing contrast to workers',
affect to despise the mentality of sub- it is seldom untinged byelsewhere too
suspicion or
units of their own population. Insular, dislike—called by a leader-writer in
used of an attitude towards some as-
pects of international affairs is merely the T L S 'a rather fly-blown word
beloved only of sociologists'. The same
provincial or parochial writ large. Cf. writer reminds us that Bertrand Rus-
CONTINENTAL.
sell once wrote to a correspondent ' I
insure. See ASSURE. have never called myself an intellec-
tual, and nobody has ever dared to call
intaglio. Pronounce -â'iyô. PI. -osy me one in my presence. I think an
see -O(E)S 4. Intaglio is opposed to relief intellectual may be defined as a person
as a name for the kind of carving in who pretends to have more intellect
which the design, instead of projecting than he has, and I hope this definition
from the surface, is sunk below it does not fit me.' This echoes the
(carved in i.) ; and to cameo as the name opinion of Bishop Parker in the 17th
for gems carved in i. instead of in c. : 'These pure and seraphic intellec-
relief. tualists, forsooth, despise all sensible
knowledge as too grosse and materiall
integra(te)(l). To integrate is to com- for their nice and curious faculties.'
bine components into a single con- That is not unlike the definition
gruous whole. Psychology borrowed given by the OED Supp. of the
it from mathematics and invented colloquial equivalent highbrow (U.S.
the expression integrated personality, egghead) as 'a person of superior
a reasonable enough piece of jargon to intellectual attainments or interests:
describe someone in whom, as Antony always with derisive implications of
said of Brutus, the elements are rightly conscious superiority to ordinary
mixed by nature. The public have now human standards'.
borrowed the verb from the psycholo-
gists with such freedom that it has intelligentsia is a word coined in
become a VOGUE WORD, habitually Russia about 1870 and originally ap-
preferred to less stylish but often more plied to intellectuals associated with
suitable words such as join, combine, the revolutionary movement. After the
unite, amalgamate, merge, fuse, con- revolution its meaning changed; the
solidate. Integral, outside mathematics, official Soviet definition is 'a social
is seldom to be found except as the stratum consisting of people profes-
intended 290 intensive
sionally occupied in mental work'. As liked the better for their mere length,
these include not only those who fol- so intensive has become a fashionable
low the arts and professions but also word where the meaning wanted is
white-collar workers generally, the simply intense. It must be admitted
word seems to have become in its that there was a time before DIFFEREN-
country of origin little more than a TIATION had taken place when Burton,
polite name for what used tc be called e.g., could write A very intensive plea-
the upper middle classes. Elsewhere it sure follows the passion; it there means
has never found much favour, and it is intense, but the OED labels the use
now an outmoded word with its leftist obsolete, and its latest quotation for it
colouring washed out of it. Attempts is from over two centuries ago. The
by the Oxford Dictionaries to define modern relapse had not come under
it are 'The class of society to which its notice in 1901, when letter I was
culture, superior intelligence, and ad- issued; nor is it mentioned in the 1933
vanced political views are attributed' Supp. Intensive perished as a mere
(OED Supp. and OID), 'The class variant of intense, but remained with
consisting of the educated portion a philosophic or scientific meaning, as
of the population and regarded as an antithesis to extensive; where exten-
capable of forming public opinion sive means with regard to extent, in-
(SOED), 'The part of a nation that tensive means with regard to force or
aspires to independent thinking' degree: The record of an intensive as
(COD). well as extensive development. / Its
intended, n. It is curious that be- intensive, like its extensive, magnitude
trothed people should find it so diffi- is small. This is the kind of word that
cult to hit upon a comfortable word to we ordinary mortals do well to leave
alone; see POPULARIZED TECHNICALI-
describe each other by. 'My intended', TIES. Unfortunately, a particular tech-
'my fiancé(e)\ 'my sweetheart', 'my nical application of the philosophic
love(r)', 'my young (wo)man', 'my boy use emerged into general notice, and
(girl) friend', 'my future wife (hus- was misinterpreted—intensive method
band)', 'my wife (husband) to be'— especially of cultivation. To increase
none of these is much to their taste, too the supply of wheat you may sow two
emotional, or too French, or too vulgar, acres instead of one—increase the
or too evasive. The last two objections extent—or you may use more fer-
are in fact one; evasion of plain words tilizers and care on your one acre—
is vulgarity, and 'my intended' gives increase the intensity—; the second
the impression that the poor things are plan is intensive cultivation, the
shy of specifying the bond between essence of it being concentration on
them, an ill-bred shyness; so too with a limited area. Familiarized by the
'my engaged', and the modern word, newspapers with intensive cultivation,
'steady', does not necessarily imply which most of us took to be a fine
serious intentions. And so in fiancé(e) name for very hard or intense work
they resort to French instead of vague by the farmers, we all became eager
English for their embarrassing though to show off our new word, and took to
futile disguise. It is no doubt too late saying intensive where intense used to
to suggest that another chance should be good enough for us. The war gave
be given to betrothed. It means just this a great fillip by finding the corre-
what it should, i.e. pledged to be spondents another peg to hang inten-
married, and is not vulgarized and sive on—bombardment. There is a kind
would be a dignified word for public of bombardment that may be accur-
use. But it is so out of fashion as to ately called intensive; it is what in
sound facetious. earlier wars we called concentrated
intensive. Just as definitive and alter- fire, a phrase that has the advantage
native are ignorantly confused with of being open to no misunderstanding;
definite and alternate, and apparently the fire converges upon a much nar-
intensive 291 interest
rower front than that from which it is 2 . First, second, i. These phrases
discharged. But as often as not the have special senses in medicine and in
intensive bombardment of the news- logic, apt to puzzle the layman and
papers was not concentrated, but was to be confused with each other. In
intense, as the context would some- medicine, first i. denotes (OED) 'the
times prove] a bombardment may be healing of a lesion or fracture by the
intense without being intensive, or immediate reunion of the severed
intensive without being intense, or it parts, without granulation' ; and second
may be both. Not that the confusion i. 'the healing of a wound by granula-
is confined to the newspapers ; it seems tion after suppuration'. In logic, first
to have affected even those whose duty ii. are (OED) 'primary conceptions of
it is to plan bombardments. 'Why things, formed by the first or direct
must you write "intensive" here?' application of the mind to the things
wrote Sir Winston Churchill to the themselves; e.g. the concepts of a tree,
Director of Military operations on the an oak' ; and second ii. 'secondary con-
19th March 1944. ' "Intense" is the ceptions formed by the application of
right word. You should read Fowler's thought to first intentions in their
Modern English Usage on the use of relations to each other; e.g. the con-
the two words' (The Second World cepts ofgenus, species, variety, property,
War, v. 615). accident, difference, identity'.
intensive, gram. Said of words or inter alia is Latin for amongst others
word-elements that add emphasis; in when 'others' are things. If the others
vastly obliged, perdurable, vastly and are persons, alia must be changed to
per- are ii. Often in contrast with alios (or rarely alias); the OED quotes,
PRIVATIVE ; the in- of incisive (and in- from 1670, The Lords produce inter
tensive) is intensive, and that of in- alios John Duke of Lancaster. But
civility privative. when persons are meant, it is much
better nowadays to use English. The
writer of the following sentence was
intention. I . Ordinary use. 2 . First, either ignorant both of inter alia and
second, ii. 1. A denning phrase is so of Latin, or else pedantic enough to
often appended to i. that the question expect us to know that the Latin for
between gerund and infinitive, treated costs is the masculine sumptus: She
generally under GERUND 3, is worth will pay twenty thousand million marks
raising specially here. Choice between within two years (covering, inter alios,
the two is freer for i. than for most the costs of the armies of occupation and
such nouns, and it can hardly be said of food and raw material allowed by the
with confidence that either construc- Allies).
tion is ever impossible for it. It will
perhaps be agreed, on the evidence
of the illustrations below, offered as interdependence, -cy. No differ-
idiomatic, that when /. is used in the ence in sense; -ce is recommended;
singular and without the, his, an, any, see -CE, -CY.
or other such word, to do is better, but
otherwise of doing: Intention to kill is interest, vb. On interesting, the OED,
the essential point. / You never open after giving the sound as ï'nterïstïng,
your mouth but zvith i. to give pain. / He adds 'formerly, and still dialectically,
denied the i. of killing, j He concealed intere'sting'. All the longer inflexions—
his i. of escaping. / Some i. of evading it interestedly, disinterested, etc. and even
there may have been, j I have no i. of the simple verb, are often said by more
allowing it. / Have you any i. of trying or less illiterate speakers with the accent
again? j I have every i. of returning. J on -est-. For the maltreatment to which
He renounced all i. of retaliating. / Not interest (n.) is liable see SWAPPING
without ii. of finding a loophole. HORSES.
interior 292 interstice
interior, internal, intrinsic. See presumably how it is used in the fol-
EXTERIOR. lowing comment on the Queen's having
to choose between Mr. Macmillan and
intermediary, n., should be confined Mr. Butler as Prime Minister. We
to its concrete sense of a go-between are running the risk of bringing the
or middleman or mediator. In its Crown into internecine political warfare.
abstract sense of medium or agency
or means, it is worthy only of the interpellate, interpolate. The first
POLYSYLLABIC HUMOURist; and the word and its noun interpellation are
OED's only two quotations for it little used now except in the technical
(representing, alas ! a much larger body sense proper to parliamentary pro-
than would be guessed by anyone who ceedings, and especially those of the
did not make it his business to observe French Chamber. They are therefore
such things) are clearly in that spirit: felt to be half French words, and so
Mysteriously transmitting them through the unnatural pronunciation given to
the intermediary of glib Jezv boys with the verb by the OED (ïntërpë'lât) is
curly heads. / We are the only European perhaps accounted for. It is a pity that
people who teach practical geometry it has not prevailed (modern diction-
through the recondite intermediary of aries give inter'pëlate); for it would
Euclid's Elements. have the advantage of distinguishing
the sound from that of interpolate^—a
intermission is used in U.S. for what need illustrated by: M. Barthou inti-
we call an interval (in a musical or mated that, on the return of M. Miller-
dramatic performance). Under the andfrom London, he would interpolate
influence of LOVE OF THE LONG WORD, him on the question. The proper mean-
it is beginning to infiltrate here and ing of interpolate is to make an insertion
should be repelled; our own word does in a book or other written matter, used
very well. generally with the implication that the
internecine has suffered an odd fate : purpose is to give some false impres-
being mainly a literary or educated sion. The recent extension by which
man's word, it is yet neither pro- the word is sometimes used in the
nounced in the scholarly way nor sense of making a remark that inter-
allowed its Latin meaning. Strictly it rupts a conversation is both unneces-
should be called ïnter'nèsïn but it is in sary and undesirable, unnecessary be-
fact called interne'sïn; see FALSE cause interject and interpose can do
QUANTITY. And the sense has had the all that is needed, and undesirable
Kilkenny-cat notion imported into it because it increases the likelihood of
because mutuality is the idea con- confusion between interpellate and
veyed by inter- in English; the Latin interpolate.
word meant merely of or to exter-
mination (cf. intereo perish, intercido interpretative, not interpretive, is the
slay, interimo destroy) without imply- right form, -ive adjectives being nor-
ing the extermination of both parties. mally formed on the Latin p.p. stem,
The imported notion, however, is i.e. here interprétât-. Read -ative in:
what gives the word its only value, They should be at the same time illustra-
since there are plenty of substitutes tive and interpretive. / The literal and
for it in the true sense—destructive, the interpretive are difficult to reconcile
slaughterous, murderous, bloody, san- in a single statement.
guinary, mortal, and so forth. The
scholar may therefore use or abstain interregnum. PI. -urns or -a; see
from the word as he chooses, but it -UM. For the facetious use, = gap, see
will be vain for him to attempt correct- PEDANTIC HUMOUR.
ing other people's conception of the
meaning, which for some seems to be interstice. Pronounce inter'sus. See
little more than intestine. That is RECESSIVE ACCENT.
intestinal 293 intransitive p.p.
intestinal. The Oxford Dictionaries intransigent dates in England from
prefer intestinal to intestï'nal (see about 1880; being now established,
RECESSIVE ACCENT) ; the Latin i is long, it should neither be pronounced as
but on this point see FALSE QUANTITY French nor spelt -eant any longer.
s.f.
intransitive p.p. This article is less
in that is a conjunction that has gone severely practical than most in the
a little out of fashion and does not slip book, and is addressed only to those
from our tongues nowadays. It is still few enthusiasts who find grammatical
serviceable in writing of a formal cast, phenomena interesting apart from any
but, like other obsolescent idioms, is rules of writing that may be drawn
liable to ill treatment at the hands of from them. As grammatical termino-
persons who choose it not because it is logy is far from fixed in English, it
the natural thing for them to say, but must be premised that p.p. (past par-
because, being unfamiliar, it strikes ticiple) is here taken as the popular
them as ornamental. So: This influence name for the single-word participle
was so far indirect in that it was greatly that does not end in -ing, i.e., by the
furthered by Le Sage. / The legislative p.p. of hear is meant heard, not hearing
jury sat to try the indictment against nor having heard nor being heard. All
Mr. Justice Grantham in that during verbs, with negligible exceptions such
the Great Yarmouth election petition he as must and can, have this p.p., though
displayed political bias. In the first, in many it is used only as an element
two ways of saying the thing are mixed in making compound parts like has
(was so far indirect that, and was in- climbed or will have died. That function
direct in that); and in the second in of the p.p. is familiar to everyone and
that is used in a quite suitable context, needs no comment. Further, the p.p.
but wrongly led up to ; a man is guilty of all transitive verbs can be used as an
in that he has done so-and-so, but an adjective (a broken jug). What is not so
indictment against him is not in that fully realized is the part played by the
anything. adjectival p.p. in many intransitive
verbs. It is in the first place much
in the circumstances, see CIRCUM- commoner than is supposed. Most of
STANCE. us, perhaps, would say that p.p. ad-
jectives were all passive, i.e. were
intimidate. Similar threats were ut- only made from transitive verbs. A
tered in the endeavour to i. Parliament moment's search is enough to correct
from disestablishing the Irish Episcopal that notion—fallen angels, the risen
Church. From is idiomatic after deter sun, a vanished hand, past times, the
and discourage, but not after i. or newly arrived guest, a grown girl, a gone
terrify; see ANALOGY. coon, absconded debtors, escaped prison-
ers, the deceased lady, the dear departed,
into, in to. The two words should a collapsed lorry, we are agreed, a
be written separately when their sense couched lion, an eloped pair, an expired
is separate. Correct accordingly: The lease.
Prime Minister took her into dinner./
All the outside news came into us Secondly, when a verb is both transi-
immediately. tive and intransitive, it is often difficult
to say whether in some particular
in toto means not on the whole, but phrase the p.p. is active or passive, and
wholly, utterly, entirely, absolutely, the answer may affect the sense; e.g.,
and that always or nearly always with a deserted sailor, if deserted is passive,
verbs of negative sense—condemn, is one who has been marooned, but, if
decline, deny, reject, disagree, i. t. The it is active, is one who has run from his
following is nonsense: Nor do we ship; an angel dropped from heaven has
produce as much in toto as we might if we possibly been passive, but more likely
organized. active, in the descent; a capsized boat
intrigue 294 intuition
may have capsized or have been cap- mystify, interest, and pique, to choose
sized; a failed B.A. may be one whom from. Will the reader decide for him-
the examiners have failed or one who self whether the Gallicism is called for
has failed to satisfy them; my declared in any of the following places?—A
enemy is more often one who has de- cabal which has intrigued the imagina-
clared enmity than one I have declared tion of the romanticists. / The problem,
an enemy; a flooded meadow shows a however, if it intrigues him at all, is
passive p.p., a flooded river perhaps an hardly opened in the present work. /
active one; a well grown tree means one Thus it is we read of Viper—that de-
thing in the virgin forest, and another lightful dog—mouthing a hedgehog,
in a nursery garden. much intrigued with his spines. / But her
Thirdly, recognition of the frequency Personality did not greatly intrigue our
of the intransitive p.p. will sometimes interest. / When theologian, scientist,
throw light on expressions whose and philosopher have intrigued our minds
origin is otherwise not quite obvious : with the subtlety of their argument.
a determined man is perhaps one who The reader will not be surprised to
has determined, not been determined; learn that, since the foregoing was
a person is :// advised who has advised, written in the nineteen-twenties, the
i.e. taken thought, badly, not one who resistance of the dictionaries has been
has had bad advice given him; he is stormed. The OED itself, in its 1933
well read who has read well; he is drunk Supp., gives copious examples of the
who has drunk; -spoken in soft-spoken use of intrigue in the sense 'to excite
etc. is more intelligible if it is regarded the curiosity or interest of; to interest
as active, and cf. well-behaved; mis- so as to puzzle or fascinate', including
taken clemency seems to be clemency one from the writings of a Cambridge
that has erred; an aged man may be Professor of English Literature. The
one
a
who has aged, since the verb popularity of the word is no doubt due
ge> — grow old, dates from before partly to its novelty and partly to the
1400; the dissipated may be those who better reason that it can do something
have wasted their substance, and the more than serve as a synonym for one
experienced those having experienced of the words listed above; it can con-
things rather than those possessed of vey the meaning of two of them at
experience. once, puzzle and fascinate for instance.
But it is still true that intrigue is often
intrigue, v. t. The meaning 'puzzle, used in place of a simpler and better
perplex' is given by the OED, but word, as in some of the examples
illustrated by only a single modern given above.
quotation, and labelled 'now rare'. intrinsic. See EXTERIOR.
Would that were still true! the one
quotation (içth-c.) is from a news- intuition and instinct. The word in-
paper from which I have before me tuition being both in popular use and
sixteen 20th-c. cuttings with the word philosophically important, a slight
used in that sense. The other chief statement of its meaning, adapted
dictionaries either ignore the sense or from the OED, may be welcome.
treat it contemptuously—English dic- The etymological but now obsolete
tionaries, that is, for it is naturally well sense is simply inspection (Latin tueot
enough known to the French; but it is look): A looking-glass becomes spotted
one of the GALLICISMS, and LITERARY and stainedfrom their only intuition (i.e.,
CRITICS' WORDS, that have no merit if they so much as look in it). With the
whatever except that of unfamiliarity schoolmen it was The spiritual percep-
to the English reader, and at the same tion or immediate knowledge ascribed
time the great demerit of being identi- to angelic and spiritual beings, with
cal with and therefore confusing the whom vision and knowledge are iden-
sense of a good English word. Besides tical: St. Paul's faith did not come by
puzzle and perplex, there axe fascinate, hearing, but by intuition and revelation.
inure 295 inversion
In modern philosophy it is The imme- at any rate when minded to use the less
diate apprehension of an object by the usual sense, feel some apprehension
mind without the intervention of any that we may be on the point of blun-
reasoning process : What we feel and. dering. There is also a tendency to
what we do, we may be said to know by spell in- and en- for the two meanings
intuition; or again (with exclusion of as if they were different words; en- is
one or other part of the mind) it is often preferred for the legal (intr.)
Immediate apprehension by the intel- sense. The origin is the obsolete noun
lect alone, as in The intuition by which ure (We will never enact, put in urey
we know what is right and what is wrongs promulge, or execute, any new canons),
or Immediate apprehension by sense, which is from French œuvre, which is
as in All our intuition takes place by from Latin opera work. To inure a per-
means of the senses alone. Finally, in son you set him at work or practise
general use it means Direct or imme- him; a thing inures that comes into
diate insight: Rashness if it fails is practice, or operates, in such and such
madness, and if it succeeds is the intui- a direction. Variant spellings are there-
tion of genius. fore unnecessary, and in- is preferred
How closely this last sense borders by the OED.
on instinct is plain if we compare A
miraculous intuition of what ought to be invalid. The word meaning not valid
done just at the time for action with It is pronounced ïnvâ'lîd. For the adjec-
was by a sort of instinct that he guided tive and noun meaning sick (person)
this open boat through the channels. One the popular verdict, after some vacilla-
of the OED's definitions of instinct, tion, has been given in favour of
indeed, is: 'intuition; unconscious Vnvâlëd, though some dictionaries still
dexterity or skill'; and whether one admit -id as an alternative for the
word or the other will be used is often last syllable. The verb is -ëd only, and
no more than a matter of chance. for it the COD, reversing the SOED,
Three points of difference, however, would stress the last syllable in pre-
suggest themselves as worth keeping ference to the first (see NOUN AND
in mind: (i) an intuition is a judge- VERB ACCENT), but the word is rarely
ment issuing in conviction, and an used except in the past (He was in-
instinct an impulse issuing in action; valided out of the service).
(2) an intuition is conceived as some-
thing primary and uncaused, but an inveigle. The OED pronunciation is
instinct as a quintessence of things ïnvê'gl without the alternative of -vâ'gl,
experienced in the past whether by the but the latter must now be at least as
individual or the race; and (3) while common, and the COD admits it to
both, as faculties, are contrasted with second place.
that of reason, intuition is the attribute inventory. Pronounce ï'nvëntôrï.
by which gods and angels, saints and
geniuses, are superior to the need of inversion. By this is meant the aban-
reasoning, and instinct is the gift by donment of the usual order of words in
which animals are compensated for an English sentence and the placing of
their inability to reason. OED quotes the subject after the verb as in Said he,
Addison: 'Our Superiors are guided or after the auxiliary of the verb as in
by Intuition and our Inferiors by What did he say? and Never shall we
Instinct.' see his like again. Inversion is the
regular and almost invariable way of
inure, enure. Both the connexion showing that a sentence is a question.
between the verb's different senses It has therefore an essential place in the
{The poor, inured to drudgery and dis- language, and there are other condi-
tress ; The cessions of land enured to thetions under which it is usual, desirable,
benefit of Georgia) and its derivation or permissible. But the abuse of it
are so little obvious that many of us, ranks with ELEGANT VARIATION as one
inversion 296 inversion
of the most repellent vices of modern inversion is not used for its own
writing. Inversion and variation of the significance, but because the writer
uncalled-for kinds are like stiletto has some other reason for wishing to
heels—ugly things resorted to in the place at the beginning either the
false belief that artificiality is more predicate or some word or phrase that
beautiful than nature; but as heels of belongs to it. The usual reason for
a practical kind may be useful or in- putting the whole of the predicate at
deed indispensable, so too is inversion. the beginning is the feeling that it is
In questions and commands, as con- too insignificant to be noticed at all
trasted with the commoner form of after the more conspicuous subject,
sentence, the statement, inversion is and that it must be given what chance
the rule: Doth Job fear Godfor nought?/ the early position can give it; hence
Hear thou from heaven thy dwelling- the There is idiom; not No God is, but
place. The subject being usually omit- There is no God. That is Balance In-
ted in commands, these do not much version in its shortest form, and at
concern usj but in questions the sub- greater length it is seen in : Through a
ject regularly follows the verb or its gap came a single level bar of glowing
auxiliary except when, being itself red sunlight peopled with myriads of
the interrogative pronoun or adjective, gnats that gave it a quivering solidity,
it has to stand where that pronoun if came through a gap is experimentally
almost invariably stands (Browning's returned to its place at the end of that
Wanting is—what? supplies an excep- sentence, it becomes plain why the
tion) : Who did it? What caused it? In writer has put it out of its place at
the other exceptional sentence-form, the beginning. Another familiar type
the exclamation, inversion is not in- is Among the guests were A, B, C ... Z.
deed the rule as in questions, but was Often, however, the object is not to
once common and is still legitimate: transfer the predicate bodily to the
How dreadful is this place! / What a beginning, but to give some word or
piece of work is a man! j Few and evil words of it first place. This may be
have the days of the years of my life meant to give hearer or reader the
been. / Bitterly did he rue it. / And so connexion with what precedes (Link
say all of us. Inversion), to put him early in posses-
sion of the theme (Signpost Inversion),
Inversion, then, is the natural though or to warn him that the sentence is to
by no means invariable order of words be negative (Negative Inversion): On
in sentences other than statements. In this depends the ivhole course of the
exclamations particularly, when they argument. / By strategy is meant some-
do not contain a special exclamatory thing wider. / Never was a decision more
word such as how or what, the inversion abundantly justified. Here on this, by
is what announces their nature; and strategy, never are the causes of inver-
one form of bad inversion arises from sion ; each belongs to the predicate, not
inability to distinguish between an ex- to the subject; and each when placed
clamation and a mere statement, so first, tends to drag with it the verb or
that the latter is allowed the order that auxiliary, so that the subject has to
marks the former (Hard is it to decide, wait—tends, but with different de-
on the pattern of Hard, very hard, is my grees of force, that exercised by a
fare !). To these forms of sentence must negative being the strongest. We can
be added the hypothetical clause in if we like, instead of inverting, write
which the work ordinarily done by if is On this the whole course of the argument
done in its absence by inversion : Were depends, or By strategy something wider
I Brutus, j Had they known in time. is meant, but not Never a decision zvas
These inversions—Interrogative, more abundantly justified; similarly Not
Imperative, Exclamatory, and Hypo- a word he said is a very out-of-the-way
thetical—form a group in which version of Not a word did he say.
inversion itself serves a purpose. With If we now add Metrical Inversion,
statements it is otherwise; there
inversion 297 inversion
our catalogue of the various kinds may some of the temptations to ill-advised
perhaps suffice. Where the Bible gives inversion. It may conciliate anyone
us As the hart panteth after the water who suspects that the object of this
brooks, and the Prayer Book Like as the article is to deprive him altogether of
hart desireth the water-brooks, both a favourite construction if we admit at
without inversion, the hymn-books once that, though bad inversion is
have As pants the hart for cooling extremely common, non-inversion also
streams. That is metri gratia, and it can be bad. It is so rare as to call for
must not be forgotten that inversion is little attention, but here are two
far more often appropriate in verse examples : But in neither case Mr.
than out of it for two reasons—one this Galsworthy tells very much of the inter-
of helping the versifier out of metrical vening years. / Least of all it is to their
difficulties, and the other that inver- interest to have a new Sick Man of
sion off the beaten track is an archaic Europe. In negative sentences there is
and therefore poetic habit. A very large the choice whether the negative shall
class of bad inversions will be seen be brought to the beginning or not, but
presently to be those in subordinate when it is so placed inversion is neces-
clauses beginning with as; they arise sary] read does Mr. G., and is it.
from failure to realize that inversion is
archaic and poetic under such circum- INVERSION AFTER RELA-
stances, and non-inversion normal. It TIVES AND COMPARATIVES
is therefore worth while to stress this The problems offered are interesting,
contrast between As pants the hart and but most difficult to grapple with by
both the prose versions of the same way of argument. The line here taken
clause. is that the sort of inversion now being
To summarize these results : dealt with, however devoutly one may
Interrogative Inversion: What went believe it to be mistaken, can hardly be
ye out for to see? / Doth Job fear God proved illegitimate, at any rate without
for naught? discussion of more tedious length than
Imperative Inversion : Hear thoufrom could be tolerated. On the other hand,
heaven thy dzvelling-place. it is hardly credible, after a look through
Exclamatory Inversion : How dreadful the collection shortly to follow, that the
is this place ! j What a piece of work is a writers can have chosen these inver-
man! / And so say all of us! / Few and sions either as the natural way of
evil have the days of the years of my life expressing themselves or as grace-
been. I Bitterly did he rue it. / Bang ful decoration] so unnatural and so
went saxpence! ungraceful are many of them. It fol-
Hypothetical Inversion : Were I Bru- lows that the motive must have been
tus. I Had they known in time. a severe sense of duty, a resolve to be
Balance Inversion : There is no God.j correct, according to their lights, at
Through a gap came [an elaborately any sacrifice. And from this again it
described ray]. / Among the guests were follows that no demonstration that the
[long list]. inversions are incorrect is called for;
Link Inversion: On this depends the the task is only to show cause why non-
whole argument. / Next comes the ques- inversion should be permitted, and
tion of pay. these idolaters will be free of the super-
Signpost Inversion: By strategy is stitions that cramped their native
meant something wider. taste.
Negative Inversion: Never zvas a 1. A frigate could administer roughly
decision more abundantly justified. / Not half the punishment that could a y4.
a word did he say. Comment: Compare some everyday
Metrical Inversion : As pants the hart sentence : You earn twice the money that
for cooling streams. I do, never that do I. The misconcep-
We may now proceed to consider tion is perhaps that the putting of the
with the aid of grouped specimens object first (here that) should draw the
inversion 298 inversion
verb; but this is not true of relative taken from reserve is now as serious as
clauses ; the people that I like, not that would have been some fifty divisions
like I. four months ago.
2 . It costs less than did administration Comment : The as of this batch differs
under the old companies. from that of batch 3 in that its fellow
Comment: A simple parallel is / as of the main sentence belongs to an
spend less than you do, for which no adjective (ruinous, excited, etc.) or ad-
one in talk would substitute than do verb (far, much). This allows the in-
you. Many, however, would write, if versionist a different defence, which
not say, / spend less than do nine out of he needs, since (to take the first
ten people in my position. The differ- example) balance inversion is clearly
ence must lie in the length of the sub- not available for as would be Free Trade
ject, and the misconception must be with its short subject. He might appeal
that it is a case for balance inversion, here to exclamatory inversion. When
i.e. for saving the verb from going un- the compound sentence is reduced to
noticed. But so little does that matter its elements, they are either (a) Free
that if the verb is omitted no harm is Trade would be ruinous; Protection
done; did in the quotation should in would be equally ruinous (the first clause
fact either be omitted or be put in either being a statement); or (b) Ruinous
of its natural places, after administra- would Free Trade be ! Protection would
tion, or after companies. be equally ruinous (the first clause being
3. He looked forward, as do we all, an exclamation). He chooses, how
with great hope and confidence to Mon- reasonably let the reader judge, the (b)
day's debate. / It represents the business form, and retains its order in the com-
interests of Germany as does no other pound sentence. The truth is that in
organization./ . . . his fondness for the the first two of these sentences the
game, which he played as should an verb should have been omitted, and in
Aberdonian. / These were persons to be the others kept in its ordinary place—
envied, as might be someone who was as the poles are asunder, as the golf
clearly in possession of a sixth sense. / championship has attracted, as $0 would
The French tanks have had their vicissi- have been.
tudes, as have had ours. 5. Bad as has been our record in the
Comment: As, in such sentences, is treatment of some of the military inven-
a relative adverb; it and the unex- tions of the past, it may be doubted
pressed so to which it answers are whether the neglect of the obvious has
equivalent to (in the way) in which, and ever been more conspicuously displayed
what was said above of relatives and than in . . . I And, hopeless as seem the
inversion holds here also. Try to pro- other divisions of Belfast, progress is
nounce it as I do, not as do I; and when being made in them.
the subject is longer, e.g. the native Comment: The meaning of this as
Frenchman, though as does the native idiom is clear; it is Though our record
Frenchman becomes defensible, it has been so bad, or However bad our
does not become better than as the record has been; but how it reached its
native Frenchman does, nor as good. present shape is less apparent. Some
4 . Each has proven ably that the other's light is thrown by the presence in earlier
kind of Protection would be quite as ruin- English of another as, now dropped;
ous as would be Free Trade. / We are Swift writes The world, as censorious as
unable to . . . without getting as excited it is, hath been so kind... ; this points to
over the question of funds as is a cat on (Be our record as) bad as our record has
a hot iron. / He was as far removed as been (bad) for the unabbreviated form.
are the poles asunder/rom the practices Omission of the bracketed words gives
which made the other notorious. / The the uninverted order, which will only
lawn-tennis championships will be at- be changed if exclamatory inversion
tracting as much attention as has the (Bad has been our record!) or balance
golf championship. / Thirteen divisions inversion is needlessly applied.
inversion 299 inversion
6. It is not all joy to be a War Lord editors would do well to prohibit. But,
in these days, and gloomy though is the once broken in to inversion by this
precedent, the only thing left for a War special use of it, the minor literary
Lord to do is to follow the example of critics learn to love their chains, and
Ahab at Ramoth Gilead. it is among them that the false ex-
Comment : Gloomy is the precedent ! clamatory inversions dealt with in the
is a not impossible exclamatory inver- next section are most rife. Here, mean-
sion; and, if the words were kept while, are some specimens:
together with the effect of a quotation Most racily written, with an easy con-
by having though before instead of in versational style about it, is Mr. Frank
the middle of them, the exclamatory Rutter's 'The Path to Paris'. / Diplo-
order might be tolerable, though hard- matic and military are the letters that
ly desirable, even in the subordinated comprise the Correspondence of Lord
form; but not with though where it is. Burghersh, edited by his daughter-in-
This may be tested by trying a familiar law. I From the point of view of the Eng-
phrase like Bad is the best. Tiiough bad lish reader timely is the appearance of
is the best, yes; but not Bad though is M. Frédéric Masson's historical study
the best; instead of that we must write [title]. / Lively and interesting are the
Bad though the best is. pictures of bygone society in town and
7. The work stands still until comes country presented in the two volumes,
the convenient time for arranging an 'The Letter-bag of Lady Elizabeth
amicable rupture of the old engagement Spencer- Stanhope''. / Mainly concerned
and contracting of the new. with the rural classes, who form some-
Comment: There is no doubt about thing like two-thirds of the whole popu-
the motive. It is a balance inversion, lation, are the sketches and tales collected
and one that would be justified by the in lThe Silent India'. / Written in his
great length of the subject if the only most vivacious vein is Lieut. Colonel
place for the uninverted comes were at Haggard's latest historical study [title].
the end of the whole sentence. But
what is too often forgotten in such FALSE EXCLAMATORY
cases is that there is usually a choice INVERSION
of places for the verb; here comes It has already been pointed out that
would be quite comfortable imme- a statement may be turned into an
diately after time. exclamation by inversion; an adjective
The conclusion suggested is that, so or adverb that conveys emotion is put
far as relative clauses are concerned, first out of its place, and inversion
especially those containing as, the follows. If Jacob had said The days
writer whose taste disposes him to use of the years of my life have been few and
the natural uninverted order is at the evil, he would have been stating a bald
very least free to indulge it. fact; by beginning Few and evil have
been, he converts the statement into
INVERSIONS OF THE LITER- a groan, and gives it poignancy. Writers
ARY PARAGRAPHIST who observe the poignancy sometimes
Those who provide newspapers with given by such inversion, but fail to ob-
short accounts of newly published serve that 'sometimes' means 'when
books have an inversion form all to exclamation is appropriate', adopt in-
themselves. The principle seems to be version as an infallible enlivener; they
to get the title of the book to a place aim at freshness and attain frigidity.
where the reader can find it, and at the In the following examples there is no
same time to avoid the catalogue look emotional need of exclamation, and yet
that results if the title is printed at the exclamatory inversion is the only class
head before the description, and to to which they can be assigned: Futile
give a literary air to the paragraph. were the endeavour to trace back to
The title is therefore worked to the Pheidias' varied originals, as we are
end, by the use of odd inversions that tempted to do, many of the later statues, j
inversion 300 inversion
Finely conceived is this poem, and not share in the work of founding anatomy,
less admirable in execution. / Facile and physiology, zoology, and botany; rather
musical, sincere and spontaneous, are do these seem to have sprung from the
these lyrics. / Hard would it be to decide early philosophers (these seem rather). /
which of his many pursuits in literary His book is not a biography in the ordi-
study he found most absorbing. / Suffi- nary sense; rather is it a series of recol-
cient is it to terminate the brief intro- lections culled from . . . (it is rather).
duction to this notice by stating . . . /
Irresistibly is the reader reminded, though INVERSION IN INDIRECT
direct analogy is absent, of Sheridan's QUESTIONS
reference to . . . / Appropriately does the
author prelude his recollections with . . . This point will be found fully dis-
cussed under INDIRECT QUESTION.
YET, ESPECIALLY, Examples of the wrong use are : How
bold is this attack may be judged by . . . /
RATHER, ETC. Why should we be so penalized must ever
A curious habit has grown up of remain a mystery. The right order
allowing these and similar words to would be How bold this attack is,
dictate a link inversion when the stres- and Why zve should be so penalized.
sing of the link is so little necessary
that it gives a noticeable formality SUBORDINATED INVERSIONS
or pomposity to the passage. It is a
matter not for argument, but for taste; Certain kinds of these have been dis-
will the reader compare the quoted cussed in the section on relatives and
forms with those suggested in the comparatives. A more general point is
brackets? Especially and rather usually to be made here—that it is often well,
change their place when inversion is when a sentence that standing by itself
given up, but yet remains first. His would properly be in the inverted form
works were burnt by the common hang- is subordinated as a clause to another,
man; yet was the multitude still true to to cancel the inversion as no longer
him (yet the multitude was). / Henry needed. The special effect that inver-
Fox, or nobody, could weather the storm sion is intended to secure is an empha-
which was about to burst; yet was he sis of some sort, and naturally emphasis
a person to whom the court, even in that is more often suitable to a simple inde-
extremity, was unwilling to have recourse pendent sentence than to a dependent
(yet he was). / The set epistolary pieces, clause. Examples are grouped under
one might say, were discharged before the A, B, and C, according to the kind of
day of Elia; yet is there certainly no inversion that has been subordinated,
general diminution of sparkle or interest and comment on each group follows :
(yet there is). / . . . springs of mineralized A. Negative Inversion. The amount
water, famous from Roman times onward involved is no less a sum than £300,000
for their curative properties; especially per annum, to not a penny of which
did they come into renown during the have the drivers a shadow of claim. / To
nineteenth century (they came into re- give to all the scholars that firm ground-
nown especially). / Mr. Campbell does ing upon which alone can we hope to
not recognize a change of opinion, but build an educated nation. / He laid down
admits a change of emphasis; especially four principles on which alone could
is he anxious at the present time to ad- America and Austria go further in ex-
vance the cause of Liberal Evangelism changing views. / Now that not only are
(he is especially anxious). / His love of public executions long extinct in this
romantic literature was as far as possible country, but the Press not admitted to
from that of a mind which only feeds on the majority of private ones, the hang-
romantic excitements; rather was it that man has lost his vogue. / But it had only
of one who was so moulded . . . (it was been established that on eighteen of
rather that). / There is nothing to show those days did he vote.
that the Asclepiads took any prominent
Comment : In the first three it will be
inversion 301 inversion
admitted that, while to not a penny of Whilst equally necessary is it to press
this etc. (the independent forms) would forward to that unity of thought without
require the inversion, to not a penny of which . . .
which etc. (the subordinate forms) are Comment: About these there can
at least as good, if not better, without hardly be a difference of opinion. If
it. The fourth example (executions) the when and whilst constructions were
will on the other hand be upheld by absent, it would have been very natural
many who have no inordinate liking to draw Three years later, Equally
for inversion; not only is so little used necessary, to the beginning to connect
except in main sentences, and there- the sentences with what preceded, and
fore so associated with inversion, that inversion might or might not have
not only public executions are long extinct resulted. But with the interposition of
has an unfamiliar sound even after when and whilst they lose their linking
Now that. It may moreover put the effect, and the natural order should be
reader on a false scent by suggesting kept—When three years later the offer
that not only qualifies public alone. The came, Whilst it is equally necessary.
subordinate inversion in the last
example is not quite what it seems,
being due to irresolution between an INVERSION IN PARALLEL
inverted and an uninverted form ; the CLAUSES
former would be But only on eighteen As with combinations of a negative
of those days had it been established that and a positive statement into one (see
he voted; and the latter, But it had NEGATIVE MISHANDLING 2), so with in-
only been established that he voted on verted and uninverted members of a
eighteen of those days. sentence care is very necessary.
B. Exclamatory Inversion. Suffice it byNot only is it so necessarily bounded
that moving veil zohich ever hides the
to say that in almost one-half of the future, but also is it unable to penetrate
rural district areas is there an admitted . . . into . . . the past (but also is it is an
dearth of cottage homes. / Though once, impossible inversion, brought about
at any rate, does that benign mistily by the correct one that precedes). / Not
golden irony of his weave itself in.f
While for the first time, he believed, only in equipment but in the personnel
of the Air Battaliojx are we suffering
did naval and military history appear from maladministration (Not only in
as a distinctive feature. equipment requires are we suffering; in
Comment : The subordination in two the personnel requires we are suffering.
of these only makes more conspicuous To mix the two is slovenly; the right
the badly chosen pegs on which the form would be We are suffering not only
inversion is hung. In almost one-half in etc.). / Even were this tract of country
of the rural district areas, and once at level plain and the roads lent them-
any rate, are not good exclamatory ma- selves to the manœuvre, it would be so
terial; Many a time have I seen him! perilous to . . . (were this tract is inver-
shows the sort of phrase that will do. ted; the roads lent themselves is not, and
Even if main sentences had been used yet, since there is no if, it absolutely
with these beginnings, they should have requires inversion. Begin Even if this
been put as statements, i.e. without tract were ; for the only ways to invert
inversion, and still more when they the second clause are the fantastic and
depend on Though and Suffice it to say lent themselves the roads and the clumsy
that. In the third example for the first and did the roads lend). / Had we
time is not incapable of beginning an desired twenty-seven amendments, got
exclamation; it would pass in a sen- seven accepted, and were in anticipation
tence, but becomes frigid in a clause. of favourable decisions in the other
C. Link Inversion. When, three like twenty cases we should think . . . (Mend
years later, came the offer of a nomina- we would the previous one. To read and were
tion, it was doubtless a welcome solution.l disguise the fact that the
inversion 302 involve
whole is one hypothetical clause and murmured rapidly Mr. Travers. \
not several). For other examples see ' / couldn't help liking the chap', would
ELLIPSIS 6. shout Lingard when telling the story. / 'I
won't plot anything extra against Tom\
INVERSION IN DIALOGUE had said Isaac. I'At any rate, then', may
MACHINERY rejoin our critic, 'it is clearly useless...'/
Novelists and others who have to use The ordinary 'said he' etc. (Thou art
dialogue as an ingredient in narrative right, Trim, in both cases, said my
are some of them unduly worried by uncle Toby) was described above as
the machinery problem. Tired of writ- blameless and inconspicuous. Its place
ing down he said and said he and she among inversions is in the 'signpost'
replied as often as they must, they mis- class. The reader is to be given the
takenly suppose the good old forms to theme (i.e., here, the speech) at the
be as tiring to their readers as to them- earliest possible moment; the speech,
selves, and seek relief in whimsical being grammatically the object of
variations. The fact is that readers care 'said', yet placed first, draws 'said' to
much what is said, but little about the it, and 'he', or my uncle Toby, has to
frame into which a remark or a speech wait. But only such insignificant verbs
is fitted ; or rather, the virtue of frames as said, replied, continued, will submit
is not that they should be various, but to being dragged about like this; we
that they should be inconspicuous. It must treat with greater respect verbs
is true that an absolutely unrelieved that introduce a more complicated
monotony will itself become con- notion, or that are weighted with
spicuous; but the variety necessary auxiliaries or adverbs (compare 'went
to obviate that should be strictly limited on my uncle Toby' with 'continued
to forms inconspicuous in themselves. my uncle Toby'), or that cannot rightly
Among those that are not inconspi- take a speech as object. These stand
cuous, and are therefore bad, are many on their dignity and insist on their
developments of the blameless and proper place. Or perhaps it would be
inconspicuous said he, especially the more accurate to say that they used to
substitution of verbs that are only by do so. The fashion of introducing
much stretching qualified for verbs of quotations by inversions set by the
saying, and again the use of those parts more sprightly American periodicals
of verbs of saying that include auxilia- has led to a riot of inversion in popular
ries. Most of the following examples journalism of the kind parodied by
exhibit a writer trying not to bore his P. G. Wodehouse in 'Where it will all
reader; nothing bores so fatally as an end knows God, as Time magazine
open consciousness that one is in would say'. See also SAID.
danger of boring, and a sure sign of
this is the very tiresome mannerism inverted commas. See STOPS. For
initiated perhaps by Meredith {'Ah' their use by way of apology for slang
fluted Fenellan), and now staled by etc., see SUPERIORITY.
imitation: ''Hand on heart}' she invite, n. The OED compares com-
doubted, j 'Need any help?' husked A. / mand and request for the formation,
' They're our best revenue' defended B. / but describes the noun use as col-
' / know his kind' fondly remembered C. j loquial; and it has never, even as
'Why shouldn't he?' scorned D. / a colloquialism, attained to respect-
'Yes', moodily consented John, 'I ability. After more than 350 years of
suppose we must'. / 'Oh?' questioned life, it is less recognized as an English
he. I 'Oh, what a sigh!', marvelled word than bike. 'Coll. or vulg.', says
Annunziata. / 'But then', puzzled the COD.
John, 'what is it that people mean when
they talk about death?' / 'The sordid involve. This word is overworked as
sort of existence', augmented John. / a general-purpose verb that saves the
' You misunderstand your instructions', trouble of precise thought. A collision
inwardness 303 -ion and -ness
took place involving a private motor-car (the i. of) South African affairs not to
and a lorry (between). / There was no attach undue importance to a recent
reduction last year in the number of declaration, j Will you allow me to send
cases involving cruelty to horses (of)./ a few lines on the true i. of the situation?
Ground troops and aircraft were in- (realities). / We have always contended
involved (used). / This was the first that the true 'inwardness* of the Land
disaster involving a Viscount air-liner Bill was not the wish to stop evictions,
(to). / Traffic on the up line was not but the wish to stop the scandal of evic-
involved (affected). / Some applicants tions (motive).
are still coming forward but the numbers
involved are falling (their numbers)./
The proper meaning of involve is wrap iodine. For pronunciation see -IN
up, and so entangle, embarrass, as in and -INE.
the common use of its p.p. (an involved
subject, involved in financial difficulties) ; -ion and -ment. Many verbs have
in the interests of precision its use in associated with them nouns of both
the sense of to produce consequences forms, as commit, commission and com-
should be confined to those that are mitment', require, requisition and re-
unforeseen, or incidental to something quirement; excite, excitement and excita-
done for another purpose, as in The tion. When both are well established, as
abolition of cheque endorsement inevit- in these cases, the two nouns usually
ably involved disuse of receipts on the coexist because they have come by
reverse of cheques, j General Grivas's self- DIFFERENTIATION to divide the possible
imposed task of saving Greece involves meanings between them and so tend
strangling the infant republic of Cyprus. to lucidity. How little the essential
difference of meaning is in the two
inwardness. The i., the real i., the terminations may be seen by compar-
true i., of something has a meaning ing emendation with amendment (where
that it would not occur to us to give the first means rather correction made,
it out of our own heads, but that we and the second rather correcting), and
some time or other discover to be at- requisition with requirement (where the
tached to it by other people, especially first means rather requiring, and the
such as write books. That meaning is, second rather thing required), and
as defined by the OED, 'the inward or then noticing that the two compari-
intrinsic character or quality of a thing ; sons give more or less contrary results.
the inner nature, essence, or meaning'. Further, when there is only one estab-
It is a literary phrase fit for a literary lished form, it is not apparent to the
man to use when he is writing for or layman, though the philologist some-
talking to literary people, but other- times knows, why one form exists and
wise pretentious. True wisdom is to the other does not—why for instance
abstain from it till it seems the really we say infliction and not inflictment,
natural phrase; and any inclination to but punishment and not punition. The
put inverted commas round it is a fair conclusion is that usage should be
proof that one has not reached, or that respected, and less usual forms such
one doubts whether one's readers have as abolishment and admonishment, or
reached, the stage of so regarding it. rare ones such as incitation, and
There is a certain intrusiveness about punition, should not be resorted to
the word in these quotations ; omission, when abolition, admonition, incitement,
or a simpler substitute, would have and punishment, are to hand. See also
done no harm: When the First Lord -MENT, and for some similar questions
gets to understand (the real i. of) the see the next article, and also -ISM AND
present situation, I have every confi- -ITY, and -TY, -NESS, -ION.
dence that he will do full justice to the
Thames. / In this connexion I would -ion and -ness. The question be-
warn readers who are unacquainted with tween variants in -ion and -ness differs
-ion and -ness 304 I.Q.
from that discussed in the preceding the second are taken into account, it is
article in several respects. First, -ness pretty clear that the quality of the style
words can be made from any adjective was meant in both, and conciseness
or participle, whereas the formation of would have been the right word: /
-ment words from verbs is by no means really think any Muse {when she is
unrestricted ; by the side of persuasion neither resting nor flying) ought to
you can make persuasiveness, but not tighten her girdle, tuck up her skirts,
persuadement. Secondly, there is more and step out. It is better than Tenny-
possibility of a clear distinction in son's short-winded and artificial con-
meaning; -ion and -ment are both cision—but there is such a thing as swift
attached to verbs, so that neither has and spontaneous style. / But then as a
any more claim than the other to repre- writer of letters, diaries, and memo-
sent the verbal idea of action. But randa, Mr. Gladstone did not shine by
between -ion and -ness that line does any habitual concision or pungency of
exist; though -ion and -ness are often style. If it were not for this frequent
appended to exactly the same form, as uncertainty about what is really meant,
in abjectness and abjection, one is made it would be as bad to say concision for
from the English adjective abject, and conciseness as to use correction (which,
the other from the Latin verbal stem like concision, could be defended as a
abject-, with the consequence that Gallicism) for correctness, or indirec-
abjectness necessarily represents a state tion (for which Hamlet n. i. 66 might
or quality, and abjection naturally a be pleaded) for indirectness.
process or action. Thirdly, while both Simple reference of any word in -ion
-ion and -ment pass easily from the to this article may be taken to mean
idea of a process or action into that that there is a tendency for it to usurp
of the product—abstraction for in- the functions of the noun in -ness. See
stance being equivalent either to also -TY and -NESS.
abstracting or to abstract notion—, to
subject -ness to that treatment is to do I.Q. (Intelligence Quotient), a measure
it violence; we can call virtue an of
abstraction, but not an abstractness. to mental capacity applied especially
In compensation for this disability, the children and mental defectives, is
the -ness words should be guaranteed that ratio (expressed as a percentage)
the 'mental age' of the subject of
as far as possible the exclusive right to the test (i.e. the age at which the same
the meaning of state or quality; e.g. mental capacity would be found in a
we should avoid talking of the normal person) bears to his actual age.
abstraction or the concision of a writer's Thus the I.Q. of a clever child of 6
style, or of the consideration that with a mental age of 9 would be 150.
marks someone's dealings, when we As the qualities tested are such
mean abstractness, conciseness, and ordinarily mature at 15, that figure as is
considerateness. Concision means the taken instead of actual age for all older
process of cutting down, and concise- persons. Thus the I.Q. of an adult
ness the cut-down state; the ordinary mental defective with a mental age of
man, who when he means the latter nine
says conciseness, shows more literary logistswould be 60 (900 -M5). Psycho-
make the following gradation of
sense than the literary critic, who says
concision just because the French (who mental capacity expressed in terms of
have not the advantage of possessing I.Q.: Very superior 130 plus, superior
120/129, bright average 110/119, aver-
-ness) have to say it, and he likes galli- age
cizing. It is not always easy to prove line 90/109, dull average 80/89, border-
jo I jg, feeble-minded 50/69, imbecile
that writers do not mean the process 25/49,
rather than the quality, but appear- are aptidiot 2 4 minus. Some lawyers
ances are often against them. In the niceties, to be intolerant of these
following examples, if the epithets dictum ofanda to subscribe to the
Lord Chief Justice:
short-winded in the first and pungency in 'Nowadays people use expressions
Irene 305 irony
like slightly maladjusted and borderline another party that, when more is
high-grade mental defective which mean meant than meets the ear, is aware
nothing. It is all words.' both of that more and of the outsiders'
incomprehension.
Irene. A Greek word of three syllables 1. Socratic irony was a profession of
(Jrê'ne) meaning peace. As a Christian ignorance. What Socrates represented
name it has now been largely adopted as an ignorance and a weakness in
by those who take it for a disyllable himself was in fact a non-committal
like Doreen, Eileen, etc., and, when attitude towards any dogma, however
they hear others make three syllables accepted or imposing, that had not
of it, account for it to themselves as an been carried back to and shown to
optional addition like those in Johnny be based upon first principles. The
and Jeanie. two parties in his audience were,
iridescent. So spelt, not irri-', the first, the dogmatists moved by pity
origin is Greek iris rainbow, not Latin or contempt to enlighten this igno-
irrideo laugh. rance, and secondly, those who knew
their Socrates and set themselves to
iron. For the i. Chancellor, Duke, watch the familiar game in which
horse, see SOBRIQUETS. learning should be turned inside out
iron curtain. The use of this term by simplicity.
(literally the fire-proof curtain of a 2 . The double audience is essential
theatre) to describe the political divi- also to what is called dramatic irony,
sion between the communist countries i.e. the irony of the Greek drama.
of Europe and the rest is generally That drama had the peculiarity of
ascribed to Sir Winston Churchill. providing the double audience—one
He was not the first to use it; but he party in the secret and the other not—
popularized it in his Fulton speech, in a special manner. The facts of most
and it is unlikely that he consciously Greek plays were not a matter for
borrowed it. According to an editorial invention, but were part of every
note in the T L S (14 July 1961) the Athenian child's store of legend; all
earliest instance of its written use in the spectators, that is, were in the
this sense is in Mrs. (later Viscountess) secret beforehand of what would hap-
Snowden's account of her visit to pen. But the characters, Pentheus and
Russia, Through Bolshevik Russia, Oedipus and the rest, were in the dark ;
published in 1920. one of them might utter words that to
him and his companions on the stage
iron out. The use of this PHRASAL were of trifling import, but to those
VERB in the sense of remove (difficulties who hearing could understand were
etc.) as an iron removes creases and pregnant with the coming doom. The
wrinkles is American in origin and has surface meaning for the dramatis per-
deservedly won a place in our own sonae, and the underlying one for the
vocabulary. But as with most new spectators; the dramatist working his
metaphors (cf. BREAKDOWN, CEILING,
effect by irony.
TARGET) its popularity leads to its
being used in contexts so incongruous 3. And the double audience for the
with its literal meaning as to be ab- irony of Fate? Nature persuades most
surd, e.g. its head-on collision with of us that the course of events is within
another popular new metaphor in wide limits foreseeable, that things will
These bottlenecks must be ironed out. follow their usual course and that vio-
lent outrage on our sense of the prob-
irony. For a tabular comparison of able or reasonable need not be looked
this and other words, see HUMOUR. for. These 'most of us' are the uncom-
Irony is a form of utterance that prehending outsiders; the elect or
postulates a double audience, con- inner circle with whom Fate shares her
sisting of one party that hearing shall amusement at our consternation are
hear and shall not understand, and the few to whom it is not an occasional
irrefragable 306 irrelevant allusion
maxim, but a living conviction, that trary senses. It is worth remembering
what happens is the unexpected. that relevant and relieving are the same
That is an attempt to link intelligibly word; that, presumably, is irrelevant
together three special senses of the which does not relieve or assist the
word irony, which in its more general problem in hand by throwing any
sense may be defined as the use of light upon it. There are signs that
words intended to convey one meaning usage is trying to force irrelevant along
to the uninitiated part of the audience the path followed by impertinent. That,
and another to the initiated, the delight for instance, seems to be its meaning
of it lying in the secret intimacy set up in To Buchan's old admirers his unique
between the latter and the speaker. It stance is beyond parody, and to mock at
should be added, however, that there it seems irrelevant. It would be regret-
are dealers in irony for whom the table if this succeeded, for we should
initiated circle is not of outside hearers, then have no word for 'not pertinent.'
but is an alter ego dwelling in their
own breasts. irrelevant allusion. We all know the
For practical purposes a protest is people—for they are the majority, and
needed against the application of 'the probably include our particular selves
irony of Fate', or of 'irony' for short, —who cannot carry on the ordinary
to every trivial oddity: But the pleasant business of everyday talk without the
note changed to something almost bitter use of phrases containing a part that is
as he declared his fear that before them appropriate and another that is point-
lay a 'fight for everything we hold dear' less or worse; the two parts have asso-
—a sentence that the groundlings by a ciated themselves together in their
curious irony were the loudest in cheering minds as making up what somebody
(oddly enough). / 'The irony of the has said, and what others as well as
thing' said the dairyman who now owns they will find familiar, and they have
the business 'lies in the fact that after I the sort of pleasure in producing the
began to sell good wholesome butter in combination that a child has in airing
place of this adulterated mixture, my a newly acquired word. There is in-
sales fell off 7$ Per cent.' ('It's a rum deed a certain charm in the grown-up
thing that...' seems almost adequate). man's boyish ebullience, not to be re-
The irony of fate is, in fact, to be classed strained by thoughts of relevance from
now as a HACKNEYED PHRASE. letting the exuberant phrase jet forth.
And for that charm we put up with it
irrefragable. Accent the second when one draws our attention to the
(Jrë'frâgâbl). methodical by telling us there is method
irrefutable. For pronunciation see in the madness, though method and not
REFUTABLE. madness is all there is to see, when
another's every winter is the winter of
irrelevance, - c y . See -CE, -CY. his discontent, when a third cannot
irrelevant. It is stated in the OED, complain of the light without calling
which does not often volunteer such it religious as well as dim, when for
remarks, and which is sure to have a fourth nothing can be rotten except in
documentary evidence, that 'a fre- the state of Denmark, when a fifth,
quent blunder is irrevalent'',that form, dressed after bathing, tells you that he
however, does not get into print once is clothed and in his right mind, or when
for a hundred times that it is said. The a sixth, asked whether he does not owe
word is one of those that we all know you 45. 6d. for that cab fare, owns the
the meaning of, but seldom trouble to soft impeachment. Other phrases of the
connect with their derivations—a state kind will be found in the article HACK-
of mind commoner with Englishmen NEYED PHRASES. A slightly fuller ex-
than with other people because so amination of a single example may be
many of our words are borrowed that useful. The phrase to leave severely
we are accustomed to apparently arbi- alone has two reasonable uses : one in
irrelevant allusion 307 irrespective (ly)
the original sense of to leave alone as chuckle at the odd places in which his
a method of severe treatment, i.e. to sea change turns up). / Some may re-
send to Coventry or show contempt member that when the disturbances first
for, and the other in contexts where occurred the first reaction of the Home
severely is to be interpreted by con- Office bore a close resemblance to Pilate's
traries—to leave alone by way not of notorious gesture from the Litho-
punishing the object, but of avoiding strotos. (Most will remember what the
consequences for the subject. The gesture was ; some will remember that
straightforward meaning and the ironi- St. John tells us that Pilate was sitting
cal are both good; anything between in a place called the pavement; all are
them, in which the real meaning is invited to admire the learning of one
merely to leave alone, and severely is who knows that the Greek word trans-
no more than an echo, is pointless and lated pavement is lithostrotos.) / Many
vapid and in print intolerable. Ex- of the celebrities who in that most frivo-
amples follow: (i, straightforward) lous of watering-places do congregate. /
You must show him, by leaving him When about to quote Sir Oliver Lodge's
severely alone, by putting him into a tribute to the late leader, Mr. Law drew,
moral Coventry, your detestation of the not a dial, but what was obviously a
crime; (2, ironical) Fish of prey do not penny memorandum book from his pocket
appear to relish the sharp spines of the (You want to mention that Mr. Bonar
stickleback, and usually seem to leave Law took a notebook out of his pocket;
them severely alone; (3, pointless) Aus- but pockets are humdrum things; how
tria forbids children to smoke in public give a literary touch? Call it a poke?
places; and in German schools and mili- no, we can better that; who was it drew
tary colleges there are laws upon the what from his poke ? Why, Touchstone
subject; France, Spain, Greece, and a dial, to be sure ! and there you are).
Portugal, leave the matter severely
alone. It is obvious at once how hor- irrespective(ly), adv. When of does
rible the faded jocularity of No. 3 is not follow, the adverb is still -ly:
in print; and, though things like it Mercy that places the marks of its favour
come crowding upon one another in absolutely and irrespectively upon whom
most conversation, they are not very it pleases. When o/follows, the modern
easy to find in newspapers and books idiom is to use the adjective as a
of any merit. A small gleaning of them QUASI-ADVERB (cf. regardless), as in All
follows : The moral, as Alice would say, were huddled together, irrespective of
appeared to be that, despite its difference age and sex; see UNIDIOMATIC -LY. But
in degree, an obvious essential in the right good writers perhaps retain the -ly in
kind of education had been equally lack- sentences where irrespective might be
ing to both these girls (as Alice, or indeed taken for an adjective agreeing with the
as you or I, might say). / Resignation subject and meaning not taking ac-
became a virtue of necessity for Sweden count, whereas what is desired is an
(If you do what you must with a good adverb meaning without account
grace, you make a virtue of necessity; taken; so He values them,irrespectively
without 'make', a virtue of necessity of the practical conveniences which their
is meaningless). / / strongly advise the triumph may obtain for him (quoted
single working-man who would become from Matthew Arnold, who would
a successful backyard poultry-keeper to doubtless have refused to drop the -ly
ignore the advice of Punch, and to here). This rather fine (if not imagi-
secure a useful helpmate. / Like John nary) point of idiom has no practical
Brown's soul, the cricketing family of effect on the meaning of a passage, but
Edrich goes marching on. / The beloved does imply an appreciation of the exact
lustige Wien [merry Vienna] of his meaning and construction of the word
youth had suffered a sea-change. The irrespective—namely, that (unlike re-
green glacis . . . was blocked by ranges gardless) it does not mean careless and
of grand new buildings (Ariel must does not agree with a person.
is 308 is
i s . 1. Is and are between variant num- mine)?' The facts are, first, that has
bers. 2 . Is and are in multiplication nothing to do with requires no defence,
table. 3. Is auxiliary and copulative. secondly, that is nothing to do with is
4. 75 after compound subject. 5. Is, or said by many to be indefensible, and,
has, nothing to do with. thirdly, that is nothing to do with is
1. Is and are between subject and nevertheless very common, perhaps
complement of different numbers. far commoner than the other. When
What are wanted are not small cottages, a form of speech that one regards as
but larger houses with modern con- a corruption gains wide currency, the
veniences. I The plausible suggestiojis toquestion whether one should tilt at it
the contrary so frequently put forward is not quite simple. If it is an obvious
is an endeavour to kill two birds with oneoutrage on grammar, yes; if, on the
stone. I In the first example are should other hand, its wrongness is of the
be is in both places; in the second, is kind that has to be pointed out before
should be are; for discussion of the it is noticed, and its hold on the public
first see WHAT I and of the second strong enough to take a good deal of
NUMBER I . loosening, then perhaps it is better to
2 . Is and are in the multiplication buttress it up than to tilt at it. Here,
table. Five times six is, or are, thirty? then, is an attempt to justify is.
The subject of the verb is not times, Most of us, when we have occasion to
but six, the meaning of the subject repel an impertinent question, and are
being 'six reckoned five times'. Before not in the mood for weighing words in
we know whether is or are is required, the scales of grammar, feel that That
then, we must decide whether six is is nothing to do with you expresses our
a singular noun, the name of a quantity, feelings better than That has etc. ; that
or a plural adjective agreeing with is to say, the instinctive word is is, not
a suppressed noun; does it mean 'the has. But, says the champion of gram-
quantity six', or does it mean 'six mar, instinctive or not, it is a mere
things' ? That question each of us can wrong mixture of two right ways of
answer, perhaps, for himself, but no saying the thing: That is nothing to
one for other people; it is therefore you, and That has nothing to do with
equally correct to say twice two is four you. He is very likely right, but it is
and twice two are four. Moreover, as not quite so certain as he thinks; and
the two are equally correct, so they the popular phrase that is on its trial
appear (OED, s.v. time) to be about for impropriety should always be given
equally old ; four times six was plural the benefit of the doubt if there is one.
as long ago as 1380, and ten times two Now it does not seem impossible that
was singular in 1425. It is nothing to do with may have arisen
3. Confusion between auxiliary and from sentences in which to do has ac-
copulative uses. The risk of cards being quired the status of an adjective mean-
lost or mislaid under such circumstajices ing concerned or connected ; such sen-
is considerable, and great inconvenience tences would be : There is nothing tol do
A experienced by any workman to whom with prisons that he cannot tell you. / A
this accident occurs. This mistake of Wife's Secret"1 (nothing to do with the old
leaving the reader to supply an is of play of that name). / Anything to do
one kind out of a previous is of another with spiritualism is interesting. In the
kind is discussed under BE 5. first of those nothing to do means not
4 . Is after compound subjects. This aa noun;
single thing concerned, nothing being
and in the second it means not
is discussed in NUMBER 2 .
5. Is, or has, nothing to do with. A at all connected, nothing being an ad-
correspondent writes to a newspaper : verb. No doubt this use of to do is
elliptical for having to do ; but the point
'Sir,—Why do I see today, in a cele- is that it gives us a different construc-
brated morning contemporary, the
following sentence: "The trouble is tion for nothing (or any corresponding
nothing to do with education" (Italics word) which here is not the object of
-ise 309 -ist, -alist, -tist, -yist
the omitted having, as it is of has in It doubtful. Roughly, the word in -ity
has nothing to do with, but is either the usually means the quality of being
noun with which the supposed having what the adjective describes, or, con-
agrees or an adverb negativing it. On cretely, an instance of the quality, or,
this theory, the two forms may be para- collectively, all the instances; and the
phrased thus : It has nothing to do with word in -ism means the disposition to
you = It has no function to perform be what the adjective describes, or,
with you; and It is nothing to do with concretely, an act resulting from that
you = It is not amatter concernedLwith disposition, or, collectively, all those
you. The first is simpler to arrive at who feel it. A few of the more notable
than the second, but the second is not pairs follow, to enable the reader to
impossible. The precisian who likes judge how far this rough distinction
an easily analysable sentence, and the will serve him in deciding which to use
natural man who likes to say the thing where the difference is less established :
that springs to his lips, had better BARBARITY and barbarism; catholicity
agree to live and let live ; and they will and Catholicism; deity and DEISM ; fatal-
do this the more readily if the first can ity and FATALISM; formality and FOR-
believe that the two ways of putting MALISM; humanity and HUMANISM;
the thing differ not only in the visible ideality and idealism; latinity and
distinction between has and is, but also LATINISM; legality and legalism; liber-
in the invisible one between two or ality and liberalism; modernity and
more constructions of nothing. It may modernism; reality and realism;
fairly be maintained that there are spirituality and spiritualism; uni-
three right ways of saying the thing: versality and universalism. See also
It is nothing to you; It has nothing to do -TY AND -NESS.
ivith you; It is nothing to do with you:
instead of two right ways and a wrong. Israeli(te). See HEBREW.
And if the speaker is excited, as he well issue, v. To speak of issuing (sc. from
may be, we shall be unlikely to know store) an article of equipment to a
which of the last two he has chosen; soldier, or of issuing him the article,
for he will say it's. Perhaps that is how is a natural use of the verb. The mod-
the double form arose. ern construction, which speaks of
issuing him with the article, on the
-ise. i. On the general question of the analogy of supply or provide, is not,
spelling of verbs ending in the sound and has been deservedly criticized for
ïz, see -IZE, -ISE. 2 . For the coining of its absurdity. But it has been much
verbs in -ize see NEW VERBS IN -IZE. popularized by two wars, is recognized
3. Terminal -ise in words always so without comment by the OED Supp.,
spelt is usually pronounced ïz, but not and has evidently come to stay, whether
always; it may be is (promise, mortise) we like it or not.
or êz (chemise, expertise). That is
awkward for an announcer who comes -ist, -alist, -tist, -yist, etc. The use
unexpectedly on an -ise word he has of the suffix -ist in English is so wide
never heard spoken; he may for and various that any full discussion of
instance be misled into calling DEMISE it is not here possible. But there are
demëz, partly perhaps by its re- (A) some words whose exact form is
semblance to chemise and partly by the still uncertain and should befixed,and
prevalent superstition that unfamiliar there are (B) others that are both estab-
words ought to be given exotic vowel lished and badly formed, so that there
sounds. When in doubt say ïz is the is danger, unless their faultiness is
safest course. pointed out, of their being used as
precedents for new formations.
-ism and -ity. Many adjectives may
have either ending appended and give A
two nouns of différent meaning. Occa- agricultur(al)ist, constitution(al)ist,
sionally choice between the two is conversation(al)ist, education(al)ist, and
-ist, -alist, -tist, -yist 310 it
others of the kind. Either form is offending of them, ironist, firmly
legitimate; the shorter, besides being established.
less cumbersome, usually corresponds analyst results from the mistaking of
more naturally to the sense. Expert in analyse for one of those -ize verbs from
agriculture (-turist), for instance, is which so many nouns in -ist are
simpler than expert in the agricultural formed; analyse, derived from analysis,
(-turalist)', but in constitution(al)ist, should itself have been analysize, and
perhaps, knowledge of or devotion to then analysist would have been correct;
what is constitutional, rather than of given analyse, analyser should have
or to the constitution, is required. been the noun.
Unless there is a definite advantage of ironist supplies the need of a word
this kind in the -al- form, the other to match satirist and humourist. The
should be preferred : agriculturist, hor- choice, if it was to end in -ist, lay
ticulturist) constitutionalist, conversa- between ironicalist, ironicist, ironyist,
tionist, educationist. Popular taste, and ironist, of which the last is techni-
however, seems to have a curious cally the least justifiable. If regarded
liking for the longer words, especially as made on the English noun irony, the
for the last two. -y ought not to be omitted; if Greek
accompan(y)ist. Neither form is satis- is to be called in, the Greek verb and
factory; the adding of -ist to verbs noun ought to have been dptwlÇa) and
other than those in -ize is unusual clpwvla, whereas they are elpwvevofiai and
(conformist is an example), and it is elpcovela; philanthropist and telegraphist
a pity that accompanier was not taken; do not obviate the objection, because
but, of the two, -nyist (cf. copyist) they are made not on philanthropy and
would have been better than the -nist telegraphy, but on Greek <f>i\av9pioTrla
which is now the standard form. and English telegraph.
pacif(ic)ist. This cannot be classed separatist, like all -ist words made on
among those still awaiting decision, other verbs than those in -ize (conform-
the barbarous pacifist has taken so ist, computist, controvertist, speculatist,
strong a hold; 'the shorter form', says are the best of the few quoted by the
the OED Supp., 'is generally pre- OED), is at once felt to be an uncom-
ferred to the more correct pacificist on fortable and questionable word; but
the grounds of convenience and it and (nonconformist, having attained
euphony'. It has since established to real currency, may unfortunately
itself unshakably. The word is formed be imitated. Separationist would have
on pacific, to mean believer in pacific been the right form.
methods; the -/- in pacifist, with -ic- tobacconist, like egotist, has no right
left out, has no meaning, and pacist to the consonant inserted before -ist.
would have been a better word. The
omission of an essential syllable by isthmus. PI. -uses; see -us. The OED
what is called syncope (as in idolatry, gives a choice of three pronunciations
syncopated from idololatria) belongs in of the first syllable, isth, ist, and iss, in
English to the primitive stages of the that order; but most of us are likely to
language, and is not now practised; find anything but the last too difficult.
symbology, for symbolology, is an un- Cf. asthma, where the OED more
prepossessing exception. mercifully narrows the choice to two,
ego(t)ist. The -t- is abnormal; but asth and ass.
both forms are established, and a use-
ful differentiation is possible if both it. 1. Omission of anticipatory it
are retained; see EGO(T)ISM. owing to confused analysis. 2 . Other
mistakes with anticipatory it. 3. Ob-
B scure or wrong pronoun reference.
analyst, ironist, separatist, and tobac- 4. Its, it's.
conist, are open to objection, though The pronoun is so much used in
they are all, except perhaps the least various idiomatic constructions that
it 311 it
considerable knowledge, instinctive or more or less similar examples that
acquired, of the ins and outs of syntax follow less elaborate indications of the
is needed to secure one against lapses. essential construction: The debate on
The collecting of a few specimens, and the Bill produced a tangle of arguments
comments on them, may put writers which A required all Mr. Chamberlain's
on their guard. skill to untie. Which means tangle; the
1. There is a present tendency to missing it means 'to untie which'.
omit the anticipatory it in relative Here, however, if an it had been in-
clauses, i.e. the it that heralds a de- serted after untie, which would have
ferred subject as in It is useless to been subject to required instead of
complain. An example is: The House object to untie, so that the sentence as
of Commons is always ready to extend it stands is perhaps a muddle between
the indulgence which A is a sort of two possibilities. / It has already cost
precedent that the mover and seconder the 100 millions which A v)as originally
of the Address should ask for. If we estimated would be the whole cost. The
build up this sentence from its ele- missing it means 'that which would be
ments, the necessity of it will appear, the whole cost' {that the conjunction,
and the reader can then apply the not the pronoun). / Faith in drugs has
method to the other examples. That no longer any monetary motive such as
the mover should ask for indulgence is A has been asserted was formerly the
a precedent; that, rearranged idiomati- case. Without it, this implies as one of
cally, becomes It is a precedent that the the elements 'A monetary motive has
mover should ask for indulgence. Ob- been asserted was the case'. / The great
serve that it there does not mean indul- bulk of the work done in the world is
gence, but means 'that the mover work that A is vital should be done.
should ask for indulgence', it being The missing it means not work, as that
placed before the predicate (is a prece- does, but the doing of it. / What A
dent) as a harbinger announcing that was realized might happen has happened.
the real subject, which it temporarily Elements: 'It was realized that a thing
represents, is coming along later. It is might happen; that Lhing has hap-
a precedent that the mover should ask for pened'.
indulgence; the House extends the indul- At the end of the article HOPE the
gence; there are the two elements. To common omission of it with is hoped
combine them we substitute which for is illustrated.
indulgence in the clause that is to be 2 . Certain points have to be remem-
subordinate, and place this which at bered about the anticipatory it be-
the beginning instead of at the end of sides the fact that it may be wrongly
that clause : the House extends the indul- omitted: In connexion with the article
gence which. . . . Now, if it had meant by , it may be worth recalling the
indulgence, i.e. the same as which now naïve explanation given to Dickens by
means, it would have become super- one of his contributors. Anticipatory it
fluous; but, as has been mentioned, it heralds a deferred subject; it cannot
means something quite different, and be used when there is no subject to
is just as much wanted in the com- herald. Where is the subject here?
pound sentence as in the simple one. Explanation is engaged as object of
A parallel will make the point clear: recalling; recalling is governed by
A meeting was held, and it was my duty worth; worth is complement to may be;
to attend this; whether which or and it neither has any meaning of its own
this is placed at the beginning of the nor represents anything else. The
second member instead of the present author might possibly claim that the
arrangement, no one would dream of construction was a true apposition like
dropping it and writing which was my that in 'He's a good fellow, that', and
duty to attend, or and this was my duty that a comma after recalling would put
to attend. After this rather laboured all to rights ; but anyone who can read
exposition it will suffice to add to the aloud can hear that that is not true.
it 312 Italian
The real way to correct it is to write otherwise, is being answered by may,
worth while instead of worth) which and cannot by is. It may be understood,
releases recalling to serve as the true even if the real subject is changed,
subject; see WORTH for other such when the verb or auxiliary is common
mistakes. / It is such wild statements as to both parts, but not otherwise. If, in
that Mr. Sandlands has made that does the sentence we are criticizing (It is
harm to the Food Reform cause. By impossible to enter on . . . ) , and sufficient
strict grammatical analysis does would were substituted for but must suffice,
be right; but idiom has decided that all would be well.
in the it . . . that construction, when 3. Examples of it and its used when
that is the relative, the number is taken the reference of the pronoun is obscure
not from its actual antecedent it, but or confused, or its use too previous or
from the word represented by it—here incorrect. These faults occur with it as
statements. / He was a Norfolk man, and with all pronouns, and are discussed
it was in a Norfolk village where I first generally under PRONOUNS; a few
ran across him. There is no doubt that examples are here printed without
idiom requires that instead of where, comment: Though it was not debated,
and the sense of the idiomatic form is delegates going home zvill have to give
plain; it that I ran across means my far more thought to the growing dislike
running across ; my first running across of young people for the trade unions than
him was in a village. The use of where, to the H-bombs. / Again, unconscious-
besides being unidiomatic, is also less ness in the person himself of what he is
reasonable; where is equivalent to in about, or of what others think of him, is
which, and if in which or its equivalent also a great heightener of the sense of
is used we require a Norfolk village absurdity. It makes it come the fuller
and not in a Norfolk village : and it was home to us from his insensibility to it./
a Norfolk village in which I etc. The Where a settlement is effected a memo-
use of in a village together with where randum of the same, with a report of
is analogous to the pleonasms dis- its proceedings, is sent by the Board to
cussed under HAZINESS. / It is impossible the Minister of Labour. / Both these lines
to enter on the political aspects of Mr. of criticism are taken simultaneously in
's book, but A must suffice to say a message which its special correspondent
that he suggests with great skill the war- sends from Laggan, in Alberta, to the
ring interests. The reader of that at Daily Mail this morning.
once thinks something is wrong, and 4 . The possessive of it, like the
on reflection asks whether the antici- absolute forms in -s of her, their, our,
patory it, which means to enter etc., and your, has no apostrophe : its, hers,
can be 'understood' again before must theirs, ours, yours, not it's etc.
suffice with the quite different meaning
of to say etc. It cannot; but some Italian SOUNDS. A rough notion of how
more or less parallel types will show Italian words should be said is some-
that doubts are natural. Here are (A) times needed. Certain consonant pecu-
two in which the understanding of it, liarities are all that require notice; for
though the subjects are different, is the vowels it suffices that they have the
clearly permissible: It is dangerous to continental values, not the English.
guess, but humiliating to confess ignor- The letters or letter-groups with which
ance. I It must please him to succeed and mistakes may be made are: c, cc, ch,
pain him to fail. And here are (B) two ci; g, ggj gh, gi, gli, gn, gu; sc, sch,
that will not do : It is dishonest to keep sci ; z, zz. If a few words, most of them
silence, and may save us to speak. / It to be met in English writing, are taken
cannot help us to guess, and is better as types, the sounds may easily be
to wait and see. The distinction that remembered :
emerges on examination is this : in the cicerone (chiche-); c, and cc, before e
'A' examples is, and must, are common and i, — ch
to both halves; in the ' B ' examples it is Chianti (kï); ch always = k
italics 313
cioccolata (chôk-); ci before a, o, u, tell him not to read heedlessly on, or
often = ch, the i merely snowing he will miss some peculiarity in the
that c is soft italicized word. The particular point
Gesii (jd-) ; g, and gg, before e or i — j he is to notice is left to his own discern-
ghetto (gë-) ; gh always — g ment; the italics may be saying to him:
Giotto (jo-) ; gi before a, o, u, often = (a) 'This word, and not the whole
/, cf. ci above phrase of which it forms part, contains
intaglio (-ahlyo) ; gli often = ly the point' : It is not only little learning
bagni (bah'nyê); gn --= ny that has been exposed to disparage-
Guelfo (gzvë-) ; gn always = gw ment.
fascista (shïs-) ; sc before e or i = sh (b) 'This word is in sharp contrast to
scherzo (sk-) ; sch always = sk the one you may be expecting': It
sciolto (shôl-); set before a, o, u, would be an ultimate benefit to the
often = sh, cf. ci above cause of morality to prove that honesty
scherzo (-tso) ; z = ts was the zvorst policy.
pizzicato (pïtsï-) ; zz usually = ts (c) 'These two words are in sharp
mezzo (më'dzô) ; zz sometimes = dz contrast' : But, if the child never can
have a dull moment, the man never
italics. Printing a passage in italics, need have one.
like underlining one in a letter, is (d) 'If the sentence were being spoken,
a primitive way of soliciting attention. there would be a stress on this word' :
The practised writer is aware that his The wrong man knows that if he loses
business is to secure prominence for there is no consolation prize of con-
what he regards as the essence of his scious virtue awaiting him. / To
communication by so marshalling his Sherlock Holmes she is always the
sentences that they shall lead up to woman.
a climax, or group themselves round (e) 'This word wants thinking over to
a centre, or be worded with different yield its full content': Child-envy is
degrees of impressiveness as the need only a form of the eternal yearning for
of emphasis varies ; he knows too that something better than this (i.e., the
it is an insult to the reader's intelli- adult's position with all its disillusion-
gence to admonish him periodically by ments).
a change of type that he must now be (f) 'This word is not playing its ordi-
on the alert. The true uses of italics are nary part, but must be read as the word
very different from that of recom- " " ' : Here will is wrongly used
mending to attention whole sentences instead of shall.
whose importance, if they are impor- (g) 'This is not an English word or
tant, ought to be plain without them. phrase' : The maxim that deludes us is
And these real uses are definite enough the progenies vitiosior of one to which
to admit of classification. Some of the Greeks allowed a safer credit.
them may be merely mentioned as (h) 'This word is the title of a book or
needing no remark : a whole piece may a newspaper, or the name of a fictitious
be in italics because italics are decora- character' : The Vienna correspondent
tive; text and notes may be distin- of The Times reports that . . . / The
guished by roman and italic type just man in Job who maketh collops of fat
as they may by different-sized types; upon his flanks./A situation demanding
quotations used as chapter-headings, Mark Tapley.
prefaces, dedications, and other mate- Such are the true uses of italics. To
rial having a special status, are entitled italicize whole sentences or large parts
to italics. Apart from such decorative of them as a guarantee that some por-
and distinctive functions, too obvious tion of what one has written is really
to need illustration, italics have definite worth attending to is a miserable con-
work to do when a word or two are so fession that the rest is negligible.
printed in the body of a roman-type
passage. They pull up the reader and -ite. The adjectival suffix -ite, from
-ize, -ise, in verbs 314 Jansenism
the Latin p.p. -itus is pronounced it in a small number of verbs, some of them
some words and it in others, with little in very frequent use, like advertise,
regard, if any, to whether the Latin devise, and surprise, do not get their
verb is of the third conjugation (making -ise even remotely from the Greek -izo,
-itus) or of the fourth (making -ïtus). and must be spelt with -s-. The diffi-
The short i in apposite and opposite culty of remembering which these -ise
follows the Latin; that in definite does verbs are is in fact the only reason for
not. The long i in erudite and bipartite making -ise universal, and the sacrifice
follows the Latin; that in recondite of significance to ease does not seem
does not. Composite (it in Latin) is still justified.
hesitating which way to go. The differ- The more important of these excep-
ent suffix -ite (originally from Greek tions are here given : advertise, advise,
-itës), found in such words as Jacobite, apprise, chastise, circumcise, com-
anthracite, dynamite, is always -it. prise, compromise, demise, despise,
devise, disfranchise, enfranchise, en-
-ize, -ise, in verbs. In the vast terprise, excise, exercise, improvise,
majority of the verbs that end in -ize or incise, premise, revise, supervise, sur-
-ise and are pronounced -ïz,the ultimate mise, surprise, televise. For the crea-
source of the ending is the Greek -izo, tion of verbs in -ize see NEW VERBS
whether the particular verb was an IN -IZE.
actual Greek one or a Latin or French
or English imitation, and whether
such imitation was made by adding jacket. Apart from some special uses
the termination to a Greek or another (e.g. Eton, dinner, mess, Norfolk), j . was
stem. Most English printers, taking formerly a tailor's name for what his
their cue from Kent in King Lear, customer called a coat, but seems now
'Thou whoreson zed! Thou unneces- to be in general use for all short coats
sary letter!', follow the French prac- worn by men.
tice of changing -ize to ise. But the
Oxford University Press, the Cam- Jacobin, Jacobite. These adjec-
bridge University Press, The Times, tival forms of Jacobus ( = James) have
and American usage, in all of which been used as sobriquets of several
-ize is the accepted form, carry autho- different groups of people (and one of
rity enough to outweigh superior num- pigeons), but the commonest use of
bers. The OED's judgement may be Jacobins (the name earlier given in
quoted: 'In modern French the suffix France to Dominican friars) is for
has become -iser, alike in words from the group of extreme revolutionaries
Greek, as baptiser, évangéliser, organ- formed in Paris in 1789 (who used to
iser, and those formed after them from meet in what was once a Dominican
Latin, as civiliser, cicatriser, humaniser. convent), and the commonest use of
Hence, some have used the spelling Jacobites is for adherents of the exiled
-ise in English, as in French, for all House of Stuart in the 18th c. The
these words, and some prefer -ise in latter is also sometimes used jocularly
words formed in French or English for devotees of the works of Henry
from Latin elements, retaining -ize for James.
those of Greek composition. But the
suffix itself, whatever the element to jail, jailer, jailor. See GAOL.
which it is added, is in its origin the Jansenism and Erastianism are liable
Greek -izein, Latin -izare; and, as the to be confused under the general
pronunciation is also with z, there is notion of resistance to ecclesiastical
no reason why in English the special authority. It may be said roughly
French spelling should be followed, in that those who hold that the State
opposition to that which is at once should be supreme in ecclesiastical
etymological and phonetic'. affairs are Erastians, while Jansenists
It must be noticed, however, that are (for the purpose of this comparison)
jargon 315 jargon
those who hold that a national branch believe in or act upon, or does not
of the Church is entitled to a certain understand. It is best to restrict it to
independence of, or share in, the this definite use; but its earlier sense—
authority of the Pope. Jansenism is special vocabulary of the disreputable
now loosely used by Roman Catholics —survives in the expression thieves'
to suggest the more puritanical kinds cant. As a general term for the special
of Roman Catholicism. Erastus was vocabulary of an art, profession, sport,
author of a treatise against the tyranni- etc. it has been superseded by jargon,
cal use of excommunication by the Cal- lingo, and slang.
vinistic Churches. Jansen was author dialect is essentially local; a d. is the
of an exposition of St. Augustine's variety of a language that prevails in
doctrines which was designed to re- a district, with local peculiarities of
form the Church of Rome and was vocabulary, pronunciation, and phrase.
condemned by the Pope. He was long gibberish is the name for unintelligible
prominent in the struggle between stuff: applied by exaggeration to a
Gallicanism and Ultramontanism. language unknown to the hearer (for
which, however, lingo is more usual),
jargon is perhaps the most variously and to anything either too learnedly
applied of a large number of words worded, or on the other hand too
that are in different senses interchange- rudely expressed, for him to make out
able, and so is a suitable heading for its meaning.
an article pointing out the distinctions idiom is the method of expression
between them. The words are : argot, characteristic of or peculiar to the
cant, dialect, gibberish, idiom, jargon, native speakers of a language; i.e. it is
lingo, lingua franca, parlance, patois, racy or unaffected or natural English
shop, slang, vernacular. The etymo- (or French etc.), especially so far as
logies, several of which are indeed that happens not to coincide with the
unknown, do not throw much light, method of expression prevalent in
but may be given for what they are other languages; and an i. is a par-
worth: dialect and idiom are Greek ticular example of such speech. An
(SiaXeyofiai I talk; ÏBios private or earlier sense, the same as that of
proper or peculiar) ; cant and vernacu- dialect, still occurs sometimes. See
lar are Latin (cantus song, chant, also IDIOM.
whine; verna homeborn slave); lingo jargon is talk that is considered both
is Italian (probably a corruption of ugly-sounding and hard to under-
lingua franca) ; argot, jargon, parlance stand: applied especially to (1) the
and patois are French; gibberish and sectional vocabulary of a science, art,
shop and slang are English, the first class, sect, trade, or profession, full of
probably an imitation of the sound technical terms (cf. lingo, slang); (2)
meant, the second a particular applica- hybrid speech of different languages;
tion of the common word, and the (3) loosely the use of long words,
third of unknown origin. circumlocution, and other clumsiness.
argot is primarily the vocabulary of It would be well if jargon could be
thieves and tramps in France, serving confined to the first sense. There is
to veil their meaning, and is applied plenty of work for it there alone, so
secondarily to the special vocabulary copiously does jargon of this sort breed
of any set of persons. There is in these nowadays, especially in the newer
senses no justification for its applica- sciences such as psychology and socio-
tion to any English manner of speech logy, and so readily does it escape from
instead of whichever English word its proper sphere to produce POPU-
may be most appropriate. LARIZED TECHNICALITIES—words that
cant in current English means the cloud the minds alike of those who use
insincere or parrotlike appeal to prin- them and those who read them. It is
ciples, religious, moral, political, or a pity that the edge of jargon's meaning
scientific, that the speaker does not has been blunted by its being used in
jargon 316 jazz
sense (3); and attempts have been and lively of playing with words and
made to relieve it of the duty by renaming things and actions; some
inventing another word for that style invent new words, or mutilate or
of writing, as Ivor Brown invented misapply the old, for the pleasure of
barnacular, gargantuan, and pudder in novelty, and others catch up such
England and Maury Maverick gobble- words for the pleasure of being in the
dygook in America. But these have fashion. Many slang words and phrases
made little headway; jargon remains perish, a few establish themselves; in
for most people the pejorative name either case, during probation they are
for the style of writing of which the accounted unfit for literary use. «S. is
civil service is rather unfairly sup- also used in the sense of jargon (1), but
posed to be the chief exponent. For with two distinctions: in general it
particular kinds of jargon see COM- expresses less dislike and imputation
MERCIALESE, LITERARY CRITICS' WORDS, of ugliness than jargon; and it is
OFFICIALESE, POPULARIZED TECHNICALI- naturally commoner about sporting
TIES, SOCIOLOGESE. vocabularies (golf s. etc.) than jargon,
lingo is a contemptuous name for any because many of the terms used in
foreign language (/ can't speak their sports are slang in the main sense also.
beastly lingo). It is sometimes used, Backslang is a puerile type, consisting
like jargon (1), for a sectional vocabu- merely in pronouncing words back-
lary. wards, e.g. ynnep for penny and cool
lingua franca is a mixture of lan- for look. For RHYMING SLANG see that
guages (Italian, French, Greek, and article.
Spanish) used by traders in the vernacular describes the words that
Levant; and, by extension, any lan- have been familiar to us as long as we
guage, or linguistic mixture, that can remember, the homely part of the
serves as a medium of communication language, in contrast with the terms
between different peoples. that we have consciously acquired.
parlance, which means manner of The vernacular was formerly common,
speaking, has the peculiarity of posses- and is still occasional, for the mother
sing no significance of its own and tongue as opposed to any foreign lan-
being never used by itself. You can say guage; and, by an unessential limita-
That is dialect, That is slang, etc., but tion, it is often applied specially to
not That is parlance; parlance is al- rustic speech and confused with dialect.
ways accompanied by an adjective or
denning word or phrase, and that ad- jaundice, jaunt(y). The pronuncia-
jective, not parlance, gives the point : tion jaw- has prevailed over the /ab-
in golfing or nautical parlance, in the originally preferred by the OED, a fact
parlance of the literary critics, etc. recognized by the SOED.
patois, as used in English, means
nothing different from dialect, and, jazz is primarily the name given to
like argot, is not used about England. a type of dance music of American negro
The French distinguish two stages: origin that first became widely known
dialects exist until a common literary at the beginning of the 20th c. and is
language is evolved from them, after now popular all over the world. As a
which, if they still linger, they become musical term it has resisted all attempts
patois; but in English we let them at exact definition ; all that can be said
retain their title. is that in its most characteristic form it
shop describes business talk indulged is in common time with a pizzicato
in out of business hours, or any un- bass in crotchets to offset a syncopated
seasonable technical phraseology, and solo, often improvised. Or, as Sir
is thus distinct, in the special-vocabu- Kenneth Clark has put it more pic-
lary sense, from jargon and slang. turesquely, comparing jazz with 'ac-
slang is the diction that results from tion' painting, 'The trumpeter rises
the favourite game among the young from his seat as one possessed and
jejune 317 jobation
squirts out his melody like a scarlet ries, but often now je jôbn by RECESSIVE
scrawl against a background of plan- ACCENT.
gent dashes and dots'. Jazz has been jetsam, jettison. See FLOTSAM. Jet-
classified into fractional), mainstream, sam is what is thrown overboard;
and modern, but these distinctions are jettison is, as a noun, the throwing of it.
chronological rather than stylistic. It
would be outside the scope of this jewel(le)ry. Both forms are estab-
dictionary to trace its stylistic develop- lished; the longer is the more_usual.
ment, marked by a series of engaging The pronunciation is always joo'ëlrï.
designations such as Ragtime, Swing,
Jam, Boogie-Woogie, and Bebop; the jibe. See GIBE.
curious should consult The Oxford jihad, j e - . The second spelling was
Companion to Music. formerly usual; but the first is now
The derivation of the word is un- preferred; it is the form of the word in
known, and has been the subject of Arabic.
almost as much speculation as that of jingles, or the unintended repetition
O.K.Çq.v.). Early alternative spellings of the same word or similar sounds,
wetejas and jass, and one theory attri- are dealt with in the article REPETITION
butes it, improbably, to the French OF WORDS OR SOUNDS. A few examples
jaser meaning babble, another to an of the sort of carelessness that, in com-
early player or conductor called Jas., mon courtesy to his readers, a writer
or Jasbo Brown, another to an old should remove before printing may be
minstrel-show word jasbo for a turn given here:
that could be relied on to please an The sport of the air is still far from
audience when all else was failing. free from danger. / Mr. Leon Domi-
According to another, the word origin- nian has amassed for us a valuable mass
ally had an obscene connotation in of statistics. / The situation had so far
American slang, and when it was ap- developed so little that nothing useful
plied by a newspaper as a term of can be said about it, save that so far the
abuse to the first band of the kind that Commander-in-Chief was satisfied. /
visited Chicago, it was adopted by We can now look forward hopefully to
them as a label likely to assure good further steps forward, j Market stabi-
attendances. lity is a necessary condition of industry
The word has now strayed outside under modern conditions, j The figures
the confines of music, and is freely I have obtained put a very different
used to describe any kind of restless complexion on the subject than that
gaiety and garish colouring. It has an generally obtaining, j The observation
adjective, jazzy, but the noun used of the facts of the geological succession
attributively is more common and may of the forms of life. / He served his
be applied to anything from language apprenticeship to statesmanship. / I
to stockings. It is also a verb, both awaited a belated train. / In such a
intransitive ('to move in a grotesque or union there is no probability of stabil-
fantastic fashion'—OED Supp.) and ity. I The earliest lists, still so sadly
transitive, usually with up, sometimes and probab/y irretrievab/y imperfect
in its musical sense (jazz up the classics), (for this commonest form of the jingle,
sometimes figuratively of enlivening see under -LY). / Hardworking folk
a person or thing. Thus jazz, in both its should participate in the pleasures of
primary and its transferred senses, has leisure in goodly measure. / Balzac
suffered the fate common to all VOGUE dwells on the enthusiasm with which
WORDS of losing any precision of mean- they redecorate it with disparate
ing it may once have had. adornments in a desperate attempt to
outshine their neighbours.
jejune. Accented on the last syllable jingo. PI. -oes, see -O(E)S I .
by the OED and most other dictiona- jobation, jawb-. The first is the right
jocose 318 joust
form; from Job came the verb jobe to to make them mirth. A jocose manner,
reprove, common in the 17th and 18th old boy, description.
c e , and from that jobation. Jawb- jocular (opp. prosaic) very commonly
is a FACETIOUS FORMATION that had a implies the evasion of an issue by
short life in the late 19th c. a joke, or the flying of a kite to test the
chances. A jocular reply, writer, offer.
jocose, jocular, etc. These and merry (opp. melancholy) implies good
several other words—arch, facetious, spirits and the disposition to take
flippant, jesting, merry, and waggish— things lightly. A merry laugh, child,
are difficult to separate from each tale.
other; the dictionaries establish no waggish (opp. sedate) implies on the
very clear or serviceable distinctions, one hand willingness to make a fool of
tending to explain each by a selection oneself and on the other fondness for
of the rest. They are marked off from making fools of others. A waggish trick,
funny, droll, and others, by the fact schoolboy, disposition.
that in the latter the effect, but in these
the intent, is the main point; that is jollily, jolly adv. As a colloquial sub-
funny etc. which amuses, but that is stitute for very (a j . good hiding', you
jocular etc. which is meant (or, if a know j . well) the adverb is jolly, in
person, means) to amuse. In the fol- other uses {he smiled j . enough) it is
lowing remarks no definition of the jollily. See -LILY. The former usage
whole meaning of any word is at- was not always colloquial only. The
tempted; attention is drawn merely to OED quotes from a I7th-c. commen-
the points of difference between the tary on the Old and New Testaments
one in question and some or all of the All was jolly quiet at Ephesus before
others. All of them are usable in con- St. John came hither.
trast with serious, but for most a more
appropriate opposite may be found jonquil. The OED gives precedence
for the present purpose, and that word to the older pronunciation jù'ngkwïl
is given in brackets. but fashion has now pronounced in
favour of jôn-.
arch (opp. staid) implies the imputa-
tion of mischief or roguishness of some journal. Objections have sometimes
sort; the imputation is ironical, or the been made to the extension of this to
offence is to be condoned ; the meaning periodicals other than the daily papers.
is conveyed chiefly by look, tone, or ex- But 'Our weekly journals o'er the land
pression. An arch look, girl, insinuation. abound' (Crabbe, 1785) shows that it
facetious (opp. solemn) implies a desire is much too late to object. Those who
to be amusing; formerly a laudatory do so have presumably just learnt the
word, but now suggesting ill-timed connexion of journal with L. dies; for,
levity or intrusiveness or the wish if it had been long familiar to them,
to shine. A facetious remark, fellow, they would surely have been aware
interruption. also that language is full of such exten-
flippant (opp. earnest) implies mock- sions. May a woman not be said to cry
ery of what should be taken seriously, till she howls? are there no clerks but
and want of consideration for others' those in Holy Orders? are there no
feelings. A flippant suggestion, young hypocrites off the stage ? And, to come
man;f. treatment. back to dies, is it a blunder to call a sea
voyage from London to Tokyo a jour-
jesting (opp. serious) differs from the ney, or a pedantry to call it anything
rest in having perhaps no distinctive else?
implication, A jesting mood, j . Pilate,
aj. proposal. joust, just. Though just is 'the his-
jocose (opp. grave) implies something torical English spelling' (OED), joust
ponderous, as of Adam and Eve's was preferred by Johnson and used by
elephant wreathing his lithe proboscis Scott. It is consequently now more
judgematical 319 just
intelligible and to be preferred, and For other such pairs, see PAIRS AND
the pronunciation joost (sometimes SNARES.
jowst) has superseded the old just.
jugular. The OED and some other
judgematical. See FACETIOUS FOR- dictionaries want us to say joog-; but
MATIONS. for ordinary mortals, familiar from
childhood with the jugular vein, it is as
judg(e)ment. See MUTE E for the much out of the question as to make
principle governing the retention and kô'kâïn out of COCAINE, and the COD
omission of e in derivatives, viz., that has recognized this to the extent of
it is dropped only before vowels. putting ,;«,£- first.
Judgement is now preferred to the once
orthodox judgment. The latter is the ju-jutsu, jiu-jitsu. The first is the
spelling of the A.V. but the R.V. and preferable spelling, but the art is now
NEB have judgement, and the OED more commonly known as judo.
favours the retention of the e both here
and in similar words such as abridg(e)- j u m p . J. to the eye(s) is a bad GALLI-
ment, acknowledgement, fledg(e)ling, CISM (5). Examples: The desperate dis-
and lodgement. There are some who comfort of these places as living houses
would differentiate by using judgment judged by our standards jumps to the
for the judicial pronouncement and eyes. / How little there is essentially in
judgement for all other purposes. This common between Virgil and Isaiah
may be too subtle for popular taste, jumps to the eye as we read the clever and
but authority for some such distinc- tastefulparaphrase into Biblical language
tion can be found in the rules of the of the 4th Eclogue.
OUP, which favours judgment in legal
works and judgement in all others. juncture. At this juncture means at
this convergence of events ; the phrase
judicial, judicious. The first has to is emasculated if used, as it often is,
do with judges and lawcourts and legal merely as a stylish way of saying at
this time. It should be reserved for an
judgements, the second with the men- occasion that is not yet a crisis but may
tal faculty of judgement, that is to say, well become one.
if the distinction mentioned at the end
of the preceding article were to prevail, junta, junto. The first is the Spanish
the first with judgment and the sec- form, which is used in English also.
ond with judgement. Judicial murder Junto is an erroneous form.
is murder perpetrated by means of
a legal trial; judicious murder is murder just, v. and n. See JOUST.
that is well calculated to serve the
murderer's interests. The distinction just, adv. 1. Just exactly is bad tauto-
is clear enough, except that judicial has logy. Mr. Gladstone's dearest friend in
one use that brings it near judicious; political life, who himself passed away
this use is impartial or such as might just exactly half a century ago.
be expected of a judge or a lawcourt, 2. Just how many and similar indirect-
applied to such words as view, conduct, question forms are Americanisms
care, investigation, to which judicious is which have now a firm footing with
also applicable in the sense of wise or us, colloquially at least. Just what
sagacious or prudent. In the following makes the best lodgement for oyster
example, one may suspect, but cannot spawn has been greatly discussed.
be sure, that the writer has meant one 3. I don't think the Tories are worse
word and written the other : The chap- people than we are. I just think they
ter on the relations between Holland and don't belong to this century. They have
Belgium after the war in connexion with not just grown up. Here the speaker in
a suggested revision of the treaty of 1839 his last sentence has confused not just
is fairly written in a judicious spirit. ( = not merely, or not in the immediate
juvenile 320 knit(ted)
past) with just not (= simply not or is both the least criticized and the least
barely). In fact he has not just used excusable of the three. Shakespeare
the word, he has just not understood puts the first into the mouth of Corn-
how to use it. wall in King Lear ( These kind of knaves
4 . Pronounce just', a warning against I know), and it may perhaps be classed
the vulgarisms jest and jist is not as a STURDY INDEFENSIBLE. The OED's
superfluous. verdict is 'still common colloquially
though considered grammatically in-
juvenile. See TEENAGER. correct'. See also SORT.
kindly. Authors are kindly requested
to note that Messrs. only accept
K MSS. on the understanding that . . .
kadi. C- is the usual spelling. Messrs. may be kind in making
the request, but did they really mean
kangaroo. For the parliamentary to boast of it? This misplacement is
sense, see CLOSURE. very common; for the ludicrous effect,
kaolin. Usually pronounced kâ'ôlïn. compare the confusion between It is
our PLEASURE and We have the pleasure.
kartell. See CARTEL.
king. Under King-of-Arms, the OED
Kelt(ic). See CELT(IC). says 'less correctly King-at-Arms'.
Both phrases are shown by its quota-
kerb. See CURB. tions to have been in use at all periods,
kerosene, paraffin, petrol, petro- but of has become established in the
leum. The popular use of the words is designation of those who still hold
all that is here in question. Petroleum such offices—Garter, Clarenceux, Nor-
is the crude mineral oil; petrol, or roy and Ulster, Lord Lyon, Bath, and
petroleum spirit (U.S. gasoline), is re- the other Orders of Chivalry.
fined petroleum as used in internal kith and kin. This archaism is com-
combustion engines; kerosene and monly thought to be one of those
paraffin {oil) are oils got by distillation phrases like toil and moil in which the
from petroleum or coal or shale, kero- words have much the same meaning
sene being the usual name in America, and are doubled for emphasis. (See
and paraffin in England. SIAMESE TWINS). That is not so. Kith
means acquaintances and kin means
ketchup is the established spelling; kinsfolk. The modern equivalent is
formerly also catchup and catsup, of friends and relations.
which the second at least is due to
popular etymology. A Chinese or knee. The adjective from knock-knees,
Malay word is said to be the source. broken knees, etc., is best written with
kilo-, m i l l i - . In the metric system, an apostrophe—knock-knee'd etc.; see
-ED AND 'D.
kilo- means multiplied, and milli-
divided, by 1000; kilometre 1000 kneel. For kneeled and knelt, see -T
metres, millimetre 1/1000 of a metre; AND -ED.
Cf. DEÇA-, CENTI-.
knit(ted). Both forms are still in use
kind, n. The irregular uses—Those k. for both the past tense and the past
of people, k. of startled, ak.ofa shock— participle, but the short form is now
are easy to avoid when they are worth unusual in the special sense of making
avoiding, i.e. in print; and nearly as with knitting-needles. She knitited), or
easy to forgive when they deserve for- had knitited), her brows, but she knitted
giveness, i.e. in hasty talk. Those k. of or had knitted a pair of socks; a well-
is a sort of inchoate compound, — knit frame, but knitted goods in ordi-
those-like (cf. such, = so-like); k. of nary use, though knit wear survives in
startled = startled-like. A k. of a shock the trade. Knitten is a pseudo-archaism.
knoll 321 kotow
knoll. Pronounce nol. The word a debate in the House of Commons
being chiefly literary, so that most of provoked a protest that he was lower-
us have to guess its sound from its ing the dignity of the House by using
spelling, and the sound of final -oil slang; but this was not supported by
being very variable (doll, loll, Moll, the Speaker, who reminded members
Noll, Poll, against droll, roll, stroll, that 'the slang of yesterday is often the
toll, and troll, among clear cases), it is current English of today'. He has
a pity that the rival spelling knole has proved right. Five years later the
not prevailed. But -// is now firmly word was accorded unassailable status
established. when the House of Lords decided that
knot. The nautical term is a measure know-how is 'an ambience pervading
of speed meaning one nautical mile aganization' highly specialized production or-
and is properly treated as
(6080 feet) an hour. To suppose it to one of its capital assets (Rolls Royce
be a measure of distance and to say Ltd.v. Inland Revenue Commissioners).
that the speed of a ship is 15 knots an 'Know-how' said the Master of the
hour is to incur the contempt of those Rolls in a later revenue case 'has a
who know the true meaning; but the meaning as well recognized as goodwill'.
OED has nothing worse to say about The expression evidently fills a need,
it than that it is 'more loose', and gives and its plebeian appearance ought not
examples from unimpeachably nauti- to count against it. The more elegant
cal sources—Anson's Voyages, Cook's savoir faire has been put to a different
Voyages, and Marryat's Peter Simple. use.
The term is derived from the old
method of calculating the speed of knowledge. The first edition of this
a ship by running a log line with equally dictionary quoted from the OED : 'the
spaced knots in it over the stern and pronunciation nôl-, used by some, is
counting the number that slip past in merely a recent analytical pronuncia-
a minute. tion after know', and commented that
know. For the interjectory you know this was on the same level as often with
See MEANINGLESS WORDS. the t sounded. If it is true that the
speak-as-you-spell movement (see PRO-
know-how. There are signs that the NUNCIATION 1) was then attacking both
Atomic Energy Authority would go a these words, its failure with one has
long way in the exchange of information been as marked as its success with the
and k.-h. / It is not unnatural that some other. Nol- has disappeared even from
departments are anxious that Britain
should not lose all the commercial value those pulpits that were its last refuge ;
of the technical k.-h., of which much the t in OFTEN may now be heard from
derives from the activities of manufac- them almost as a matter of course.
turers. I The Greeks themselves are kotow, ko-tow, kowtow. The dic-
accused by the Turks of those very vices tionaries pronounce this kôtow', and it
which they are always attributing to the is often printed ko-tow by way of
British: superiority, an arrogant as- showing that the first syllable is not
iumption of k.-h., unscrupulous pursuit to be weakened in the normal way,
of their own ends and so forth. This which would give kôtow'. The real
Americanism, said by an American choice lies between both writing and
dictionary to be 'standard American pronouncing kowtow, and allowing the
usage for the knowledge of how to do weakening to kôtow'; for the word is
something, faculty or skill' has made now fairly common, and cannot pos-
itself thoroughly at home in England. sibly maintain under popular wear and
With us it is mostly applied to manu- tear the full vowel sound in the un-
facturing techniques, especially to the accented syllable. There can be little
skill needed to overcome some novel doubt that the popular verdict has
difficulty. Its use in 1957 by the Presi- gone in favour of kowtow, with equal
dent of the Board of Trade during stress, faintly suggesting bow down.
kudos 322 lakh
kudos, Greek for glory, became lade, apart from the passive use of the
an English slang word of limited p.p., is now almost restricted to the
currency at a time when Greek was bill of lading that the master of a ship
more widely learnt, and is now, it gives to the consignor as a receipt for
seems, sometimes mistaken for a his cargo. Even laden, though still in
plural. See SINGULAR S. use, tends to be displaced by loaded
and to sound archaic except in particu-
kyrie eleison. Of many competing lar phrases and compound words:
pronunciations the OED prefers ker'ïï heavy-laden buses, but loaded rather
ïlâ'ïson (seven syllables). However the than laden buses; sin-laden, sorrow-
vowel sounds may be pronounced, the laden; a hay-laden rather than a hay-
stress must be on the first syllable of loaded lorry, but loaded, rather than
the first word and on the second of the laden, with hay; on the other hand a
second. soul laden, rather than loaded, with sin,
because the dignity attaching to slight
archaism is in place.
lady. 1. L. Jones, L. Mary Jones, L.
Henry Jones. The first form is proper
laboratory. The pronunciation only for a peeress below the rank of
favoured by the OED and most other duchess or a baronet's or knight's wife
dictionaries is là'bôrâtôrî; those who or widow; the second for one called L.
find four successive unaccented syl- because she is the daughter of a duke,
lables trying, liable to result in lâ'brâtrt, marquess, or earl; the third for the
do better to say lâbô'râtôri, which has wife or widow of the younger son of a
indeed in practice become the normal duke or marquess.
pronunciation. But most of us now 2 . L. by itself in the vocative is often
dodge these difficulties by saying lab. loosely used for madam as a term of
See RECESSIVE ACCENT. respect, as governor is for sir, though
lac, lakh. In its 15 quotations the this last is passing.
OED shows 9 different spellings, but 3. L. prefixed to names indicating
choice now lies between these two; vocation as a mark of sex (/. doctor,
and of the two it treats lac as prefer- barrister, etc.) is a cumbrous substitute
able. But lakh has long been the for a FEMININE DESIGNATION, which
official spelling. should be preferred when there is one
in common use. In default of that,
laches is a singular noun, pronounced the present practice of using woman is
là'chez, meaning negligence of certain to be welcomed as better than /., not
kinds, rarely used with a but often confusing the essential point with
with the and no, and not requiring irrelevant suggestions of social posi-
italics. Its formation is similar to that tion, as in 4 .
of riches (formerly lachesse, richesse), 4 . L. prefixed to vocation words to
but not having become a popular indicate social pretensions (/. cook,
word it has escaped being taken for nurse, companion, kelp, etc.) is a GEN-
a plural. TEELISM that has lost its point now that
all women are ladies and none are
l a c h r y m - . The true spelling for all servants.
the words would be lacrim-, and it 5. For /. as undress substitute for
would be at least allowable to adopt marchioness, countess, viscountess,
it; but the h and the y are still usual. see TITLES. See also GENTLEWOMAN,
LADY.
lack. See DEARTH.
laid, lain. See LAY AND LIE.
lacuna. PI. -nae or -as; see LATIN
PLURALS. lakh. See LAC.
lama 323 last
lama, llama. La- for the Tibetan sion; either -uor is confused with
priest; lia- for the animal. the -our of vigour, honour, etc.;
lamentable. Pronounce lâ'm-. See or else the -u- is mistaken for one
RECESSIVE ACCENT.
of the kind seen in guest, guile, guess,
guild, where its function is to show
lamina. PL -ae. that g is not as usual soft before e
or i. Liquor and liquid, conquer and
lampoon, libel, pasquinade, satire, conquest, show similar inconsisten-
skit, squib. There is often occasion cies.
to select the most appropriate of these
words, and the essential point ofeach lantern, -thorn. The second, now
may be shortly given. A lampoon is a obsolete, is a corruption due to the use
virulent or scurrilous published attack of horn for the sides of old lanterns.
on an individual; a libel in popular
usage is a defamatory statement made lapel. Pronounce lâpë'l; adj. lapelled.
publicly or privately (for its meaning
in law see LIBEL); a pasquinade (now lapsus. PI. lapsus, not -si; see -us.
rare) is an attack of unknown or un- larboard. See PORT.
acknowledged authorship posted in a
public place ; SATIRE holds up prevailing large. For a comparison of this with
vices and follies to ridicule; a skit is a great and big, see BIG.
making game of a person or his doings
especially by caricature or parody; large(ly). After the verbs bulk and
a squib (now rare) is a casual published loom, the idiomatic word is not largely,
attack, short and sharp. but large, as in the now archaic writ
large. SeeuNiDiOMATic-LY. Examples
land, n. L. of the leal means heaven, of the wrong form are: The Monroe
not Scotland. L. of cakes means Scot- doctrine of late years has loomed so
land, not heaven. largely in all discussions upon . . . / A
phase of the Irish question which has
landslide, landslip in their literal bulked largely in the speeches of the
senses are respectively U.S. and Unionist leaders.
British words for the same thing. In
the figurative sense of an overwhelm- largess(e). Pronounce lar'jës, and
ing victory in an election (originating omit the final -e. If the word had re-
in U.S.) landslide is used in both mained in common use, it would
countries, and there are signs that this doubtless have come to be spelt, as
may be making us forget landslip. it often formerly was, larges; cf. riches
The heavy rain of the last twenty-four and laches.
hours has caused a landslide blocking
the main line to Dover. lasso is pronounced lâsôô' by those
who use it, and by most English people
languor, languorous, languid, lan- too, in spite of a tendency of the dic-
guish. The pronunciation is anoma- tionaries to favour lâ'sô. PI. -os or
lous : languid and languish have always oes; COD gives -05 only. See -O(E)S I .
the -gw- sound (-gwt-) ; for languorous
the OED gives only that sound last. 1 . The /. two etc., the two I. etc.
(-gwôr-) ; but for languor it prefers the For this see FIRST 3.
-g- sound (-gôr), though -gw- (-gwôr-) 2 . Last, lastly. In enumerations
is allowed as alternative. Popular lastly is recommended on the same
choice, however, has now firmly de- grounds as firstly, for which see
cided that the gw sound must be con- FIRST 4 .
fined to languid and languish; languor 3. At (the) long I. is an idiom
and languorous can be only -g-. On labelled 'now rare' by the OED; but
the merits, this seems unreasonable, it has experienced a revival (without
and is perhaps due to misapprehen- the the) due more perhaps to its odd
late 324 Latin phrases
sound than to any superior signi- belong to the class of words in which
ficance over at L, and is now often ah and a are merely southern and
heard and seen ; 'in the end, long as it northern variants (pass etc.).
has taken or may take to reach it' is
the sense. latifundia is a plural.
4 . Last, latest. In this now favourite
antithesis (Dr. Marshall's latest, but latine, = in Latin, is a Latin adverb,
we hope not his last, contribution) we pronounced in English lâtïnê; similar
are reminded that latest means last up adverbs (mostly rare and some very
to now only, whereas last does not rare) are anglice, celtice, gallice, graece,
exclude the future. The distinction is hibernice, scottice, teutonice. All are
a convenient one, and the use of latest sometimes printed -è to show that the
for last is described by the OED as e is sounded (-se).
'now archaic and poetical'. But no
corresponding agreement has yet been latinism, latinity. The first is a
reached for abstaining from last wh;n disposition to adopt Latin ways,
latest would be the more precise word, especially of speech, or a particular
and many idioms militate against it idiom that imitates a Latin one; the
(last Tuesday; last year; for the last second is the quality of Latin (classical,
fortnight; on the last occasion; as I said debased, etc.) that characterizes a
in my last). person's or a period's style. See -ISM
AND -ITY.
late, erstwhile, ex-, former(ly),
quondam, sometime, whilom. Latin phrases. 'The reformed pro-
With all these words to choose from, nunciation of Latin', wrote R. W.
we are yet badly off: erstwhile and Chapman, 'has caused great confusion
whilom smack of WARDOUR STREET; in the pronunciation of Latin words
ex-, which tends to swallow up the that have been adopted in English.
rest, is ill fitted for use with com- The main differences are these :
pound words such as Lord Mayor 1. Short vowels, whether stressed or
(see HYPHENS 6), which nevertheless not, are unaffected.
constantly need the qualification; late 2 . The long vowels :
is avoided because of the doubt Stressed §, formerly as in mate,
whether it means that what is over is now as in ah.
the person's life or his tenure of office; Stressed ë, formerly as in mete,
quondam and sometime have become, now as in mate.
partly owing to the encroachments Stressed î, formerly as in mite,
of ex-, unusual enough to sound now as in mete.
pedantic except in special contexts 3. U, stressed or not, was formerly as
(my quondam friend; sometime rector in must (Sulla) or as in mute
of this parish). The best advice is to (Punica fides). It is now as in bull
refrain from ex- except with single or moot.
words (ex-Mayor, but not ex-Lord- 'The safe course is "stare super
Mayor, and still less ex-Lord Mayor), antiquas vias". If we impose the new
and from /. except either in the sense Latin on English, consistency will
of no longer living or when the person demand that we say bonus and minus
described is in fact dead, and to give and Romulus and Rëmus and a thou-
formerly), and perhaps sometime, sand other horrors. But in fact many
more work to do. people, unaware of the trap, do say
wahdi maycoom, O see sick omnays and
lather. The OED gives only la- the like.
(rhyming with gather, not father) ; and 'The consonants give little trouble.
an obsolete spelling ladder shows the But there are some people who say
old vowel sound. Though lah- is Kikero, and make Gellius begin like
often heard, /. apparently does not get.'
Latin plurals 325 -latry
This advice is respectfully recom- nounced distinctly -f, and not -ë or -1
mended to the reader in the hope, like the Italian dilettanti, pococurantit
perhaps over-sanguine, that it may not etc.; the reformed pronunciation of
be too late. The tendency deprecated Latin does not obtain in naturalized
is powerfully reinforced by the super- Latin words (see LATIN PHRASES), and
stition, rife today, that all foreign- to say glâ'dïôlë reveals that one is
looking words ought to be given a ignorant either that the word is Latin
foreign-sounding pronunciation (see or how Latin words are pronounced.
DIDACTICISM, FRENCH WORDS, a n d Plurals of words in -is {theses, meta-
elsewhere), and is leading to the mal- morphoses, neuroses) should be plainly
treatment even of those Latin phrases pronounced ~ëz, not -ïz like English
that have long been part of our plurals.
language, such as a priori, bona fide, 3. In Latin plurals there are naturally
pari pas su, prima facie, sine die, via. some traps for non-Latinists ; the
For the pronunciations recommended termination of the singular is no sure
for an English-speaking person see the guide to that of the plural. Most
separate entries. Latin words in -us have plural in -*',
but not all; and so zeal not according
Latin plurals (or latinized-Greek). to knowledge issues in such oddities as
Of most words in fairly common use hiati, octopi, omnibi, and ignorami. See
that have a Latin as well as or instead -us. Similarly most Latin nouns in -a
of an English plural the correct Latin have plural in -ae, but not all : lacuna,
form is given in the word's alpha- -nae; but dogma and gumma, -mata;
betical place. A few general remarks Saturnalia, not singular but plural.
may be made here. Animalcula is the plural oianimalculum,
1. No rule can be given for preferring but is sometimes treated as a singular
or avoiding the Latin form. Some (= animalcule), with plural animal-
words invariably use it; nobody says culae. And, though -us and -a are
specieses, thesises, or basises, instead of much the commonest Anglo-Latin
the Latin species, theses, and bases endings, the same danger attends
{basez). Others nearly always have some others {-ex, -er, -o, etc.).
the Latin form, but occasionally the
English ; bacilluses, lacunas, andgenuses, 4 . The treatment of a Latin noun as
are used at least by anti-Latin fanatics an English plural because it ends in
instead of bacilli, lacunae, and genera. -5 is surprising when of modern intro-
More often the Latin and English duction. The Latin plural of for-
forms are on fairly equal terms, con- ceps is forcipes, and the English plural
text or individual taste deciding for one should be forcepses ; a forceps, a set of
or the other; formulas, indexes, narcis- forcipes or forcepses ; and both these
suses, miasmas, nimbuses, and vortexes, were formerly in use. But shears and
are fitter for popular writing, while scissors and pincers and pliers have so
scientific treatises tend to formulae, convinced us that no such word can
indices, miasmata, narcissi, nimbi, and have a singular that instead of a forceps
vortices. Sometimes the two forms are we usually say a pair of forceps, and
utilized for real differentiation, as forceps has to serve for both singular
when genii means spirits, and geniuses and plural. See PAIR.
men. All that can safely be said is that 5. For discussion of some of these
there is a tendency to abandon the points in greater detail see -EX, -IX;
Latin plurals, and that, when one is TRIX; -UM and -us.
really in doubt which to use, the Eng-
lish form should be given the pre- -latry. For words like bardolatry and
ference. babyolatry, see FACETIOUS FORMA-
2 . With a few exceptions too firmly TIONS. The archetype of the -latry
rooted to be dislodged (e.g. Adelphi), words, idolatry, is a shortened form of
Latin plurals in -i should be pro- the medieval idololatry, which is a
latter 326 laughter
more correct way of combining idol do, that their support of the Labour
with -latry, and sounds even more cause will be all the more ardent if their
reprehensible. interests are thus disregarded.
latter survives almost solely in the laudable means praiseworthy, gene-
I., which provides with the former a rally with a tinge of the patronizing or
pair of pronouns obviating disagree- the ironical. The quotation shows it
able repetition of one or both of a pair confused with laudatory : see PAIRS AND
of previously mentioned names or SNARES : He speaks in the most laudable
nouns. Such avoidance of repetition terms of the work carried out by Captain
is often desirable; for the principles, Thompson in the Anglo-Egyptian
See ELEGANT VARIATION, and REPETI- Soudan.
TION. But the I. is liable to certain laughable. For the peculiar forma-
special misuses: (1) The I. should not tion, see -ABLE 4 . For 'would be
be used when more than a pair are in laughable if it were not tragic' etc., see
question, as in : The difficult problems HACKNEYED PHRASES.
involved in the early association of
Thomas Girtin, Rooker, Dayes, and laughter. Homeric I. is a now com-
Turner are well illustrated by a set of mon phrase whose meaning must be
drawings that . . .; and what was un- vague to many readers. It is especially
doubtedly the best period of the 1. artist the laugh that runs round a circle of
is splendidly demonstrated by. . . . (2) spectators when a ludicrous or other-
Neither should it be used when fewer wise pleasing incident surprises them.
than two are in question; the public In Olympus, when Zeus and Hera
and its shillings cannot be reasonably have had words, the limping Hephae-
iegarded as a pair of things on the stus counsels his mother to deal in soft
same footing in : The mass of the pic- answers. When he, in that former
ture-loving public, however, may be quarrel, had tried to protect her, had
assured of good value for the shillings— he not been flung forth and fallen nine
whatever be the ultimate destination of days through air till he landed in
the 1. (3) The true elegant-variationist, Lemnos? And were not nectar and
who of course works the I. very hard, ambrosia in Olympian halls better
should observe that a mere pronoun than such doings? And therewith he
will not do for the antecedent of the /., hastened round and filled the cups of
even though there may be a name in all the gods; 'and inextinguishable was
the background; a writer who varies the laughter of the blessed gods as
Gordon with the hero of Khartoum and they watched Hephaestus bustling
his relative naturally does not shrink about the hall'.
from picking up him with the /.; it is And again, when Penelope's suitors
all of a piece, and a bad piece: Mr. set the beggar bully Irus to box with
Hake was a cousin of the late General the seeming beggar Odysseus, 'then
Gordon, of whom he entertained a most the twain put up their hands, and Irus
affectionate remembrance. On one occa- struck at the right shoulder, but the
sion, when the hero of Khartoum was other smote him on his neck beneath
dining with him, the 1. invited his rela- the ear, and crushed in the bones, and
tive to take wine with him, but Gordon straightway the red blood gushed up
imperiously declined. (4) The true use through his mouth, and with a moan
of it is not to mystify, as in : The only he fell in the dust, and drave together
people to gain will he the Tories and the his teeth as he kicked the ground. But
principal losers will he the working-class the proud wooers threw up their
voters whose interests the Labour Party hands, and died outright for laughter'.
is supposed to have at heart. It is a very
poor compliment to the intelligence of Such is Homeric 1.; but whether the
the 1. [which, in heaven's name?] to be- frequent use of the phrase is justified
lieve, as many Labour members seem to by present-day familiarity with Homer
is doubtful.
launch 327 lean
launch. The pronunciation law, not leaded, and double-leaded, in printing,
lah-, is now standard. mean set with more than the ordinary
space between the Unes, as is done
laurustinus. So spelt; tinus, a Latin with matter in the newspapers for
plant-name, not a suffix, was used in which special attention or a special
apposition to laurus; laures- is a cor- status is desired; the space is made by
ruption. Pronounce lawr- as in inserting strips of lead.
laureate, not lôr- as in laurel.
leaden. See -EN ADJECTIVES. Leaden,
lavatory. See EUPHEMISM. however, is less disused in the literal
lay and lie. i . Verbs. Except in cer- sense than most of the words among
tain technical terms of seamanship, which it is there placed; lead roof or
the intransitive use of lay (== lie) is pipe is commoner than leaden, but a
'now only illiterate' (OED). In leaden pipe is not as unidiomatic as a
modern usage lay is transitive only golden watch.
(= put to rest), and makes laid; lie leaderette. For the uses of the suffix
is intransitive only (= be at or come -ette see SUFFRAGETTE.
to rest), and makes lay, lain, never
laid. But confusion even between the leadership. For the use of /. for
words lay and lie themselves is very leaders see MEMBERSHIP.
common in talk. Still commoner,
sometimes making its way into print, leading question is often misused
is the use of laid (which belongs to the for a poser or a pointed question or
verb to lay only) for lay the past one that goes to the heart of the matter
tense and lain the p.p. of lie, as in We (as though leading meant principal, or
laid out on the grass, and could have intended, in the slang phrase, to lead
laid there all day. 2 . Nouns. Lie and the witness up the garden path). Its
lay are both used in the senses con- real meaning is quite different; a 1. q.
figuration of ground, direction or is not hostile, but friendly, and is so
position in which something lies. phrased as to guide or lead the person
Neither has a long established history questioned to the answer that it is
behind it. The OED has only one desirable for him to make, but that he
quotation earlier than the 19th c.,and might not think of making or be able
that is for lie(the proper lye of the land, to make without help. It is used
1692) ; lie is certainly commoner today, especially of the form of question not
and seems also the more reasonable permitted to counsel examining one of
form; lay perhaps issued from sailors' his own witnesses. To object, as
and rustic talk, in which the verbs are people do when they are challenged
not kept distinct. to deny or confirm an imputation,
'That is a leading question' is meaning-
lay-by. The criticism of this expres- less. See POPULARIZED TECHNICALITIES.
sion voiced by some purists is mis- (-) leafed, (-) leaved. See -VE(D).
conceived. It was used in waterways
and railways long before it was applied leak. The verb leak (out) and the
to road transport, and may be a sur- noun leakage have long been used
vival of the old intransitive use. But figuratively of the unauthorized dis-
anyone who is shocked at this can re- closure of secret information. The
assure himself by supposing that the transitive use of the verb in a similar
motorist is being invited not to lie in way, now common in journalism (he
the recess indicated but to lay his leaked the news), seems to be a revival
vehicle there. of a usage marked by the SOED as
lay figure has no connexion with any obsolete but now recognized by the
of the English words lay, but is from COD without comment.
Dutch led joint, and means literally lean. For leant and leaned, see -T AND
jointed figure. -ED.
leap 328 legerdemain
leap. For leapt and leaped', see -T AND prunella: what makes a man is his
-ED. Of /. to the eye(s), as wearisome a worth, not his clothes.
GALLICISM as exists, some examples lectureship, -turership. The first
must be given to suggest its staleness; is of irregular formation, as a parallel
others will be found under JUMP . Bath, for which the OED quotes the now
it may be admitted, does not 1.1.1. eyes obsolete clergyship (though a person
as an obvious or inevitable meeting- can be clergy better than he can be a
place for the Congress. / This, however, lecture) ; but it is long established, and
does not 1.1.1. eye, and for the moment those who use the second instead per-
I am concerned only with the impressions haps make it in momentary forgetful-
which strike a new-comer, j We have not ness that the irregular form exists.
the smallest doubt that there is a per-
fectly satisfactory explanation of these leeward. Pronounce lû'ârd at sea
widely differing totals, but certainly it le ward on land.
does not 1.1. t. eyes.
legal, legitimate, etc. See ILLEGAL,
learn. I . For learnt and learned, see -T ILLEGITIMATE, e t c .
AND -ED. The existence of the disyl- legalese. See OFFICIALESE.
labic learned as an adjective is an addi-
tional reason for preferring -nt in the legalism, legality. For the distinc-
verb; and so with unlearned and -nt. tion, see -ISM AND -ITY.
2 . The use of learn for teach {Lead me legerdemain with two senses, or
forth in Thy truth and learn me) is now the using of a word twice (or of a
only vulgar, jocular, or dialect. word and the pronoun that represents
leasing. The biblical word, = lying, it, or of a word that has a double job
is pronounced lë'zïng. to do) without observing that the sense
required the second time is different
least. For the common confusion be- from that already in possession. A
tween much less and much more see plain example or two will show the
MUCH 2 . Least of all and most of all get point: The inhabitants of the inde-
mixed up in the same way : / / that is pendent lands greatly desire our direct
the case, what justification exists for the government, which government has,
sentences, I. of all for the way in which however, for years refused to take any
they were carried, out? / An active strong measures. / Although he was a
statesman of marked political allegiance, very painstaking and industrious pupil,
he never indicated any signs of develop-
I. of all one burdened with heavy ing into the great naval genius by which
political and governmental respon- his name will in future be distinguished. /
sibility, is not the most suitable for the Mark had now got his first taste of
office of Chancellor. print, and he liked it, and it was a taste
that was to show many developments. In
leastwise, -ways. The OED labels the first of these, government means
the first 'somewhat rare', and the successively governance, and govern-
second 'dialectal and vulgar'. Today ing body—either of them a possible
the latter description might be applied synonym for it, but not both to be
to both, see -WISE AND -WAYS.
represented by it in the same sentence.
leather. I . For leather and leathern, In the second, genius means a singu-
see -EN ADJECTIVES. 2 . In /. or prunella larly able person, but which, its
(usually misquoted /. and prunella) the deputy, means singular ability. In the
third, whereas the taste he got was an
meaning is not two equally worthless experience, the taste that showed de-
things, but the contrast between the velopments was an inclination. Such
rough 1. apron of a cobbler and the fine shirtings from one sense to another
gown of a parson. Pope's couplet is naturally occur sometimes in reason-
Worth makes the man, and want of it ing, whether used by the disingenuous
the fellow; The rest is all but I. or
legerdemain 329 leit-motiv
for the purpose of deceiving others, or or another nation), which and its, both
by the over-ingenuous with the result representing it, mean a concrete
of deceiving themselves. Here, how- nation. / The vital differences of their
ever, we are concerned with their respective elders make none to their
formal not with their material aspect; bosom friendship. Whereas the dif-
apart from any bad practical effects, ferences are quarrels, none is (no)
they are faults of style. Interest is alteration. / Is he, however, correct in
peculiarly liable to maltreatment : Vis- ascribing this misnomer to( confusion
count Grey's promised speech in the between the English terms bend\ and
House of Lords on Reparations and 'bar' ? Is it not rather due to a mistake in
inter-Allied debts furnished all the spelling, which should be the Frenchform
interest naturally aroused. Interest is 'barre sinistre' ? Spelling is an art, but
here virtually, though not actually, when repeated by which it means the
used twice—the speech furnished correct way to spell a particular word.
interest, interest was aroused; but See also SWAPPING HORSES.
what was furnished was interesting
matter, and what was aroused was legible, readable. See ILLEGIBLE.
eager curiosity; interest can bear either
sense, but not both in one sentence. / legislation, legislature. By a long-
For while the Opposition beat their established and useful differentiation,
drums as loudly as ever, it was well the first is the making of laws, and
known that there was very little behind the second the body that makes
all this fuss, and that in the very them; there should be no going back
interests which they so furiously pro- upon such distinctions, as in: It is
tected they were anxious to meet the physical science, and experience, that
Government half-way. Which stands man ought to consult in religion, morals,
for interests; they furiously protected legislature, as well as in knowledge and
certain interests, i.e. certain persons the arts.
or sets of persons or rights or privi-
leges; they were inclined to compro- legitimate d r a m a . A phrase denot-
mise in some people's interests, i.e. in ing what are now more often called
their behalf or favour or name; but 'straight plays' and intended to dis-
behalf is not a person or a privilege or tinguish these from 'musicals', revues,
the like The difficulty of expressing etc.
the inconsistency, however, explains legitimate vb., legitimatize, legi-
why the word interest is often thus timize. The second and third are
abused. mere substitutes for the first without
In the examples that follow, less difference of meaning; it has a longer
flagrant than the typical specimens history by two or three centuries, and
above, the fault is a want of clear is neither obsolete nor archaic. We
thinking on small points, and in this may guess that the others exist only
they resemble the contents of the because -ize, now so common, saves a
article HAZINESS; other examples will moment's thought (to those who want
be found under 1 2 , and WE 2 and 3. a word and forget that there is one
If the statements made are true, they ready to hand. See NEW VERBS IN -IZE.
constitute a crime against civilization. leisure. The OED puts the pro-
Whereas the statements means the nunciation lëzh- first, admitting lëzh-
things alleged, they means the things as an alternative. U.S. dictionaries
done. / Even where it includes within its reverse the preference. In England
borders no important differences of le has virtually disappeared.
nationality, which has no serious jea-
lousies among its people, a completely leit-motiv, -f. The right (German)
unitary organization is becoming impos- spelling is with -v. Pronounce
sible. Whereas nationality means an ab- lîtmôtë'f. The word means a theme in
stract property (the belonging to one an opera or other musical composition
lengthways 330 less(en)
that recurs in association with some himself of the usual excuse for using
person, situation, or sentiment. less instead of more, i.e. the fact that
some ellipsis of a word prevents the
lengthways, -wise. See -WISE AND illogicality from being instantly visible
-WAYS. and permits a writer to lose sight of
what the full phrase would require
lengthy is an Americanism long estab- while he attends to the broad effect.
lished in Britain, sometimes used as a For similar slips with least of all see
jocular or stylish synonym for long but LEAST.
more commonly and more usefully as 3. L., lesser, smaller, lower, fewer, etc.
implying tediousness as well as length. The letters and memoirs could have been
published, we should imagine, at a less
lenience, -cy. An incipient differen- price. I A lesser prize will probably be
tiation, which deserves encouragement, offered which will be confined to British
would use -ce for an action and -cy for manufacturers. These extracts suggest
a disposition. See -CE, -CY. ignorance of, or indifference to,
modern idiomatic restrictions on the
lens. PI. lenses; see SINGULAR - S . use of less and lesser. The grammar of
lèse-majesté. The English lese- both is correct ; but, when the context
majesty is not now a legal term, treason —unemotional statement of everyday
having taken its place. The French facts—is taken into account, at a less
form is often used of treason in foreign price ought to be at a lower price, and
countries, and either is applied jocularly a lesser prize ought to be a smaller
(cf. PEDANTIC HUMOUR) to anything
prize. It is true that less and lesser were
that can be metaphorically considered once ordinary comparatives of little
treason. (lesser differing from less in being
used only as an adjective and only
less(en). I. Nothing less. 2. Much and before a noun), and that therefore they
still less. 3. Lessy lesser, smaller, lower, were roughly equivalent in sense to
fewer. our smaller, also that this piece of
1. For the two meanings of nothing I. archaism, like many others, is per-
than, a possible source of ambiguity, missible in emotional passages or
see NOTHING LESS THAN. such as demand exceptionally digni-
2 . The illogical use of much I. instead fied expression. But the extracts have
of much more is discussed under no such qualification.
MUCH 2 . Here are two examples of The modern tendency is so to restrict
still I. for still more, interesting in less that it means not smaller, but a
different ways: Of course social smaller amount of; it is the comparative
considerations, still I. considerations of rather of a little than of little, and is
mere wealth, must not in any way be consequently applied only to things
allowed to outweigh purely military that are measured by amount and not
efficiency. Here, if still. . . wealth had by size or quality or number, to nouns
been placed later than must not, it with which much and little, not great
would have passed; coming before it, and small, nor high and low, nor many
it is wrong; you can understand must and few, are the appropriate con-
out of a previous must not, but not out trasted epithets. Less butter, courage;
of a must not that is yet to come. / but a smaller army, table; a lower price,
Perhaps Charles's most fatal move was degree; fewer opportunities, people.
the attempted arrest of the five members, Plurals, and singulars with a or an,
undertaken on the Queen's advice, and will naturally not take less. Less ton-
without the knowledge, and still I. nage, but fewer ships; less manpower,
without the consent of, his three new but fewer men; less opportunity, but
advisers. The writer of this has a worse opportunity, and inferior oppor-
curiously chosen, by needlessly in- tunities; though a few plurals like
serting that second without, to deprive clothes and troops, really equivalent to
-less 331 lest
singulars of indefinite amount, are was current in the sense discourage-
exceptions : could do with less (or fewer) ment.
troops or clothes. Of less's antipathy to To those who have any regard for
a, examples are : / want to pay less rent, the interests of the language as dis-
but a lower rent is what I want. / That tinguished from its pliability to their
is of less value, but a lower value at- immediate purposes, it will seem of
taches to this. I Less noise, please, but a some importance that it should not
slighter noise would have waked me. / become necessary, with every word in
Less size means less weight, but / want which -less is appended to what can be
a smaller size. Such is the general either a noun or a verb, to decide
tendency: to substitute smaller, lower, which is this time intended. If the
fewer, or other appropriate word, for verb-compounds become much more
less (except where it means 'a smaller frequent, we shall never know that
amount o f ) , and for lesser, and to pitiless and harmless may not mean
regard the now slightly archaic less in 'that cannot be pitied' and 'secure
other senses as an affectation. There against being harmed' as well as 'with-
are no doubt special phrases keeping it out the instinct of pity' and 'without
alive even in quite natural speech, e.g. harmfulness'. We ought to be able to
in or to a less degree, where lower is assume that, with a few well-known
not yet as common as less; but the exceptions, -less words mean simply
general tendency is unmistakable, and without what is signified by the noun
since it makes for precision, is one that they contain; and the way to keep that
should be complied with. assumption valid is to abstain from
reckless compounding of -less with
•less. The original and normal use of verbs.
this suffix is to append it to nouns, so A hyphen should not be used unless
producing adjectives meaning without one is necessary to sort out the three
the thing, e.g. headless, tuneless; to this h in one of those rare words in which
use there are no limits whatever. -less has been appended to a word
Words made from verbs, with the ending -// (the OED gives bell-less,
sense not able to do or not liable to skill-less, smell-less, and will-less).
suffer the action or process, as tireless There is no need for one to separate
and fadeless, are much fewer, are two Is, as in heelless, soulless, tailless,
mostly of a poetical cast, and when etc. And it is an abuse of the hyphen
new-minted strike the reader, at least to make it serve as an indication that a
of prose, as base metal. They have an familiar compound is to be given a
undeniable advantage in their short- meaning different from its usual one,
ness (compare resistless and fadeless, as in These present cause-less days.
with irresistible and unfadable), but
this is outweighed for all except fully lest. The idiomatic construction
established ones by the uneasy feeling after /. is should, or in exalted style the
that there is something queer about pure subjunctive (/. we forget; I. he be
them. Apart from a few so familiar angry) ; good writers rarely use shall,
that no thought of their elements and may, and might. The variations in the
formation occurs to us, such as daunt- quotations below are entirely against
less, -less words made from verbs are modern idiom; will and would after /.
much better left to the poets. This are merely a special form of the in-
does not apply to the many in which, ability to distinguish between SHALL
as in numberless, formation from the and will. We do not think Mr. Lloyd
noun gives the sense as well, if not as George need be apprehensive I. the news-
obviously, as formation from the verb paper reader will interpret his little
(without number? or not able to be homily in Wales yesterday as . . . /
numbered?); dauntless itself may per- There must be loyal cooperation, I. the
haps have been made from the noun last state of the party becomes worse
daunt, which in the 15th and 16th cc. than the first. / The German force noza
let 332 level
lost no time in retreat, I. they would be usual to newspapers, one at least of
cut off and surrounded. Mistakes cor- which prints all its correspondence in
responding to those after /. are still this form.
more frequent after IN ORDER THAT. Yours truly : To slight acquaintances
and sometimes to unknown persons on
let. 1. There is little opportunity for business.
mistakes in case in English, since only Yours very truly: Ceremonious but
the personal pronouns have case in- cordial.
flexions, but let used in exhortations is Yours sincerely: In invitations and
responsible now and then for one of friendly but not intimate letters. It is
the commonest of them—the use of / now more usual than it was to write
for me when linked by and to a noun or letters to strangers Dear Mr. and
another pronoun: And now, my dear, yours sincerely instead of Dear Sir—
1. you and I say a few words about this yours faithfully.
unfortunate affair. For other ex- Yours ever, or Ever yours, or Yours:
amples and discussion see 1. 2 . The Unceremonious between intimates.
use of the imperative /. in the phrase /. Yours affectionately: Between rela-
alone ( = not to mention) was called by tions etc.
the OED colloquial, but has since won
literary status. levee. The OED gives the pronuncia-
tion le'vt but popular usage prefers
letter forms. Of the usual forms lè'vâ, which serves to distinguish the
preceding the signature some are word from levy. In the U.S. word
better suited than others to certain meaning embankment the last syllable
correspondents or occasions. 'I am, is pronounced -vë.
Sir' etc., or 'Believe me (to be)', or 'I level. 1. Do one's /. best, originally
remain', used to precede most of the American, has lived long enough in
following forms, but these are now England to be no longer slang. 2. As
more often omitted except in formal a noun, level has become almost a
official communications. In those to VOGUE WORD in distinguishing different
and from ambassadors these pre- social classes and different grades of
liminary words are still elaborated in officials as well as many other things.
stately formulae : / have the honour to Examples of this use can be found
be, with great truth and respect (or ranging from the pub-and-street-corner
with the highest consideration), Sir (or I. to the world I. ; though the meaning
Your Excellency or My Lord), your (or of the latter is not easy to guess. Its
Your Excellency's or Your Lordship's) most frequent use is in connexion with
obedient servant; and an ambassador international or interdepartmental
writing to the Foreign Minister of the discussion, especially in the phrases
country to which he is accredited must highest {or summit) I. and appropriate I.
not end without giving this assurance : Thence it has spread widely and, like
/ avail myself of this opportunity to most vogue words, is often a symptom
renew to Your Excellency the assurance of a hazy mind that finds it more
of my highest consideration. natural to express itself in clichés than
Your obedient servant: From or to in a straightforward way; it is habi-
officials in formal communications, and tually tacked as an abstract appendage
avariant (occasionally Yours obediently) to words that would be better without
of the more usual Yours faithfully in it (see TAUTOLOGY) and sometimes
letters to the editor in newspapers. applied even to dividing lines that
Yours respectfully, or (old-fashioned) would be more suitably regarded as
Your obedient servant, or (old-fashioned) vertical than horizontal. At the legisla-
Yours to command: Servant to master, tive and administrative levels we are
etc. still largely governed by a traditional
Yours faithfully : To firms and un- governing class. (In legislation and
known persons on business and now administration.) / This has to await a
levy 333 liberal
decision at Cabinet /. (by the Cabinet). are important differences. Each is an
/ Temperature levels will not differ untrue and defamatory imputation
greatly from today's (temperatures). / made by one person about another
[Of motor bicycles used by the G.P.O.] which, if 'published' (i.e. commu-
There is research into the practicability nicated to a third person), can be a
of achieving a further reduction in their ground for a civil action for damages.
noise I. (of making them less noisy). Such an imputation is a libel if made
in permanent form (writing, pictures,
levy, n. For synonymy see TAX. etc.) or by broadcasting. It is a slander
if made in fugitive form (e.g. by speak-
lexicon. See DICTIONARY. PI. -ns not ing or gestures). A further distinction
-ca\ see -ON 2 . is that an action for slander cannot
Ley den. Pronounce lï-, not la-. ordinarily succeed without proof that
actual damage has been caused; in an
liable, possibly because it is a more action for libel this is unnecessary. In
or less isolated word lacking con- both cases proof that the allegation
nexions to keep it steady, constantly was true is a good defence.
has its meaning shifted. For its proper Deliberate defamation of a person in
use, see APT, with which there is much permanent form can also be treated as
excuse for confusing it. Political and a crime (criminal I.) on the ground that
religious bias are also 1. to operate. / it tends to provoke a breach of the
The President having to take note of the peace. A criminal 1. differs from a civil
Nanking Assembly inferentially super- 1. in that publication to a third person
seded, but still 1. to assert itself, can is not a necessary element in it, and
hardly be held as invested with dictatorial proof of its truth is not in itself a good
power. I Walking through England must defence. This explains the seeming
have been stripped of most of its charms, paradox in the saying, attributed to
when every policeman is 1. to demand Lord Mansfield, quoted above. Since
the production of a variety of tickets. 1843 truth may be pleaded in defence,
I Duncan has been for several years 1. to but only if the accused can show also
win one of the big prizes of golf. The that he acted in the public interest.
first of these quotations illustrates the The most famous case of criminal 1.
confusion with apt; in the second, /. in modern times was Oscar Wilde's
to assert should be capable of asserting; unsuccessful prosecution of Lord
in the third, is I. to demand should be Queensberry.
may demand or is likely or not unlike-
ly to demand ; and in the last the Popular synonyms of libel and slander
sporting reporter should have stuck (calumny, defamation, scandal) are now
to his last and said in the running for being forgotten under the influence of
instead of /. to win. the VOGUE WORD smear, which gives its
user the satisfaction of hitting back by
liaison. Pronounce as English an imputation of baseness or cowardice
(lïâ'zn); the military use during war on the part of the smearer.
has completed its naturalization. For
liaise see BACK FORMATIONS. liberal. In /. education the adjective
retains a sense that is almost obsolete,
libel and slander. The much quoted and yet is near enough to some extant
saying 'The greater the truth the senses to make misunderstanding
greater' (or 'worse') 'the libel' makes possible. A liberal education is neither
us all occasionally curious about what one in which expense is not spared,
a 1. is, and how it differs from a nor one in which enlightened methods
slander. In popular usage they are of teaching prevail, nor even one that
synonymous, meaning a deliberate, instils broadmindedness ; or rather it
untrue, derogatory statement, usually is not so called because it is any of
about a person, whether made in these. It is the education that used to
writing or orally. In legal usage there be considered the only fitting one for
6814 M2
libertine 334 like
what used to be called a gentleman lieutenant. Pronounce left-, but in
(Latin liber a free man), and is opposed naval use let- and in U.S. loot-.
on the one hand to technical or pro-
fessional or any special training, and lifelong, livelong. Life- is the word
on the other to education that stops for lasting a lifetime. Live- though
short before manhood is reached. The used by Shakespeare and Milton and
L. Arts of the Middle Ages were others as an alternative spelling of
Grammar, Dialectic, Rhetoric, Music, life- is in fact a different word, a com-
Arithmetic, Geometry, and Astro- pound of lief and long, serving as an
nomy. emotional intensive of long (esp. live-
long day, livelong night) now archaic
libertine. For chartered I., see HACK- or poetical.
NEYED PHRASES. The expression comes ligature. See DIGRAPH.
from the Archbishop's eulogy of King
Henry V in the opening scene of that light, n. 1. For dim religious /., see
play : When he speaks, The air, a c. /., is IRRELEVANT ALLUSION. 2 . In I. of will
still. not do for in the I. of, as in That it should
have been so, in light of all the facts, will
libretto. PI. -etti (pronounce -ê; see always be a nine-days wonder to the stu-
-i) rather than -os. dent of history, see CAST-IRON IDIOM.
licence, - s e . The first is right for the light, v. Both verbs (kindle, descend)
noun, the second for the verb. Com- make lighted or lit for past tense and
pare, for this convenient distinction, p.p.; but lighted is commoner for the
advice, -se, device, -se, practice, -se, p.p. of the first verb used attribu-
prophecy, -sy, in all of which the c tively: 7s the fire lighted or lit, but
marks the noun. (In U.S. license and Holding a lighted torch.
practice are preferred for both.)
like, adj. For and the /., see FORTH.
lichen. Pronounce lï'kn; Gk. Xeixfy like in questionable constructions.
is the source. 'The pronunciation 1. It will be best to dispose first of
lïch'ën is now rare in educated use' what is, if it is a misuse at all, the
(SOED), and the COD does not most flagrant and easily recognizable
recognize it. misuse of /. A sentence from Darwin
lich-gate, -house. So spelt; the quoted in the OED contains it in a
OED gives lych- only as a variant ; see short and unmistakable form: Un-
Y AND i. The l.-g. is the churchyard fortunately few have observed L you
gate with a roof over it where the have done. Most people use this con-
bier may be rested; from ME lich, a struction daily in conversation. It is
body, which as lyke survives also in the established way of putting the
lyke-ivake. thing among all who have not been
taught to avoid it; the substitution of
lickerish, liquorish. The first is the as for /. in their sentences would seem
right form, and the second, being to them artificial. But in good writ-
wrongly associated with liquor, in- ing this particular /. is rare, and even
evitably alters and narrows the mean- those writers with whom sound Eng-
ing. The word means fond of dainties, lish is a matter of care and study
sweet-toothed, greedy, lustful, and is rather than of right instinct, and to
connected with the verb lick and with whom /. was once the natural word,
lecher, not with liquor. See TRUE AND usually weed it out. The OED's
FALSE ETYMOLOGY. judgement is as follows: 'Used as con-
junction, = "like as", as. Now gene-
lie. See LAY AND LIE. rally condemned as vulgar or slovenly,
lien, n. Pronounce le en. though examples may be found in
many recent writers of standing'.
-lier. For comparative-adverb forms, Besides the Darwin quoted above, the
See -ER AND -EST 3 .
like 335 like
OED gives indisputable examples Examples are: These lovely shores of
from Shakespeare, Southey, Newman, Ullswater will be just sterile shores like
Morris, and other 'writers of standing'. you see at Thirlmere./.Bur in an indus-
The reader who has no instinctive trialized county 1. so great a part of
objection to the construction can now Lancashire is, the architecture can
decide for himself whether he will hardly fail to . . . / He even looks
consent to use it in talk, in print, in exactly 1. the member for Stratford-
both, or in neither. He knows that he upon-Avon should. The peculiarity
will be able to defend himself if he is of these is that in each there is a
condemned for it, but also that, until previous noun or pronoun, shores,
he has done so, he will be condemned. county, he, with which /. may agree as
It remains to give a few newspaper an adjective, and an ellipsis of 'those'
examples so that there may be no or 'what' may be supposed. Such a
mistake about what the 'vulgar or defence is neither plausible nor
slovenly' use in its simplest form is: satisfactory, and the sentences are no
Or can these tickets be kept (1. the sugar better than others containing a verb.
cards were) by the retailer? / The retail Of sentences in which /. is not fol-
price can never reach a prohibitive figure lowed by a verb, certain forms are
1. petrol has done. / The waves of unexceptionable, but are liable to ex-
China's revolution have risen 1. the tensions that are not so. The un-
waters of the rivers did last year. / They questioned forms are He talks I. an
studied the rules of a game 1. a lawyer expert and You are treating me I. a fool,
would study an imperfectly-drawn-up in which /. is equivalent to a preposi-
will. I Our great patron saint 'St. tional adverb = similarly to; and
George' was a Greek, 1. a good many You, I. me, are disappointed, in which
of the saints are. / The idea that you /. is equivalent either to an adverb as
can learn the technique of an art 1. you before, or perhaps rather to a pre-
can learn the multiplication table or the positional adjective = resembling in
use of logarithms. this respect. The second, third, and
In U.S. the colloquial use of /. as a fourth types are faulty and represent
conjunction has been carried a step neglect of various limitations observed
further by treating it as equivalent not in the correct forms.
only to as but also to as if, a practice Second type: The Committee was
that still grates on English ears. today, 1. yesterday, composed of the
Examples from the OED Supp. are following gentlemen, j The Turks would
The old fellow drank of the brandy 1. he appreciate the change, as, unlike Ko-
was used to it. / None of them act I. they weit, their political title is here beyond
belonged to the hotel. dispute. I It is certain that now, unlike
2. The rest of this article is intended the closing years of last century, quota-
for those who decide against the con- tion from his poetry is singularly rare. /
junctional use that has been already We may have no, like last year, when
discussed, and wish to avoid also some Paignton . . . and Jersey all enjoyed a
similar questionable uses of a less sun-bath of nearly 200 hours. The
easily recognizable kind. All the limitation here disregarded is that the
examples in i were of the undisguised word governed by /. must be a noun,
conjunctional use, and contained a not an adverb or an adverbial phrase.
subordinate clause with its verb ; most Yesterday and last year are not nouns,
of those now to come have no sub- but an adverb and an adverbial phrase ;
ordinate verb, and in all of them /. may and Koweït and the closing years,
be regarded as an adjective or adverb meaning at Koweit and in the closing
having the additional power (cf. worth) years, have also only a deceitful ap-
of directly governing nouns as if it pearance of being nouns.
were a preposition. Third type: People get alarmed on
The first type is perhaps not really each occasion on which (1. the present
different from that discussed in I. case) dying children suddenly appear.
like 336 like
He has completed a new work in which, Shaw, Gilbert had the pleasure of be-
1. its author's recent books, no failing coming comfortably rich. If these two
in sparkle or vigour will be traceable. / are compared it is clear that /. Shaw is
And then came the war; 1. many an- preferable to as Macaulay, both as more
other English village, it filtered slowly, idiomatic and as an insurance against
very slowly, through to his. The ambiguity. Shakespeare did not make
limitation (suggested with diffidence) Antony say 'I am no orator 1. Brutus
that has here been disregarded is that is', but he felt no qualms about 'It is
the preceding noun to which /. is excellent to have a giant's strength, but
attached must be not one governed by it is tyrannous to use it 1. a giant'.
a preposition, but subject or object of Again, the fact that there is a verb
the main verb. The preceding nouns to like, and that one cannot say / very /.,
are which (i.e. occasion), which (i.e. or / too I., seems to create in the minds
work), and his (i.e. village), governed of some would-be purists the idea that
by on, in, and to ; instead of /., read as even when /. is not a verb but a pre-
in the present case, as in its author's positional adjective very or too must
recent books, and as to many another. be helped out by much. The new
Fourth type: L. his Roman prede- measure proved to be very much I. the
cessor, his private life was profligate; original one. j It was too much I.
I. Antony, he was an insatiate gambler. / flogging a dead horse. Polonius did not
Although, 1. his colleague, his conduct say 'Very much 1. a whale', and there
had not been above reproach. The is no more reason for writing too much
limitation is that the word governed by I. flogging than there would be for
/. must be in pari materia with the one saying 'You are driving too much near
to which it is compared. The pre- the car in front of you'.
decessor and his colleague are not so
related to his life and his conduct; but -like. 'In formations intended as
Antony is to he, and that sentence nonce-words, or not generally current,
alone will pass muster. This mistake, the hyphen is ordinarily used'—OED.
however, of comparing unlike things, For instance the OED prints cowl-like,
though the commonest type of misuse eel-like, flail-like, jail-like, owl-like,
of /. by educated writers, is not pecu- and pearl-like. But established -like
liar to /., but is a slovenly parsimony compounds are commonly written as
of words that may occur in many other one word—ladylike, lifelike, statesman-
constructions. It is perhaps even like, etc. See HYPHENS.
commoner with unlike than /. : Unlike like, v. 1 . / would I. Even on those
Great Britain, the upper house in the who use should and would according to
United States is an elected body. the Englishman's idiom under all or-
A warning should, however, be dinary temptations the verb /. seems to
added against going too far in anxiety exercise an irresistible influence; a
to avoid all questionable uses of /. couple of examples follow pro forma,
A fashion seems to be growing, even but anyone can find as many as he
among some good writers, to prefer as pleases with very little search: We
to /. not only, rightly, as a conjunction, would I. to ask one or two questions
but also, iÛ-advisedly, as a preposi- on our own account. / There is one
tional adjective. In Paris he was dis- paragraph in it that I would I. to refer
suaded from a literary career and, as his to. There is indeed no mystery
friend and rival Bernard, entered on the about why people do this; it is
study of medicine. / Lord A, as his fellow because, if the thing had to be said
crusaders, B and C, is no pedant. / As without the use of the verb like, would
Macaulay before him. Professor Trevor and not should is the form to use : We
Roper generally mentions the name of the would ask; that I would refer to. But
book he is reviewing. On another page that has nothing to do with what is
of the newspaper from which the last right when the verb /. is used. If
quotation is taken we may read Like anything it makes the matter worse;
likely 337 -lily
would is properly U9ed without 1 . It is always possible to use a peri-
/. because it contains the idea of phrasis or a synonym, and to say in a
volition; to use it with /. is equivalent masterly manner, at a timely moment,
to saying / should I. to 1.1 would I. is no and the like, instead of masterlily,
better than any of the wills and woulds timelily, or to be content with deco-
that are well recognized as Scottish, rously etc. instead of manner lily.
Irish, American, and other kinds of 2 . A large number of adjectives in
English, but not English English. If -ly are established as adverbs also. So
the SHALL and WILL idiom is worth early, (most or very) LIKELY, and the
preserving at all (though reasons are adjectives of periodical recurrence like
given in that article for fearing that daily and hourly. A single quotation
it is crumbling irretrievably), / should will show the danger of making one's
like must be treated as its proper form. own adverbs of this kind: External
2 . L. to see and /. seeing are equally evidence, however, is rare; and its rarity
idiomatic, but dislike prefers seeing. gives value to such work as Mr.
likely, adv. Yet it was not easy to here masterly does.
divine the thought behind that intent- 3. Before adjectives and adverbs the
ness of gaze', likely it was far from the -ly adjective often stands instead of
actual scene apparently holding its the -lily adverb, making a kind of in-
attention. In educated speech and formal compound. Though we should
writing in England the adverb is never say horribly pale and not horrible pale,
used without very, most, or more, ex- we allow ourselves ghastly pale rather
cept by way of poetic archaism or of than use ghastlily; so heavenly bright,
stylistic NOVELTY-HUNTING. But in beastly cold, jolly soon, etc.—all with-
Scotland and Ireland it is common in out the hyphen that would mark regu-
speech and in U.S. may be found in lar compounds.
print: The climate in America is so 4 . In sentences where it is just pos-
severe in winter that stocks will I. die sible, though not natural, for a pre-
out. I It will I. be financed largely by dicative adjective to stand instead of
capital raised in the United States. For an adverb, that way is sometimes taken
likelily, see -LILY; for likelier adv., -ER with an adjective in -ly though it
AND -EST 3. See also APT. would not be taken with another: it
happened timely enough, though not
likewise. The use as a conjunction opportune enough; she nodded friendly,
(Its tendency to wobble and its uni- though not she nodded amiable.
formity of tone colour, I. its restricted 5. Perhaps any adjective formed by
powers of execution) is, like the similar appending -ly either to an adjective
use of ALSO, an ILLITERACY; the OED (kind,'kindly ; dead, deadly) or to a noun
quotes no example. of the kind that is easily used in apposi-
-lily. Avoidance of the adverbs in tion like an adjectival epithet (cowardly,
-lily, i.e. adverbs made regularly from cf. the coward king; soldierly, cf. a soldier
adjectives in -ly, is merely a matter of colonist ; scholarly, cf. the scholar gipsy) is
taste, but is very general and increas- sometimes, though always consciously
ing. Neither the difficulty of saying and noticeably, allowed to pass as an
the words nor the sound of them when adverb : it was ruffianly done, soldierly
said is a serious objection so long as conducted, scholarly expounded.
there are not more than three syllables ; On the other hand, avoidance is not
holily and statelily and lovelily are not always called for; some -lily words
hard to say or harsh to hear; but with are current, though not many. Those
heavenlily and ruffianlily hesitation is that might suggest themselves (he
natural; and the result has been that laughed jollily; sillily complacent; live
adverbs in -lily, however short, are now holily; dodged it zvilily) seem to be all
with a few special exceptions seldom from adjectives in which the / is part
heard and seldomer seen. Methods of of the word-stem, not of ly as an
avoidance are various : adjectival ending; and though we are
limb 338 literally
most of us not conscious of that fact liqueur. The anglicized lïkûr' is now
nowadays, it may have had its effect standard. Cf. AMATEUR.
in separating these from the others.
liquid. See FLUID for fluid, gas, and 1.
l i m b . When we first come across an
eclipse in the newspapers and read of liquid(ate)(ize). The euphemistic
the sun's lower /., we suspect the writer sense of putting political opponents to
of making jokes or waxing poetical, so death, individually or collectively,
odd is the association of limbs with dates from the Russian revolution.
that globular form. It is a relief to For a time, it became a VOGUE WORD
learn that /. cannot be used for edge (often facetious) for getting rid of or
without the help of a metaphor; the doing away with anything by any
/. in astronomy etc. is from Latin means, especially obstacles to the
limbus hem, and the /. of ordinary liquidator's ambitions. But the fresh-
speech is a separate and native word. ness that made it attractive seems now
to be wearing off. That liquidate is
lime the mineral makes limy, the fruit always used figuratively is no doubt
limey; see -EY AND -Y. Limey as U.S. the reason for coining liquidize for the
slang for an Englishman, especially a literal sense. But seeing that liquefy has
sailor, originated in the compulsory been available to us for 500 years we
use of lime juice as an anti-scorbutic in ought to be able to do without the pis
the British Navy. aller of an -ize verb. See NEW VERBS IN
limit, delimit. These verbs should -IZE.
not be used as synonyms. To limit is liquorish. See LICKERISH.
to confine within bounds; to delimit
(or delimitate) is to determine pre- lira, Italian monetary unit, has pi. lire
cisely what those bounds are, e.g. of a (pronounce 1er'a) or anglicized liras.
territorial frontier. To use lira as pi. {We had not enough
limited is a victim of SLIPSHOD EX- I. to stay longer in Italy) is absurd.
TENSION. Legitimate uses such as The lissom(e). The standard form is -om.
time for discussion of this motion is !. /
Only a I. amount of money can be list, please. The third sing. près, is
devoted to this project have led to a lazy list or listeth, the past tense list or
habit of treating /. as a convenient listed. The verb being in any form
synonym for many more suitable and archaic, it is of no importance whether
more exact words. These houses are the more obviously archaic impersonal
intended for people of I. means (small). / construction {as him list etc.) or the
He has I. interests outside his work now commoner personal one {as he list
(few). / Information about his early life etc.) is used.
is I. (meagre). / The occasions on which
such drastic measures are likely to be litany, liturgy. The two words have
needed will be I. (rare). come so close to each other in use that
it is a surprise when one first finds that
linage (lïn- meaning number of lines) the initial syllables are not the same in
should be so spelt. Lineage, though origin, nor even connected. For those
often seen, is, owing to the existence of who know the Greek words, a litany is
lineage {line- meaning descent), still a series of prayers, a liturgy is a canon
less desirable than other spellings with of public service ; the latter in practice
intrusive MUTE E. includes prayer, but does not say so.
line, n. For some synonyms in sense
department etc. {What's my line?) see literally. We have come to such a
FIELD.
pass with this emphasizer that where
the truth would require us to insert
lingo, lingua franca. See JARGON. with a strong expression 'not 1., of
PI. of the first -os\ see -O(E)S 6. course, but in a manner of speaking',
literary critics' words 339 literary words
we do not hesitate to insert the very the better the critic, the fewer literary
word that we ought to be at pains to critics' words he uses. The good critic
repudiate; cf. VERITABLE. Such false is aware that his public wants to
coin makes honest traffic in words im- understand, and he has no need to
possible. / / the Home Rule Bill is convince it that he knows what he is
passed, the 300,000 Unionists of the talking about by parading words that
South and West of Ireland will be 1. it does not understand. With the
thrown to the wolves. / The strong inferior critic the establishment of his
tête-de-pont fortifications were rushed status is the first consideration, and
by our troops, and a battalion crossed he effects it by so using, let us say,
the bridge 1. on the enemy's shoulders./ actuality, engaged, and inevitable, that
(At election time) My telephone wires the reader shall become aware of a
have been kept 1. red-hot. / H. B. mysterious difference between the
Stallard in the half-mile 1. 'flew' round sense attaching to the words in ordin-
the track. / She 1. lifted her horse over ary life and the sense now presented to
the last jump. / He [a climber] came him. He has taken actuality to mean
through safely, but he had 1. to cling on actualness or reality; the critic per-
with his eyebrows. / Our eyes were 1. plexes him by giving it another sense,
pinned to the curtain. / The Prime which it has a right to in French,
Minister sat throughout the debate 1. where actuel means present, but not in
glued to the Treasury bench, j Marie English—the sense of up-to-dateness,
Corelli, when she settled in Shakespeare's or resemblance not to truth in general
native tozvn, 1. took the bard to her but to present-day conditions ; and he
bosom. / Sir Stanley Spencer was a does this without mentioning that
brilliant talker who could 1. take you he is gallicizing. And so with the
to the stars. other words; the reader is to have
it borne in upon him that a more
literary critics' words. The literary instructed person than himself is talk-
critics here meant are not the writers ing to him even if it means coining a
of books or treatises or essays of wThich new word; cretinocratic, for instance,
the substance is criticism; readers of is the term by which one reviewer,
that form of literature are a class apart, evidently a very superior person, ex-
and if a special lingo exists between presses his opinion of television pro-
them and its writers, the rest of us are grammes. One mark of the good
not concerned to take exception to it. literary critic is that he is able to
Anything said in this book about explain his meaning without resort to
literary critics is aimed only at the these lingo words and under no neces-
newspaper reviewers of books and sity to use them as advertisements.
other works of art. Those reviewers, Specimens of literary critics' words,
as anyone knows who examines them under some of which (printed in
critically in their turn, give us work capitals) further remarks will be found,
that ranges from the very highest are : Actuality, AMBIENCE, AMBIVALENT,
literary skill (if the power of original awareness, COMMITTED, compelling,
creation is set aside as here irrele- CREATIVE, DEDICATED, DICHOTOMY,
vant) to the merest hack-work. The DISTINCTION, engaged, evocative, im-
point is that, whether they are highly mediacy, INEVITABLE, perceptive, sem-
accomplished writers, or tiros em- inal, SIGNIFICANT, SYMPATHETIC.
ployed on the theory that anyone
is good enough to pass an opinion on literary words. A 1. w., when the
a book, their audience is not the description is used in this book, is one
special class that buys critical works that cannot be called archaic, inas-
because its tastes are literary, but the much as it is perfectly comprehensible
general public, which buys its criticism still to all who hear it, but that has
as part of its newspaper, and does not dropped out of use and had its place
know the critics' lingo. It follows that, taken by some other word except in
literature 340 -11-, - 1 -
writing of a poetical or a definitely quantity principle may fairly reign',
literary cast. To use literary words and change should be resisted.
instead of the current substitutes in an
unsuitable context challenges atten- little. See SMALL. Comparison lessÇer)
tion and gives the impression that the (for limitations of sense see LESS 3),
writer is a foreigner who has learnt least, or more usually smaller, -est.
the language only from books. See
also what is said of FORMAL WORDS.
Chill for chilly, eve for evening, gain- littoral, n., has a technical sense in
say for deny, etc., loathly for loathsome, which it is doubtless of value; marine
visage for face, etc., may be instanced; life being distributed into abyssal,
but literary words are reckoned by pelagic, and littoral, the last (sc. zone
thousands. or region) is the shallow waters near
the shore. But that is not the sense in
literature. The meaning of this which most of us know it; it meets us
word has been extended (OED's as a name for the land region bordering
first example is dated 1895) to in- and including the shore. In that sense
clude written matter of any sort, it may be important in treaties and the
especially that issued by commercial like to have a word that does not mean
or industrial firms to commend or strictly the mere line of coast or shore;
explain their goods and services. but in ordinary contexts it should
Please send me any I. you have about never be preferred to coast, and its
your Autumn Pleasure Cruises. This present popularity is due to preten-
usage is still only colloquial but is un- tiousness. Why not coast in The
likely to remain so, however much we towns along the Mediterranean /., The
may regret that so reputable a word Russian settlements on the Eastern
should be put to so menial a duty, and Caspian I.? See FORMAL WORDS.
that we should thus be left without
one for the special kind of written liturgy. See LITANY.
matter for which /. used to be re-
served (see BELLES-LETTRES).
-lived. In long-l. etc. the correct pro-
nunciation is llvd, the words being
lithesome is, between lithe and from life (cf. -leaved from leaf etc.)
lissom, a SUPERFLUOUS WORD. and not from live; but Hvd is almost
always heard.
litotes. The same as, or a variety of,
MEiosis. Sometimes confined to the livelong. See LIFELONG.
particular kind of rhetorical under-
statement in which for the positive liven. See -EN VERBS.
notion required is substituted its
opposite with a negative. In 1 Cor. xi. l l a m a . See LAMA.
17 and 2 2 , / praise you not has the
effect of an emphatic I blame; not -11-, - 1 - . Final / is treated differently
a few means a great number; Not bad, from most final consonants in British,
eh ?, after an anecdote, means excellent. but not American, usage. The rule
But often used, like meiosis, of other is to double it, if single, in inflexions
understatements meant to impress by and in some derivatives, irrespective
moderation. In the Greek word of the position of the accent.
(AITOTT;?) the i is long and the o short, 1. When verbs in -/ (except those in
and that is the pronunciation (lï'tôtëz) which a long vowel sound, made up
given by the OED. Some modern either of two vowels or a vowel and a
dictionaries prefer a long o, but consonant, such as ai, ea, ee, oi, ow, ur,
surely this scholars' word can claim a precedes the -/) make inflected or de-
place in that 'small province' described rived words in -able, -ed, -en, -er, or
in FALSE QUANTITY 'in which the false- -ing, -II- is written—controllable,
Lloyd's 341 local (e)
carolled, befallen, traveller, equalling; both lodestone and loadstar are some-
but failed, boiling, curled, etc., and times used.
before -ment I is not doubled; see also
PARALLEL, WOOL.
loan. The verb, formerly current,
2 . When nouns or adjectives in -/ was expelled from idiomatic English
(with exceptions as in the preceding by lend. But it survived in U.S., and
paragraph) make other words by addi- has now returned to provide us with
a NEEDLESS VARIANT.
tion of -ed, -er, or -y, the / is doubled :
flannelled, jeweller, gravelly, but paral- lo(a)th. Loth was once the standard
lel is an exception. Before -ish and form, but the OED gives preference
-ism and -ist, I is not doubled : devilish, to loath; and that spelling avoids ob-
liberalism, naturalist. Irregular super- scuring the connexion with the verb
latives vary, most using one /, loathe. The verb is always loathe, and
but words in -ful always two : brutalest loathly and loathsome have always the a.
loyalest, civil{l)est, joy fullest.
3. The simple form of a good many lobby has long been used as a verb
verbs vacillates between -/ and -//, and meaning to frequent the 1. of a legisla-
no rule is possible that will secure the tive assembly for the purpose of in-
best form for all words and not con- fluencing the members' votes. It
flict with the prevailing usage for some. originated in America. As a collective
APPAL, for instance, seems to have noun meaning a body of lobbyists, it
come down in favour, of one /; but as a was, according to the S OED, still an
general rule it is perhaps safe to say Americanism in 1933. But a few
that where vacillation exists -// is modern quotations will show that it is
better if a precedes {befall, enthrall, now used freely in Britain in this
install), and -/ if another vowel, sense, and indeed for any kind of what
especially i (distil, instil, enrol, annul) ; is alternatively called a pressure group.
verbs in -//, however, take single / This is heartening to the Opposition,
before -ment {enthr aiment, instalment). and particularly to the trade union
group, who had organized a strong I.
4. Derivatives and compounds of in the Bill's favour. / The Minister of
words in -// sometimes drop one /; so Agriculture is running into trouble with
almighty, almost, already, altogether, the pig and bacon I. among the farming
always (but not alright, see ALL RIGHT), M.P.s. I Their counsel is likely to be
chilblain, fulfil, skilful, thraldom, wilful. that the Group should never become a
This is perhaps helped by some appa- militant pressure I. but should remain
rent but not real examples such as essentially a research society. / The
belfry, bulwark, and walnut, which are scheme has aroused the opposition of
not from bell, bull, and wall. Dul(l)ness many who object to the details of its
and ful(l)ness are debatable ; the older planning, as well the permanent Christ
spelling, though (according to the Church I., which opposes any Meadow
OED) the one less 'in accordance with road.
general analogies', has only one /, but
the spelling with two seems to be local(e). 1 . The 'erroneous form'
gaining ground and is recommended. (OED) locale is recommended for the
See DULLNESS. noun meaning scene of operations ; cf.
MORALE. 2 . Pronounce lôkah'l. 3.The
Lloyd's, the underwriters' office. So word's right to exist depends on the
written, not -ds or ds\ question whether the two indispens-
load, lode. In the compounds with able words locality and scene give all
stone and star it is usual to spell load- the shades of meaning required, or
stone, but lodestar. The first element whether something intermediate is
is the same, and is the ordinary load, useful. The defence of /. would be on
of which the original sense was way, these lines : A locality is a place, with
connected with the verb lead; the features of some sort, existing inde-
spelling distinction is accidental, and pendently of anything that may happen
locate 342 long variants
there. If something happens in a logistics. See STRATEGY.
locality, the locality becomes that
something's locale, or place of happen- -logy. This suffix denoting science of
ing. If the something that happens is normally has o as its combining
seen or imagined or described in con- vowel; hence the jocular coinage
nexion with its locale, the locale be- ologies (cf. isms). The principal excep-
comes its scene or visible environ- tion is genealogy; mineralogy, an ap-
ment. parent exception, is a telescoping of
mineralology. See also -O-.
locate. The earliest example given by Lombard(y). For pronunciation lorn-
the OED of the use of this verb in the or lum- see PRONUNCIATION 5.
sense 'discover the exact place or
locality o f is dated 1882. If giving the lonelily. See -LILY.
word this meaning is to be of any
value to us, it should not be treated long-lived. See -LIVED.
(as it often is) merely as a dignified long variants. 'The better the
synonym of find; there is a differentia- writer, the shorter his words' would
tion that should be respected. A be a statement needing many excep-
successful search ends in locating what tions for individual persons and par-
is sought if the primary purpose is to ticular subjects; but for all that it
discover the place where a person or would be broadly true, especially about
object is, in finding it if the purpose English writers. Those who run to
is to discover the person or object, long words are mainly the unskilful
wherever he or it may be. One may and tasteless; they confuse pomposity
try to locate the enemy's guns or a with dignity, flaccidity with ease, and
fault in an electrical circuit, but one bulk with force; see LOVE OF THE
will try to find a lost child or a suit- LONG WORD. A special form of long
able parking-place. word is now to be illustrated. When
a word for the notion wanted exists,
loch. See LOUGH. some people (1) forget or do not know
locus. Everyone says locum tënens and that word, and make up another from
almost everyone in loco parentis and the same stem with an extra suffix or
locus standi; but scholars generally two; or (2) are not satisfied with a
give the 0 its Latin value in locus mere current word, and resolve to
classicus. PI. -ci {-si). decorate it, also with an extra suffix;
or (3) have heard a longer form that
locution is a potentially convenient resembles it, and are not aware that
word as equivalent to word or phrase ; this other form is appropriated to
not more than potentially, because it another sense. Cases of (1) and (2) are
so far smacks of pedantry that most often indistinguishable; the motive
people prefer to say word or phrase on differs, but the result is the same; and
the rare occasions when expression is they will here be mixed together, those
not precise enough for the purpose, of (3) being kept apart.
and /. gets left to the pedants. His (1) and (2). Needless lengthenings of
style is comparatively free from locu- established words due to oversight or
tions calculated to baffle the English caprice: administrate (administer);
reader; does anyone really like that assertative (assertive) ; contumacity
better than expressions} (contumacy); cultivatable (cultivable);
dampen (damp, v.); denunciate (de-
lode. See LOAD. nounce) ; dubiety (doubt) ; epistolatory
(epistolary); experimentalize (experi-
lodg(e)ment. Retention of the -e- is ment, v.) ; extemporaneously (ex tem-
recommended; see JUDGEMENT. pore); filtrate (filter, v.); preventative
(preventive) ; quieten (quiet, v.) ; trans-
logan. Pronounce lô'gân{berry) but portation (transport).
lô'gân(stone).
long variants 343 longways
Examples the time is near a record, j But warning
The capability of the Germans to and suggestion are more in evidence
administrate districts with a mixed than definitive guidance. / Trade re-
population. / Still speaking in a very lations of an ordinary kind are quite
loud assertative voice, he declared that distinctive from those having annexa-
. . . I Mile St Pierre's affected inter- tion as their aim. / Since November 11
ference provoked contumacity. / If you the Allies have been able to form a pre-
add to the cultivatable lands of the cise estimation of Germany's real in-
immediate Rhine valley those of . . . / tentions. I The sojourn of belligerent
His extreme sensitiveness to all the sug- ships in French waters has never been
gestions which dampen enthusiasm . . . / limited excepting by certain clearly de-
Lord Lansdowne has done the Liberal fined rules. / The covered flowers being
Party a good turn by putting Tariff less intensively coloured than the
Reform to the front; about this there can others. / The two feet, branching out
be no dubiety. / Cowper's Letters ...the into ten toes, are partially of iron and
best example of the epistolatory art our partially of clay. / It is often a very
language possesses, j A few old masters easy thing to act prudentially, but alas!
that have been experimentalized on. / too often only after we have toiled to
M. Delcassé, speaking extemporane- our prudence through a forest of delu-
ously but with notes, said... j A Chris- sions. I Their behaviour in church was
tianity filtrated of all its sectional anything but reverential. / The matter is
dogmas. / Jamaica ginger, which is a very of transcendental importance, especially
good preventative of seasickness. / in the present disastrous state of the
Whether that can be attributed to genuine world.
American support or to a quietening It only remains to say that nothing
down of the speculative position is a in this article must be taken as
matter of some doubt. countenancing the shortening of such
3. Wrong use of longer forms due to words as quantitative and authoritative;
confusion : advancement (advance) ; and see INTERPRE(TA)TIVE. It is as if
alternative (alternate) ; correctitude the quantitive theory of naval strategy
(correctness) ; creditable (credible) ; held the field. / Her finely finished
definitive (definite); distinctive (dis- authoritive performance was of great
tinct); estimation (estimate); evaluate
(value); excepting (except); intensive
(intense) ; partially (partly) ; prudential longhand. The coming of the type-
(prudent) ; reverential (reverent) ; tran- writer has upset the meaning of more
scendental (transcendent). The dif- than one word. Manuscript (generally
ferences of meaning between the spoken of as the ëmëss) is no longer
longer and shorter words are not here confined to its etymological sense of
discussed, but will be found, unless written by hand but is applied to any
too familiar to need mention, under script, whether written or typed (op-
the words in their dictionary places. posite print); longhand, though the
dictionaries do not yet recognize any
Examples meaning other than ordinary writing
It was only by advancement of (opposite shorthand) is often used for
money to the tenant farmers that the a script that is written (opposite
calamity could be ended. / When the typescript). The confusion could
army is not fully organized, zvhen it is easily be set right if the correct oppo-
in process of alternative disintegration sites were always used : longhand opp.
end rally, the problems are insoluble, j shorthand, manuscript opp. typescript,
Baron believes himself to be the script opp. print. But the corruption of
oldest living Alsatian; and there is manuscript has probably gone too far
small reason to doubt the correctitude to be mended.
of his belief. / It is creditably stated
that the length of line dug and zvircd in longways, -wise. See -WISE, -WAYS.
loom 344 love of the long word
loom, v. For /. largely) see LARGE(LY). the Admiralty message. Three times is
a 1.1 A I. of writing is too confined and
loose, loosen, w . For the distinc- obscure; a I. is too wordy; a I. is too
tion, see -EN VERBS. peevish or pompous or pretentious; a I.
lord. Younger sons of dukes and is too lifeless; a I. is too lazy.
marquesses are spoken of by the title loth. See LOATH.
of L. followed by Christian and
family name, as L. Arthur Smith. lotus. PI. -uses.
Omission of the Christian name is louden. See -EN VERBS.
wrong; the permissible shortening is
not L. Smith) but L. Arthur. Dickens lough. The Irish /. and the Scottish
and Conan Doyle are among the loch are pronounced alike, i.e. with the
writers of fiction who have tripped breathed guttural, though by the Eng-
over this. A man with the title L. lish often anglicized into lôk.
Decimus Tite Barnacle could not be
an 'overpowering peer' with a seat in lour, lower. The meaning is frown.
the House of Lords, nor could anyone Spell lour and pronounce lowr. The
be called with equal propriety L. word is not connected with low and
Verisopht and L. Frederick Verisophl, the other verb lower (W'er) and it is a
or L. St. Simon and L. Robert St. pity that it should be confused with
Simon. For /. as an undress substitute that verb by the second spelling (the
for marquess, earl, viscount, see TITLES. oldest forms are lour and lure) and so
have its meaning narrowed and its
Lord Bacon is a mixture, given un- pronunciation altered. The confusion
deserved currency by being the title is due chiefly to the word's being often
under which Macaulay's Essay on him applied to clouds.
was first published. The possible cor- lovelily. See -LILY.
rect styles are Bacon, Francis Bacon,
Sir Francis Bacon, Lord Verulam, love of the long word. It need
Lord or Viscount St. Albans, of which hardly be said that shortness is a merit
the best to use is the first or second, in words. There are often reasons why
both having been his names through- shortness is not possible; much less
out his life. often there are occasions when length,
not shortness, is desirable. But it is a
lose. L. no time in is a notoriously general truth that the short words are
ambiguous phrase: No time should be not only handier to use, but more
lost in exploring the question. powerful in effect; extra syllables
lot. I. A I. of people say so, Lots of reduce, net increase, vigour. This is
paper is wanted, etc. See NUMBER 6 (b). particularly so in English, where the
2. L. in the sense of a large or excessive native words are short, and the long
number is still called colloquial by the words are foreign. I open Paradise
COD, but the following quotations Lost and The Idylls of the King, and at
show that modern writers do not each first opening there face me:
hesitate to use it in serious prose. (The 'Know ye not, then' said Satan, fiWd
first is from Sir Winston Churchill's with scorn; ''Know ye not me? ye knew
account of the Battle of Jutland, the me once no mate For you, there sitting
second from a well-known writer's where ye durst not soar.' j And in those
book on style). The chance of an an- days she made a little song And call'd
nihilating victory had been perhaps her song ' The Song of Love and Death',
offered at the moment of deployment, And sang it; sweetly could she make and
had been offered again an hour later sing. Fifty-six words, of which fifty-
when Scheer made his great miscalcula- two are monosyllables. Slightly select-
tion, and for the third time when a little ed passages, indeed, but such as occur
before midnight the Commander in on nearly every page ; and these are not
chief decided to reject the evidence of exercises in one-syllable words for
love of the long word 345 love of the long word
teaching children to read ; they are the many similar words, under which bare
natural as well as the best ways of say- references to this article may be made ;
ing what was to be said. Nor is it in but these will serve as types. A quota-
verse only that good English runs to tion or two is given under each, and a
monosyllables ; I open a new religious fitter word offered.
book, and find at once this passage Alternative: The men dismissed will
about the Kingdom of Heaven: His all be offered alternative work (other
effort was, not to tell mankind about it, work). / The trouble between landlord
but to show it to them; and He said that and tenant in the country is due to the
those who saw it would be convinced, shortage of alternative accommodation
not by Him, but by it. ' To this end was (shortage of houses).
I born, and for this cause came I into the Mentality: A twenty-foot putt by
world, that! should bear witness unto the Herreshoff at the tzventy-fourth hole did
truth. Every one that is of the truth not help Hilton's golfing mentality
heareth my voice.' There for once he (nerve). / No one has so wide a know-
spoke in general and abstract terms. ledge of Afghan politics and of the
Those zoho are of the truth, those who mentality of the Pathan (mind).
seek truth for its own sake, will listen to Meticulous: These meticulous cal-
Him and know that what he says is true. culations of votes which have not yet
Twelve words that are not monosyl- been given rather disgust us (exact). /
lables in IOi words; and there is no Owing to a meticulous regard for the
taint whatever of affected simplicity in spirit of the party truce, their views have
it. Good English does consist in the not been adequately voiced by their
main of short words. There are many leaders (strict). / Most of the British
good reasons, however, against any and American proposals have been too
attempt to avoid a polysyllable if it vague and sentimental on the one hand
is the word that will give our mean- and too elaborate and meticulous on the
ing best; moreover the occasional other (detailed).
polysyllable will have added effect Overall: The overall production of
from being set among short words. coal is likely to be two million tons more
What is here deprecated is the tend- this year than last (total). / / can quite
ency among the ignorant to choose, understand that the Conservative Party
because it is a polysyllable, the word are unwilling to look at the overall pic-
that gives their meaning no better or ture (whole).
even worse. Mr. Pecksniff, we are Percentage : This drug has proved suc-
told, was in the frequent habit of cessful in a percentage of cases (some).
using any word that occurred to him
as having a good sound, and rounding Proportion : The greater proportion of
a sentence well, without much care for these old hands have by this time already
its meaning. He still has his followers. dropped out (part).
In the article LONG VARIANTS, ex- Proposition: Dexter decided that his
amples are given of long forms chosen seamers were not a proposition (unlikely
in place of shorter ones of the same to succeed). / The agriculturist asks
word or stem. Attention is here con- that 'corn-growing shall become a
fined to certain words frequently used paying proposition' (made to pay).
where unrelated shorter ones would Protagonist: The two great Western
be better. They are doubtless chosen Powers who have acted as protagonists
primarily not for their lengthj but among the Allies in this war (leaders). /
because they are in vogue; but their But most of the protagonists of this
vogue is in turn due to the pompous demand have since shifted their ground
effect conferred by length. They are: (champions)
alternative, mentality, meticulous, over- A few lines of the long-word style we
all, percentage, proportion, proposition, know so well are added : Vigorous con-
protagonist, all of which will be found demnation is passed on the foreign
in their dictionary places. There are policy of the Prime Minister, 'whose
temperamental inaptitude for diplomacy
Low Countries 346
and preoccupation with domestic issues beard;... his tastefor a beard apparently
have rendered his participation in ex- resulted in a somethat bushy luxuriant
ternal negotiations gravely detrimental growth of hair all round his face.
to the public welfare'. Vigorous indeed;
a charging hippopotamus hardly more -ly. 1. For the tendency among
so. That is what comes of preferring writers and speakers who are more
abstract words to concrete. See conscientious than literary to suppose
ABSTRACTITIS. that all adverbs must end in -ly, and
therefore to use hardly, largely,
Low Countries. See NETHERLANDS. strongly, etc., where idiom requires
hard, large, strong, etc., see UNIDIOMA-
lower, lour. See LOUR. TIC -LY.
2 . For participial adverbs like deter-
lu (pronunciation). See PRONUNCIA- minedly, see -EDLY.
TION 6. 3. It was said in the article JINGLES
lunatic fringe. See ULTRA. that the commonest form of ugly
repetition was that of the -ly adverbs.
lunch, luncheon. Lunch, once a It is indeed extraordinary, when one
vulgarism for luncheon, has become the remembers the feats of avoidance
ordinary word for the meal, and performed by the elegant-variationist,
luncheon is a FORMAL WORD. the don't-split-your-infinitivist, and
the anti-preposition-at-ender, to find
lung(e)ing. See MUTE E ; omit the e. how many people have no ears to hear
lustrum. PI. -tra, sometimes -trums; this most obvious of all outrages on
euphony. Not indeed on euphony
see -UM. pure and simple, but on euphony and
luxuriant, luxurious. Luxurious is sense in combination; for as many -ly
the adjective that belongs in sense to adverbs as one chooses may be piled
luxury and conveys the ideas of com- on each other if one condition of
fort or delight or indulgence; luxuriant sense is fulfilled—that all these ad-
has nothing to do with these, implying verbs have the same relation to the
only rich growth, vigorous shooting same word or to parallel words. We
forth, teeming, prolific; as luxurious to are utterly, hopelessly, irretrievably,
luxury, so luxuriant to exuberance. ruined; It is theoretically certain, but
Luxurious houses, habits, life, people, practically doubtful', He may probably
climate, idleness, times, food, cushions, or possibly be in time. These are all
dreams, abandonment, desires; luxuriant irreproachable. In the first, each of the
vegetation, crops, hair, imagination, three adverbs expresses degree about
invention, style. The points at which ruined; in the second, each limits the
they touch and become liable to con- sense of an adjective, the two adjectives
fusion are, first, that abundance, being contrasted; in the third, the two
essential to luxuriance or exuberance, give degrees of likelihood about the
also subserves luxury, though not same thing, that is to say, in all three
essential to it; and, secondly, their cases the -ly adverbs are strictly
common property in the verb luxuriate, parallel. Euphony has nothing to say
which means both to enjoy luxury and against repetition of -ly if there is
to show luxuriance. A luxurious fancy point in it, which there is if the adverbs
is one that dwells on luxury ; a luxuriant are parallel. But, when parallelism is
fancy one that runs riot on any sub- not there to comfort her, Euphony at
ject, agreeable or other. The writer once cries out in pain, though too
of the following has used the wrong often to deaf ears.
word in the first place and the right Russian industry is at present prac-
one in the second : Mr. H. was a man tically completely crippled. Practically
of somewhat striking outward appear- is not marching alongside of completely,
ance: he wore a somewhat luxurious but riding on its back; read almost./
Lyceum 347 madam(e)
He found himself sharply, and appa- not being mutually exclusive. The
rently completely, checked. Sharply term is now applied to the songs,
and completely, by all means; but not whatever their subject, in what are
apparently completely ; read as it called 'musicals' ; and that is the sense
seemed. / Maeterlinck probably and in which most people today would
wisely shrank from comparison with understand lyrics', the word has suf-
'Hérodias*. Though probably and fered VULGARIZATION.
wisely both apply directly to the same
word shrank, their relation to it is not
the same, probably telling us how far
the statement is reliable, and wisely M
how far the course was justified; read m a c a b r e . The OED gives only -ahbr
It is probable that Maeterlinck wisely for the pronunciation, but some more
shrank. recent dictionaries allow -ahber as an
alternative, and it may win. Cf.
Lyceum. PL -ms; see -UM. For the CALIBRE.
meaning in Greek Philosophy see
ACADEMY. Machiavel(li(an(ism. The formerly
current shortening Machiavel is now
lych-gate etc. See LICH-GATE. obsolete not only as the personal but
lyric(al). Lyric is now the estab- even as the generic name; a very
lished adjective for most uses; we Machiavel, once common, is not now
speak of lyric poets, poetry, verse, used. The adjective is accordingly
drama, muse, elements, and not lyrical. now spelt Machiavellian, not -elian.
Lyrical is in some sort a parasite upon For the -ism noun, choice lies between
lyric, meaning suggestive of lyric verse. Machiavellianism and Machiavellism',
Lyric classifies definitely, while lyrical in spite of greater length, the first is
describes vaguely. With some words the better; the clipping of the word
either can be used, but with different to which -ist and -ism are to be added
effect ; a lyric rhapsody is one actually is always disagreeable, and yet Machia-
composed in lyric verse; a lyrical velliism is clearly impossible; see on
rhapsody is talk full of expressions, or accompan{y)ist in -1ST A.
revealing a mood, fit for lyric poetry.
Lyrical emotion, praise, sorrow, etc. ; or machicolate. Pronounce mâchï'-
again, a person may grow lyrical. See kôlât, not malz-.
also -IC(AL). machination. Pronounce mak-,
lyrics. The OED definition (as re- m a c u l a . Pronounce mâ'cûla. Pl.-lae.
gards modern usage) is: 'Short poems m a d , v. For this and madden, and the
(whether or not intended to be sung), madding crowd, see -EN VERBS.
usually divided into stanzas or
strophes, and directly expressing the madam(e). In the English word,
poet's own thoughts and sentiments'. whether as appellation (/ will inquire,
The short pieces between the narra- Madam', Dear Madam', What does
tive parts of Tennyson's Princess Madam think about it?), as common
(Home they brought her warrior dead noun {the City madams), or as prefix
etc.), are typical examples. Words- {Madam Fortune, Madam Venus),
worth's Daffodils, Shelley's Skylark, there should be no -e. As a prefix to
Keats's Grecian Urn, Milton's Pense- a lady's name instead of Mrs., Madame
roso, Burns's Field Mouse, Herrick's is right, with plural Mesdames.
Rosebuds, Lovelace's Lucasta, Shake- Madam, the appellation, suffers from
speare's It was a lover, may serve to having no plural, Ladies being the
illustrate; but attempts to distinguish substitute, for which Mesdames is
lyric poetry clearly from other kinds sometimes jocularly used. The shop-
(epic, dramatic, elegiac, didactic, etc.) assistant's odd pronunciation {môdm) is
have not been successful, the classes perhaps due to a notion that French
madness 348 Mahomet
Madame is more in keeping with Magna C(h)arta. Until recently
haunts of fashion than English authority seemed to be for spelling
Madam. charta and pronouncing kar'ta, which
was hard on the plain man. In a Bill
madness. For method in m., see introduced in 1946 authorizing the
IRRELEVANT ALLUSION. Trustees of the British Museum to
lend a copy to the Library of Congress,
maestro. The dictionaries give the Charta was the spelling used. But
pronunciation mâës or mahs-, but when the Bill reached committee stage
popular usage makes it mi-. Plural -tri, in the House of Lords, the Lord
pron. è. Chancellor (Lord Jowitt) moved to
Magdalen(e). The spellings and substitute Carta and produced con-
pronunciations are: clusive evidence that that was tradi-
1. In the names of the Oxford {-en) tionally the correct spelling. The
and Cambridge {-ene) colleges, pro- amendment was carried without a
nounce mau'dlïn. division; so Carta has now unim-
2. In the use as a noun meaning re- peachable authority.
formed harlot etc., use mag'dâlën. mahlstick. See MAULSTICK.
3. When used with the instead of the
name Mary M., the Magdalene {-en) Mahomet, Mohammedan, etc. A
and the Magdalen {-en) are equally middle-aged lady, on being asked
correct. whom she understood by the Prophet
4 . In the full name Mary Magdalene of Allah, hesitated, suspecting some
the four-syllable pronunciation {mâg- snare, but being adjured to reply said
dâlê'në) is the best, though if it were quite plainly that he was Mahomet
Mary the Magdalene -lên would be and further that his followers were
right, as it is in the Magdalene, i.e. the called Mahometans—thus fulfilling
famous person of Magdala. Magda- expectations. The popular forms are
lene may be regarded either as an Eng- Mahometan); the prevailing printed
lish word = of Magdala, like Lampsa- forms are Mohammed{an).
cene, Cyzicene, Tyrrhene, etc., in which The worst of letting the learned
case the could not be omitted, or as the gentry bully us out of our traditional
actual Greek feminine of Magdalenos Mahometan and Mahomet (who ever
become part of her name, in which heard of Mohammed and the mountain ?)
case the final -e cannot be silent. Mary is this : no sooner have we tried to be
Magdalen, however, is also possible. good and learnt to say, or at least
write, Mohammed than they are fired
magic(al), adjectives. See -IC(AL). with zeal to get usa step or two further
Magic tends to lose those adjective on the path of truth, which at present
uses that cannot be viewed as mere seems likely to end in Muhammad
attributive uses of the noun. First, it with a dot under the h; see DIDACTIC-
is very seldom used predicatively; the ISM. The literary, as distinguished
effect was magical (never magic); the from the learned, surely do good
ring must be magical (not magic, though service when they side with tradition
must be a magic one is better than a and the people against science and the
magical one). Secondly, the chief non- dons. Muhammad should be left to
predicative use is in assigning a thing the pedants, Mohammed to historians
to the domain of magic {a magic ring, and the like, while ordinary mortals
carpet, spell, crystal', the magic art), or should go on saying, and writing in
in distinguishing it from others and newspapers and novels and poems and
so helping its identification {magic such general reader's matter, what
lantern, square), rather than in giving their fathers said before them.
its characteristics descriptively {with The fact is that we owe no thanks to
magical speed; what a magical trans- those who discover, and cannot keep
formation). silence on the discovery, that Mahomet
maieutic 349 majority
is further than Mohammed, and Mo- railway accident, m. war. That no
hammed further than Muhammad, doubt explains, but does not justify,
from what his own people called him. its having become a VOGUE WORD of
The Romans had a hero whom they the sort that attains popularity be-
spoke of as Aeneas; we call him that cause of the ease with which it can
too, but for the French he has become be used to save the trouble of thinking
Énée; are the French any worse off of some other word, e.g. chief, maint
than we on that account? It is a principal, etc.
matter of like indifference in itself
whether the English for the Prophet's major general. See HYPHENS and
name is Mahomet or Mohammed—in PLURAL ANOMALIES.
itself, yes; but whereas the words majority, i. Distinctions of mean-
Aeneas and Énée have the Channel ing. 2 . Number after m. 3. Great
between them to keep the peace, etc. m.
Mahomet and Mohammed are for ever 1. Three allied senses, one abstract
at loggerheads ; we want one name for and two concrete, need to be dis-
the one man; and the one should have tinguished if illogicalities are to be
been that around which the ancient avoided: (A) Majority meaning a
associations cling. It is too late to superiority in number, or, to revive an
recover unity; the learned, and their obsolete unambiguous word, a plurity
too docile disciples, have destroyed (. . . was passed by a bare, small, great,
that, and given us nothing worth hav- m.; the m. was scanty but sufficient).
ing in exchange. (B) Majority meaning the one of two
or more sets that has a plurity, or the
maieutic. Pronounce mâû'tïk. The more numerous party ( The m. was, or
word means performing midwife's were, determined to press its, or their,
service (to thought or ideas). Socrates victory). (C) Majority meaning most
figured himself as a midwife (/iéùa) of a set of persons, or the greater part
bringing others' thoughts to birth numerically {The m. were fatally
with his questionings. Educative con- wounded; Am. of my friends advise it).
tains the same notion, but much over- But it should not be used as a dignified
laid with different ones, and the substitute for the greater part of a
literary critic and the pedagogue con- whole that is not numerical, as in It is
sequently find m. useful enough to a book with sociological merits in the m.
pass in spite of its touch of pedantry. of it.
major means greater, and those who 2 . Number. After m. in sense (A) the
like pomposities are within their verb will always be singular. After m.
rights, and remain intelligible, if they in sense (B), as after other nouns of
call the greater part the m. portion; multitude, either a singular or a plural
they can moreover plead that m. part verb is possible, according as the body
and portion have been used by good is, or its members are, chiefly in the
writers in the times when pomposity speaker's thoughts. See NUMBER 6.
was less noticeable than it now is. After m. in sense (C), in which the
Those who do not like pomposities thought is not of contrasted bodies at
will call it the greater part and deserve all, but merely of the numbers re-
our gratitude, or at least escape our quired to make up more than a half,
dislike. / , who had described myself as the verb is almost necessarily plural,
'sick of patriotism' . . . found myself the sense being more people than not,
unable to read anything but a volume out of those concerned. Correct was
the m. portion of which consisted of to were in The vast m. of Conservatives
patriotic verse. was willing to vote for going in to Suez
M. is a convenient word to describe one day and for coming out a few days
something of more than ordinary im- afterwards.
portance or likely to have unusually 3. Great etc. m. With m. in sense (A),
serious consequences, e.g. m. road, m. great, greater, greatest, etc., are freely
make 350 malignancy
used, and cause no difficulty. With and under most of the separate words
m. in sense (B) they are not often contained in that list illustrations will
used, except to give the special sense of be found; predict and predicate, re-
party having a great, greater, plurity versal and reversion, masterful and
as compared with that enjoyed by masterly, will suffice here as examples.
some other (This great m. is helpless; But it is perhaps hardly decent to
having the greatest m. of modern times leave the subject without a single con-
devoted to him). With m. in sense (C), crete illustration. Here are one or two
great is possible and common, the less staled by frequent occurrence than
great m. meaning most by far, much those mentioned above : He thought it
more than half; but the use of greater desirous that the House of Lords should
and greatest with it, as if m. meant determine the tests to be applied. /
merely part or number, is, though Mr. has circulated what portends
frequent, an illiterate blunder; ex- to be a reply to a letter which I had
amples of it are: By far the greatest m. previously addressed to you. / His capa-
of American rails, apart from gambling city for continuous work is incredulous. /
counters, have gone across the Atlantic. / It abrogates too many functions to it-
The club is representative of several self. I Mr. said that the air
hundreds, the greater m. of whom are raids had been so destructible that
repatriated Britishers from Russia. many roads had been roped off. / He has
skilfully piloted the company through
make. M. him repeat it, not to repeat', practically unchartered seas. / / hope
He must be made to repeat it, not made my inexperience will not mitigate against
repeat. my chances. / The sole benefactors of
make-believe is the true form of the this 'revindication* appear to be victims
noun as well as the verb, and make- imprisoned or executed, j That in-
belief a false correction; to make sinuendo is quite unwarranted.
believe has meant to pretend from
the 14th c. male. M., masculine. The distinc-
tion drawn between female and
malapropisms. When Mrs. Mala- feminine is equally true for m. and
prop, in Sheridan's Rivals, is said to masculine; the reader will perhaps be
'deck her dull chat with hard words good enough to look through the
which she don't understand', she article, FEMALE, FEMININE, and make
protests 'Sure, if I reprehend anything the necessary substitutions. The only
in this world, it is the use of my ora- modification needed is in the state-
cular tongue, and a nice derangement ment about the original part of speech
of epitaphs'—having vague memories of female. Male was not, like that, a
of apprehend, vernacular, arrangement, noun before it was an adjective; but
and epithets. She is now the matron this difference does not affect present
saint of all those who go wordfowling usage.
with a blunderbuss. Achievements so
heroic as her own do not here concern malignancy, -nity. These nouns
us ; they pass the bounds of ordinary almost reverse the relation between
experience and of the credible. Her the adjectives to which they belong.
votaries are a feebler folk; with them The general distinction between
malaprops come single spies, not in malignant and malign is that the first
battalions, one in an article, perhaps, refers rather to intention and the
instead of four in a sentence, and not second rather to effect (see BENIGN);
marked by her bold originality, but it would therefore be expected that
monotonously following well beaten malignancy would be the word for
tracks. In the article PAIRS AND SNARES spitefulness, and malignity for harm-
a number of words are given with fulness. But the medical use of
which other words of not very dif- malignant (see BENIGN 3) has so
ferent sound are commonly confused, strongly affected malignancy that
mall 351 Maquis
malignity has had to take over the of the series twofold, threefold, thirty-
sense of spite, and almost lost that of fold, a hundredfold, and attempts to
harm. treat it as such result in unidiomatic
mall. Originally the pronunciation of English. It is better to coin many-fold
The M. was maul (from its association for the occasion (cf. BUSINESS, BUSY-
with m., a shady walk, so pronounced) NESS) than to imitate the writers of the
and that of Pall M. pëlmë'l (probably quotations below. Both the uses illus-
from its supposed association with the trated in them are called obsolete by
adverb pell-mell). Popular pronuncia- the OED, and the revival of them after
tion today is tending to a uniform -al, centuries of dormancy is perhaps ac-
but this has made more headway counted for by the adaptation of the
against the old pronunciation of The 'now literary' word to commercial and
M. than it has against that of Pall M. engineering uses in m. writing, m. pipes,
etc., and its consequent populariza-
mandatary, -tory. The -ary form tion. Such elimination would recoup
is noun only, = one to whom a man- that expense, m., by the saving which
date is given ; the -ory form is primarily it would effect of food valuable to the
adjective, = of the nature of a man- nation—namely, salmon. / This or-
date, and secondarily a noun, = man- ganization in capable hands should repay
datary. A distinction in spelling in m. the actual funds raised on its
between the personal noun and the behalf.
adjective is obviously convenient, and
the form mandatary might suitably Manil(l)a. 'The form Manila is
have been used instead of mandatory correct, but rare except in geographical
in the Covenant of the League of use'—OED. The established -lia is
Nations for the trustees of what recommended.
were then called Mandated Terri-
tories. Similar personal nouns, some manœuvre, v., makes -vred, -vring;
of them with associated forms in -ory see MUTE E. For the n. and v., see
of more or less different sense, are -RE and -ER.
ACCESSARY, adversary, commissary', DE-
POSITARY, emissary, notary, registrary -manship. For such compounds see
(Cambridge form of registrar), secre- BRINKMANSHIP.
tary (cf. the adjective secretory), tribu-
tary. mantle, v. The common use in
manes, spirit of dead person. Pro- which the subject is face, cheek, brow,
nounce mà'nëz; a plural noun, with flush, blush, colour, blood, etc., appears
plural construction though sometimes to come not directly from the original
used as singular in sense. sense to clothe as with a mantle, but
from the special application of that to
mangel, mangold. The first is 'in liquids that cover themselves with
English the now prevailing form' foam etc.; otherwise the natural con-
(OED), and, as it is not less significant struction would be the less usual. A
to the Englishman, and nearer the blush mantled her cheek etc. and not
pronunciation, than the original Ger- the more usual A blush or The blood
man mangold, it might have been mantled in her cheek or Her cheek
expected to prevail. The dictionaries mantled with a blush.
do indeed put it first, but the farmers
and merchants who are the chief users m a n y . While there have been m. a
of the word have an odd preference good-humoured smile about . . . Like
for -old. more than one (see MORE B ) , and no less
manifold. Pronounce man-, not illogically, many a requires always a
men-. Owing to this difference in pro- singular verb.
nunciation between m. and many, the
word is no longer felt to be a member Maquis. See RESISTANCE.
marathon 352 masculine
marathon. This now familiar word so close to the dividing line between
for a long-distance race and, by two opposing states that there is no
extension, for any other long-drawn- saying which side it will go (cf. border-
out test of endurance, was introduced line), as a m. seat is one held by so
in the first revived Olympic Games at small a majority as to be in peril at the
Athens in 1896. The battle of Mara- next election, m. land is land that
thon, in which the Greeks defeated the might or might not be profitable to
invading Persians in 490 B.C., is said to cultivate, and, by a slight extension,
have been marked by two notable the same meaning of 'doubtfully
long-distance runs. One, recorded by worth while' is seen in Talking about
Herodotus, was that of the profes- critics without close reference to the
sional runner Phidippides, who ran authors they discuss is bound to be a m.
from Athens to Sparta (150 miles) to activity. Minimal is properly applied
ask for help in the impending battle. to something that is the smallest pos-
The other, not mentioned by Herodo- sible. An example of its misuse for
tus, was that of a soldier who ran 'in effect is : Ireland gave a magnificent per-
full armour, hot from the battle' formance in holding the all-conquering
(Plutarch) to Athens (22 miles) to visitors to such a minimal margin. A
announce the victory, and fell dead minimal margin in rugby football is
from exhaustion as he did so. Plu- one point. In this game the score was
tarch says that it was uncertain whether 8-3.
the name of this soldier was Ther-
sippus or Eucles, but Lucian later marital. The OED gives mâ'ritâl,
attributed the exploit to Phidippides without even permitting mârï'tal but
himself, a version popularized by the COD allows the latter as an
Browning in his poem with that title. alternative. The short i is no doubt a
shock to those who know the sound of
margarin(e). The pronunciation marïtus in Latin better than that of m.
marj- instead oîntarg- is clearly wrong, in their own language; see, however,
and is not even mentioned in the OED FALSE QUANTITY for a batteryful of such
as an alternative. But that was before shocks. See also RECESSIVE ACCENT.
two wars had made everyone familiar
with the substance, and the dictionaries m a r k . For synonymy see SIGN.
now admit the popular variant marj-.
We may suppose that Margaret and marquetry, -eterie. Spell -try, and
Margery fought for the analogy and pronounce mar'kïtrï.
Margery won. It does not seem
likely that what is now universally marquis, -ess. Marquess is now the
called marge for short will regain the usual spelling. To judge from Who's
hard g in its full name, but as this is Who, there is an overwhelming pre-
how it is pronounced by those who ference for it among mm. themselves;
advertise it on television the battle is only 2 of the 39 peers of that rank and
not lost. Perhaps the only English only 1 of the 9 bearers of that courtesy
words in which g is soft before a or o title call themselves marquis. In books
or u are gaol (with its derivatives) and of reference that spell the word uni-
mortgagor. See -IN AND -INE for the formly it is now always marquess.
termination. Burke and Debrett changed from
marquis early in the 19th c. and
marginal, m i n i m a l . These words Whitaker's Almanack towards the end
are favourites with writers who find of it. For Marquess Smith and Lord
small too drab for their taste. They Smith see TITLES.
have their special meanings, and,
though it would be unreasonable to marten, -in. The beast has -en, the
expect them to be strictly confined, bird -in.
they should not be allowed to stray far.
Marginal is properly applied to what is masculine. See MALE.
massage 353 material
massage, -eur, -euse. Mâsah'zh, (perhaps in a few rare instances a trifle
mâser', mâser'z are the dictionary pro- too masterful) and always the playing
nunciationsj but the stress, especially was crystal clear. Disregard of it is
in the first, is shifting to the first so obviously inconvenient that it
syllable as the words become natura- can only be put down to ignorance.
lized. Masterly is less liable to misuse, but
masterful often appears instead of
massive in its figurative sense is a masterly. A few examples follow, in
useful and expressive word that de- all of which masterly should have been
serves to be treated with respect and the word: When he began to outplay
discrimination. The virtue is being the Englishman and picked up hole after
taken out of it now that it has become hole the crowd was carried away by his
a VOGUE WORD, ousting more ordinary masterful work and driven to applaud-
and often more suitable adjectives. ing. I The influence of the engineering
Almost every day's newspapers will and mechanical triumphs of the staff of
provide evidence of its popularity ; in the canal zone has been dealt with by
the following small selection, which masterful writers. / The judge told
might be multiplied indefinitely, other the jury that the prosecution had been
words are suggested that could have put to them in a masterful and restrained
been used to give massive a rest. A far fashion. For the adverbs of adjectives
greater effort should be made to produce in -ly see -LILY.
accounts which do not require m. adjust-
ment in future years (sweeping). /
A call for local authorities to embark on mat, lustreless. Correctly so spelt;
a m. research scheme to determine what it is a French adjective. But matt, no
Britain's towns should be like in future doubt(cf. due to an instinct of differentia-
(comprehensive). / The next country tion SET(T)) is said by the OED
to break through into a m. economic Supp. to be now the usual form.
advance may well be Spain (vigorous). mate, checkmate. The full form is
/ M. security precautions were in force now chiefly in metaphorical use, while
today at General de Gaulle's review the shortened one is preferred in chess.
(extraordinary). / The objectors are
probably right in opposing any increase material, adj. There are at least four
in the m. capital grants which are current antitheses in aid of any of
made available in Northern Ireland which m. may be called in when an
(lavish). / It hardly seems that it can adjective is required. There is matter
profit China to drive India into such m. and form (m. and formal); there is
anger (intense). / It will be difficult to matter and spirit (m. and spiritual);
represent the result of the referendum as there is MATÉRIEL and personnel (m. and
the m. victory General de Gaulle de- personal); and there is what matters
manded as the price of going on (over- and what does not matter (m. and
whelming). I As I presided over the trifling). Before using m., therefore,
meeting I was able to note the intense with reference to any one of these, the
enthusiasm of the m. audience when writer should make sure that there
Mr. Wilson made his statement (huge). is no risk of confusion with another.
Agriculture, though the most m. of all
masterful, masterly. Some cen- our pursuits, is teaching us truths be-
turies ago both were used without yond its own direct province. / The old
distinction in either of two very bonds of relationship, and community
different senses: (A) imperious or of m. interests. / A comparison between
commanding or strong-willed, and (B) the French peasant-proprietor and the
skilful or expert or practised. The English small-holder as he might con-
DIFFERENTIATION is now complete, -ful ceivably become under a freehold system,
having the (A) and -ly the (B) mean- a comparison, be it said, to the m.
ings, and is nicely observed in The advantage of the former. The curious
presentation in each case was masterly dislike of the preposition of that seems
materialize 354 maunder
so widespread today has increased the matter. The distribution shows that,
confusion. As if the adjective had not as exceptional bravery is confined to no
enough different senses already, the rank in the Army, so recognition is given
noun is used adjectivally in yet an- to it by no m. whom it is displayed. If
other. M. allocations will be made elliptical phrases like no m. who are to
seems to be more satisfying to those be treated freely as units, care must
who deal with such things than either be taken that the ellipsis can be filled
allocations of m. will be made or m. will in correctly. By it is no m. whom it is
be allocated. See NOUN ADJECTIVES. displayed is wrong, and it is no m. by
whom it is displayed is right; accord-
materialize. The word has plenty of ingly the order should be no m. by
uses of its own, e.g. Those who would whom. The principle is—by all means
m. spirit. A soul materialized by save your reader the trouble of reading
gluttony. Virgil having materialized more words than he need, but do not
a scheme of abstracted notions. Ghosts save yourself the trouble of rehearsing
or promises of ghosts which fail to m. the full form by way of test. The real
It should not be forced to do the work cause of the mistake here is the
of happen or be fulfilled or form, e.g. superstition against prepositions at
There would seem to be some ground for the end; no m. whom it is displayed by
hope that the strike will notm. after all. would have been correct; but the
/ Year after year passed and these pro- writer was frightened at his final pre-
mises failed to m. / Out of the mist of position, made a grab at it, and
notes and protocols a policy seems plumped it down in a wrong place; see
gradually to be materializing. In
these latter senses m. is on the level SUPERSTITIONS, and OUT OF THE FRY-
of transpire (happen), proposition (job), ING-PAN. The offence is aggravated
eventuate (happen), unique (notable), by the inevitable impulse to connect
envisage (foresee), individual (man), by with is given.
and such abominations. matutinal. Chiefly in POLYSYLLABIC
HUMOUR. Here they were found by a m.
matériel. In antitheses with person- gardener.
nel, expressed or implied, the French
spelling and pronunciation should be m a u g r e . See WARDOUR STREET.
kept, and not replaced by those of the
English material. In practice the Ser- maulstick, not mahl-, is the standard
vices compromise by writing materiel form.
(without the accent) and saying
material. maunder, meander. Though the
etymology of maunder is uncertain,
mathematics. For the grammatical it is clear that it is not a corruption
number, see -ics 2 . of meander, its earlier sense being
to complain, growl, grouse. But it is
matins, m a t t - . The OED treats also clear from the way some people
matins as the standard form, but use meander that they take the two
mattins is common. Possibly the words to be merely variant pronuncia-
double t was introduced at the time tions. Meander means to follow a
of the Reformation (the Act of Uni- winding course, was originally used
formity has mattens) to distinguish the of rivers, is still often so used, describes
use of the word for the Morning frequent but not violent change of
Prayer of the Anglican Church from direction rather than aimlessness, and
its use in the Roman Catholic Church is applied more often to actual loco-
for the first of the canonical hours of motion than to vagaries of the tongue.
the breviary. For m. and morning Maunder is best confined to speech,
prayer, see MORNING. and suggests futility rather than
m a t r i x . For pi. see -EX, -IX, 4, and digression, dull discontent rather than
-TRIX. quiet enjoyment, and failure to reach
maxim 355 meaningless words
an end rather than loitering on the between A. A. Milne and Fowler in
way to it. the T L S shortly after the publication
of Modern English Usage. Gram-
maxim. See APHORISM. matically the expression is admittedly
above reproach, provided that it is
maximum. PI. -nm, rarely -mums. without the indefinite article (see NO
2). But Milne took Fowler to task for
maybe (= perhaps) was long ago not having denounced it as an over-
normal English, as natural as perhaps, worked archaism, 'a penny-in-the-
if not more. In America it has re- slot adjective which leaves nothing in
mained the ordinary word. But in the writer's mind as he puts it down
Britain it became a novelistic property, but a hopeful feeling that he is being
the recognized rustic or provincial more amusing, more like Shakespeare
substitute for perhaps. Having ac- and the Bible, than if he had szid good'.
quired, during this rustication, a Fowler disagreed. Tor Mr. Milne',
certain unfamiliarity, it emerged he said, 'no mean is the perfect cliché :
stylishly archaic, so that perhaps and for me it is not indeed a favourite sub-
m. were for a time a pair of WORKING stitute for considerable or meritorious
AND STYLISH WORDS, the only suitable or first-class, but a blameless one. . . .
function of m. being to replace There is life yet in no mean, and I trust
perhaps in a context whose tone de- that as long as it lives it will bear in
manded a touch of primitive dignity; mind, as between Mr. Milne and me,
so Our Lord speaking quite simply to that Codlin's the friend, not Short.'
simple Syrian people, a child or two m. Today the verdict would probably go
at his knees. Now, under American to Milne. It is fashionable to repro-
influence, we are bringing it back into bate the use of clichés so sweepingly
use as a natural alternative to perhaps. as to induce in conscientious but timid
But maybe we are not yet quite at writers a morbid dread of using any
home with it; for why else should we expression that might be so described.
feel the need of the colloquial could- See CLICHÉ.
be}
meander. See MAUNDER.
me. The use of me in colloquialisms
such as It's me and It wasn't me is meaningless words. Words and
perhaps the only successful attack phrases are often used in conversation,
made by me on / . There is a greater especially by the young, not as sig-
temptation to use I for me, especially nificant terms but rather, so far as
when and me is required after another they have any purpose at all, as aids
noun or pronoun that has taken of the same kind as are given in writing
responsibility for the grammar and by punctuation, inverted commas, and
has not a separate objective case; underlining. It is a phenomenon per-
between you and I, let you and I try, are haps more suitable for the psycho-
not uncommon. For discussion see I. logist than for the philologist. Words
meal, flour. See FLOUR. and phrases so employed change fre-
quently, for they are soon worn out by
mealies. The singular (chiefly in overwork. Between the wars the most
combinations as m.-field, m. por- popular were DEFINITELY and sort of
ridge) is mealie, not -ly, the etymo- thing. One may suppose that they
logical connexion being not with meal originated in a subconscious feeling
and mealy, but with millet. that there was a need in the one case
to emphasize a right word and in the
mean. He is no m. cricketer. This use other to apologize for a possibly
of no m., echoing St. Paul's description wrong one. But any meaning they
of himself as a citizen of no m. city, ever had was soon rubbed off them,
was the subject of correspondence and they became noises automatically
means 356 meiosis
produced. Their immediate succes- is not to be discovered', and similarly
sors have been actually (pronounced with other adjectives, as secret m. were
akshally) and you know. Actually, says found, but a secret m. was found.
the OED, may be added to vouch for
statements which seem surprising, in- mean time. For the solar time, two
credible, or exaggerated. That is how words unhyphened. For the adverb,
Mrs. Nickleby and Mr. Pyke used it. one word.
' " I had a cold once," said Mrs. measure. Lord Curzon's policy has
Nickleby, " I think it was in the year been overthrown by the present an-
1817 . . . that I thought I should never nouncement, which to a great m. re-
get rid of; actually and seriously that stores Bengal to her former greatness.
I thought I should never get rid To a great extent, but in great m.; see
of". . . . "And I'll tell you what", said CAST-IRON IDIOM.
Mr. Pyke, "if you'll send round to the
public house for a pot of mild half- m e a s u r e up to. See PHRASAL VERBS.
and-half, positively and actually I'll meatus. For plural {-us or -uses) see
drink it." ' Many people today seem -US 2 .
to find it impossible to trust any asser-
tion, however commonplace, to be medi(a)eval. The shorter spelling
believed without this warranty. We is recommended; see &, Œ.
have all had experiences like that mediatize. To m. a ruler is to reduce
recorded by Ivor Brown: 'I met some him to dependence on another State,
young people recently who used but without changing his titular dig-
actually in almost every sentence. nity. The word originated in the
"Are you living in London?" "Ac- Holy Roman Empire, and meant that
tually I am." "Actually we must be the prince now owed mediate (i.e.
going now."' 'Actually', he adds, 'I indirect) allegiance instead of imme-
did not mind if they did.' The now diate to the Emperor.
ubiquitous you know (cf. the obsolete
dontcherknow) seems to be a com- medicine. The conventional pro-
pendious way of saying 'I know I am nunciation is two syllables {mëd'sn),
expressing myself badly, but I am sure but under the influence of the speak-
you are intelligent enough to grasp as-you-spell movement (see PRO-
my meaning'. NUNCIATION 1) the word is often
given three (mëd'ïsïn) now recognized
WELL is a permanent member of the by the COD as an alternative. The
class of words thus used, and INCI- adjective is mëdï'sïnâl.
DENTALLY is having a long innings.
The 'interrogative expletive' what, as mediocr(e)(ity). Pronounce
the OED calls it, quoting Goodbye medïôkër, mëdiôk'rity, but the stressing
Miss Thornton, awfully jolly evening, of the third syllable of the first and a
what?, was once fashionable, but has long e in the first syllable of the second
had its day. are not without dictionary recognition.
means, n. In the sense income etc., m. medium. In the spiritualistic sense,
always takes a plural verb: My m. the plural is always -urns. In all other
were (never was) much reduced. In the senses, -a and -urns are both in use,
sense way to an end etc. : a m. takes and -a seems to be the commoner.
singular verb; m., and the m., can be See -um.
treated as either singular or plural. All meet. For we are met together etc.,
m. (pi.) and every m. (sing.) are equally see INTRANSITIVE P . P . For meet up
correct; the m. do not, or does not, with see PHRASAL VERBS.
justify the end', the end is good, but
the m. are, or is, bad; such m. are (not mein Herr. See MYNHEER.
is) repugnant to me, because such with- meiosis. PI. -oses (-ëz). The use of
out a is necessarily plural; cf. such a m. understatement not to deceive, but to
melodrama 357 membership
enhance the impression on the hearer. emotional effect of musical accompani-
Often applied to the negative opposite ment is obvious, and it is on emotional
illustrated under LITOTES but taking sympathy that m. still relies.
many other forms, and contrasted
with HYPERBOLE. Very common in melody, harmony. See HARMONY.
colloquial and slang English; the melted, molten. Molten, apart from
(now outmoded) emphatic RATHER, its use as a poetic variant of melted, is
with its stress on the second syllable, now confined to what needs great heat
the use of some that we have borrowed to melt it. Molten iron, melted butter.
from U.S. (Some chicken, some neck:
see SOME 1), the schoolboy decent membership, leadership. The use
(= very nice), the retort I'll see you of m. in the sense number of members
further (i.e. in hell) first, and the (of a club etc.) is, though not a very
strangely inverted hyperbole didn't desirable one, established (The neces-
half swear (= swore horribly), are sity of adding to the m. of the House', A
familiar instances. large m. is necessary). Much less de-
sirable is the extension from number
melodrama. The term was first ap- of members to members, a practice
plied to plays in which music (fj.eXos) now rife and corrupting other words,
accompanied the spoken word, but especially by the use of leadership
there was no singing. Later m. ap- for leaders. He cannot, even if the
proximated to opera, but with the entire m. of a union marched up to his
difference that the dialogue was en- office, investigate alleged irregularities
tirely spoken and the songs inter- into the conduct of a ballot, j There is
spersed, as in The Beggar's Opera. a grozoing restlessness among a section of
Today the term is used of plays of a its m. I I hope our m. will listen to the
certain kind without regard to their advice of their elected representatives, j
musical content, if any. It is generally Leadership is used in this way so
used with some contempt, because the constantly that we seem to be in
appeal of such plays is especially to danger of forgetting that there is such
the unsophisticated, whose acquaint- a word as leaders. Examples like the
ance with human nature is superficial, following could be multiplied in-
but whose admiration for goodness definitely. They have refrained from
and detestation of wickedness are making declarations that the union's
ready and powerful. The melo- policy is not in the best interest of the m.
dramatist's task is to get his characters or that the leadership has failed to
labelled good and wicked in his implement the policy, j It zvas decided to
audience's minds, and to provide proceed against the leadership of the
striking situations that shall provoke E.T.U. under Rule 1 3 . / The new
and relieve anxieties on behalf of Soviet leadership now launched its
poetic justice. Whether a play is or is propaganda campaign for peace, j The
not to be called a melodrama is there- leadership of the Parliamentary Party
fore often a doubtful question, upon behaves as though it were a Shadozo
which different critics will hold differ- A dministration.
ent opinions. The typical characters Needless substitution of the abstract
of a m. in its crudest form have been for the concrete is one of the surest
described as 'a diabolically clever roads to flabby style (see ABSTRACTITIS).
villain customarily engaged in the In the following quotation, where the
pursuit of a pure and lovely heroine, correct use of the second leadership in
constantly foiled and finally defeated its abstract sense might have been ex-
by a manly and honest hero, who is pected to put the writer on his guard,
frequently aided by a comic per- he seems to have been so bemused by
sonage'—Enc. Brit. All that the m. the lure of the abstract that he could
now so called inherits from the early not bring himself, by writing leaders for
form is the appeal to emotion; the the first, to clothe in flesh and blood
N2
memorandum 358 mesembrianthemum
those whom he was urging to act etc.; perhaps NOVELTY HUNTING ac-
wholeheartedly and in good con- counts for it. But we may surmise that
science. If the present leadership will its progress to a VOGUE WORD has been
wholeheartedly and in good conscience helped by the disparaging flavour it
give the country that leadership, they has taken on: it affords a convenient
will not lack loyal and enthusiastic sup- means of being rude politely. The
port. Even the book-reviewers are m. of the politician is a constant source
becoming infected. It is hard to see of amazement to the engineer. / It is
what British readership there can be difficult to comprehend a m. which is
much longer for books about such topics bounded entirely by finance and ex-
in American society. It is no less hard pediency. / When I read that rather
to see why anyone should think pathetically hopeful suggestion, with a
readership a more suitable word than fairly long experience of Treasury m.,
readers. I could not help being reminded of the
old music-hall song 'You don't know
m e m o r a n d u m . PI. -da or, less Nelly like I do'. Possibly this pejorative
usually, -urns. The commercial abbre- use derives from that association of
viation memo, often pronounced memo, mental with patient, defective, hospital,
is best left unspoken. and the like which has made it a slang
mendacity, mendicity. The first is word for insane. It would be a striking
the conduct of a liar, the second that example of the waywardness of words
of a beggar. See PAIRS AND SNARES. if one that was formerly used for excess
of intellectuality ended by meaning
-ment. For differences between this an insufficiency of it. Perhaps it is
and -ion, see -ION AND -MENT. The destined to be superseded by psy-
stems to which -ment is normally chology, already used in the same
appended are those of verbs; freaks sense, as the slang mental is being
like oddment and funniment should not superseded by psycho. See POPULAR-
be made a precedent of; they are IZED TECHNICALITIES.
themselves due to misconception of
merriment, which is not from the ad-
jective, but from an obsolete verb Mephistopheles. The adjective is
merry to rejoice. Mephistophelean or Mephiswphë'lïan;
the latter perhaps more likely to last;
mentality. This word has been going See HERCULEAN.
through a strange experience. Origin-
ally it meant that which is of the nature mercy. For the tender mercies of, see
of mind, or mental action. In the 19th HACKNEYED PHRASES.
c. it was used in a narrower sense—
intellectual power. An insect's very mesembrianthemum should be so
limited m. / Pope is too intellectual and spelt. In a cumbrous word whose
has an excess of m. It was only in the length can only be excused if it is at
present century that it acquired its least significant to the learned, it is
meaning of 'mental character or dis- absurd not to correct the misspelling
position' (OED Supp.). 'First I would y for i; the y at once puts the Greek
give you an insight into his m.', said scholar off the track by suggesting
Holmes. 'It is a very unusual one—so embryo or bryony (Greek fipva> swell,
much so that I think his destination is burgeon), and forbids him to think of
more likely to be Broadmoor than the /xeaTj/zjSpta noon, which is what he
scaffold.' I It is useless to pretend that ought to be thinking of. When a word
there will be anything but hostility be- like rhyme that is familiar to everyone
tween the partners in industry so long as has settled itself into our hearts and
this m. persists. It is not easy to say minds with a wrong spelling, there is
why m. should have ousted for this much to be said for refraining from
purpose other serviceable words such correction; but with they of m. no one
as disposition, attitude, character, mind. has tender associations.
metal 359 metaphor
metàl, mettle, are the same word, ness of their nature as substitutes for
whose difference of spelling in its their literal equivalents, while others
figurative sense reflects a difference of are dead, i.e. have been so often used
meaning: metal the stuff of which a that speaker and hearer have ceased to
man is made, mettle the stuff of which be aware that the words used are not
a particular kind of man (or horse) is literal. But the line of distinction be-
made. Ophelia was of metal more tween the live and the dead is a shift-
attractive than Gertrude; Lady Mac- ing one, the dead being sometimes
beth was of undaunted mettle that liable, under the stimulus of an affinity
should compose nothing but males. or a repulsion, to galvanic stirrings
indistinguishable from life. Thus, in
metamorphosis. Generally ac- The men were sifting meal we have a
cented on the middle syllable (-mor-) ; literal use of sift; in Satan hath desired
but the more regular accent on -pho- to have you, that he may sift you as
is often heard. As m. seems to be wheat, sift is a live m.; in the sifting of
the only word in -osis irregularly ac- evidence, the m. is so familiar that it is
cented, and as it retains the classical about equal chances whether sifting or
plural (-oses, pronounced with -ëz), and examination will be used, and that a
as the -osis ending is now familiar in sieve is not present to the thought—
tuberculosis and other medical terms, it unless indeed someone conjures it up
may be expected to revert to mëtâmor- by saying All the evidence must first be
fd'sts; cf. metempsychosis, which is sifted with acid tests, or with the
stated by the OED to have formerly microscope. Under such a stimulus
had the accent on the -sy-, and has our m. turns out to have been not
now recovered. dead but dormant. The other word,
examine, will do well enough as an
metaphor. Our task when we are example of the real stone-dead m.;
returned to power will be to restore to the Latin examino, being from examen
agricidture the twin pillars of efficiency the tongue of a balance, meant ori-
and security. 'How infinite', wrote ginally to weigh; but, though weighing
Sir Winston Churchill long before is not done with acid tests or micro-
these words were spoken, 'is the debt scopes any more than sifting, examine
owed to metaphors by politicians who gives no convulsive twitches, like siftt
want to speak strongly but are not sure at finding itself in their company.
what they are going to say.' Hardly Examine, then, is dead m., and sift
less, as no one knows better than Sir only half dead, or three-quarters.
Winston, is the debt owed to metaphors 2 . Some pitfalls: A. Unsustained
by those who, knowing what they are m.; B . Overdone m.; C. Spoilt m.;
going to say, wish to illumine and D. Battles of the dead. E. Mixed m.
vivify it. Moreover, our vocabulary is 2 . A. Unsustained m. He was still
largely built on metaphors; we use in the middle of those 20 years of neglect
them, though perhaps not consciously, which only began to lift in 1868. The
whenever we speak or write. The plunge into m. at lift, which pre-
purpose of this article is to give some supposes a mist, is too sudden after
advice about the handling of this in- the literal 20 years of neglect; years,
dispensable but ticklish instrument. even gloomy years, do not lift. / The
See also CLICHÉ, means of education at the disposal of
I . Live and dead m. 2 . Some pitfalls. the Protestants and Presbyterians of the
3. Self-consciousness and mixed m. North were stunted and sterilized. The
4. For m. and simile, see SIMILE AND means at disposal indicates something
METAPHOR. too little vegetable or animal to consort
1. Live and dead m. In all discussion with the metaphorical verbs. Educa-
of m. it must be borne in mind that tion (personified) may be stunted, but
some metaphors are living, i.e. are means may not. / The measure of
offered and accepted with a conscious- Mr. A's shame does not consist in the
metaphor 360 metaphor
mere fact that he has announced his in- 2. C. Spoilt m. The essential merit
tention to ... Metaphorical measuring, of real or live m. being to add vivid-
like literal, requires a more accommo- ness to what is to be conveyed, it need
dating instrument than a stubborn hardly be said that accuracy of detail
fact. is even more needed in metaphorical
2. B . Overdone m. The days are than in literal expressions. The habit
perhaps past when a figure was de- of m., however, and the habit of
liberately chosen that could be worked accuracy do not always go together:
out with line upon line of relentless Yet Jaurès was the Samson who upheld
detail, and the following well-known the pillars of the Bloc. / Yet what more
specimen is from Richardson : Tost to distinguished names does the Anglican
and fro by the high winds of passionate Church of the last reign boast than those
control, I behold the desired port, the of F. D. Maurice, Kingsley, Stanley,
single state, into which I would fain Robertson of Brighton, and even, if we
steer; but am kept off by the foaming will draw our net a little wider, the
billows of a brother's and sister's envy, great Arnold? j He was the very essence
and by the raging winds of a supposed of cunning, and the incarnation of a
invaded authority; while I see in Love- book-thief. Samson's way with pillars
lace, the rocks on one hand, and in was not to uphold them ; we draw nets
Soltnes, the sands on the other; and closer, but cast them wider; and what
tremble, lest I should split upon the is the incarnation of a thief? Too, too
former or strike upon the latter. solid flesh indeed. Similarly a m. may
The present fashion is rather to be spoilt if so used that the picture it
develop a m. only by way of burlesque. is intended to evoke becomes incon-
All that need be asked of those who gruous or ridiculous. We must not
tend to this form of satire is to remem- allow ourselves to be stampeded into
ber that, while some metaphors do stagnation. / This is a virgin field preg-
seem to deserve such treatment, the nant with possibilities. / She drew the
number of times that the same joke teeth of Miss Reynolds's forehand with
can safely be made, even with varia- cross-court volleys. For other examples
tions, is limited. The limit has surely see BOTTLENECK, BREAKDOWN, CEILING,
been exceeded, for instance, with 'the and TARGET.
long arm of coincidence'; what pro- 2. D. Battles of dead metaphors. In
portion may this triplet of quotations The Covenanters took up arms there
bear to the number of times the thing is no m.; in The Covenanters flew to
has been done?—The long arm of arms there is one only—flew to for
coincidence throws the Slifers into quickly took up; in She flew to arms in
Mercedes's Cornish garden a little too defence of her darling there are two, the
heavily, j The author does not strain the arms being now metaphorical as well
muscles of coincidence's arm to bring as the flying. Moreover, the two meta-
them into relation. / Then the long arm phors are separate ones; but, being
of coincidence rolled up its sleeves and dead ones, and also not inconsistent
set to work with a rapidity and vigour with each other, they lie together
which defy description. quietly enough. But dead metaphors
Modern overdoing, apart from bur- will not lie quietly together if there was
lesque, is chiefly accidental, and results repugnance between them in life; e'en
not from too much care, but from too in their ashes live their wonted fires,
little: The most irreconcilable of Irish and they get up and fight: It is im-
landlords are beginning to recognize possible to crush the Government's aim
that we are on the eve of the dawn of a to restore the means of living and work-
new day in Ireland. On the eve of is ing freely. Crush for baffle, aim for
a dead m. for about to experience, and purpose, are both dead metaphors so
to complete it with the dawn of a day long as they are kept apart; but the
is as bad as to say It cost one pound juxtaposition forces on us the thought
sterling, ten, for one pound ten. that you cannot crush an aim. /
metaphor 361 metaphor
National military training is the bed- house in such a condition that it is
rock on which alone we can hope to always on a rock, oscillating between
carry through the great struggles which solvency and insolvency. What I have
the future may have in store for us. to do is to see that our house is built
Bedrock and carry through are both upon a solid foundation, never allow-
moribund or dormant, but not stone- ing the possibility of the Society's life-
dead. / The vogue of the motor car seems blood being sapped. Just in proportion
destined to help forward the provision of as you are careful in looking after the
good road communication, a feature condition of your income, just in pro-
which is sadly in arrear. Good road portion as you deal with them carefully,
communication may be a feature, and will the solidarity of the Society's
it may be in arrear, and yet a feature financial condition remain intact. Im-
cannot be in arrear ; things that are mediately you begin to play fast and
equal to the same thing may be equal loose with your income the first blow
to each other in geometry, but language at your financial stability will have
is not geometry. / They are cyphers been struck.
living under the shadow of a great man. 3. Self-consciousness and mixed m.
2. E. Mixed metaphors. For the The gentlemen of the Press regularly
examples given in D, tasteless word- devote a small percentage of their
selection is a fitter description than time to accusing each other of mixing
mixed m., since each of the words metaphors or announcing that they
that conflict with others is not intended are themselves about to do so (What a
as a m. at all. Mixed m. is more ap- mixture of metaphors! If we may mix our
propriate when one or both of the metaphors, or change the m.), the
terms can only be consciously meta- offence apparently being not to mix
phorical. Little warning is needed them, but to be unaware that you have
against it; it is so conspicuous as done it. The odd thing is that,
seldom to get into speech or print whether he is on the offensive or the
undetected. This is not the time to defensive, the writer who ventures to
throw up the sponge, when the enemy, talk of mixing metaphors often shows
already weakened and divided, are on that he does not know what mixed m.
the run to a new defensive position. is. Two typical examples of the offen-
A mixture of prize-ring and battle- sive follow: The Scotsman says: 'The
field. / The Rt. Hon. Gentleman is lead- crowded benches of the Ministerialists
ing the people over the precipice with contain the germs of disintegration. A
his head in the sand. A strange con- more ill-assorted majority could hardly
fusion between the behaviour of be conceived, and presently the Opposi-
Gadarene swine and that of ostriches. / tion must realize of what small account
There is every indication that Nigeria is the manoeuvring of the Free-Fooders
will be a tower of strength and will forge or of any other section of the party. If
ahead. A mixture of a fortress and a the sling be only properly handled, the
ship. / The Avon and Dorset River new Parliamentary Goliath will be over-
Board should not act like King Canute, thrown easily enough. The stone for the
bury its head in the sands, and ride sling must, however, be found on the
rough-shod over the interests of those Ministerial side of the House, and not
who live by the land and enjoy their on the Opposition side'. Apparently the
fishing. (A picture that staggers the stone for the sling will be a germ. But
imagination, and a libel on a great doubtless mixed feelings lead to mixed
king.) metaphors. / 'When the Chairman of
In the following extract from a Committees—a politician of their own
speech it is difficult to be sure how hue—allowed Mr. Maddison to move
many times metaphors are mixed; his amendment in favour of secular
readers versed in the mysteries of education, a decision which ivas not
oscillation may be able to decide: No quite in accordance with precedent, the
society, no community, can place its floodgates of sectarian controversy were
metaphor 362 metaphor
opened, and the apple of discord—the Edinburgh Compromise, by which thé
endowment of the gospel of Cowper- jam for the towns was that there were to
Temple—was thrown into the midst of be . . . When jam is used in three suc-
the House of Commons.'* What a mix- cessive sentences in its hackneyed
ture of metaphor! One pictures this sense of consolation, it need hardly be
gospel-apple battling with the stream considered in the middle one of them
released by the opened floodgates. a live m. at all. However, the as-good-
In the first passage, we are well rid as-dead m. of jam is capable of being
of the germs before we hear of the stimulated into life if anyone is so fool-
sling, and the mixture of metaphors ish as to bring into contact with it
is quite imaginary. Since literal another half-dead m. of its own (i.e.
benches often contain literal germs, the foodstuff) kind; and it was after all
but crowded benches and germs of dis- mixing metaphors to say the jam was
integration are here separate meta- a slice of pie. But then the way of
phors for a numerous party and escape was to withdraw either the jam
tendencies to disunion, our critic had or the pie, instead of forcing them to-
ready to his hand in the first sentence, gether down our throats with a ramrod
if he had but known it, something of apology. / Time sifts the richest
much more like a mixture of meta- granary, and posterity is a dainty feeder.
phors than what he mistakes for one. But LyalVs words, at any rate—to mix
In the second passage, the floodgates the metaphor—will escape the blue pen-
and the apple are successive meta- cil even of such drastic editors as they.
phors, unmixed; the mixing of them Since all three metaphors are live ones,
is done by the critic himself, not by and they are the sifter and the feeder,
the criticized; and as to gospel-apple, the working of these into grammatical
by which it is hinted that the mixture connexion with the blue pencil does
is triple, the original writer had merely undoubtedly mix metaphors. But then
mentioned in the gospel phrase the thing our author gives us to understand that
compared side by side with what it is he knows he is doing it, and surely that
compared to, as when one explains the is enough. Even so some liars reckon
Venice of the North by adding Stockholm. that a lie is no disgrace provided that
Writers who are on the defensive they wink at a bystander as they tell it;
apologize for change and mixture of even so those who are addicted to the
metaphors as though one was as bad phrase 'to use a vulgarism' expect to
as the other. The two things are in achieve the feat of being at once vulgar
fact entirely different. A man may andsuperiortovulgarity.(SeesuPERiOR-
change his metaphors as often as he ITY.) Certainly we cannot detect the sug-
likes; it is for him to judge whether gested lack of warmth in the speech as it
the result will or will not be unplea- is printed, for in his speech, as in the Prime
santly florid. But he should not ask our Minister's, it seems to us that (if we may
leave to do it; if the result is bad, his change the metaphor) exactly the right
apology will not mend matters, and note was struck. / It is essential, then,
if it is not bad no apology was called that the Labour Party should go into its
for. On the other hand, to mix meta- election campaign with the engine run-
phors, if the mixture is real, is an ning. And how better to get the engine
offence that should not have been running than to harry and snap (I say,
apologized for, but avoided. In either I am mixing my metaphors today: I
case the motive is the same—mortal hope you don't mind) at the Govern-
fear of being accused of mixed m. :— ment? Certainly, gentlemen, you may
. . . showed that Free Trade could change or mix your metaphors, if it
provide the jam without recourse being seems good to you; but you may also
had to Protective food-taxes; next came be pretty sure that, if you feel the
a period in which (to mix our meta- necessity of proclaiming the fact, you
phors) the jam was a nice slice of tariff had better have abstained from it. /
pie for everybody; but then came the Two of the trump cards played against
metaphysics 363 method
the Bill are (1) that 'it makes every justice in the criticism of the label
woman who pays a tax-collector in her 'metaphysical' invented by Dryden
own house*, and (2) that Ht will destroy and adopted by Johnson for Donne,
happy domestic relations in hundreds of Cowley, and their school, maintained
thousands of homes'; if we may at once that it was 'not inappropriately used
change our metaphor, these are the notes for the habit, common to this school
which are most consistently struck in the of poets, of always seeking to express
stream of letters, now printed day by something after, something behind,
day for our edification in the Mail. This the obvious first sense and suggestion
writer need not have asked our leave of a subject'.
to change from cards to music; he is Metaphysics is the branch of philo-
within his rights, anyhow, and the sophy that deals with the ultimate
odds are, indeed, that if he had not nature of things, or considers the
reminded us of the cards we should questions, What is the world of
have forgotten them in the three inter- things we know? (ontology) and, How
vening lines. But how did a person so do we know it? (epistemology), though
sensitive to change of m. fail to reflect some philosophers would confine the
that it is ill playing the piano in the term to the first. Such being the
water? A stream of letters, it is true, is subject of Metaphysics, it is not
only a picturesque way of saying many wonderful, in view of the infinity of
letters, and ordinarily a dead m.; but theories and subtlety of arguments
once put your seemingly dead yet evoked, that it should have come by
picturesque m. close to a piano that is some or all of the wrong acceptations
being played, and its notes wake the mentioned above.
dead—at any rate for readers who have
just had the word m. called to their meter, metre. The spelling of the
memories. measuring instrument (probably from
mete to measure out) is always meter.
RECESSIVE ACCENT has shortened the e
metaphysics and metaphysical are so
often used as quasi-learned and in its compounds such as chrono'meter,
vaguely depreciatory substitutes for speedo'meter, etc. For a discussion of
various other terms, for theory and the formation of some of these com-
theoretical, subtle(ty), (the) super- pounds See HYBRIDS AND MALFORMA-
natural, occult(ism), obscure and TIONS. For the unit of linear measure-
obscurity, philosophy and philosophic, ment and the term of prosody meter
academic(s), and so forth, that it is and metre are alternative spellings of
pardonable to forget that they have a the English equivalent of the Greek
real meaning of their own, especially noun pérpov, measure. Meter is the
as the usual resource of those who older and is preferred in U.S.; metre,
suddenly realize that their notion of a which comes to us through French, is
word's meaning is hazy—an appeal to preferred in Britain. But both coun-
its etymology—will not serve. It is tries use the older form for the prosody
agreed that Metaphysics owes its name compounds (hexameter, pentameter,
to the accident that the part of etc.) as well as for diameter and peri-
Aristotle's works that treated of meter', for the linear compounds we in
metaphysical questions stood after Britain ordinarily write -metre (centi-
(fiera) the part concerned with physics metre, millimetre, etc.), but are inclined
(T(1 <f>voi.Ka), and that the word'sto make an exception of kilo-', we
etymology is therefore devoid of sig- probably write kilometer as often as
nificance. It is indeed actually mis- kilometre, though not often enough for
leading if it suggests the inference, as the recessive accent to have established
it has to some, that m. is 'the science the pronunciation kilo'meter, some-
of things transcending what is physical times heard.
or natural'. Even Saintsbury, for method. For m. in madness, see
instance, though admitting some
IRRELEVANT ALLUSION.
meticulous 364 micro-organisms
meticulous. What is the strange with which he loved to elaborate his
charm that at one time made this wicked finely finished pictures. / Mr. , who
word irresistible to the British journa- has succumbed to the wounds inflicted
list? Did he like its length? Did he pity upon him ten days previously by a pet
its isolation (for it has no kindred in lion, had his fate foretold with m.
England) ? Could a Latin scholar like accuracy more than 2000 years ago by
him not get meticulosus out of his head ? the greatest Greek dramatist.
Could so accomplished a Frenchman
never be sure whether méticuleux or metonymy. Substitution of an attri-
m. was the word he knew so well? butive or other suggestive word for the
Or what was it? It is clear, first, that name of the person or thing meant, as
the word is not a piece of latinity when the Crown, Homer, wealth, stand
that cannot be forgotten. 'Ante- for the sovereign, Homer's poems, and
and post-classical' say Lewis and rich people. See PERSONIFICATION.
Short; that is, you may read your
Cicero and Virgil and Horace and metope. The word meaning part of a
Livy through and never meet it, and frieze and that meaning the front part
when it is unearthed in Plautus or of the face are derived from different
somewhere it means not what the Greek words; pronounce respectively
journalists made it mean, but just met'ôpê and met'dp.
frightened. It is the word for the timid
hare, or the man who is gibbering mews, originally a plural, but now
with fear {Nullust hoc meticulosus aeque used freely as singular with a, should
. . . Perii, pruriunt dentés—Was ever be content to serve both purposes. We
man in such a funk? . . . Lord, how have enough HOMOPHONES already
my teeth chatter!). Some centuries without adding such an ill-assorted
ago m. had that meaning, compre- pair as mewses and Muses.
hensible enough through the Latin miaow, miaul. It is better to be
metus (fear) to all who have learnt
any Latin, but not to others, since content with mew and caterwaul than
metus by some odd chance has given to multiply phonetic approximations.
no common words to English. But the miasma. See LATIN PLURALS.
word died out, and when it was resusci-
tated in the 19th c , it was given a mickle and muckle are merely vari-
new sense for which it was not in the ants of the same word, meaning a
least needed, and freely used as an large amount. The word for a small
unwanted synonym for careful, exact, amount is pickle, and the not uncom-
punctilious, scrupulous, precise, etc. It mon version Many a mickle makes a
would be idle to try to put it back into muckle is a blunder; the right forms
an etymological strait-jacket and to are Many a little (or Mony a pickle)
apply it only to the care that has its makes a mickle (or muckle), with other
origin in terror of being caught break- slight variations.
ing rules or misstating facts, but if it
is to escape the reproach of being a micro-organisms etc. M. is loosely
SUPERFLUOUS WORD it should at least used as a generic term for any animal
be confined to a degree of care, not or vegetable organism so small as to
necessarily excessive or fussy—we be invisible without magnification.
have pernickety for that—but greater Microbe and germ are also popularly
than what is implied by punctilious or used for any of the micro-organisms
scrupulous. The first of the two ex- that are associated with disease and
amples that follow illustrates the decomposition; so are bacteria and
legitimate use ; the second is ludicrous bacilli, but strictly these last are dis-
in that it excludes not merely the idea tinct types of the class of uni-cellular
of great care but even that of any care organisms known as schizomycetes.
at all. Gone is the wealth of m. detail Virus is the name given to a specially
minute organism that causes diseases
middle 365 minify
in man and other animals (e.g. polio- in ordinary use of the mathematical
myelitis and foot-and-mouth disease) French BILLION, which, like the
and in plants ; rickettsia is in many ways American, differs from the English in
similar to virus and some species cause being a thousand million, not a million
disease in man and other animals, e.g. million.
typhus.
million. 1 . A m. and a quarter, two
middle (article). Newspaper article millions and a half, rather than one and
of a kind so called from having stood a quarter million(s) and two and a half
between the leading articles and the millions; see HALF.
book reviews, and being a short essay 2 . Amongst the eight million are a few
usually of some literary pretensions on hundred to whom this does not apply.
some subject of permanent and general Here million and hundred are better
rather than topical or political interest. than millions and hundreds; but He
In the T L S , which preserves the died worth three millions rather than
term, it is in fact in the middle of the million; this because 'a million' is an
paper. established noun (as distinguished
from a mere numeral) in the sense
middling(ly). The -ly is unusual £1,000,000, but not in the sense a
and undesirable: a middling good crop; million people.
did middling well; it went only middling. 3. Forty-five million people rather
See UNIDIOMATIC - L Y . than forty-five millions of people (on
the analogy of dozen, score, hundred,
midwifery. Mï'dzvtfrï is perhaps and thousand); but, with a few and
usual, but both mïdwïf'ërï and mld'- many, millions of is perhaps the more
wtfri are also heard; cf. HOUSEWIFE. usual form.
See RECESSIVE ACCENT.
minacious, minatory. Both words
mighty. In the colloquialism m. fine smack of pedantry; but while the
etc., mightily should not be substi- first is serviceable only for POLY-
tuted. See UNIDIOMATIC -LY. SYLLABIC HUMOUR, the second is not
milage. See MUTE E. The rule there out of place in a formally rhetorical
suggested would make this the right context.
spelling, but mileage is probably more mine. For (my or) mine and your
usual ; some dictionaries give it only. future depends upon it etc., see ABSO-
millenarian, pertaining to, or a be- LUTE POSSESSIVES.
liever in, the millennium. The apparent mineralogy is a syncopated form
inconsistency in spelling (-«-, -tin-) re- (the syncopation done in French) for
sults from the fact that the millenarian, mineralology, and should not be
like millenary, does not contain the quoted in defence of proposed wrong
stem of the Latin annus, which is pre- forms in -alogy. See -LOGY.
sent in millennium ; if it were formed
from millennium, the form would be minify, minimize, diminish.
millenniarian. Millenarian strictly Minify is a badly formed and little
means thousander, not thousand- used word. It owes its existence to
yearer. Cf. CENTENARY. the desire for a neat opposite to the
correctly formed magnify, but is now
millenary. The standard pronuncia- chiefly used by people who, rightly
tion is mï'lïnârï; but see CENTENARY. enough offended by the extension of
milli-. See KILO-. minimize to improper meanings, are
too ready to catch at the first alterna-
milliard means a thousand millions; tive. A slight further search would
it is chiefly a French term, though bring them through minish (to which
perhaps advancing in general cur- the only—but fatal—objection is that
rency. In France it is the equivalent it is archaic) to diminish.
minimal 366 mis-
Minimize is both a rightly formed that a small m. (sense B) is in a con-
and a current word, but unfortunately siderable m. (sense A) or is the vast m.
current in more senses than it has any (sense C), both of which statements
right to. It should have been kept happen to sound absurd. Again, in
strictly to the limits imposed by its a Board of 51 a m. of one may be
derivation from minimus (not less or either 25 persons (A) or one person
little, but least), and therefore should (B). The point need not be laboured,
always have meant either to reduce to but should be appreciated. There is
the least possible amount (We must a tacit convention, in the interests of
minimize the friction) or to put at the lucidity, that adjectives naturally ap-
lowest possible estimate (it is your propriate to magnitude shall not be
interest to minimize his guilt). The used with m. to emphasize smallness
meaning 'lessen' given to minimize in of number, and another that a m. of
the following quotations flagrantly ig- one shall always mean one person.
nores the essential superlative element But the first is not always kept to:
by qualifying it adverbially : The utility With a considerable m. of the votes
of our convoy would have been consider- polled, the Tory Party have obtained a
ably minimized had it not included one clear and substantial majority over all
of these. / An open window or door other parties in the House. Oddly
would greatly minimize risk. enough, the newspaper whose own
Minify should be given up as a SUPER- words those are has this paragraph
FLUOUS WORD ; minimize should be kept about a fellow offender: Says a motor-
as near as may be to its proper senses; ing writer in a Sunday paper; 'It is
magnify should have as its opposite, time that the interests of the public at
in one of its senses diminish (the dimin- large were considered by attacking the
ishing end of the telescope), and in real evil—the dangerous and incon-
another underestimate (neither magnify siderate driver. Fortunately, he consti-
nor underestimate the difficulties). See tutes the vast minority of motor-car
also BELITTLE. owners and drivers'. We know what is
meant, but 'the vast minority' is a very
m i n i m a l . See MARGINAL, MINIMAL. unfortunate way of saying it. In the
m i n i m u m . PI. -ma. See -UM. first passage m. is used in sense A,
and in the second in sense C; but the
minister. The tendency to apply the convention is applicable to both or
word, in the sense m. of religion, to neither.
non-Anglicans and to avoid applying it
to Anglicans is noteworthy, seeing that Minotaur. Generally pronounced
m. is common in the Prayer-Book rub- mïn-, though the i is long in Greek and
rics. It is explained by historical circum- Latin; but see FALSE QUANTITY.
stances; m. was adopted as an accept- miocène. A typical example of the
able name 'at first chiefly by those who monstrosities with which scientific
objected to the terms priest and clergy- men in want of a label for something,
man as implying erroneous views of and indifferent to all beyond their own
the nature of the sacred office'—OED. province, defile the language. The
minor (in logic). See SYLLOGISM. elements of the word are Greek, but
not the way they are put together, nor
minority is like MAJORITY, only more the meaning demanded of the com-
so, in that odd tricks can be played pound. See HYBRIDS AND MALFORMA-
with its meanings. Corresponding to TIONS S.f.
the A, B , and C, of majority, m. has,
A, inferiority of number or fewerness m i s - . The OED hyphens mis- when
or pauciority, B , a party having that prefixed to a word beginning s, e.g.
quality, and C, less than half of any mis-spelt. But most modern dic-
set of people. 'More so', because, if tionaries write these as one word, and
one presses one's rights, one may say this is recommended. There is no
misalliance 367 misquotation
more need for a hyphen in a mis- That the COMITY of nations means
compound than in a dis- one, and the members of a sort of league.
these are always written as one word That PROPORTION is a sonorous im-
(dissatisfied, disservice, etc.). It might provement on part.
perhaps be argued that since miss, un- That SUBSTITUTE is an improvement
like diss, is a familiar word in its own on replace in the sense take the place of.
right, a hyphen is needed to avoid a That PROTAGONIST is an improve-
FALSE SCENT; but the half-dozen or so ment on champion and leader.
mis-s words in current use are too fami- That an EXCEPTION strengthens a
liar to call for this precaution. See rule.
HYPHENS. See also - s - , -ss-, -sss- 2 . That FRANKENSTEIN was a monster.
That a PRESCRIPTIVE RIGHT is an
misalliance, though formed after indefeasible right.
the French mesalliance, is so natural
an English word that it is free of the That to beg a question is to avoid
taint of gallicism, and should always giving a straight answer to one (PETITIO
PRINCIPII).
be preferred to the French spelling.
That any sort of a defence can pro-
misapprehensions of which many perly be called an ALIBI.
writers need to disabuse themselves. That FRUITION means becoming
Discussions will be found under the fruitful.
words printed in small capitals. That INFER means imply.
That a DEVIL'S advocate, or advocatus That COMPRISE means compose.
diaboli, is a tempter of the good, or
white washer of the bad, or the like. miscellany. Pronounce mï'sëlanï or
That a PERCENTAGE is a small part. mïsë'lânï; the OED puts the former
That a LEADING QUESTION is a search- first, and RECESSIVE ACCENT is in its
ing one. favour.
That cui BONO? means What is the miserere, misericord, hinged seat
good or use? in choir-stall. The first is labelled 'an
That One touch of NATURE makes the incorrect form' in the OED.
whole world kin means much the same
as A fellow-feeling makes one wondrous misogynist, -jinist is the usual pro-
kind. nunciation. See GREEK G.
That POLITY is a scholarly word for misprints to be guarded against.
policy. adverse and averse, casual and causal,
That more HONOUR^ in the breach casualty and causality, deprecate and
than the observance means more often depreciate, inculcate and inoculate,
broken than kept. interpellate and interpolate, justiciable
That King Canute thought he could and justifiable, personality and per-
stop the tide from flowing. sonalty, principal and principle, recourse
That madding in Gray's Far from the and resource and resort, reality and
m. crowd means 'distracting', (EN realty, risible and visible, -tion and -tive
VERBS s.v. mad.)
(e.g. a corrective and a correction), un-
That LEATHER and prunella are both informed and uniformed are common
shoddy material for clothes. confusions worth providing against by
That the natural manifestations of an care in writing and vigilance in proof-
inferiority COMPLEX are shyness and correcting. Concensus (non-existent)
diffidence. often appears instead of the real word
That many a MICKLE makes a muckle. consensus, and to signal out (non-
That a dead RECKONING means a existent in the sense meant) instead
reckoning that is dead right. of to single out. See also PAIRS AND
That ILK means clan or the like. SNARES.
That arithmetical, and geometrical,
PROGRESSION necessarily mean fast, misquotation. The correct words
and very fast, progress. of a few familiar sayings that are more
misquotation 368
»m-« -mm-
often wrongly than rightly quoted An ill-favoured thing, sir, but mine
may be useful. The misquoting of own (not poor).
phrases that have survived on their Let not him that girdeth on his harness
own merits out of little-read authors boast himself as he that putteth it off
(e.g. of Fine by degrees etc. from Prior, (not putteth).
usually changed to Small etc.) is a very That last infirmity of noble mind
venial offence; and indeed it is almost (not the . . . minds).
a pedantry to use the true form instead Make assurance double sure (not
of so established a wrong one ; it would doubly).
be absurd to demand that no one Tomorrow to fresh woods and pas-
should ever use a trite quotation with- tures new (not fields).
out testing its verbal accuracy. Again, The devil can cite Scripture for his
the established change made in the purpose (not quote).
Leave-noi-a-rack-behind quotation by A goodly apple rotten at the heart
shifting the baseless fabric of this vision (not core).
from some lines earlier into the place A fellow-feeling makes one wondrous
of another phrase that does not suit kind (not us).
general use so well, and the common Chewing the food of sweet and bitter
telescoping of Pride goeth before de- fancy (not cud).
struction and an haughty spirit before I am escaped with the skin of my
a fall, though most people no doubt teeth (not by).
make them without knowing what Passing rich with forty pounds a
they are doing, might reasonably year (not on).
enough be made knowingly, and He that complies against his will Is of
are no offence. But when a quota- his own opinion still (not who conse?its
tion comes from such a source as . . . the same).
a well-known play of Shakespeare, or Fine by degrees and beautifully less
Lycidas, or the Bible or Prayer Book, (not small).
to give it wrongly at least requires When Greeks joined Greeks, then was
excuse, and any great prevalence of the tug of war (not Greek meets Greek
such misquotation would prove us . . . comes).
discreditably ignorant of our own
literature. Nevertheless, such words Miss. The Misses Jones etc. is the
as A poor thing, but my own, are often old-fashioned plural, still used when
so much more used than the true form formality is required, e.g. in printed
that their accuracy is sure to be taken lists of guests present etc. ; elsewhere
for granted unless occasional attempts the Miss Joneses is now usual.
like the present are made to draw missile. Usually pronounced -ÏÏ in
attention to them. Britain; il in U.S. See -ILE.
Water water everywhere nor any
drop to drink (not and not a). mitigate. M. against for militate
And whispering I will ne'er consent against is a curiously common MALA-
consented (not vowing she would). PROPISM.
They kept the noiseless tenor of their mixed metaphor. See METAPHOR.
way (not even).
A little learning is a dangerous thing -m-, - m m - . Monosyllables ending
(not knowledge). in m double it before suffixes begin-
In the sweat of thy face shalt thou ning with a vowel if the m is preceded
eat bread (not brow). by a short vowel, but not if it is pre-
To gild refined gold, to paint the lily ceded by a long one or a vowel and r :
(not gild the lily). hammy, gemmed, dimmest, drummer',
Screw your courage to the sticking- but claimant, gloomy, worming. Words
place (not point). of more than one syllable follow the
I will a round unvarnished tale de- rule for monosyllables if their last
liver (not plain . . . relate). syllable is a word in composition, as
mocha 369 monarchical
bedimmed, overcramming, but otherwise it gets; and the substitution of either,
they do not double the m : bedlamite, which sometimes occurs, for INSTANT-
emblematic, pilgrimage, victimize, LY or immediately or at once is foolish
venomous, unbosomed, blossoming, bot- NOVELTY-HUNTING.
tomed, except that words in -gram do
double it (compare epigrammatic, monachal, monastic, monkish.
diagrammatic, with systematic). Each has its own abstract noun—
monachism, monasticism, monkery. Of
mocha, coffee or precious stone. the three sets monastic{ism) is the one
Pronounce mô'ka. that suits all contexts ; it is useful that
monkish and monkery should also exist,
model makes -lied, -lling, etc.; see as serving the purpose of those who
-LL-, -L-. The popular use of this wish to adopt a certain tone. Monachal
verb in the sense of to serve as what and monachism, though they would
used to be called a mannequin seems have passed well enough if monastic-
to date from mid-20th c. {ism) did not exist and were not much
better known, seem as it is to have no
modus vivendi (literally way of liv- recommendation unless it is a good
ing) is any temporary arrangement thing that scholars writing for scholars
that enables parties to carry on pending should have other names for things
settlement of a dispute that would than those generally current, even
otherwise paralyse their activities. though the meaning is the same. If
Pronounce modus vïvëndï. See LATIN that is, however, a bad thing, monachal
PHRASES.
and monachism should be allowed to
Mohammed(an). See MAHOMET. die.
moiety, apart from uses as a legal monadism, monism. Both terms
term and as a FORMAL WORD, exists owe their existence to the META-
merely for the delight of the ELEGANT- PHYSICAL problem of the relation be-
VARiATiONist in such triumphs as: tween mind and matter. The view
The Unionist candidate was returned that regards mind and matter as two
by exactly half the number of votes independent constituents of which the
polled, the other m. being divided be- universe is composed is called dualism.
tween a Labour and an Independent In contrast with dualism, any view
opponemt. that makes the universe consist of
mind with matter as a form of mind,
moire, moiré. Moire, or moire or of matter with mind as a form of
antique, is the name of the watered matter, or of a substance that in every
silk material; moiré is first an adjective part of it is neither mind nor matter
meaning watered like moire (often of but both, is called monism. Monadism
metal surfaces), and secondly a noun (Leibniz called in monadology) is the
meaning watered surface or effect. A name given to a particular form of
moire dress; velvets and moire antiques', monism, corresponding to the molecu-
a moiré surface; the moiré has been im- lar or atomic theory of matter (see
proved by using the blowpipe. ATOM), and holding that the universal
molecule. See ATOM.
substance (according to the third
variety of monism described in the
molten. See MELTED. preceding sentence) consists of units
called monads.
momentarily, momently. The first
means for a moment {he was momen- monarchical, -chic, -chal, -chial.
tarily abashed), the second from The first is the current form; -chic
moment to moment or every moment and -chal are occasionally used, the
{am momently expecting a call from first for antithetic purposes {the monar-
him). The differentiation is well chic, the aristocratic, and the democratic
worth more faithful observance than branches of our constitution) ; the second
monastic(ism) 370 moral(e)
with a slight rhetorical difference, merely a variant of mode, i.e. any one
where kingly might serve {the royal of the groups of forms in the conjuga-
harangue has a certain monarchal tone) ; tion of a verb that serve to show the
-ial seems superfluous. In all ch is mode or manner by which the action
pronounced k. denoted by the verb is represented—
indicative, imperative, and subjunctive.
monastic(ism). See MONACHAL.
mondial. See GLOBAL.
moral, adj. 1. For distinctions be-
tween m. and ethical, morals and
- m o n g e r . See WARMONGER. ethics, see ETHICAL. 2 . M. victory, m.
certainty. The first is often applied
m o n i s m . See MONADISM. to an event that is from another point
monk. For m. and friar, see FRIAR. of view a defeat; the second is always
applied to what is in fact an uncer-
monocle. That this, a HYBRID, a tainty. It is so easy to see why m.
GALLICISM, and a word with no obvious victory should mean what it does, and
meaning to the Englishman who hears so hard to see why m. certainty should,
it for the first time, should have ousted that anyone considering the point by
the entirely satisfactory eyeglass is a the mere light of nature is tempted to
melancholy illustration of the popular guess that m. certainty is the illegiti-
taste in language. See also QUIZ. mate offspring of m. victory, and per-
monologue. This and soliloquy are haps to abstain from using it as a sole-
precisely parallel terms of Greek and cism. The OED quotations show that,
Latin origin respectively; but usage on the contrary, it is much the older
tends to restrict soliloquy to talking to of the two phrases; and though this
oneself or thinking aloud without peculiar sense of PRACTICAL or virtual
consciousness of an audience whether in combination with certainty is hard
one is in fact overheard or not, to account for, it is established as
while monologue, though not re- idiomatic.
stricted to a single person's dis-
course that is meant to be heard, has moral(e), n. During the first world
that sense much more often than not, war, when the quality denoted by this
and is especially used of a talker who word was naturally much talked about,
monopolizes conversation, or of a there was no little confusion about
dramatic performance or recitation in how the word should be spelt. The
which there is one actor only. following comments were written at
that time, and the spelling morale,
monosyllabic. His m. answer was advocated in them, has now prevailed.
'Nonsense'. This must have been a The case for the spelling moral is that
remarkable feat of articulation. M. (1) the French use the word moral for
bears its precise meaning too plainly what we used to call morale, and
on its face to be a suitable subject for therefore we ought to do the same;
an experiment in SLIPSHOD EXTENSION. and that (2) the French use morale to
monotonie, -nous. The secondary mean something different from what
sense of monotonous (same or tedious) we mean by it.
has so nearly swallowed up its primary The case against moral is (1) that it is
(of one pitch or tone) that it is well a new word, less comprehensible to
worth while to remember the existence ordinary people, even after its war-
of monotonie, which has the primary time currency, than the old morale;
sense only. In -ic the accent is on the (2) that it must always be dressed in
third syllable, in -ous on the second. italics owing to the occasional danger
of confusion with the English word
mood. It may save misconceptions moral, and that such artificial pre-
to mention that the grammar word has cautions are never kept up; (3) that
nothing to do with the native word half of us do not know whether to call
meaning frame of mind etc.; it is it mb'ràl, môrâ'l, or môrah'l, and that
moral(e) 371
it is a recognized English custom to more. 1. For limitations on the use
resolve such doubts by the addition of of the more, see THE 6, 7. 2 . For the
-e or some other change of spelling. common confusion between much m.
The view here taken is that the case and much less, see MUCH 2 . 3 . M.
for moral is extraordinarily weak, and than one, though its sense is necessarily
the case against it decidedly strong, plural, is treated as a sort of com-
and in fact that the question is simply pound of one, and follows its con-
one between true pedantry and true struction; it agrees with a singular
English. A few remarks may be made noun and takes a singular verb : m. t. 0.
on the points already summarized. workman was killed, m. t. 0. was killed,
Here are two extracts from book- not workmen or were. 4 . For m. and m.
reviews in The Times: He persistently than see THAN 7. 5 . For m. in sorrow
spells moral (state of mind of the troops, than in anger, see HACKNEYED PHRASES.
not their morality) with a final e, a sign 6. The new dock scheme affects the
of ignorance of French. / The purist in whole of the northern bank of the
language might quarrel with Mr. 's Thames in a more or less degree. This is
title for this book on the psychology of wrong because, though a less degree is
war, for he means by morale not 'ethics' English, a m. degree is not; and the
or 'moralphilosophy', but 'the temper of reason for that again is that while LESS
a people expressing itself in action'. But still preserves to a certain extent its
no doubt there is authority for the per- true adjectival use ( = smaller) as well
version of the French word. Is it either as its quasi-adjectival use(= a smaller
ignorance of French or a perversion amount of), the former use of m. ( —
of the French word ? Or would a truer larger) has long been obsolete, and it
account of the matter be that we have retains only the latter sense, namely a
never had anything to do with the larger amount of. Less butter, less
French word morale (ethics, morality, courage, a less degree, and even a less
a moral, etc.)> but that we found the price, are possible; but not a m.
French word moral (state of discipline degree or a m. price, only m. butter or
and spirit in armies and the like) courage. The m. part, and More's the
suited to our needs, and put an -e on pity, are mentioned by the OED as
to it to keep its sound distinct from survivals of the otherwise obsolete
that of our own word moral, just as we sense and the former seems since to
have done with the French local (Eng- have become extinct. 7. Writers
lish locale) and the German Choral trying to tell their readers by how
(English chorale), and as, using con- much something is m., or less, than
trary means for the same end of fixing something else occasionally puzzle
a sound, we have turned French diplo- them by departing from ordinary
mate into English diplomat} Our Eng- arithmetical terminology. Our sales
lish forte (geniality is not his forte, etc.) during the first six months of this
is altered from the French fort without year have been three times m. than in
even the advantage of either keeping the corresponding period last year. If
the French sound or distinguishing the writer intended the literal meaning
the spoken word from our fort', but of his words—that the sales had
who proposes to sacrifice the reader's quadrupled—he chose a clumsy way of
convenience by correcting its 'ignor- putting it. If he meant, as he prob-
ant' spelling? ably did, that they had trebled, he
The right course is to make the Eng- should have said three times, or three
lish word morale, use ordinary type, times as much as, those in the previous
call it morah'l, and ignore or abstain period. Or again, Domesday gross
from the French word morale, of incomes must be multiplied fifty times
which we have no need. See for other to give the 1938 equivalent, and The
examples of pedantry with French degree of radiation would be thirty
words, A L'OUTRANCE and DOUBLE times less than that fixed by security
ENTENDRE; cf. also GUERILLA. measures. Do these mean that the
morning 372 mot
incomes must be multiplied by fifty the person who pledges his pro-
and that the radiation is one-thirtieth perty in order to get the loan. But, as
of the permissible ? If so, why not say the owner of a mortgaged estate is
so, and make all plain? If we are to often himself described as 'mortgaged
accept this new idiom, what are we to up to the eyes' etc., and as -ee sug-
call less than a thirtieth? More than gests the passive, and -or the active
thirty times less or less than thirty party, those who are not familiar with
times less? the terms are apt to have the meanings
Cinema attendances were m. than reversed in their minds.
halved this year may perhaps pass ; it
is unambiguous but not the happiest mortician as a euphemism for un-
way of saying that the attendances dertaker is a U.S. GENTEELISM. Our
were less than half. The same in- equivalent is funeral furnisher or
dulgence cannot be given to the director.
advertisement Architect will, in spare
time, survey, plan, and execute all work mortise, -ice. The first is better. In
for m. than moderate fees. But the m. and tenon, the m. is the receiving
advertiser may have been arming cavity.
himself with a defence against clients moslem, muslim. The OED treats
aggrieved by his charges. the first as the ordinary English form,
For other misuses of mathematical but muslim has since gained on it.
terms see N (to the nth), HALF 3, and M. can be used as adjective or as
PROGRESSION. noun, and the plural of the noun is
preferably -ms, but sometimes the
morning. M. Service, M. Prayer, same as the singular; the use of the
Matins. The first is perhaps the usual plural moslemin or muslimin is sheer
unofficial term; the other two are DIDACTICISM. The proper pronuncia-
official, and the last is especially in tion is mûslim, like muslin; the mooslim
High-Church and musical use. Simi- we often hear is as absurd as the
larly Evening Service, Evening Prayer, similar mispronunciation of TRUFFLE.
Evensong. See also MATINS.
mosquito. PI. -oes is more usual; see
morphia, morphine. The meaning -O(E)S 1.
is the same, the second being the
scientific term, but the first surviving most(ly). 1 . The internecine conflict
in ordinary use. has largely killed sentiment for any of
the factions, and the Powers mostly
mortal. For all that was m. of, and concerned have simply looked on with
the m. remains of, see HACKNEYED a determination to localize the fighting.
PHRASES, AND STOCK PATHOS The only idiomatic sense of mostly is
for the most part ( The goods are mostly
mortgagee, -ger, -gor. 1. As the sent abroad. J Twenty-seven millions,
word mortgager is one that could be mostly fools). But it is often wrongly
formed at will from the verb mortgage used for most, as in the quotation; see
even if it were not recorded (as it is), UNIDIOMATIC -LY.
the maintenance of the form -gor, 2 . As a curtailed form of almost,
pronounced -jor, seems anomalous;
the only other English words in which most is a common American collo-
g is soft before a or o or u are perhaps quialism, especially for qualifying
comprehensive adverbs and pronouns
GAOL and its derivatives, and the de-
batable MARGARINE. But lawyers al- such as always, everyone, anything, but
ways like, if they can, to call the person is rarely heard in Britain outside
doing something -or and the person he rustic speech.
does it to -ee. 2 . The mortgagee is the mot. The mot juste is an expression
person who lends money on the se- which readers would like to buy of
curity of an estate, the mortgagor writers who use it, as one buys one's
moth 373
neighbour's bantam cock for the sake way of saying 'What made you do it?'
of hearing its voice no more. It took The latest duty assigned to motivation
a long time to get into the dictionaries, is to serve, not very suitably, as a
French or English (even in 1933 the slogan word for an industrial tech-
SOED had nothing to say about it), nique that aims at instilling into
and those who wanted to know more workers a consciousness of the identity
had to be content to associate it vaguely of their interests with those of their
with Flaubert. The COD has since employers.
defined it as 'the expression that con-
veys a desired shade of meaning with motive. The victorious party has
more precision than any other'. If that every m. in claiming that it is acting not
is so the m.j. seems a trifle long in : The against the Constitution, but in its de-
epitaph which she zero te for herself at an fence. We may say an or every interest
early age contains the mot juste: 'Here in doing, but it must be a or every m.
lies Sylvia Scarlett, who was always for doing. See ANALOGY, and CAST-
running away. If she has to live all over IRON IDIOM.
again and be the same girl, she accepts no
responsibility for anything that may motorcade. See CAVALCADE.
occur'.
motto. For synonymy, see SIGN.
moth. The collective use of m. in the PL -oes, see -O(E)S I ; adj. motto'd,
senses of moths or the m. or the see -ED AND 'D.
ravages of moths {furs harbour m.', m.
is the most destructive of these; proof moujik, muzhik. Pronounce mo~5'-
against m.; to prevent m.) is neither zhïk. The first is the established form,
denned nor illustrated in the OED, and correction to the second does no
but is now common. The well-known one any good and perplexes those who
Bible passage, however, on which this have just come to know what the old
use is perhaps based {where moth and word means; see DIDACTICISM.
rust doth corrupt etc.), cannot in fact be
quoted in defence of it, since in it one mould. The three common words
may suppose the rhetorical omission so spelt (shape n. and v.; earth;
of the article that is common enough fungous growth) are probably all un-
in paired or contrasted phrases {eye connected; but the identity of form
hath not seen, nor ear heard), which has has no doubt caused the second to be
no resemblance to the examples of m. tinged with the meaning of the third,
as a collective given above. and the original notion of powdery
earth has had associated with it the
mother. For the M. of Parliaments, extraneous one of rottenness. See
see SOBRIQUETS. TRUE AND FALSE ETYMOLOGY.
mother-in-law. See -IN-LAW. movies. Americans go to the m.
mother-of-pearl, -o'-pearl. The English people, after a half-hearted
dictionaries favour the of form; the experiment with flicks, now go either
other gives what used to be the to the pictures or to the cinema.
ordinary pronunciation but is dis-
appearing with the general tendency mow. 1. The noun meaning heap of
to make pronunciation conform to hay or corn, and the noun or verb
spelling. meaning grimace (as in mop and mow).
Despite the dictionaries, which prefer
motivat(e)(ion). These importa- the pronunciation rhyming with how,
tions from U.S. are not without most people who use these words prob-
their uses, but under the influence ably pronounce them mo, like the verb
Of LOVE OF THE LONG WORD t h e y meaning to cut grass. 2 . The p.p.
have become too popular. What of this verb, when used as an ad-
motivated your action? is not a good jective, should be mown {the mown,
M.P. 374 much
not mowed, grass; new-mown etc.); 'technically', and the distinction be-
when it is verbal, both forms are cur- tween 'effect' and 'expression' must be
rent (the lawn was mown, or mowed, made clear. It will be a year before it is
yesterday). done; the effect of that is negative,
since it means that the thing will not
M . P . Four forms are wanted: ordin- be finished in less than twelve months;
ary singular, ordinary plural, posses- but its expression is affirmative,
sive singular, and possessive plural. there being no negative word in
They are easily supplied : M.P. (He is it. It is not possible to do it under a
a(n) M.P.; M.P.s (M.P.s now travel year; the effect and the expression of
free); M.P.'s (What is your M.P.'s that are obviously both negative. It
name?); M.P.s' (What about an in- is impossible to do it under a year;
crease in M.P.s' salaries?). The follow- the effect of that is negative, but the
ing newspaper extract contains two of expression is technically affirmative.
the parts, but represents them both by Though there is no difference in
the same form, and that one belonging meaning between the last two, the
to another: difference of expression decides be-
M.P.'S PIGEON RACE tween more and less: It is not pos-
A pigeon race, organized by M.P.'s, sible to do it under a year, m. less in
took place on Saturday. Read M.P.S' six months; It is impossible to do it
for the first and M.P.s for the second. under a year, m. more in six months.
What governs the decision is the
Mr, M r s . See PERIOD IN ABBREVIA- words required to fill up the ellipsis:
TIONS for the question whether Mr It is not possible to do it under a year,
and Mrs or Mr. and Mrs. are better. much ? (is it possible to do it) in six
months; It is impossible to do it under
much. i . For the use of m. rather a year, much ? (is it impossible) to
than very with participles (m. pleased do it in six months.
etc.), see VERY. Careless writers make the mistake of
2 . M. more and m. less. The adverbs letting the general effect run away
more, and less, are used in combination with them instead of considering the
with m. or still to convey that a state- expression. In the example that has
ment that is being or has been made just been worked out the fault is a
about something already mentioned slight one, because the wrong filling
applies more forcibly yet to the thing up of the ellipsis (is it possible instead
still to be mentioned: The abbreviat- of is it impossible) is so easy as to seem
ing, m. more the garbling, of documents no less natural to the reader than to
does great harm. / Garbling was not the writer. In less simple examples
permitted, m. less encouraged. The the fault is much more glaring. In all
choice between more and less is under the following quotations more should
some circumstances a matter of diffi- have been written instead of less.
culty even for those who are willing to It is a full day's work even to open, m.
be at the pains of avoiding illogicality, less to acknowledge, all the presents, the
and a trap for those who are not. letters, and the telegrams, which arrive
With sentences that are affirmative on these occasions. The (concealed)
both in effect and in expression it is negative effect is: You coxdd not open
plain sailing; m. more is invariable. them under a day; but the expression
With sentences that are negative in is actually, not merely technically,
expression as well as in effect there is affirmative, and the words to be sup-
as little doubt; m. less is invariable: / plied are is it a full day's work, j The
did not even see him, m. less shake hands machine must be crushed before any real
with him. It is when the effect is nega- reforms can be initiated, m. less carried.
tive, but the expression affirmative, Negative effect : You cannot initiate till
even if only technically affirmative, the machine is crushed. Expression,
that doubts arise. The meaning of fully affirmative. / But of real invert-
muchly 375 must
tion and spontaneity, m. less anything the proper sense of half-caste and Eura-
approaching what might be classed as sian, the latter being a polite substitute
inspiration, there is little enough. Ex- for the former. Anglo-Indian, again,
pression technically affirmative. / It would properly mean a half-caste, and
would be impossible for any ruler in is now sometimes preferred in that
these circumstances, m. less a ruler who sense to Eurasian as a further step in
was convinced of his own infallibility, politeness ; but its traditional meaning
to guide the destinies of an empire. is an Englishman who has spent most
Supply would it be impossible for before of his life in India.
choosing between more and less. / I Coloured persons is the term applied
confess myself altogether unable to for- in South Africa to those of mixed
mulate such a principle, m. less to prove white and native blood.
it. Supply unable.
M. less, where m. more is required, multitude. For number with nouns
is in fact so common that it must be of multitude see NUMBER 6.
classed among the STURDY INDE-
m u m p s . Usually treated as singular;
FENSIBLES. For similar confusion be- See PLURAL ANOMALIES.
tween still less and still more see
LESS 2 . must as a noun. Apart from its occa-
sional appearance in obvious ap-
muchly. See UNIDIOMATIC -LY. plications (the OED quotes from
mucous, -eus. The first is the ad- Dekker, M. is for kings and obedience
jective (m. membrane), the second the for underlings), the use of m. as a
noun. noun in the sense of compelling
obligation, necessity, sine qua non, is
Muhammad(an). See MAHOMET. modern. It has become a common
colloquialism {Presentation at Court
mulatto (pi. -05) and other words of used to be a m.for debutantes. / Another
race mixture. m. for viewers is tonight's play) and
1. M., half-breed, half-caste, Eura- may be found in serious writing. The
sian, all denote individuals of mixed OED quotes The absolute m. of duty
race, but each has a more special and'right{1885) ; more recent examples,
application from or to which it has which show that the usage may still be
been widened or narrowed. These are : felt to need probationary inverted
m., white and negro; half-breed, commas, are: Professional activity,
American-Indian and white or negro; then, is characterized by necessity, be it
half-caste, European and Indian; the 'must' of nature and society or the
Eurasian, European and Asian. 'must' and 'ought* of ambition and
2 . M., quadroon, octoroon. The first conscience. / The Englishman cannot
is the offspring of a white and a negro ; find time to read the hundreds of his own
the second that of a white and a countrymen whose writings are a 'must'.
mulatto, having a quarter negro I The Chairman of the National Coal
blood; the third that of a white and Board said that it was a 'must' for the
a quadroon, having an eighth negro coal mining industry to get into the black
(etc.) blood. this year. There are indeed signs that
3. Creole does not imply mixture of must in this sense is an incipient
race, but denotes a person either of VOGUE WORD.
European or (now rarely) of negro
descent born and naturalized in cer- must, need. The following ques-
tain West-Indian and American coun- tions with their positive and negative
tries. answers illustrate a point of idiom—
4 . Half-caste, Eurasian, Anglo-Indian, Must it be so ? Yes, it must ; No, it need
are all sometimes used of persons not. I Need I do it? No, you need not;
whose descent is partly British or other Yes, you must. For needs must see
European and partly Indian. That is NEED.
mustachio 376 mute e
mustachio. PI. -os, see -O(E)S 4. M. realize that some of the items stand
is now archaic for moustache. The for thousands, some for hundreds, and
adjective derived from it, mustachio'd some for dozens, of similar cases.
(see -ED and 'D) survived for a time, Does pale make paleish or palish ; love,
but its facetious flavour grew stale; loveing or loving, loveable or lovable',
now it too is rarely used, and we say strive, striveing or striving; excite,
more simply and more sensibly mou- exciteable or excitable; move, moveable
stached or with a moustache. or movable; like, likely or likly; dote,
muster. Dental treatment was also doteard or dotard; judge, judgement
kept very prominently before their con- or judgment; hinge, hingeing or hinging;
sideration, so that, at the time of the singe, singeing or singing; gauge,
Armistice, the general condition of these gaugeable or gaugable; notice, notice-
women's mouths would pass a very fair able or noticable; mouse, mousey or
m. M. in the phrase pass m. means an mousy; change, changeing or changing,
inspection; and to pass an inspection changeling or changling; hie, hieing or
very fairly is quite a different thing hiing; glue, gluey or gluy; due, duely or
from passing a very fair inspection. duly; blue, blueish or bluish; whole,
Pass m. is one of the many idioms that wholely or wholly}
must be taken as they are or left alone. The only satisfactory rule, excep-
tions to which need be very few, would
mute e. Needless uncertainty pre- be this: If the suffix begins with a
vails about the spelling of inflexions consonant, the mute e should be re-
and derivatives formed from words tained ; if the suffix begins with a vowel,
ending in mute e. Is this -e to be re- the mute e should be dropped. Apply-
tained, or omitted? It is a question ing this to the list above, we get (with
that arises in thousands of words, and the wrong results in italics as a basis
especially in many that are not sepa- for exceptions); palish; loving; lov-
rately recorded in the dictionaries, so able; striving; excitable; movable;
that the timid speller cannot get it likely; dotard; judgement; hinging;
answered in a hurry. It is also one to singing; gaugàble; noticable; mousy;
which different answers are possible; changing; changeling; hiing; gluy;
every dictionary-maker probably duely; bluish; wholely.
thinks that if he were recording all The chief exception {gaugeable,
words with an internal-mute-e prob- noticeable, singeing) is that e remains
lem he would answer the question with even before a vowel when the soft
paternal but arbitrary wisdom for sound of c or g is to be indicated in the
each word; but he also knows that it spelling (as before -able, where it
would be absurd for him to attempt to would normally be hard), or where the
give even all those that are likely to e must be retained to distinguish the
be wanted. The need is not for such word from another (e.g. singeing from
a gigantic undertaking, but for a rule singing, dyeing from dying, holey from
of the simplest kind and with the holy and routeing from routing). There
fewest exceptions, to deliver us from need be no other general exceptions;
the present chaos: the dictionary- duly, truly, and wholly, are individual
makers are not agreed about the spell- ones merely; so is acreage (see SPELL-
ing even of such common words as ING POINTS 4 ) ; hieing is specially so
blam{e)able, lik(e)able, saleable, size- spelt to avoid consecutive is, much
able, and tam{e)able, and in the rulings as clayey has an e actually inserted to
even of a single authority may be separate two y$; and gluey, bluey, are
found such seemingly arbitrary dis- due to fear that gluy, bluy, may be
tinctions as lateish but whitish, ageing pronounced like guy and buy.
but icing. For practical purposes, then, a single
To get an idea of the number of rule, with a single exception, would
words concerned, the reader should suffice—stated again below. The only
consider the following questions, and sacrifice involved would be that of the
mute e 377 mutual
power (most arbitrarily and incon- wish to use adjectives in -able not given
sistently exercised at present) of in- separately in the dictionaries.
dicating the sound of an earlier vowel For similar problems with adjectives
by insertion or omission of the e ending -y and verbs ending -ye see
{mileage for fear that milage may be -EY AND -Y IN ADJECTIVES a n d VERBS IN
pronounced mil-). The history of -IE, - Y , AND -YE J.
dispiteous is perhaps the best com-
ment; from despite came despitous mutual is a well-known trap. The
(dïspï'tus); when the spelling changed essence of its meaning is that it in-
to despiteous the pronunciation changed volves the relation x is or does to y
to dispî'tïus, and out of this came a as y to x, and not the relation x is
false association with piteous, cutting or does to z as y to z. From this it
the word off from its etymology and follows that our mutual friend Jones
attaching it to pity instead of to (meaning Jones who is your friend as
spite. well as mine), and all similar phrases,
are misuses of m. An example of the
RULE mistake, which is very common, is:
When a suffix is added to a word On the other hand, if we [i.e. the
ending in mute e, the mute e should Western Powers] merely sat with our
be dropped before a vowel, but not arms folded there would be a peaceful
before a consonant. penetration of Russia by the country
[i.e. Germany] which was the mutual
EXCEPTION enemy [i.e. of both Russia and the
The e should be kept even before a Western Powers]. In such places
vowel if it is needed to indicate the common is the right word, and the use
soft sound of a preceding g or c or to of m. betrays ignorance of its meaning.
distinguish a word from another with It should be added, however, that m.
the same spelling. was formerly used much more loosely
than it now is, and that the OED, giv-
EXAMPLES ing examples of such looseness, goes no
change, changeling, changing, change- further in condemnation than 'Com-
able; singe, singeing', hinge, hinging', monly censured as incorrect, but still
trace, traceable; move, movable; horse, often used in the collocations m. friend,
horsy; strive, striving; pale, palish; m. acquaintance, on account of the
judge, judgement. ambiguity of common'. The Dickens
It is not suggested that this rule title has no doubt much to do with the
could now be applied universally; currency of m. friend. Perhaps it
there are some words in which an should now be regarded as qualifying
unnecessary e is too firmly entrenched for admission to the STURDY INDE-
to be dislodged. For instance the FENSIBLES.
Scottish word timeous is ordinarily Another fault is of a different kind,
so spelt; mileage has established a betraying not ignorance, but lack of
strong position against milage ; rateable the taste or care that should prevent
has been adopted as the official one from saying twice over what it
spelling (though The Times with com- suffices to say once. This happens
mendable boldness prefers ratable), when m. is combined with some part
and ageing is usually so written, of each other, as in : It is this fraternity
with the authority of the OED, of Parliament-men serving a common
though it is not clear why we should cause, mutually comprehending each
so spell it when we are content to other's problems and difficulties, and
write raging. But the rule would at respecting each other's rights and liber-
least settle the question for the very ties, which is the foundation of the
large number of words whose spelling structure. It may fairly be said that the
is still in the balance, and would give sole function of mutually) is to give
much needed guidance to those who the sense of some part of each other
muzhik 378 naïf
when it happens to be hard to get each sons, actions, or events, and embody-
other into one's sentence. If each other ing some popular idea concerning
is got in, m. is superfluous; in the natural or historical phenomena.' By
quotation it adds nothing whatever, those who wished to mark their adher-
and is the merest tautology. ence to this original sense the word was
A few bad specimens follow: The sometimes pronounced mxth. But to-
ring was mutually chosen by the Duke day the meaning popularly attached to
and Lady Elisabeth last Wednesday. \ the word is little more than a tale
They have affinities beyond a m. ad- devoid of truth or a non-existent per-
miration for Mazzini. / It involves . . . son or thing or event; always in these
m. semi-bankruptcy of employers and senses, and usually even in the original
employed. one, the pronunciation is now mïth.
For the distinction between m. and
reciprocal» see RECIPROCAL.
muzhik. See MOUJIK.
N
n. To the nth. As a mathematical
my. For my and your work etc. (not symbol, n means an unspecified num-
mine)y see ABSOLUTE POSSESSIVES. ber; it is a dummy occupying a place
until its unknown principal comes
mynheer, mein Herr, Herr. The along, or a masquerader who on throw-
first is Dutch and can mean sir or Mr; ing off the mask may turn out to be
the second is German for sir; the third anything. It does not mean an infi-
is German for gentleman and Mr. nite number, nor the greatest possible
number, nor necessarily even a large
myriad is generally used of a great number, but simply the particular
but indefinite number; but it is well number that we may find ourselves
to remember that its original sense, concerned with when we come to
still occasionally effective, is ten details; it is short for 'one or two or
thousand. three or whatever the number may
myself. For misuses of myself see be'. It follows that the common use
SELF.
of to the nth for to the utmost possible
extent ( The Neapolitan is an Italian to
mystic has been much slower than the nth degree. / Minerva was starched
mysterious in becoming a popular to the nth) is wrong. It is true that
word and thereby losing its definitely sentences can be constructed in which
spiritual or occult or theological im- the popular and the mathematical
plications. Everything that puzzles senses are reconciled {Though the force
one has long been called mysterious were increased to the nth, it would not
(who committed the latest murder, avail), and here, no doubt, from the
for instance), but not mystic. It is idea of something indefinitely large,
very desirable that mystic should be the origin of the misuse is to be found.
kept as long as possible from such Those who talk in mathematical lan-
VULGARIZATION. Unfortunately the guage without knowing mathematics go
NOVELTY-HUNTERS, tired of mysterious, out of their way to exhibit ignorance.
have now got hold of it: But I don't Similar misuses, though more par-
want to be mystic, and you shall hear donable because they do not profess
the facts and judge me afterwards. to employ the precise language of
mathematics, are to a DEGREE for to the
myth, from Gr. fivdos, legend, is a last degree and to have a temperature
word introduced into English little for to be FEVERISH. These have won
more than a century ago as a name for the status of STURDY INDEFENSIBLES.
a form of story characteristic of primi- See MORE 7 and PROGRESSION for other
tive peoples and thus defined by the misuses of mathematical terms.
OED: 'A purely fictitious narrative
usually involving supernatural per- naïf, naïve, naïveté, naïvety. If
nail 379 names and appellations
we were now adopting the French ad- sertion; all the quotations up to 1700
jective for the first time, and were are without it, and all after 1700 have
proposing not to distinguish between it; it is better omitted.
masculine and feminine, but to choose
either - / or -ve for all uses, something names and appellations. 'How now,
might be said for the masculine form daughter and cousin', was the greeting
(in spite of pensive, effective, etc.) as be- given to Celia and Rosalind by Duke
ing the French word before inflexion. Frederick, who afterwards, with more
But both forms have been with us for precision, admonished the latter 'You,
centuries representing both genders, niece, provide yourself' ; 'Thou bringst
and it is undeniable that naive is now the me peace and happiness, son John'
prevalent spelling, and the use of naif said Henry IV; 'Prepare her, wife,
(either in all contexts or whenever the against this wedding-day' said Capu-
gender is not conspicuously feminine) is let. Except for father, mother, grand-
a conscious correction of other people's father, and grandmother, this custom
supposed errors. Such corrections are of using a relationship-term by way of
pedantic when they are needless; on direct address disappeared gradually
the needlessness of correcting estab- during the 19th c ; husband and zvife
lished misspellings of foreign words, seem to have been the first to go and
see MORALE. uncle, aunt, and sister (often abbre-
The slowness with which the viated to sis) to have lasted longest.
naturalization of the words has pro- So far as disparity of age makes it
ceeded is curious and regrettable. For seemly for us still to use these terms in
it will hardly be denied that they speaking to our relations we now
deserve a warm welcome as supplying ordinarily add the Christian name—-
a shade of meaning not provided by Uncle John, Auntiie) Mary, Cousin
the nearest single English words. The Tom—though not, as was often done
OED definition, for instance, 'Natural, until comparatively recently, the sur-
unaffected, simple, artless', clearly name—Uncle Smith and Aunt Jones.
omits elements—the actor's uncon- Though father and mother are still in
sciousness and the observer's amuse- use, the more affectionate alternatives
ment—that are essential to the ordinary papa and mamma, long current, have
man's idea of naïveté. Unconsciously been superseded by daddy and mum-
and amusingly simple; naive means my, and are now only used as deliberate
not less than that, and is therefore revivals. The Victorian schoolboy's
a valuable word. But, as long as the words for his parents, pater (or gover-
majority of Englishmen are kept shy nor, abbreviated to gov.) and mater are
of it by what is to them queer spelling obsolete.
and pronunciation, its value will not Modern trend has been away from
be exploited. The difficulty is greater formality and towards familiarity.
with the noun than with the adjective; Though service with the Forces has
many by this time write naive without increased the use of sir by young
the diaeresis, and many call it nâv, a people to their elders (at the same time
pronunciation recognized by most as it has been falling into disuse as
dictionaries, though nâ'êv is given first a mark of difference in social status),
place. But naivety, though it was used the duty of saying sir to one's father,
by Hume and other i8th-c. writers, has once generally recognized, has long
not yet made much headway against ago been dropped. It is indeed far
naïveté', till it wins, these potentially from unknown for young people to
useful words will be very much wasted. call by their Christian names not only
uncles and aunts but also fathers and
nail. Hit the (right) n. on the head. mothers, and even sometimes grand-
It is clear from the OED quotations fathers and grandmothers. Greater
that right, which blunts the point by freedom in the use of Christian names
dividing it into two, is a modern in- is in fact one of the most striking of the
names and appellations 380 names and appellations
recent changes in this field. In Vic- them by Christian name and surname,
torian days as soon as a girl put her as for instance William Jones and Mary
hair up and wore long skirts and a boy Smith, but we do not call them that in
went into tails they became Miss Jones speaking to them; they will be Mr.
and Mr. Smith; and quite a long Jones, Jones, or William, Mrs. (or Miss)
apprenticeship, perhaps even formal Smith or Mary, according to the
permission, was needed before they degree of our acquaintanceship. In
were Mary and John to each other. broadcast conversation, however,
Today young people would think it people not only habitually call one
ridiculous not to be on christian-name another William Jones and Mary
terms from the start; it may take Smith but repeat the names much
almost as long for them to become more often than would be natural in
familiar with one another's surnames ordinary talk. The reason for this
as it used to take to qualify for drop- convention is presumably that it both
ping them. A natural consequence of conduces to an atmosphere of intimacy
this is the discontinuance of the old and also helps an audience who have
practice of calling the eldest of the only their ears to guide them in identi-
Jones sisters Miss Jones and the others fying the speakers. Perhaps some day
Miss Mary, Miss Jane, and so on. it will spread into normal usage, but
In Jane Austen's day it seems to not without resistance, especially to
have been not uncommon for hus- the beginning of letters in this way
bands and wives to address each other (Dear A.B.). This excites curiously
in the same way as a stranger would; strong feelings. 'An unspeakable usage'
Mrs. Bennet said Mr. Bennet to her says one of the contributors to the
husband and Lady Bertram Sir symposium Noblesse Oblige (see U AND
Thomas to hers. By the time that NON-U). 'An odious practice' says a
Dickens was writing this must have member of Parliament, voicing his
become less usual, for we are told as indignation in The Times, perpetrated
a circumstance worth recording that mostly by 'party officials who have
Mr. Dombey had been Mr. Dombey been instructed to place me on the
to his first wife when she first saw him, mat . . . television tycoons and others
and he was Mr. Dombey when she who could be called ignorant'. Pro-
died. Today it would be something of fessor Ross, however, who started all
a solecism, among social equals, for the U-and-non-U business, attributes
Mr. Dombey to call his wife Mrs. the practice mainly to 'intellectuals of
Dombey (or vice versa), even when any class'. If the intellectuals and the
referring to her in conversation with ignorant are indeed in league over this,
someone else; good manners permit the chances of successful resistance do
nothing more formal than my wife or not look bright.
my husband and would favour Fanny Of the problem how to address a
or Paul, unless the person addressed parent-in-law no generally satisfactory
is so slight an acquaintance that he solution seems yet to have been found.
might not know who is meant. For Father-in-law and mother-in-law are
him, however, unless he is on christian- barely tolerable even facetiously.
name terms with the spouse referred Present practice apparently varies
to, the alternatives would be your wife from calling them Mr. and Mrs.
(husband) or Mrs. (Mr.) Dombey; what Smith, as though they were strangers,
is friendliness on one side would be to using their Christian names as
presumption on the other and what though they were contemporaries—
would be stiffness on one side is as indeed they sometimes are.
courtesy on the other.
More on this subject may be found
In modes of direct address between in R. W. Chapman's essay Names,
friends and acquaintances the B.B.C. Designations and Appellations (SPE
has introduced an innovation. In talk- Tract XLVII) to which acknow-
ing about people we habitually refer to ledgement is made.
napkin 381 near(ly)
napkin should be preferred to SER- in the mouth of the Shakespearian
VIETTE. Perhaps the association of the Ulysses should be the stock quotation
word with nappies accounts for the for the power of sympathy is an odd
GENTEELISM. reversal.
narcissus. PI. -ssuses or -sst. See naught, nought. The variation of
LATIN PLURALS. spelling is not a modern accident, but
descends from Old English. The dis-
natter, said to be a variety of gnatter, tinction, however, now usually ob-
perhaps from Icelandic knetta (grum- served between the senses borne by
ble), was classed as 'dialect' by the each form is a matter of convenience
OED, and its present popularity as only, and by no means universally
a colloquialism is recent enough for recognized. This distinction is that
it to have entered the 1951 COD only nought is simply the name of the cipher
through the Addenda. Perhaps its o, while the archaic, poetic, and
vogue is partly due to its looking like rhetorical uses in which the word is
a PORTMANTEAU WORD combining substituted for nothing in any other
nagging and chattering, for that is than the arithmetical sense now prefer
exactly what it means. naught: one, nought, nought, one',
noughts and crosses; bring or come to,
nature. 1 . Periphrasis. The word is or set at, naught; availeth naught; give
a favourite with the lazy writers who all for naught.
prefer glibness and length to concise-
ness and vigour. The accident was nautilus. The OED puts the plural -z
caused through the dangerous nature of before -uses, but the COD reverses the
the spot, the hidden character of the by- order. See LATIN PLURALS.
road, and the utter absence of any warn-
ing or danger-signal. The other way of navy. For n. and army, see ARMY.
putting this would be 'The accident
happened because the spot was danger- near(ly). The use of near in the sense
ous and the by-road hidden, and there of nearly (Not near so often; near dead
was no warning or danger signal of any with fright; near a century ago) has
kind'. There will be showers this evening been so far affected by the vague
in the western part of the region and they impression that adverbs must end in
may be of a thundery nature. Why not ly as to be obsolescent; see UNIDIO-
just thundery} It is true that nature MATIC -LY for other words in which
slips readily off the tongue or pen in the process has not gone so far. Those
such contexts, but the temptation who still say near for nearly, when
should be resisted; see PERIPHRASIS. provincialism and ignorance are both
2 . One touch of nature makes the whole out of the question, are suspected of
world kin. What Shakespeare meant pedantry; it is a matter in which it
was: There is a certain tendency is wise to bow to the majority.
natural to us all, viz. that specified in This use of near in the sense of
the following lines (Troilus and Cres- 'approximating in kind or degree' has,
sida, in. iii. 176-9), which is, so far as however, returned to some extent,
one word may express it, fickleness. especially qualifying nouns, e.g. near-
What is meant by those who quote him beer, near-wool, near-communist. The
is: A thing that appeals to simple OED Supp. calls this revival 'chiefly
emotions evokes a wonderfully wide U.S.', but it is now common in Britain
response. This is both true and impor- too. It should not be confused with
tant; but to choose for the expression the use of the adjective mar in such
of it words by which Shakespeare a phrase as a near miss. A near miss
meant nothing of the kind is unfair (unhyphened) is a miss that was nearly
both to him and to it. That the first a hit; near-beer (hyphened) is a bever-
words of a cynicism appropriately put age that professes to be nearly beer.
near by 382 need
near by has been long established as in search of its adjective; nectareal,
an adverb, and there is no good nectarean, nectared, nectareous, necta-
reason for those who draft police rian, nectariferous, nectarine, nectarious,
notices to prefer in the vicinity. and nectarous, have all been given
The Americanism near-by or nearby, a chance. Milton, with nectared, nec-
used as an adjective, seems to be over- tarine, and nectarous, keeps clear of the
coming the resistance it first met in four-syllabled forms in which the ac-
Britain; its convenience is likely to cent is drawn away from the significant
win it literary status here, if it has not part; and we might do worse than let
already done so. him decide for us.
nebula. PL -lae. need. 1 . He seems to think that the
Peronne bridge-head was abandoned
necessary. For essential, n., and earlier than need have been, j It was
requisite, see ESSENTIAL. On the pro- assumed that Marshal Foch's reserves
nunciation of the adverb (nëc'ëssârily) and army of manœuvre had been used
See RECESSIVE ACCENT. up and need no longer to be taken into
account as a uniform, effective body.
necess(it)arian. The existence of These extracts suffice to show that
two forms of a word, unless they are lapses in grammar or idiom may occur
utilized for differentiation, is incon- with need. The first looks like some
venient, putting those who are not confusion between the verb and the
thoroughly familiar with the matter noun need', at any rate the two right
to the needless pains of finding out ways of putting it would be (a) earlier
whether the two do in fact stand for than it (i.e. the bridge-head) need have
different things or for the same. It been (sc. abandoned), where need is the
would therefore be well if one of this verb, and (b) earlier than there was
pair could be allowed to lapse. There need (sc. to abandon it), where need
is no valid objection to the formation is the noun.
of either ; but necessitarian is the better With uncertainties whether need is
word, (i) as having a less unEnglish or a noun or a verb, whether needs is
a somehow more acceptable sound, a verb or a plural noun or an adverb,
(2) because its obvious connexion with and what relation is borne to the
necessity rather than with necessary verbal needs and needed by the ab-
makes the meaning plainer, and (3) as normal need often substituted for them,
being already the more usual word. there are certain difficulties. The
Necessarian should be regarded as a writer of the second extract above has
NEEDLESS VARIANT and is rightly missed the point of idiom that, while
obsolescent. needs and needed are ordinary verbs
necessities, necessaries. These followed by infinitive with to, the
words are distinguishable to the extent abnormal need is treated as a mere
that necessities alone can be used in the auxiliary, like must, requiring no to;
abstract sense proper to its singular to the reserves needed no longer to be
mean the needs of a necessitous per- taken, or did not need any longer to be
son. As concrete words for neces- taken, but need no longer be taken, into
sary things attempts are sometimes account. The rules for the use of need
made to differentiate them: it is sug- instead of needs and needed are: It is
gested for instance that nature decides used only in interrogative and negative
what are necessities and human judge- sentences ; in such sentences it is more
ment what are necessaries. But the idiomatic than the normal forms, which
fact is that they have long been treated are, however, permissible; if need is
as synonyms by popular usage and are preferred, it is followed by infinitive
past disentangling. without to, but needs and needed require
to before their infinitive. Idiomatic
nectar has kept the word-makers busy form, They need not be counted; normal
needle 383 needless variants
form, They did not need to be counted, on by irresponsible expressions of
or They needed not to be counted; wrong opinion. In this book, therefore, refer-
forms, They need not to be counted. ence is made to the present article or
They needed not (or did not need) be to that called SUPERFLUOUS WORDS
counted. regarding many words that either are
2. In the phrase needs must or must or ought to be dead, but have not yet
needs (He must needs go that the devil been buried.
drives) needs is an archaic adverb This article is concerned only with
(= of necessity) reinforcing must. To- those that can be considered by-forms
day the phrase is mostly used ironi- differing merely in suffix or in some
cally, expressing contempt for some such minor point from other words of
gratuitously foolish or annoying action. the same stem and meaning. Some-
He had been warned the dog was times the mere reference has been
dangerous and he m. n. go and pat it. / thought sufficient; more often short
All plans had been made with great care remarks are added qualifying or ex-
and he m. n. interfere and upset them. plaining the particular condemnation;
3. Need and want. Need implies an some of these references are listed
objective judgement, want a subjec- below to enable the reader to examine
tive, a distinction often blurred by the details. Here the general principle
loose use of want. A child may need may profitably be laid down that
punishment but is unlikely to want it. having two names for the same thing is
Never was legislation more needed; a source not of strength but of weak-
never was it less wanted said Lloyd ness, because the reasonable assump-
George of his National Health Insur- tion is that two words mean two things,
ance Act. and confusion results when they do
not. On the other hand, it may be
needle. For A n. in a bottle of hay much too hastily assumed that two
see HAY. words do mean the same thing; they
needless variants. Though it savours may, for instance, denote the same
of presumption for any individual to object without meaning the same thing
label words needless, it is certain that if they imply that the aspect from
words deserving the label exist; the which it is regarded is different, or are
question is which they are, and who is appropriate in different mouths, or
the censor that shall disfranchise them. differ in rhythmic value or in some
Every dictionary-maker would be other respect that may escape a cursory
grateful to an Academy that should examination. To take an example or
draw up an index expurgatorius and two : it is hard to see why hydrocéphalie
relieve him of the task of recording and hydrocephalous should coexist and
rubbish. There is no such body, and puzzle us to no purpose by coexisting;
the dictionary-maker must content but correctitude by the side of correct-
himself with recognizing, many many ness has a real value, since it was
years after the event for fear he should expressly made to suggest by its
be precipitate, that a word here and sound conscious rectitude and so
there is dead, aware the while that he present correctness in an invidious
is helping hundreds of others to linger light. Again, it would be rash to
on useless by advertising them once decide that dissimulate was a need-
more. Natural selection does operate less variant for dissemble on the
in the worlds of talk and literature; grounds that it means the same and
but the dictionaries inevitably lag is less used and less clearly English,
behind. It is perhaps, then, rather without thinking long enough over it
a duty than a piece of presumption to remember that simulate and dis-
for those who have had experience in simulation have a right to be heard on
word-judging to take any opportunity, the question.
when they are not engaged in actual Some of the words under which refer-
dictionary-making, of helping things ence to this article is made (not always
ne'er-do-weel 384 negative mishandling
concerning the title-word itself) are whole of the sentence instead of con-
acquaintanceship, blithesome, bumble fining it to one single place' (Jesper-
bee, burden, chivalry, cithern, com- sen). We used to do the same (Nor
petence, complacence, concernment, what he said, though it lacked form
concomitance, corpulence, direful, a little, was not like madness), and
disgustful, dissemble, infinitude, nec- multiplication for emphasis survives
essitarian, quieten. in vulgar speech with little risk cf
ambiguity. Everyone knew what
ne'er-do-weel, ne'er-do-well. The Mr. Dombey's butler meant when he
OED's remark is: 'The word being of said that he hoped that he might
northern and Sc. origin, the form -weel 'never hear of no foreigner never
is freq. employed even by southern boning nothing out of no travelling
writers.' But that is no longer true. chariot', and everyone knows what is
South of the Border ne'er-do-well meant when, in a television interview,
has won. the question 'Are you still a trades-
union official' is answered 'I'm not
negative. 'The answer is in the nega- nothing no more'. In educated speech
tive' is Parliament language, but de- the idiom survives in such sentences
serves much severer condemnation (as as / shouldn't wonder if it didn't rain.
a pompous PERIPHRASIS for No, sir) See NOT 4.
than most of the expressions described 2 . Of actual blunders, as distinguished
as unparliamentary language. The for- from lapses of taste and style, perhaps
mula no doubt originated in a desire the commonest, and those that afflict
to give an answer less terse, and less their author when he is detected with
likely to provoke supplementaries, the least sense of proper shame, are
than a blunt No, sir. It is seldom used various mishandlings of negatives.
now; it seems to be one of the few Writers who appear educated enough
phrases (cf. exploring every avenue and to know whether a sentence is right
leaving no stone unturned) against or wrong will put down the opposite
which ridicule has had some success. of what they mean, or something
{The answer is in the plural was the different from what they mean, or
reply once given by a jocular Attorney- what means nothing at all, apparently
General.) But this circumlocutory way quite satisfied so long as the reader can
of saying no (or yes) seems to have be trusted to make a shrewd guess at
escaped from the House of Com- what they ought to have said instead
mons and crossed the Atlantic. / take of taking them at their word; to his
an affirmative attitude on that said possible grammatical sensibilities they
a Hollywood bystander asked by a pay no heed whatever, having none
television interviewer whether he themselves. It is parallel clauses that
thought American women were getting especially provide opportunities for
too influential. going wrong, the problem being to
secure that if both are negative the
negative mishandling. 1. Generally negative force shall not be dammed up
speaking, English grammar today in one alone, and conversely that if one
regards two negatives as cancelling only is to be negative the negative
each other and producing an affirma- force shall not be free to spill over into
tive j the proper meaning of Nobody the other. Some classified specimens
didn't go is that everyone went. of failure to secure these essentials may
But it is by no means true, as is some- put writers on their guard; the cor-
times supposed, that this is axiomatic. rections appended are designed rather
In some other languages (Greek for as proofs of the error than as neces-
example) negative symbols are multi- sarily the best emendations.
plied to reinforce one another; (a) If you start with a negative subject
a speaker 'spreads as it were a thin you may forget on reaching the second
layer of negative colouring over the clause to indicate that the subject is
negative mishandling 385 negative mishandling
not negative there also: No lots will wanted : These statements do not seem
therefore be put on one side for another well weighed, and to savour of the
attempt to reach a better price, but must catchword (and savour—cutting the
be sold on the day appointed (but all connexion with do not seem). / If the
must be sold). / [During an air- Colonial Secretary is not going to use
raid] Very few people even got out his reserve powers when trial by jury
of bed, and went through their ordeal breaks down, and to acquiesce in the
by fire as an inescapable fate (and view that no consequences need follow
most went). / None of the ministers when a settler shoots a native for stealing
foresaw that the legations would be a sheep, he may as well give up the
attacked and had taken no precautions business of governing altogether (and
to lay in arms and ammunition (and acquiesces—cutting the connexion
they had taken). / Neither editor nor with is not going).
contributors are paid, but are moved (e) You may negative in your first
to give their services by an appreciation clause a word that when supplied
of the good work (but all are). For other without the negative in the second
examples see NO. 3. fails to do the work you expect of it :
(b) You may use negative inversion To raise the standard of life of the many
in the first clause, and forget that the it is not sufficient to divide the riches
second clause will then require to be of the few but also to produce in greater
given a subject of its own because the quantities the goods required by all (it is
inversion has imprisoned the original also necessary to produce).
subject: Nor does he refer to Hub- ( / ) You may so misplace the negative
recht's or Gaskell's theories, and dis- that it applies to what is common to
misses the paleontological evidence in both clauses instead of, as was in-
rather a cavalier fashion (and he dis- tended, to what is peculiar to one:
misses). / Not only was Lord Curzon's It is not expected that tomorrow's
Partition detested by the people con- speech will deal with peace, but will be
cerned, but was administratively bad confined to a general survey of . . . (It
(it was). / In neither case is this due is expected . . . will not deal).
to the Labour Party, but to local (g) You may treat a double negative
Socialist aspirations (but in both). expression as though it were formally
(c) Intending two negative clauses, as well as virtually a positive one:
you may enclose your negative between It would not be difficult to quarrel with
an auxiliary and its verb in the first and Mr. Rowley's views about art, but not
forget that it cannot then act outside with Charles Rowley himself (It would
its enclosure in the second: There is be easy). / He has cast about for and
scarcely a big hotel, a brewery company, neglected no device chemical or mechani-
or a large manufactory, which has not cal that might add to his ability (and
sunk a well deep into the London chalk tried every device).
and is drawing its own supply of water 3. Other examples of negative mis-
from the vast store (and succeeded in handling will be found in BUT 2 , NO 3,
drawing; if has continues, not does NOR, and WITHOUT 5. A few miscella-
so with it). / No scheme run by Civil neous specimens are here collected
Servants sitting in a London office is without comment: Were it not for its
likely to succeed if these gentlemen have liking for game eggs, the badger could
not themselves lived on the land, and not but be considered other than
by experience are able to appreciate a harmless animal. / They are unlikely
actual conditions of agriculture (and to attempt any very serious work, but
learnt to appreciate). rather to bring themselves to racing
(d) Conversely, intending a negative pitch with sharp pieces of rowing and
and an affirmative clause, you may so paddling. / No rival is too small
fuse your negative with a construction to be overlooked, no device is too
common to both clauses that it carries infamous not to be practised, if it
on to the second clause when not will . . . I Not a whit undeterred by
negligible 386 neither
the disaster which overtook them last at least...) is a repulsive combination
week. / Is it quite inconceivable that Of POLYSYLLABIC HUMOUR a n d PERI-
if the smitten had always turned the PHRASIS.
other cheek the smiters would not long
since have become so ashamed that. . . ? / neither. 1. Pronunciation. 2 . Mean-
/ do not think it is possible that the ing. 3. Number of the pronoun and
traditions and doctrines of these two adjective. 4 . Number and person of
institutions should not fail to create verb after neither . . . nor. 5. Position
rival schools. / Only in Southern Eng- of neither . . . nor. 6. Neither . . . or.
land was there too much cloud to pre- 7. Neither as conjunction. 8. Neither
vent the eclipse being seen. / He slipped pleonastic.
off quietly, but not so quietly that his 1. The pronunciation recommended
going failed to escape the watchful eye of is m, not né; see EITHER.
Inspector Ferris, j It was want of imagi- 2 . The proper sense of the pronoun
nation that failed them. / No age can (or adjective) is 'not the one nor the
see itself in a proper perspective, and is other of the two*. Like either, it some-
therefore incapable of giving its virtues times refers loosely to numbers greater
and vices their relative places. than two (Heat, light, electricity, mag-
netism, are all correlatives; neither can
negligible, -geable. The first spel- be said to be the essential cause of the
ling is now established; cf. incorrigible, others) ; but none or no should be pre-
dirigible. The prevalence at one time ferred; cf. EITHER 3. This restriction
of -geable is perhaps explained by the to two does not hold for the adverb
word's having been familiarized chiefly (Neither fish nor flesh nor fowl).
in the translated or untranslated 3. The number of the adjective and
French phrase quantité négligeable. Cf. pronoun is properly singular, and
intransigent and intransigeant. disregard of this fact is a recognized
grammatical mistake, though, with the
negotiate. The use of n. in the sense pronoun at least, very common: The
of 'tackle successfully' (a fence or conception is faulty for two reasons,
other obstacle or difficulty) originated neither of which are noticed by Plato. /
in the hunting-field; those who hunt What at present I believe neither of us
the fox like also to hunt jocular verbal know. Grammar requires is noticed,
novelties. This usage, though quoted and knows. The same mistake with the
from 1862, was still felt in 1909 to adjective is so obviously wrong as to
need the apology of inverted commas : be almost impossible ; not quite, how-
the OED Supp. quotes from a writer ever: Both Sir Harry Verney and
in the Quarterly Review in that year Mr. Gladstone were very brief, neither
Some rival has 'negotiated'—we believe speeches exceeding fifteen minutes. An
this to be the sporting phrase—the 150 almost equally incredible freak with
miles in 47 hours. Today the use of n. the pronoun is: Lord Hothfield and
in this sense, though it has not Lord Reay were born the one in Paris
completely shed the taint of its and the other at The Hague, neither
sporting-jocular origin, is recognized being British subjects at the time of his
by the COD without comment. birth (as indeed neither could be unless
Perhaps it might be pleaded in he were twins).
defence of this invasion of the domain 4 . Number and person after neither
of words such as clear, get past or . . . nor. If both subjects are singular
round or over, dispose of, surmount, and in the third person, the only need
overcome, etc., that n. implies a special is to remember that the verb must be
need for skill and care. singular and not plural. This is often
forgotten; the OED quotes, from
neighbourhood. In the n. of for Johnson, Neither search nor labour are
about (Cowdrey, who had taken so necessary, and, from Ruskin, Neither
many blows—somewhere in the n. of 20 painting nor fighting feed men, where
neither 387 nepenthe(s)
is and feeds are undoubtedly required; influence these occupations (why not
and we may still read in journals of the have omitted systems}). / Neither
highest standing, or hear from the Captain C. nor I has ever thought it
B.B.C., such sentences as Official necessary to . . . (Neither to Captain
quarters in London are confident that C. nor to me has it ever seemed . . .).
neither President Eisenhower nor Mr. 5. Position of neither . . . nor. Which
Dulles want an armed clash with neither suits one purpose nor the other.
China. / Comment in Paris is guarded Read which suits neither one purpose
as neither General de Gaulle nor the nor the other. Suits being common to
Foreign Minister are immediately avail- both members should not be inserted
able. I Neither Mr. Gaitskell nor Mr. in the middle of the neither member.
Grimond have tried to minimize the Such displacement has been discussed
Russian provocation in Cuba. The and illustrated under EITHER 5, and
right course is not to indulge in need only be mentioned here as a mis-
bad grammar ourselves and then take to be avoided.
plead that better men like Johnson and 6. Neither . . . or. When a negative
Ruskin have done it before us, but to has preceded, a question often arises
follow what is now the accepted as between nor and or as the right con-
well as the logical rule. tinuation, and the answer to the ques-
Complications occur when, owing to a tion sometimes requires care ; see NOR
difference in number or person between and OR. But when the preceding nega-
the subject of the neither member and tive is neither (adv.), the matter is sim-
that of the nor member, the same verb- ple, or being always wrong. Examples
form or pronoun or possessive adjective of the mistake: Diderot presented a
does not fit both: Neither you nor I bouquet which was neither well or ill
(was?, were?) chosen; Neither you nor received, j Like the Persian noble of old,
I (is?, am?, are?) the right person; I ask 'that I may neither command or
Neither eyes nor nose (does its?, do obey'. Here again, to say that Morley
their?) work; Neither employer nor and Emerson have sinned before us is
employees will say what (they want?, a plea not worth entering.
he wants ?). The wise man, in writing, 7. Neither alone as conjunction
evades these problems by ^ejecting all This use, in which neither means 'nor
the alternatives—any of which may set yet', or ' and moreover . . . not', and
up friction between him and his reader connects sentences instead of the
—and putting the thing in some other ordinary and not or nor (/ have not
shape; and in speaking, which does not asked for help, neither do I desire it;
allow time for paraphrase, he takes risks Defendant had agreed not to interfere,
with equanimity and says what instinct neither did he) is much less common
dictates. But, as instinct is directed than it was, and is best reserved for
largely by habit, it is well to eschew contexts of formal tone. But it is still
habitually the clearly wrong forms fully idiomatic where it links the
(such as Neither chapter nor verse are speaker with some other person:
given) and the clearly provocative ones Defendant did net interfere; neither
(such as Neither husband nor wife is did I.
competent to act without his consort). 8. Neither with the negative force
About the following, which are actual pleonastic, as in / don't know that
newspaper extracts, neither gramma- neither (instead of either), was formerly
rians nor laymen will be unanimous idiomatic though colloquial, but is now
in approving or disapproving the a vulgarism. Nor should a pleonastic
preference of is to are or of has to have; one be attached to neither, as in neither
but there will be a good majority for one showed much courage.
the opinion that both writers are
grammatically more valorous than nepenthe(s). Three syllables, whether
discreet: Neither apprenticeship sys- with or without the -s. The -s is part
tems nor technical education is likely to of the Greek word, and should have
nephew 388 never so
been retained in English; but it has Netherlands^ Low Countries, Hol-
very commonly been dropped, prob- land, Dutch. The Netherlands is now
ably from being mistaken for the the official name for the kingdom of
plural sign, cf. pea for pease etc. The Holland (Queen of The N., The N.
prevailing form (except in botany, Ambassador, etc.), though formerly
where the classical word is naturally Holland was only part of The N., or
used) is now -the. But in ordinary use The Low Countries, which, like the
the word has been superseded by association of today known as Benelux,
tranquilliser. included also Belgium and Luxem-
burg. The name of the country is
nephew. The conventional pronuncia- sometimes used adjectivally (e.g. for
tion is nev-, but some modern diction- holland the linen fabric, Hollands
aries recognize nef- as an alternative, gin, and sauce hollandaise), but Dutch
a result no doubt of the speak-as-you- (formerly also of much wider ap-
spell movement. See PRONUNCIA- plication) is the ordinary adjective for
TION I . the language and the people and their
habits and characteristics, real or
nervous diseases. A nerve is a fibre fancied, exemplified in such phrases
or bundle of fibres arising from the as the d. auction that works in reverse,
brain, spinal cord, or other ganglionic the heavy-handed d. uncle, the arti-
organ, capable of stimulation by ficially induced d. courage, the d.
various means and serving to convey
impulses (especially of sensation and bargain made over drinks, the caco-
motion) between the brain etc. and phonous d. concert, and the con-
some other part of the body (OED), tributory d. treat. The word for a
and the nervous system is the name costermonger's wife, immortalized in
given to the whole complex of nerves Albert Chevalier's My Old Dutch, is
and nerve centres. By no means all different: it is an abbreviation of
nervous diseases impair mental facul- duchess.
ties, but the expression is popularly neurasthenia. The usual pronuncia-
regarded as a euphemism for mental tion is -the- not -the-. See FALSE
disorder, a misconception that the QUANTITY.
medical profession try to counter by
increasing use of the adjective neuro- never need not have a temporal
logical instead of nervous. But the significance; it can be used as an
neuro- compounds are themselves emphatic negative: / never expected
tainted by the special meaning the you would be here today. From this
psychologists have given to neurosis, it is a short step to use it in a trans-
and will no doubt fall under the same ferred temporal sense; I never remem-
suspicion; it is never much use trying ber meeting him (I do not remember
to change popular ideas by changing ever meeting him). This, however
names. See EUPHEMISM. illogical, is idiomatic, at least collo-
quially.
-ness. For the distinction between never so, ever so, in conditional
conciseness and concision, and similar clauses (refuseth to hear the voice of the
pairs, see -ION AND -NESS and -TY charmer, charm he never so wisely). The
AND -NESS. original phrases, going back to Old
net. In the commercial sense (free English, are never so, and never such.
from deduction etc.) the spelling The change to ever, 'substituted from
should, as elsewhere, be net, not nett. a notion of logical propriety' (OED),
See SET(T).
seems to date from the later 17th c.
only, and never so is very common in
nether. For n. garments, n. man, etc., the Bible and Shakespeare. Ever so,
See PANTALOONS, PEDANTIC HUMOUR, however, is the normal modern form,
and EUPHEMISM. not never so, and it is in vain that
nevertheless 389 new verbs in -ize
attempts are occasionally made to put of places or people (americanize,
the clock back and restore never in bowdlerize, galvanize, pasteurize, etc.).
ordinary speech. In poetry, and under Within reason it is a useful and
circumstances that justify archaism, unexceptionable device, but it is now
never so is unimpeachable; but in being employed with a freedom
everyday style the purism that insists beyond reason. The purpose is usually
on it is futiie. As to that 'notion of to enable us to say in one word what
logical propriety', it was perhaps that would otherwise need more than one.
there was nothing negative in the Whether that justifies the creation of a
sense; but that is not true, if 'charm new -ize word is a question on which
he never so wisely' is a compressed opinions will differ, and it does not
form of 'charm he so wisely as never admit of a categorical answer.
else' ; we can at least see how the never Most verbs in -ize are inelegant.
idiom may have arisen. To account for Sir Alan Herbert has compared them
ever (except as a mistaken correction to lavatory fittings, useful in their
of never) is a much harder problem. proper place but not to be multiplied
But the modern phrase, explicable or beyond what is necessary for practical
not, and logical or not, is ever so, purposes. (Perhaps it was this stricture
though it is now rarely used in quite that led to the use of the word In-
this way. Ever so has become a collo- throning at the coronation of Queen
quial adverb of emphasis : Thank you Elizabeth II instead of the word
ever so much, or, in progressive vul- Inthronization used at previous coro-
garization, He's ever so nice. / I've nations.) A different, and often prefer-
enjoyed myself ever so. able, way of providing ourselves with
a new verb is boldly to use a noun as
nevertheless, nonetheless have the one. We say to doctor, not to doctorize,
same meaning; the choice between to partition, not to partitionize; if it
them is a matter of taste. Never- used was necessary for us to have verbs for
to be the favourite, but none- has sending people to hospital and for
recently been gaining on it. dividing sleeping accommodation into
cubicles, we should have done better
news. The number varied (the n. is to say to hospital and to cubicle than to
bad, are bad) for more than two cen- coin those ungainly words hospitalize
turies, but has now settled down as and cubiclize. Pressurize, containerize,
singular. and institutionalize are useful but to
treat pressure, container, and institu-
new verbs in -ize. A feature of the tion as verbs would have been less
second Elizabethan age, as of the first, clumsy. The lure of the suffix is so
is that new words proliferate. One way powerful that we sometimes find it
of making them is to add the suffix -ize added absurdly to nouns whose use as
to a noun or adjective, and so increase verbs is already recognized, such as
our stock of verbs. The device itself is SERVICE and fragment, CONTACT used
far from new; our vocabulary already as a verb excited some criticism at
contains some hundreds of verbs so first, but even its critics would admit
formed. The Greeks used the suffix that this was better than coining a
Lt,€t.v to make verbs with, and we have verb contactize. And having sensibly
followed them ; sometimes we take over invented the verb delouse, we ought to
what is, except for its termination, have nothing to do with the deratize
an actual Greek word (apologize, dog- that is now showing its ugly head.
matize, ostracize, etc.); sometimes we There are obvious limits to the use of
add -ize to a word or stem, usually of this device for avoiding recourse to
Greek or Latin origin (colonize, im- -ize when we want a new verb. Adjec-
munize, summarize, etc.) but occasion- tives take less kindly than nouns to
ally of later date (bastardize, jeopardize, being made to serve as verbs and not
standardize, etc.) especially to names all nouns are suitable. It could for
new verbs in -ize 390 next
instance be argued on behalf of itiner- things) seems to be that those engaged
ize that, the natural verb itinerate in the advertisement and entertain-
having been put to a different use, it is ment industries think, perhaps rightly,
a better one than to itinerary would be, that the look and sound of them make
with its almost unpronounceable pres- a meretricious appeal. We may be
ent participle, though this does not expected to respond more readily to
answer the criticism that since we an invitation to slenderize than to slim,
already have the verb to route we do to visit a picturized film than a pictured
not need either of them. A similar plea one; if we want to 'repel the signs of
might be made for diarize on the age' we shall be more likely to buy
ground of its inflexional advantages a preparation that moisturizes the skin
over to diary. If we must have words than one that merely moistens it, and
for employing casual labour instead of we shall find tenderized prunes more
regular, or a civilian staff instead of a alluring than those that are merely
military, or for spoiling the country- tender. Some missionaries of moral
side by extending a town, or for uplift have the same idea. Of a book
substituting diesel locomotives for by one of them a T L S reviewer has
steam, we cannot reasonably quar- written: 'Of course it is disconcerting
rel with casualize, civilianize, sub- to be told that a certain method is
urbanize, and dieselize. A recent ex- "rather unique", and few people
periment of this kind, seriously made brought up in an older religious con-
in a serious journal, was to refer to die vention will find the formula "Prayer-
comprehensivizing by a local authority ize, them Picturize, Actualize" of much help
of its educational system, a neologism to in the practice of meditation.
St. Ignatius might, however, have said
that certainly deserves high marks if something similar, though he would
the test of its merit is the number of have expressed himself with greater
words it saves; so would deprole- regard to the niceties of language.'
tarianize used by a speaker on the
Third Programme, if we could be
sure we knew what it meant. Lexi- next. 1. The n. three etc. 2 . N.
cographers must be allowed their Friday, June, etc. 3. N. important
alphabetize (they have indeed had it etc.
for about a hundred years), and 1. For the question between the next
road engineers their reflectorize, and three etc. and the three etc. next, see
PUBLICIZE can put up a good defence FIRST 3 .
against a charge of being merely 2 . Next June, n. Friday, etc., can be
an unwanted synonym for publish. used as adverbs without a preposition
Whether randomize can be similarly (Shall begin it next June) ; but if next
justified on the ground that no other is put after the noun, idiom requires
word, such as shuffle ox jumble, would a preposition {may be expected in June
do, and whether finalize (which next, on Monday next). See PREPOSI-
seems to have come to stay in spite of TION DROPPING.
the protest that greeted it) can claim 3. The 'No Surrender* party had the
to have a meaning not quite the same rank and file at their back because they
as that of any established word are fought to the last ditch to save the
arguable questions. But few will deny grandest institution in the country; do
that trialize and reliablize are un- they expect support now in wrecking
wanted monstrosities and when simple the two next important institutions?
verbs like proof and perfume are The two next important institutions is
available we might have been spared clearly used in the sense 'the two
impermeablize and fragrantize. institutions next in importance'. The
One reason for the popularity of -ize OED quotes no example of such a use,
words (and also no doubt for the but it is perhaps not uncommon collo-
reaction of the minority who regard all quially, and must be a conscious or
new ones indiscriminately as accursed unconscious experiment in extending
nexus 391 no
the convenient next best idiom. That nigger. To be called a n. is now
idiom requires a superlative, and such regarded as an insult by an American
words as oldest, worst, narrowest, negro, unless the word is used affec-
weightiest suit it well; but it is ugly tionately by one negro of another;
with adjectives haying no superlative a murder provoked by the words 'You
other than that with most, and there dirty nigger' is a leading case in U.S.
is a temptation to try whether, for criminal law (Fisher v. U.S.). N. has
instance, next important will not pass been described as 'the term that
for next most important. It should be carries with it all the obloquy and
resisted; the natural sense of the two contempt and rejection which whites
next important institutions is 'the two have inflicted on blacks'. But it
next institutions that are of impor- survives in the phrases Work like a «.,
tance', which need by no means be the The n. in the woodpile, n. minstrels.
two that are next in importance.
-n-, -nn-. Monosyllables ending in n
nexus. The English plural nexuses double it before suffixes beginning
is intolerably sibilant, and the Latin, with vowels if the sound preceding the
nexus {-us), not nexi (see -us), sounds n is a short vowel but not if it is a long
pedantic; the plural is consequently one or a vowel and r: mannish, but
very rare ; if one must be used -uses is darning; fenny, but keener; winning,
recommended. See LATIN PLURALS.
but reined; conned, but coined; runner,
but turned. Words of more than one
nice. 1. N. makes nicish; see MUTE E. syllable follow the rule for mono-
2. Nice and as a sort of adverb = syllables if their last syllable is ac-
satisfactorily (/ hope it will be n. a. cented, but otherwise do not double
fine', Aren't we going n. a. fast?) is a the n: japanned and beginner, but
HENDIADYS that is an established collo- dragooned,womanish, turbaned, awaken-
quialism, but should be confined, in ing, muslined.
print, to dialogue. no. 1. Parts of speech. 2 . Confusion
3. Meaning. 'I am sure', cried of adjective and adverb. 3. No in
Catherine, ' I did not mean to say negative confusions. 4 . Negative
anything wrong; but it is a nice book, parentheses. 5. Writing of com-
and why should I not call it so?' pounds. 6. Plural.
'Very true,' said Henry, 'and this is 1. No is (A) an adjective meaning in
a very nice day, and we are taking the singular not a (or not any), and in
a very nice walk; and you are two very the plural not any; it is a shortened
nice young ladies. Oh! it is a very nice form of none, which is still used as its
word indeed! it does for everything' pronoun form: No German applied;
(Northanger Abbey). N. has been spoilt, No Germans applied; None of the
like CLEVER, by its bonnes fortunes; it applicants was, or were, German. No
has been too great a favourite with the is (B) an adverb meaning by no amount
ladies, who have charmed out of it all and used only with comparatives : / am
its individuality and converted it into glad it is no worse. No is (C) an adverb
a mere diffuser of vague and mild meaning not and used only after or,
agreeableness. That was not how the and chiefly in the phrase whether or
Duke of Wellington used it when he no: Pleasant or no, it is true; He must
described the battle of Waterloo as do it whether he will or no. No is (D)
'a damned nice thing—the nearest run a particle representing a negative sen-
thing you ever saw in your life'. tence of which the contents are clear
Everyone who gives it its more proper from a preceding question or from the
senses which fill most of the space context: Is he there?—No (i.e. he is
given to it in any dictionary, and not there). No, it is too bad(i.t. I shall
avoids the one that tends to oust them not submit; it is too bad). No is (E)
all, does a real if small service to the a noun meaning the word no, a denial
language. or refusal, a negative vote or voter:
no 392 no
Don't say no; She will not take a no; and a good many of none at all, are now
The Noes have it. without their bowling greens (All places
2 . Confusion of adjective and adverb. of importance . . . now have;.
If the tabulation in (1) is correct, it is 4 . Negative parentheses. The rule
clear how the worse than superfluous here to be insisted on concerns nega-
a, the, and her, made their way into tive expressions in general, and is
the following extracts. The writer of stated under no only because that word
each thought his no was a (B) or a (C) happens to be present in violations of
adverb (against which the absence of it oftener perhaps than any other. The
the invariable accompaniments should rule is that adverbial qualifications
have warned him) and did not see that containing a negative must not be
it was the adjective, which contains comma'd off from the words they
a in itself and is therefore incompatible belong to as though they were mere
with another a, or the, or her. We can parentheses. The rule only needs
hardly give the book higher praise than stating to be accepted; but the habit
to say of it that it is a no unworthy of providing adverbial phrases with
companion of Moberly's 'Atonement' commas often gets the better of com-
(Omit a, or write not for no). / The mon sense. It is clear, however, that
value of gas taken from the ground there there is the same essential absurdity in
and sold amounted to the no insignifi- writing He will, under no circumstances,
cant value of $54,000,000 (the not). / consent as in writing He will, never,
Paintings by Maud Earl, who owes her consent, or He will, not, consent. It is
no small reputation as an artist to the worth while to add, for the reader's
successes which . . . (her reputation, no consideration while he glances at the
small one). / A fourth example is more examples, that it would often be better
excusable because the conditions are in these negative adverbial phrases to
obscured by the accidental presence resolve no into not. . . any etc. We are
of a comparative : We could ask for no assured that the Prime Minister will, in
more cheerful a by-product of our no circumstances and on no consideration
discontent than a second volume of this whatever, consent (will not in any . . .
most patriotic of Christmas books. Such or on any . . . Or omit the commas,
a sentence as The second volume zuill at the least). / And Paley and Butler,
be no more cheerful a by-product than no more than Voltaire, could give
the first would be right, no being there Bagehot one thousandth part of the
actually the adverb. But the phrase confidence that he drezofrom . . . (could
in its present setting means no by- not, any more than . . . Or could no
product that shall be more cheerful, more than Voltaire give). / Proposals
and no is the adjective and contains which, under no possible circumstances,
a and refuses to have another thrust would lead to any substantial, or indeed
upon it. For no mean city etc. see MEAN. perceptible, protection for a home indus-
3. No, used in the first of two parallel try (which would not lead under any
clauses, ensnares many a brave un- . . . Or which would under no possible
wary writer; the modifications neces- circumstances lead).
sary for the second clause are forgotten, 5. Writing of compounds. About no
and bad grammar or bad sense results. ball (noun) and no-ball (verb), nobody,
See NEGATIVE MISHANDLING; some and nohow, doubts are needless; the
specimens are: He sees in England no forms given are the right ones. For
attempt to mould history according to no one see EVERY ONE, I , where that
academic plans, but to direct it from form is recommended. The adverbs
case to case according to necessity (it is noways and nowise are best so written;
rather directed). / Although no party but in nowise, which is often used
has been able to carry its own scheme instead of the correct in no wise, is as
out, it has been strong enough to prevent absurd as by nomeans or on no-account
any other scheme being carried (each has would be; cf. ANY I .
been). / No place of any importance, 6. PI. noes; see -O(E)S 2 .
nomad 393 non-
nomad. The pronunciation nom- is (shall we say?) adequately grandiose
gaining on nom- especially in the noun, vocable. That nomenclature does not
though the COD still puts nom- first. mean a name, but a system of naming
nom de guerre, nom de plume, or of names, is to such writers what
pen name, pseudonym. Nom de they would perhaps call a mere meticu-
losity; see LOVE OF THE LONG WORD.
guerre is current French, but, owing to The forerunner of the present luxurious
the English currency of nom de plume, establishment was the well-known Glou-
is far from universally intelligible to cester Coffee House, the nomenclature
Englishmen, most of whom assume of which was derived from that Duke
that, whatever else it may mean, it can of Gloucester who . . / A small com-
surely not mean nom de plume. Nom mittee of City men has just launched
de plume is open to the criticism that al society, under the nomenclature of the
it is ridiculous for English writers to League of Interpreters', with the object
use a French phrase that does not come of... / The most important race of the
from France; not perhaps as ridiculous season for three-year-old fillies; the
as the critics think (see MORALE), but nomenclature lwas obtained from Lord
fear of them will at any rate deter some Derby's seat, The Oaks', in the little
of us. Nobody perhaps uses pen-name hamlet of . . .
without feeling either 'What a good
boy am I to abstain from showing off nominal. For this as the adjective
my French and translate nom de plume of noun, see NOUN.
into honest English!', or else 'I am not
as those publicans who suppose there nominative. The grammatical word
is such a phrase as nom de plume'. For is always pronounced nô'mïnâtïv, often
everyone is instinctively aware that slurred into nom'nàtiv (cf. rej'ment for
pen-name, however native or natural- REGIMENT); the adjective connected in
ized its elements, is no English-bred sense with nominate and nomination
(e.g. in partly elective and partly n.) is
word, but a translation of nom de often, and perhaps more conveniently,
plume. Pseudonym, lastly, is a queer nomind'tiv.
out-of-the-way term for an everyday
thing. But it is perhaps the best of the nominativus pendens. A form of
bunch except for those who take the ANACOLUTHON in which a sentence is
comrnonsense view of nom de plume— begun with what appears to be the
that it is the established word for the subject, but before the verb is reached
thing, and its antecedents do not con- something else is substituted in word
cern us. It is now sometimes used for or in thought, and the supposed sub-
pseudonyms in general, not merely ject is left in the air. The most familiar
those adopted by writers ; and it would and violent instance is which used in
be unreasonable to take exception to Sarah Gamp's manner {which fiddle-
its being granted a liberty already won strings is weakness to expredge my nerves
by nom de guerre. this night); but the irregularity is not
uncommon even in writing, and is
nomenclature. Pronunciation no'- always apt to occur in speech. Cf., in
menklâture or nomenclature; most Shakespeare, 'They who brought me
dictionaries prefer the former. in my master's hate, I live to look upon
Dictionaries that give a list of their tragedy' (Rich. Ill, in. ii. 57).
synonyms with each word may be very
helpful to a writer if they cast their non-. This negative prefix, says the
nets wide and are used with discrimi- COD, 'is now freely used'. Its use is
nation (see SYNONYMS). Otherwise they indeed becoming too free. It has given
may do him a very doubtful service. us many useful words of the type of
One can hardly believe but that the non-attendance, non-combatant, non-
authors of the extracts below have conformist, non-skid, and non-stop, and
looked up name in search of some some useful differentiations by pro-
longer and more imposing word, some viding a colourless antonym where the
nonce 394 nor
ordinary one has acquired a positive (which are meant as provision for birds
implication, e.g. non-effective and in- in hard weather) are abundant. The
effective) non-human and inhuman, non- reasoning called post hoc, propter hoc
moral and immoral) non-natural and is a form of n. s.
unnatural, non-professional and un-
professional. But the ease with which no-one, no one. The second is
any word can be negatived by this recommended; see EVERY ONE I .
device tempts the indolent to use nonsense. The Government cannot give
it unnecessarily and to write for way to the railwaymen without making
instance non-concur for dissent, non- a complete nonsense of its restraint policy.
essential for unessential, non-sick for The idiom is make nonsense (or make
healthy, non-success for failure. Cf. the sense) of something, without the in-
similar abuse of DE- and DIS-. definite article.
nonce survives only in the phrases for nor is a word that should come into
the nonce (and that with a WARDOUR our minds as we repeat the General
STREET flavour) and nonce word, mean- Confession. Most of us in our time
ing a word coined for a single occasion. have left undone those things which
nonchalant, -ance. Pronounce nôn'- we ought to have done (i.e. failed to
shâlânt, -ans (i.e. as English words, put in nor when it was wanted) and
but with -sh-). done those things which we ought not
to have done (i.e. thrust it in when
none. I . It is a mistake to suppose that there was no room for it). The nega-
the pronoun is singular only and must tive forms of He moves and speaks, He
at all costs be followed by singular both moves and speaks, are He moves
verbs etc.; the OED explicitly states not nor speaks, He neither moves nor
that plural construction is commoner. speaks', or, with the verb resolved as is
2 . The forms none so, none too, are usual in modern negative sentences,
idiomatic (It is none so pleasant to learn He does not move or speak, He does not
that you have only six months to live', either move or speak. The tendency to
The look he gave me was none too go wrong is probably due to confusion
amiable), but are perhaps seldom used between the simple verbs (moves etc.)
(especially the former) without a cer- and the resolved ones (does move etc.);
tain sense of condescending to the if the verb is resolved, there is often
vernacular as an aid to heartiness of an auxiliary that serves both clauses,
manner or to emphasis; and con- and, as the negative is attached to
descension is always repellent. the auxiliary, its force is carried on
together with that of the auxiliary
nonentity, in the now rare abstract and no fresh negative is wanted. Two
sense of non-existence, should have cautions are necessary on this carrying
the non pronounced clearly non, and on of the negative force and consequent
perhaps be written with a hyphen preference of or to nor. The first is that
(non-entity). In the current concrete it will not do to repeat the auxiliary
sense of a person of no account, it is and yet use or under the impression
written nonentity and said with the o that the previous negative suffices;
obscured. that is what has been done in:
He was naturally and properly at
nonesuch, nonsuch. The first is the pains to prove that his company had
original form, but the second the now not acted negligently or carelessly or
usual one. Pronounce nun-. had been unduly influenced by reasons
nonetheless. See NEVERTHELESS.
of economy (There was a choice here
between or been and and had not been',
non sequitur. The fallacy of assum- or had been makes nonsense").
ing an unproved cause. Thus : It will The other caution, much more often
be a hard winter, for holly-berries required, is that if the negative is
nor 395 not
attached not to an auxiliary (or other normalcy (= normality) is a word of
word common to two clauses) that the 'spurious hybrid' class (see HYBRIDS
will carry it forward, but to some AND MALFORMATIONS), and seems to
other part of the first clause, the nega- have nothing to recommend it. It is
tiye force is cut off and has to be said by the OED to be originally U.S.,
started afresh by nor. The following but there is no ground for the charge
examples illustrate the danger; in made against President Harding of
each or must be corrected to nor if having coined it; others had used it
the rest of the sentence is to remain long before he did.
as it is, though some slight change of
arrangement such as is indicated would northerly. For the special uses and
make or possible : In this kind of work meanings of this set of words, see
there was often little oral preparation EASTERLY.
of material, little systematic collection nostalgi(a)(c) is formed by com-
of facts and views, well assimilated and pounding two Greek words so as to
digested, or much discussion of balance give the meaning of suffering caused
and proportion. The writer has for- by an unfulfilled wish to return home;
gotten that he began there was often it was invented as a medical name for
little and has ended as though he had homesickness so severe as to amount
said there was seldom much. Or must to a disease. It would be unreasonable
be corrected to nor was there. / In its to condemn, on etymological grounds,
six months of power it has offered not its now common use to describe the
one constructive measure or done wistful melancholy that comes from
a single thing to relieve suffering (it has thinking not of the home that cannot
not offered one). / He did nothing with- be revisited but of the years that can-
out consulting Lovel, or failed in any- not be relived. But its popularity
thing without expecting and fearing his seems to be putting it in danger of less
admonishing (he did not do anything venial extensions which would deprive
. . . or fail). it of its essential ingredient of pain or
The above are the ordinary types of suffering. The point where Sussex,
mistake with nor. Others that should Kent, and Surrey meet—one of the
hardly require mention are either . . . most poetically isolated and nostalgic—
nor and the poetical omission of in England. Here the writer seems to
the first negative. Either . . . nor is have intended no more than attractive
as bad as NEITHER . . . or: There was —a place that one wants to return to.
not, either in 1796 in Italy, nor on the
Mediterranean coast of Spain in 1808, nostrum. PI. -urns, not -a', see -UM.
any British force at work which . . . / not. 1. Not all and all... not. 2 . Not
As we have not got the world's tonnage in meiosis and periphrasis. 3. Not
production for April, nor yet either the in exclamations. 4 . Not pleonastic.
British nor the world's losses for the 5. Not . . . but. 6. Not only. 7. Not
same month, it is only possible to . . . because. 8. Not that etc.
The insertion of a clumsy and where 1. Not all and all. . . not. All is not
nor should stand by itself is shown in : gold that glisters; Every land does not
Mr. Burton never underestimates Othel- produce everything. Precisians would
lo, and nor in consequence do we. / The rewrite these sentences as Not all is
secret encouragement to Kruger from the gold that glisters (or Not all that glisters
Germans in 1899 is no part of school is gold) and Not every land produces
history, and nor is Kruger's obstinate everything. The negative belongs logi-
withholding of civic rights from the cally to all and every, not to the verbs,
English burghers. and the strict sense of the first proverb
Do nor undo is legitimate in poetry, would be that glistering proves a sub-
but not in prose of so ordinary a kind stance to be not gold. A valued corre-
as : For her fingers had been so numbed spondent has written—'Do not you
that she could do nor undo anything. think that the use of all . . . not ought
not 396 not
to be restricted to propositions of the once fresh young phrases. ('One can
type All A is not-B, and where Not cure oneself of the not un- formation',
all A is B is meant, that should be the said Orwell, 'by memorizing this sen-
order? Of course that never has been tence: A not unblack dog was chasing
a rule, from "All of you have not the a not unsmall rabbit across a not un~
knowledge of God" onwards, but it green field.') But the very popularity of
would save a great deal of ambiguity the idiom in English is proof enough
if it could be made one. I notice that that there is something in it congenial
Somerville and Byrne, in their Ger- to the English temperament, and it is
man Grammar, with Nicht allé pleasant to believe that it owes its
Menschen sprechen Deutsch before success with us to a stubborn national
them, translate it "All men do not dislike of putting things too strongly.
speak German", neglecting the plain It is clear too that there are contexts
guidance of their original'. This to which, for example, not inconsider-
gentleman has logic on his side, logic able is more suitable than considerable',
has time on its side, and probably the by using it we seem to anticipate and
only thing needed for his gratification put aside, instead of not foreseeing or
is that he should live long enough. ignoring, the possible suggestion that
The older a language grows, and the so-and-so is inconsiderable. The right
more consciously expert its users principle is to acknowledge that the
become, the shorter shrift it and they idiom is allowable, and then to avoid it
may be expected to grant to illogicali- except when it is more than allowable.
ties and ambiguities. All . . . not for Examples occur in every day's news-
Not all, like the two FIRST for the firstpapers, in which their authors would
two, the displacements of BOTH and hardly claim that elegance or point
NEITHER and ONLY, the omission of was gained by the double negative,
not in than you can HELP, and the use and would admit that they used it only
of much LESS for much more, is already because they saw no reason why they
denounced by those who have time to should not; such are: The style of
spend on niceties; but it is still, like argument suitable for the election
many other illogicalities, the natural contest is, no doubt, not infrequently
and idiomatic English. It may pass different from the style of argument
away in time, for magna est veritas et suitable for use at Westminster (often).
praevalebit; in the meantime it is worth
anyone's while to get on speaking One may imagine that Mr. will
terms with the new exactitudes (i.e. not be altogether unrelieved when his
to write Not all himself), but worth brother actor returns tomorrow (will be
nobody's while to fall foul of those much relieved).
who do not choose to abandon the 3. Not in exclamations. But if you
comfortable old slovenries. look at the story of that quadrilateral
of land, what a complex of change and
2. Not in MEiosis and PERIPHRASIS. diversity do you not discover! A jumble
'We say well and elegantly, not un- of question and exclamation. The
grateful, for very grateful'—OED right exclamation would be: What
quotation dated 1671. It was a favour- a complex you discover ! The possible
ite figure of Milton's: Eve was 'not question would be: What complexity
unamazed' at finding that a snake do you not discover? What a complex,
could speak, and Comus's well-placed and the stop, are essentially exclama-
words were baited with 'reasons not tory: not is essentially interrogative;
implausible'. It is by this time a faded do is characteristically interrogative,
or jaded elegance, this replacing of a but not impossible in exclamations.
term by the negation of its opposite; The forms in a simpler sentence are:
jaded by general over-use; faded by Exclamation: What I have suffered!;
the blight of WORN-OUT HUMOUR with Question: What have I not suffered?;
its not a hundred miles from, not uncon- Exclamation with inversion: What
nected with, not unmindful of, and other have I suffered!', Confusion: What
not 397 not
have I not suffered! See STOPS (ques- have been most serviceable somewhere
tion and exclamation marks). else, and is capable of giving acute and
4 . Not pleonastic. The point dis- undeserved pain where it is. To read
cussed in (3) was the intrusion of the following extracts one after
a not, unnecessary indeed but explic- another, all of them requiring only
able, into exclamations that are con- a preference for order over chaos to
fused with rhetorical questions. Much have tidied them up, must surely call
less excusable, as needing no analysis a blush to the Englishman's cheek for
to show that it is wrong and often his fellow countrymen's slovenly
destructive of the sense, is the not that ways : Ireland, unlike the other Western
is evoked in a subordinate clause as nations, preserved n. o. its pre-
a mere unmeaning echo of an actual Christian literature, but when Chris-
or virtual negative in the main sen- tianity came, not direct from Rome but
tence, as in The Home Secretary said from Britain and Gaul, that literature
he had found nothing to make him received a fresh impulse from the new
doubt that H. was not rightly convicted. faith (N. o. did Ireland . . . preserve). /
We all know people who habitually We must remember that n. 0. are we
say / shouldn't wonder if it didn't concerned in the present situation be-
turn to snow soon when they mean if it cause South Africa is a member of the
turned. But the same mistake in print Commonwealth but because of our
is almost as common as it is absurd— Protectorates (We are concerned in
so common indeed with wonder and the present situation n.o. because...)./
SURPRISE as to rank as a STURDY N. 0. had she now a right to speak, but
INDEFENSIBLE. Nobody can predict with to speak with authority (She had now
confidence how much time may not be a right n. o. to speak). / N. o. does the
employed on the concluding stages of the proportion of suicides vary with the
Bill. I I do not of course deny that in season of the year, but with different
this, as in all moral principles, there races (The proportion of suicides
may not be found, here and there, varies n. o. with). / N. o. would this
exceptional cases. / He is unable to say scheme help the poorer districts over
how much of the portraiture of Christ their financial difficulties, but would
may not be due to the idealization of remove from London the disgrace that
His life and character. / It would not in some parts of London the streets are
be at all surprising if, by attempting too . . . (This scheme would n. o. help). /
N. o. was the audience drawn from
much, Mr. has not to some extent central London; those privileged to hear
defeated his own object. the speech came from all parts (The
5. Not . . . but. Mrs. Fraser's book, audience was not drawn from central
however, is not confined to filling up the London only. The blunder is here
gaps in Livingstone's life . . . but it deals double, and before this tintack can be
most interestingly with her father's own harmless it must be not merely picked
early adventures. . . . See BUT 3 for up, but smashed up).
more flagrant mishandlings of not
followed by but. The difference 7. For not because as a cause of
between right and wrong often ambiguity {Mr. Dayal said he was not
depends on the writer's seeing that returning to New York because of the
the subject, for instance, of the not outbreak of fighting with the Congolese)
sentence must not be repeated (or see BECAUSE 2 .
taken up by a pronoun) in the but 8. Not that etc. Not that, not but
sentence; it must be allowed to carry what, not so beginning a sentence
on silently. The above double sentence, (sometimes VERBLESS) to introduce
which is not idiomatic English as it a modification, clarification, or con-
stands, is at once cured by the omis- trast, is established idiom. The out-
sion of it. standing fact about Mrs. Gaskell is her
6. Not only out of its place is like femininity. Not that Charlotte Brontë
a tintack loose on the floor; it might and George Eliot are unfeminine. / Not
nothing less than 398 noun-adjectives
but what the accident may have been of nought. See NAUGHT.
Herbert's making. J Most men novelists noun has two adjectives—nominal and
cannot resist it. Not so Trollope. nounal, but is comfortable with neither.
nothing less than. The OED re- The objection to the first is that it is
marks: 'The combination nothing less a word much used in other senses.
than has two quite contrary senses', This has induced grammarians to form
and gives as the first 'quite equal to, the word from which they of all people
the same thing as', with, for illustra- should have shrunk—nounal. It is
tion, But yet methinks my father's what is described in the article HY-
execution Was nothing less than bloody BRIDS AND MALFORMATIONS as a Spurious
tyranny, and as the second 'far from hybrid; see that article for a discussion
being, any thing rather than', with, of similar words. The grammarian's
for illustration, Who, trusting to the right course is to work with the word
noun as far as possible, and, when an
laws, expected n. 1 . 1 . an attack. To the adjectival form or an adverb is indis-
second sense it adds the description pensable, use nominally). See also
'Now rare'. As a matter of grammar, ADJECTIVAL.
either sense is legitimate, less being
different parts of speech in the two, as noun-adjectives. 'Too many ofs have
appears in the light of paraphrases: dropped out of the language', said Lord
my father's death was no smaller thing Dunsany in 1943, 'and the dark of the
than tyranny (i.e. less is an adjective); floor is littered with this useful word.'
they expected nothing in a lower degree Some twenty years earlier this pheno-
than they expected an attack (i.e. less menon had provoked the following
is an adverb); grammar, then, leaves comment in the first edition of the
the matter open. But the risks of present dictionary: 'It will be a sur-
ambiguity are very great. If the sense prise, and to some an agreeable one,
of they expected n. I. t. an attack did if at this late stage in our change from
not happen to be fixed by trusting to an inflexional to an analytic language
the laws, who would dare decide we revert to a free use of the case that
whether they expected it very much we formerly tended more and more to
or very little? The sense called by the restrict. It begins to seem likely that
OED 'now rare' should, in the in- drink's victims will before long be the
terests of plain expression, be made natural and no longer the affected or
rarer by total abandonment; a speaker rhetorical version of the victims of
can show what he means by n. I. t. drink. The devotees of inflexion may
by the way he says it, but a writer do well to rejoice; the change may
cannot. It is unfortunately less rare improve rather than injure the lan-
than the label would lead one to guage ; and if that is so let due praise
suppose; passages like the two that be bestowed on the newspaper press,
follow are not uncommon, and are which is bringing it about. But to the
very puzzling to the reader: It recog- present (or perhaps already past)
nizes also both the necessity of reform generation, which has been instinc-
and liberation from dead dogmas and tively aware of differences between
rubrics, and the impossibility of reform drink's victims and the victims of drink,
coming from a House of Commons and now finds them scornfully dis-
desiring n. 1. t. to occupy its debates regarded, there will be an unhappy
with discussions of the validity of the interim. It is the headline that is
thirty-nine articles. / Now we are intro- doing it.'
duced to inspired 'crowd-men' or heroes The last sentence was prophetic. The
who have a passion for making order headline has gone on doing it. The
out of the human chaos and finding principal destroyer of ofs is no longer
expression for the real soul of the people; the possessive case, though it still
these heroes or crowd-men resemble n. 1. claims its victims : recent examples are
t. the demagogue as popularly conceived. They assume the rumour's truth, j The
noun and adjective accent 399 noun and verb accent
scene of the story's most thrilling com- weakening. A few examples are given,
plications, I In Johnson's despite, / The of which the first two are, like compact,
two shoes' disparity. But as chief cul- undisputed, and the rest questionable;
prit it has been supplanted by the from these the reader will be able to
noun-adjective. There is of course form an opinion for application to
nothing new in putting a noun to this similar cases: insti'nct a., i'nstinct n.;
use when no convenient adjective is minu'te a., mi'nute n.; conte'nt a.,
available; examples abound in every- co'ntent(s) n. (sometimes); adu'lt a.,
day speech—government department, a'dult n. (formerly undisputed but
nursery school, television set, test match, now tending towards a uniform a'dult) ;
and innumerable others. But the noun- expe'rt a., e'xpert n. (same as adult);
adjective, useful in its proper place, supi'ne a. (sometimes; and cf. the adv.
is now running riot and corrupting supi'nely), su'pine n.; upri'ght a.
the language in two ways. It is (sometimes when predicative; and cf.
throwing serviceable adjectives onto the n. uprigh'tness), u'pright n.
the scrap heap; why, for instance, (= post etc.); u'pstairs adj., upstai'rs
should we speak of an enemy attack, adv.
a luxury hotel, a novelty number, an
England eleven, when we have the noun and verb accent, pronuncia-
adjectives hostile, luxurious, novel, and tion, and spelling. When there is
English} And, what is worse, it is both noun and verb work to be done
making us forget that to link two words by a word, and the plan of forming
together with of may be both clearer a noun from the verb, or a verb from
and more graceful than to put the the noun, by adding a formative suffix
second before the first as an attribute: (as in stealth from steal) is not followed,
to forget for instance that, though the one word may be called on to double
nursery school is a legitimate use of the the parts. In that case there is a strong
noun-adjective, nursery school provi- tendency to differentiate by pronun-
sion is an ugly and obscure way of ciation, as in use (n. ûs, v. ûz); such a
saying provision of nursery schools', distinction is sometimes, as in use, un-
that if a large vehicle fleet were trans- recorded in spelling, but sometimes
lated into either a large fleet of vehicles recorded as in calf and calve. It is not
or a fleet of large vehicles an ambiguity possible to draw up a complete list of
would be removed, and that a girl who the words affected, because the impulse
could not allay her guilt feelings would is still active, and the list would need
probably find her guilty feelings (or her constant additions, especially of words
feelings of guilt) no less persistent. It whose pronunciation can be modified
is significant that we have dropped the without change of spelling. But, as this
old phrase state of the world', today it means that the pronunciation of many
must always be the world situation. words is for a time uncertain, a slight
For grosser examples of this corrup- analysis of a fair number of examples
tive influence see HEADLINE LANGUAGE may help those who are in doubt. It
and HYPHENS 5. can be laid down, to start with, that
DIFFERENTIATION is in itself an aid to
noun and adjective accent. When lucidity, and therefore that, when one
a word of more than one syllable is in does not suspect oneself of being the
use both as a noun and as an adjective, innovator, and the only question is
there is a certain tendency to differen- between accepting and rejecting a dis-
tiate the sound by accenting the last tinction initiated by others, acceptance
syllable in the adjective, but not in the is wisdom.
noun. Thus There is a co'mpact be- 1. The largest class is that of words
tween us, but His style is compa'ct. The whose accent is shifted from the first
tendency is much less marked than the syllable in the noun to the last in the
corresponding one with nouns and verb. A specimen list follows in which
verbs (see next article) and seems to be the words marked with an asterisk are
noun and verb accent 400 number
doubtful, either because a tentative clothe, device and devise, glass and
differentiation is not yet established, glaze, grass and graze, grief and
or because an established one is grieve, half and halve, life and live,
weakening: accent; ally*; com- loss and lose, proof and prove, relief
mune*; compound; compress; con- and relieve, safe and save, sheath
cert; confine(s); conflict; consort; and sheathe, shelf and shelve, strife
construe*; contest; contract; con- and strive, thief and thieve, teeth and
trast; converse; convert; convict; teethe, wife and wive, wreath and
convoy*; costume*; decrease; des- wreathe.
cant; detail(s)*; dictate; digest; dis-
card; discount; discourse; entail*; novelty hunting. It is a confession
escort; essay; exploit; extract; fer- of weakness to cast about for words
ment; import; imprint; incline*; in- of which one can feel not that they
crease; indent; inlay*; insult; inter- give one's meaning more intelligibly
change*; invalid (sick person)*; per- or exactly than those the man in the
fume; premise; present; produce; street would have used in expressing
record; reject; suspect. There are also the same thing, but that they are not
a few words in which some speakers the ones that would have occurred to
shift the accent, and others go half him. Anyone can say surroundings and
way by giving the last syllable of the combination and total; I will say am-
verb with a clear instead of an obscure bience and synthesis and overall. Any-
vowel; so complement, compliment, one can say mixed feelings and shock
experiment, implement, etc. and workable, I will say ambivalence
2 . Other words, especially mono- and trauma and viable. Everyone is
syllables, are differentiated not by talking about angry young men', I will
accent but by a modification in noun call them professional iracunds. Why?
or verb of the consonantal sound at Obviously because, there being noth-
the end, which is hard in the noun and ing new in what I have to say, I must
soft in the verb. This difference is make up for its staleness by something
often for the ear only and does not new in the way I say it. And if that
affect spelling; so abuse, betroth (un- were all, if each novelty-hunter struck
like troth), close (hard s in cathedral out a line for himself, we could be
close), excuse, grease, house, misuse, content to register novelty-hunting
mouse, mouth. In this class, as in the as a useful outward sign of inward
classes in the preceding paragraph, are dullness, and leave such writers
words about which usage varies. More carefully alone. Unluckily they hunt
often the change of sound is recorded in packs, and when one of them has
in the spelling, and about such words a find they are all in full cry after it, till
no doubts arise; but examples are it becomes a VOGUE WORD, to the great
worth giving to confirm the fact that detriment of the language. See that
the distinguishing of the parts of speech article.
by change of sound is very common, nth. For to the nth, see N.
and that its extension is natural to
words whose spelling fails to show it. nucleus. PI. -lei (-lei).
If the use of leaf for leave (furlough) by nugae. Pronounce nû'gë rather than
the soldiers of the first world war nû'jë.
was an instinctive application of this
principle, it provided a rare embryo number. Several kinds of mistake
specimen (though not, it seems, de- are common, and various doubts arise,
stined to live) to set beside the fully involving the question of number.
developed ones of which this class With some of them pure grammar is
mainly consists. Examples are: advice competent to deal; in others accom-
and advise, bath and bathe, belief and modations between grammar and sense
believe, brass and braze, breath and are necessary or usual or debatable;
breathe, calf and calve, cloth and occasionally a supposed concession to
number 401 number
sense issues in nonsense. The following first two examples, it makes no dif-
numbered sections are arranged ac- ference to the meaning which of two
cordingly, the purely grammatical words (stars or guide, point or diagrams,
points coming first. 1. Subject and is made the subject and which the
complement of different numbers. complement, the one that is placed
2. Compound subjects. 3. Alternative first must (except in questions) be
subjects. 4 . Red herrings. 5. Harking regarded as subject and have the verb
back with relatives. 6. Nouns of multi- suited to its number: Our only guide
tude etc. 7. Singular verb preceding was the stars, or The stars were our only
plural subject, and vice versa. 8. As guide. Such apparent exceptions as
follow(s) etc. 9. Other(s). 10. What. Six months was the time allowed for
11. Pronouns and possessives after completion / The few days Mrs.
each, every, etc. 12. Nonsense. Kennedy will spend in London is in
1. If subject and complement are of the nature of a rest for her, are not
different numbers, how is the number true ones, for here the complement
of the verb to be decided? That is, to makes it clear that the subject, though
come to particulars in the simplest plural in form, is singular in sense
form, shall we use are in Clouds are (a period of — ) . See also THE 5 and
vaporized water, and was in The last THIS 1.
crop was potatoes, because the subject 2. Compound subjects. In Mother
clouds is plural and the subject crop and children were killed we have a
singular, or shall we prefer is and were compound subject; in Mother or
to suit the number of the complements children are to die we have not one
water and potatoes} The natural man, compound subject, but two alternative
faced with these examples has no subjects ; for the latter see 3 below. The
doubt: 'Of course, Clouds are. The compound subject is necessarily plural,
crop was, whatever may be going to whether its components are both plu-
follow.' The sophisticated man, who ral, of different numbers, or both
thinks of The wages of sin is death, singular. It is a not uncommon mis-
hesitates, but probably admits that take to make the verb singular, as in
that is an exception accounted for by They are prepared to retire if and when
the really singular sense of wages proper pledges and security is given /
(= guerdon). Both are right; it may in Their lives, their liberties, and their re-
fact be fairly assumed that, when the ligion is in danger. The wrong singulars
subject is a straightforward singular here, unless they are due to careless-
(not a noun of multitude, such as party ness of the 'red herring' variety de-
etc.), or a straightforward plural (not scribed in 4 below, seem to point to a
used in a virtually singular sense like mistaken theory that, when the parts
uages) and does not consist of separate of a compound subject differ in
items (as in he and she), the verb number, the verb follows the nearest.
follows the number of the subject, True, grammar may sometimes be
whatever that of the complement may overridden if there is a better justifica-
be. That it is not as needless as it might tion than carelessness or ignorance.
be thought to set this down will be For instance, a singular verb is natural
plain from the following extracts, some where the group forms a compound
of the simplest form, all violating the word like bread and butter, and some-
rule : Our only guide were the stars. / Its times legitimate when it conveys a
strongest point are the diagrams. / The single notion, as in The traditional
plausible suggestions to the contrary so feeling that killing and violence was
frequently put forward is an endeavour against the moral law, where the two
to kill two birds with one stone. / Mr. words amount to a HENDIADYS mean-
Coulton contests the idea that the pre- ing violent killing. But the exception
Reformation days was an age of religious is a narrow one; it is stretched too
instruction. The only comment neces- far if it is pleaded in defence of the
sary on these is that when, as in the earlier quotations; still less can it
number 402 number
justify Sunshine and showers is again 5. Harking back with relatives. Who,
forecast for today. For sentences of which, and that, can in themselves be
this type in which the verb precedes singular or plural, and there is a par-
the compound subject see 7 below. ticular form of sentence in which this
3. Alternative subjects. The reading produces constant blunders. He is one
aloud of poetry or prose, or speaking of the best men that have ever lived (with
them by heart, compel the student to which compare He is one that has lived
study their meaning closely. / United honestly). In the first sentence there
Nations troops in the Congo have been are two words capable of serving as
ordered to shoot if life or property are antecedent to that, viz. one (as in the
in danger. When both alternatives are bracketed sentence) and men. A mo-
singular in grammar and in sense the ment's thought shows that men is the
verb can only be singular. These quo- antecedent necessary to the sense : Of
tations, one from an educational pam- the best men that have ever lived (or
phlet and the other from a news agency, of the best past and present men) he
show how easy it is to blunder into a is one. But with one and men (or their
plural. (For the same mistake with equivalents) to attach the relative to,
neither... nor see NEITHER 4.) But when writers will hark back to one in spite
the alternatives differ in number, as in of the nonsense it gives, and make
Mother or children are to die, Is the their verbs singular: He is another
child or the parents to be blamed?, the of the numerous people who is quite
methods in order of merit are: competent in the art of turning what
(a) Evade by finding a verb of com- he has to say into rhyme and metre. /
mon number : Mother or children must Vaughan Williams is one of those con-
die, Shall the child or the parents be temporary composers who does not feel
blamed?', (b) Invoke ellipsis by chang- the need for a new medium. / Detective-
ing the order: The mother is to die, or inspector J. H., one of the officers who
the children. Is the child to be blamed, has been helping in investigating the
or the parents?; (c) Give the verb the great train robbery.
number of the alternative nearest it: An example or two offering pecu-
Mother or children are to die, Is the liarities may be added : Describing him
child or the parents to be blamed? as one of those busy men who in some
4 . Red herrings. Some writers are remarkable way find time for adding to
as easily drawn off the scent as young his work; to have got safely as far as
hounds. They start with a singular find, and then break away with his, is
subject; before they reach the verb, a an odd freak. Houdin was a wonderful
plural noun attached to an of or some conjurer, and is often reckoned the
other similar distraction happens to greatest of his craft who have ever
cross, and off they go in the plural; or lived; this reverses the usual mistake:
vice versa. This is a matter of careless- Is the greatest who has, Is one of the
ness or inexperience only, and needs greatest who have. She was wearing
no discussion; but it is so common as one of those loose, light, almost childish
to call for a few illustrations: This raincoats which was faintly reminiscent
argument for Mr. Macmillan's attend- of an academic gown. This writer has
ing the Assembly does not alter the irk- left us guessing whether he means
some fact that he, in common with raincoats, which was or raincoats that
President Eisenhower, are dancing to are. See THAT (REL.).
Mr. Khrushchev's tune. / The results of 6. Nouns of multitude etc.
the recognition of this truth is . . . / The (a) Such words as army, fleet, Govern-
foundation of politics are in the letter ment, company, party, pack, crowd,
only. I Offering opinions are as far as mess, number, majority, may stand
they are permitted to go. I The partition either for a single entity or for the in-
zohich the two ministers made of the dividuals who compose it, and are
powers of government were singularly called nouns of multitude. They are
happy. treated as singular or plural at dis-
number 403 number
cretion—and sometimes, naturally, (c) When the word number is itself
without discretion. The Cabinet is the subject it is a safe rule to treat it
divided is better, because in the order as singular when it has a definite
of thought a whole must precede article and as plural when it has an
division; and The Cabinet are agreed indefinite. The number of people present
is better, because it takes two or more was large, but A large number of people
to agree. That is a delicate distinction, were present. In Before the conclave
and few will be at the pains to make it. begins in a fortnight's time a number of
Broader ones that few will fail to know details has to be settled the singular is
are that between The army is on a clearly wrong; it is the details that
voluntary basis and The army are above have to be settled not the number; a
the average civilian height, and that be- number of details is a composite subject
tween The party lost their hats and equivalent to numerous details. This
The party lost its way. In general it use of a number of in the sense of more
may be said that while there are than one but not a great many is
always a better and a worse in the idiomatic, but the almost absurd
matter, there are seldom a right and vagueness of the expression if inter-
a wrong, and any attempt to elaborate preted literally makes careful writers
rules would be waste labour. prefer an adjective such as some,
But if the decision whether a noun several, many, numerous; this has the
of multitude is to be treated as advantage too of leaving no doubt that
a singular or as a plural is often the verb must be plural.
a difficult business, and when ill made 7. Singular verb preceding plural
results at worst in a venial blemish, subject and vice versa. The excuse for
failure to abide by the choice when this in speaking—often a sufficient
made, and plunging about between one—is that one has started one's
it and they, have and has, its and their, sentence before fixing the precise form
and the like, can only be called insults of the subject, though its meaning may
to the reader. A waiter might as well have been realized clearly enough. But
serve one on a dirty plate as a journal- the writer both can and ought to do
ist offer one such untidy stuff as : The what the speaker cannot, correct his
University of London Press hopes to first words before the wrong version
have ready the following additions to has reached his audience. If he does
their series of . . . / The Times also not, he too, like the waiter with the
gives some interesting comments by their dirty plate (see 6 (a)), is indecently and
special correspondent. / During their six insultingly careless. Examples: For
years of office the Government has done the first time there is introduced into the
great harm, j The village is at work now Shipyard Agreement clauses which hold
and ready to do their bit. / When the the balance equally. / A book entitled
generation which participated, and which 'America's Day', by Ignatius Phayre,
was represented at yesterday afternoon's in which is discussed the pressing prob-
affair, have gone . . . / With their lems of home andforeign policy that ...j
children's programme the B.B.C. never On these questions there is likely to be
puts a foot wrong. acute differences among the political
(b) There are heaps more to say, but groups and parties. / Where only three
I must not tax your space further. The years ago was pasture land now stands
plurals heaps and lots used collo- vast engineering shops, miles of railway
quially for a great amount now always sidings, and the constant hum of
take a singular verb unless a plural machinery.
noun with of is added : There is heaps The converse mistake is seldom
of ammunition, but There are heaps of made ; in the following, the red herring
cups; There is lots to do, but Lots of of these no doubt accounts for are:
people think so. Compare the use of The Thames has certain natural disad-
half in Half of it is rotten, but Half vantages as a shipbuilding centre; to these
of them are rotten. are added an artificial disadvantage.
number 404 number
When the verb precedes a subject rest are all singular; that is undis-
compounded of singular and plural, puted; in a perfect language there
some questions of more interest than would exist pronouns and possessives
importance may arise. There were that were of as doubtful gender as they
a table and some chairs in there', were and yet were, like them, singular; i.e.,
is better because the compound sub- it would have words meaning him-or-
ject is compact. There were a plain deal her, himself-or-herself, his-or-her.
table in there and some wicker armchairs But, just as French lacks our power
which Jorgenson had produced from of distinguishing (without additional
somewhere in the depths of the ship. words) between his, her, and its, so
The alteration of were to was would we lack the French power of saying
now be an improvement; but why, if in one word his-or-her. There are
were was best in the bare framework three makeshifts : first, as anybody can
given first? How has the author see for himself or herself; second, as any-
elaborated it? First and least, he body can see for themselves; and third,
has made table and chairs less homo- as anybody can see for himself. No one
geneous, less the equivalent of 'some who can help it chooses the first; it is
articles of furniture', by describing correct, and is sometimes necessary,
one as plain deal and the others as but it is so clumsy as to be ridiculous
wicker; secondly, he has attached to except when explicitness is urgent, and
chairs and not to table a long relative it usually sounds like a bit of pedantic
clause; third and most important, in humour. The second is the popular
order to cut off the relative clause solution; it sets the literary man's teeth
from table he has had to shift in there on edge, and he exerts himself to give
to an earlier place. The result is that the same meaning in some entirely
the verbal phrase (there were . . . in different way if he is not prepared to
there) is so arranged that it encloses risk the third, which is here recom-
one item of the compound subject mended. It involves the convention
(table) and leaves the other (chairs) out (statutory in the interpretation of docu-
in the cold. The author would have ments) that where the matter of sex is
done better to write was and let the not conspicuous or important the
second part be elliptical with there masculine form shall be allowed to
were in there to be understood out of represent a person instead of a man,
there was in there. or say a man (homo) instead of a man
(vir.) Whether that convention, with
8. As follow(s), concernas), regardas), himself or herself in the background
etc. For higher incomes than £1,000 for especial exactitudes, and para-
the new rates will be as follow. As follow phrase always possible in dubious
is not English; as follows is; for dis- cases, is an arrogant demand on the
cussion of the point see FOLLOW. part of male England, everyone must
9. OtherÇs). The wrecking policy is, decide for himself (or for himself or
like other of their adventures in recent herself, or for themselves). Have the
times, a dangerous gamble. Read other patrons of they etc. made up their minds
adventures of theirs', for discussion see yet between Everyone was blowing
OTHER 4 . their noses (or nose) and Everyone were
10. What. What provoke men's blowing their noses ? For a further dis-
curiosity are mysteries. See WHAT for cussion of this question see THEY.
the question whether it can be plural.
1 1 . Pronouns and possessives after 1 2 . Nonsense. He comes for the first
each, every, anyone, no one, one, etc. time into the Navy at an age when naval
Everyone without further delay gave officers—unless they are so meritorious
themselves up to rejoicing, j But, as or so fortunate as to be one of the three
anybody can see for themselves, the Admirals of the Fleet—are compelled by
quotation of the actually relevant por- law to leave it. Naval officers cannot be
tion of the argument in our columns one admiral; and what is wrong with
would have destroyed . . . Each and the unless they are Admirals of the Fleet ?
numeracy 405 obdurate
numeracy is a word coined by the least such as may pass for Greek or
Committee on Education presided Latin. If the ancient Romans did not
over by Sir Geoffrey Crowther in 1959 call the Russians Russi or talk of
as a term for that complement which America and Americani, we can sup-
is desirable in the sixth-form educa- pose that was only because they had
tion of arts specialists in the same way not the chance, and we are therefore
as literacy is in that of science special- entitled to make Russo-, Americo-, and
ists. It is defined as 'not only the Americano-. But the Greeks and
ability to reason quantitatively but Romans did know what speed was,
also some understanding of scientific and no one supposes they called it
method and some acquaintance with speed, whence it follows that speedo-
the achievements of science'. Clearly and speedometer are 'barbaric' forma-
there is need for such a word; whether tions. 3. It is not enough that the
this one has come to stay remains to word to be treated should be actual
be seen. or possible Latin or Greek; the shaping
must be done in the right way. We
numerous is not a pronoun, as the must take account of rcligio-philosophic
following extract makes it : These men speculations with regard to the nature
have introduced no fewer than ioj of Eternal Life; Latin, it is true, has
amendments, zvhich they know perfectly both religio and religiosus, but only the
well cannot pass, and numerous of second admits of the -0- treatment,
which are not meant to pass. See and it gives religioso-philosophic. See
VARIOUS, which is more often mis- a l s o HYBRIDS AND MALFORMATIONS a n d
used in the same way. -LOGY.
oaf. Plural oafs {the muddied oafs at
nurs(e)ling. The form recommended, the goals) ; but some dictionaries still
though rather less common hitherto gives oaves as an alternative.
than the other, is nurseling; see MUTE E
for the criterion. o and oh. Usage has changed, Oh
having formerly been prevalent in
many contexts now requiring O, and
is still by no means fixed. The present
tendency is to restrict Oh to places
O where it has a certain independence,
and to prefer O where it is proclitic or
-o- is a connecting vowel of Greek leans forward upon what follows;
origin, its extended modern function which means for practical purposes
being so to shape the end of a Greek that as the sign of the vocative ( O God
or Latin word that when a suffix or our help; O mighty-mouthed inventor
another word is applied to it the two of harmonies) O is invariable, and as
will coalesce recognizably into a single an exclamation the word is O when
derivative or compound. Three points no stop immediately follows it, but
should be noticed: 1. The part otherwise Oh (Oh, what a lie!; Oh!
ending in -0- is not a word, even though how do you know that?; O for the
it might be used by itself as a curtailed wings of a dove!; O who will o'er the
one (hydro, photo, etc.) In the com- downs with me?; O worship the King!).
pound it is essentially the beginning This distinction is observed in Hymns
only of a word ; We owe it to the genius Ancient and Modern, but The English
of Hertz that we are now able to measure Hymnal and Songs of Praise have
directly the velocity of electro and a uniform O.
magnetic waves ; electro is there used as
an adjective instead of electric, and is in- oath. PI. pron. 5dhz; see -TH AND -DH.
defensible. 2 . The words fit for the -0- obdurate, adj. The OED quotations
treatment are, if not necessarily show Shakespeare, Milton, and Bar-
authentic ancient Greek or Latin, at ham, for ôbdûr'ât and Shelley for
obedient 406 object-shuffling
ob'durât. The former is still sometimes many of its aspects is a battlefield of
heard, but is old-fashioned. See RE- subjective judgements. In the first
CESSIVE ACCENT. quotation the writer meant fair-
obedient. For yours obediently etc. minded, but that was too commonplace
See LETTER FORMS.
a word for him. In the second, if the
writer had paused to ask himself what
object, vb o objection. The infinitive he meant, he might have had to
construction is deprecated and the answer that all he was saying, rather
gerund recommended. The cab-drivers tritely, was that people disagree about
object to pay their proportion of the the merits of television programmes
increase (read paying), j They have been because tastes differ.
blocked by the objections of farmers and
landlords to provide suitable land (read objective genitive. The genitive that
providing). stands to a verbal noun or noun of
action in the same relation as the
objective, object, nn. 1 . LOVE OF THE object to a verb. In fear God, God is
LONG WORD has led to the popular use the object of the verb, and, in put the
of objective for object in its sense of fear of God into them, God is in the
purpose, aim, or end. Objective (point) same relation to the noun fear, and of
is a military term meaning the God is called the objective genitive. In
specific aim or topographical target English the ' o f genitive is usual, but
of a military operation. It should be the inflected genitive or the possessive
confined to contexts that do not strain adjective also occurs, as in the Presi-
the metaphor. 2 . The object of the dent's murder and the deep damnation of
exercise, meaning the purpose for his taking-off.
which something was done (even
though the doing of it may have been object-shuffling. The conferring of
in no sense an 'exercise') is a CLICHÉ a name on a type of mistake, making it
born in operational training during recognizable and avoidable, is worth
the second world war. Sometimes it is while if the mistake is common. Object-
used jocularly (it has the same kind of shuffling describes what unwary writers
attraction as POLYSYLLABIC HUMOUR)
are apt to do with some of the many
and sometimes seriously, intruding, as verbs that require, besides a direct
all clichés will, in unsuitable places, object, another noun bearing to them
e.g. in this comment on a deportation a somewhat similar relation, but at-
order : What one has here as the object of tached to them by a preposition. You
the exercise is not only the intention to can inspire courage in a person, or
place him on a ship leaving the country but inspire a person with courage; the
the express intention of delivering him change of construction is object-
to the U.S. government. shuffling, which, with the verb inspire,
is legitimate and does not offend
objective and subjective (adjj.) are against idiom. But with instil the
terms of philosophy and physiology object-shuffling would be wrong; you
distinguishing concepts and sensations can instil courage into a person; to
that have an external cause from those instil a person with courage is contrary
that arise only in the mind. (They are to idiom. Wherever reference is made
also now the usual grammatical terms under any word to this article, the
for what used to be called the accusa- meaning is that with that word object-
tive and nominative cases.) They have shuffling is not permissible. Most of
become POPULARIZED TECHNICALITIES, the verbs liable to this maltreatment
treated as stylish substitutes for com- are derived from Latin verbs com-
moner and more precise words such pounded with prepositions and there-
as (un)biased, (dis)interested, (impar- fore beginning with in-, sub-, pre-, etc.
tial, (un)prejudiced. The answer, as The Latin scholar, aware that the
every objective Australian will admit, verbal parts of substituo and instillo and
zvas hysterical batting, j Television in praefigo mean to put and to pour and
obligated 407 oblivious
to fasten, instinctively chooses for whether we should say -ijor or ïgor,
their direct objects the stopgap, the -ïjê or ïjë; ïgor and ï'jë are recom-
influence, and the appendage, not the mended.
thing displaced, the person influenced,
and the main body; and in writing of obliqueness, obliquity. There is
the more educated kind his example is some tendency to confine the latter to
followed. But the non-Latinist, if he the secondary or figurative senses;
is also unobservant, gives substitute the obliquity of mind or judgement or out-
construction of replace, instil that of look, but obliqueness of the line or
fill, and prefix that of preface. It is ground; cf. OPACITY, and see -TYAND
seldom that the mistake is made with -NESS. It is perhaps well to encourage
non-Latin words; an example will be SUCh DIFFERENTIATION.
found under FOIST. TWO specimens
may be here given; the reader who oblivious. A word misused in
wishes for more will find them under two ways. (1) Its original sense is no
the words ENFORCE, INCULCATE, IN- longer aware or no longer mindful,
FLICT, INFUSE, INSTIL, PREFIX, SUBSTI- not simply unaware or unconscious or
TUTE, and others. A quarterly which is insensible. But it has strayed beyond
doing so much to initiate into the minds of recall from the area of forgetfulness
the British Public what is requisite for into the wider one of heedlessness.
them to know (to initiate the B.P. in what A contempt to which the average
is requisite). / The ecclesiasticalprinciple Englishman in his happy self-sufficiency
was substituted by the national (the is generally o. / He may have driven off
national principle was substituted for quite 0. of the fact that any harm had
the ecclesiastical). been done. / Singly or in groups, 0. to
the traffic in the streets, they pursued
obligated as a synonym for obliged their eager quest. (2) Even when the
(having received a favour etc.) is now word might bear its true sense of
a mere solecism; but in the full sense forgetful (as opposed to unaware), it is
of bound by law or duty to do some- often followed by the wrong preposi-
thing it is still used, especially in legal tion (to). This is a natural result of the
language. misuse explained in (1); it will be
obligatory. The pronunciation recom- noticed that two of the three quota-
mended is ôblï'gàtôrï in preference to tions there given show to instead of of,
either ôb 'lïgàtôrï or ôblïgât'ôrï given as perhaps on the analogy of insensible to.
alternatives by some dictionaries. See But in the following examples to has
RECESSIVE ACCENT.
been used even where the meaning
might otherwise be the correct one of
oblige The derivatives of o. and forgetful : Each of them oblivious to the
obligate (see OBLIGATED above) are presence of anybody else, and intent on
troublesome; there are two possible conversation. / A principle to which the
adjectives in -able (see -ABLE I ) , viz. romances of the eighteenth century were
obligable from obligate (= that can be curiously oblivious. / Mr. Humphreys is
legally bound; pronounce ô'blïgâbT), always oblivious to the fact that the
and obligeable from oblige (= that can minority in one part of the kingdom is
have a favour conferred; pron. oblV- represented by the majority in another
jâbl). Obligee and obligor belong in part.
sense to obligate, and have curious The making of these mistakes is part
meanings : obligor, not one who confers of the price paid by those who reject
an obligation, but one who binds or the homely word, avoid the obvious,
obligates himself to do something; and look about for the imposing.
obligee, not one who is obliged, but Forgetful, unaware, unconscious, un-
one to whom a service is due (towards mindful, and heedless, while they
whom a duty has been undertaken). usually give the meaning more pre-
The dictionaries are not agreed cisely, lay no traps.
obnoxious 408 ode
obnoxious has two very different a raconteur as . . . I n all these the word
senses, one of which (exposed or open should be observation; one quotation
or liable to attack or injury) requires is added in which observation is wrong-
notice because its currency is now so ly used for observance; The British
restricted that it is puzzling to the Government has failed to secure the
uninstructed. It is the word's rightful observation of law and has lost the
or de jure meaning, and we may hope confidence of all classes.
that scholarly writers will keep it alive,
as they have hitherto succeeded in obstetric(al). See -IC(AL). The short
doing. Meanwhile the rest of us need form is much commoner, and is
not scruple to recognize the usurping or recommended; its formation is in
de facto sense of offensive or objection- fact faulty (a midwife is obstetrix,
able. This has perhaps no right to exist -ïcis, so that obstetricic would be the
('apparently affected by association true adjective), while that of obstetrical
with noxious' says the OED), but it would pass; but only pedantry would
does and will, and, unlike the other, take exception to obstetric at this stage
it is comprehensible to everyone. of its career.
oboe. See HAUTBOY. The player is an obtain. See FORMAL WORDS. Customer
oboist, not oboeist. —Can you get me some? Shopman—
We can o. it for you, madam.
observance, observation. The use-
ful DIFFERENTIATION in virtue of which octavo. See FOLIO. PI. -os; see
neither word can be substituted for -O(E)S 6. Pronounce â not ah.
the other, and each is appropriated to octingentenary, octocentenary,
certain senses of observe, should not be octocentennial. See CENTENARY.
neglected. Observance is the attending
to and carrying out of a duty or rule octopus. PL -uses; -pi is wrong and
or custom; it has none of the senses -podes pedantic.
of observation (watching, noticing, etc.),
and observation in turn does not mean octoroon, -taroon. Both are bad
performing or complying. Though the forms, the -r- being imported from
distinction is modern, its prevalence quadroon, which has a right to it. But
in good writing may be judged from the second is worse than the first, since
the OED's having only one I9th-c. octa- is not (like quadr-) Latin, but
and no 20th-c. example of observance, Greek. For meaning, see MULATTO 2 .
as against many of observation, in the oddment. Though the word itself is
sense consciously seeing or taking established and useful, its formation
notice. It has been strengthened by is anomalous (see -MENT) and should
the use of observation in such expres- not be imitated.
sions as 0. car, 0. balloon, 0. post, and
o. ward. Unfortunately a perverted ode. The OED definition of the word
taste for out-of-the-way forms has in its prevailing modern sense may be
been undoing this useful achievement, given: 'A rhymed (rarely unrhymed)
and such uses as the following, almost lyric, often in the form of an address;
unknown for two or three centuries, generally dignified or exalted in sub-
have again become common: To re- ject, feeling, and style, but sometimes
inforce observance with imagination. / (in earlier use) simple and familiar
Emerson does not check his assumptions; (though less so than a song).' But what
he scorns observance, j From him Mr. with confusion between this very com-
Torr inherits both his gift for exact prehensive modern sense and the more
observance and lively humour, j His definite Greek sense (as in choric ode
early poetry, the product of exalted and Pindaric ode), what with the ob-
sensation rather than of careful obser- vious vagueness of the modern sense
vance. I Whose powers of observance and itself, and what with the fact that
memory have combined to make as varied 'elaborate' and 'irregular' are both
oe, œ, e 409 of
epithets commonly applied to ode special uses have -os; so dos (the
metres, the only possible conception musical note); crescendos; dittos;
of the ode seems to be that of a Shape guanos; infernos; lumbagos.
If shape it might be called that shape 4 . When a vowel precedes the -0,
had none -os is usual, perhaps because of the
Distinguishable in member, joint, or bizarre look of -toes etc.; so arpeggios;
limb. bagnios; cameos; embryos ; folios ; punc-
tilios.
oe, œ, e. See m, Œ. The following 5. The curtailed words made by
spellings of words beginning with oe dropping the second element of a
or its substitutes are recommended: compound or the later syllables have
ecology etc.; ecumenical; oedema etc.; -os; so chromos; dynamos; magnetos;
Oedipus; oesophagus; oestrum. The photos; pros; stylos.
pronunciation in all is simply ë. 6. Alien-looking or otherwise queer
words have -os; so albinos; alto-
-o(e)s. The Englishman has a legiti- relievos; centos; commandos; duo-
mate grievance against the words in -o. decimos; fiascos; ghettos; lingos; medi-
No one who is not prepared to flout cos; negrillos.
usage and say that for him every word 7. Long words tend to -os; so
in -0 shall make -oes, or all shall make archipelagos (or -oes); armadillos;
-os, can possibly escape doubts; one generalissimos; manifestos.
kind of whole-hogger will have to write 8. Proper names have -os; so Gallios;
heros and cargos and potatos and gos and Lotharios; Neros; Romeos.
negros, while the other kind must face
embryoes, photoes, cameoes,fiascoes, and of. This preposition shares with
generalissimoes. In this book, many another word of the same length, AS,
words in -0 have been entered in their the evil glory of being accessary to
dictionary places with the plurals that more crimes against grammar than
seem advisable; here, one or two any other. But, in contrast with the
guiding principles may be tentatively syntax of as, which is so difficult that
suggested. Although there are several blunders are very excusable, that of
hundred nouns in -0, the ending is of is so simple that only gross careless-
one that is generally felt to be exotic, and ness can lead anyone astray with it.
only a small minority are allowed the Nevertheless, straying is perpetual,
plural in -oes, which, since it is invari- and the impression of amateurishness
able in many very familiar words (no,go, produced on an educated reader of
cargo, potato, hero, negro, etc.) might the newspapers is discreditable to the
be considered the normal form. It English Press. Fortunately, the com-
must be understood that the following monest type of blunder with of is very
rules are not more than generally true, definite and recognizable, so that the
and that sometimes they come to setting of it forth with sufficient illus-
blows with each other over a word, and tration has a real chance of working
that such battles may remain long some improvement. That type is
undecided. treated in the first of the following
1. Words used as freely in the plural sections, the list of which is : (1) Wrong
as in the singular usually have -oes, patching; (2) Patching the unpatch-
though there are very few with which able; (3) Side-slip; (4) Irresolution;
it is invariable ; names of animals and (5) Needless repetition; (6) Misleading
plants fall naturally into this class. So omission; (7) Some freaks of idiom.
banjoes; bravoes; cargoes; dingoes; 1. Wrong patching. In the examples
dominoes ;flamingoes; heroes; potatoes. that follow the same thing has hap-
2. Monosyllables take -oes; so goes, pened every time. The writer com-
noes. poses a sentence in which some other
3. Words of the kind whose plural preposition than of occurs once but
is seldom wanted or is restricted to governs two nouns, one close after it
of 410 of
and the other at some distance. Look- cries and tears, but without cries or
ing over his sentence, he feels that the without tears does not mean the same
second noun is out in the cold, and as without cries or tears', on this point,
that he would make things clearer by see OVERZEAL. It could be done without
expressing the preposition for the unduly raising the price of coal, or of
second time instead of leaving it to be jeopardizing new trade. / He will dis-
understood. So far, so good ; care even tinguish between the American habit of
when uncalled for is meritorious. But concentrating upon the absolute essen-
his stock of it runs short, and instead tials, of 'getting there* by the shortest
of ascertaining what the preposition path, and of the elaboration in detail and
really was he hurriedly assumes that the love of refinements in workmanship
it was the last in sight, which happens which mark the Latin mind. / Without
to be an of that he has had occasion to going into the vexed question of the
insert for some other purpose; that precise geographical limitations, or of
of he now substitutes for the other pronouncing any opinion upon the con-
preposition whose insertion or omis- flicting claims of Italy and of the Yugo-
sion was a matter of indifference, and slavs, what may be said is that. . .
so ruins the whole structure. In the 3 . Side-slip. Besides the types given
examples, the three prepositions con- in the previous sections, so beautifully
cerned are in roman type; in each case systematic in irregularity as almost to
the reader will notice that to correct appear regular, there are more casual
the sentence it is necessary either to aberrations of which no more need be
omit the later of the two ofs or to said than that the sentence is diverted
alter it to the earlier preposition : An from its track into an of construction
eloquent testimony to the limits of this by the presence somewhere of an of.
kind of war, and of the efficiency of right Analogous mistakes are illustrated in
defensive measures. / He will be in the the article SIDE-SLIP. The primary
best possible position for getting the most object was not the destruction of the mole
out of the land and of using it to the forts, or oj the aeroplane shed, or of
best possible advantage. / The definite whatever military equipment was there,
repudiation of militarism as the govern- or even of killing or capturing its garri-
ing factor in the relation of States and son. I Its whole policy was, and is, simply
of the future moulding of the European to obstruct the improvement of the
world. I A candidate who ventured to workingman's tavern, and of turning
hint at the possible persistence of the every house of refreshment and enter-
laws of economics, and even of the tainment in the land into that sort of
revival of the normal common-sense coffee tavern which . . .
instincts of trade. / The Ministry aims 4 . Irresolution. Here again we have
not merely at an equitable division of illustrated Germany's utter contempt for
existing stocks, but of building up reserves her pledged word and of her respect for
against the lean months. nothing but brute force. / His view would
2, Patching the unpatchable. These be more appropriate in reference to
resemble the previous set so far as the Hume's standpoint than of the best
writers are concerned. They have done thought of our own day. These are the
the same thing as before; but for the results of having in mind two ways of
reader who wishes to correct them putting a thing and deciding first for
there is the difference that only one one and then for the other: we have
course is open; of must be simply illustrated, and we have an illustration
omitted; the other preposition (be- of; to Hume's standpoint (than to the
tween or without) cannot be repeated. thought), and to the standpoint of Hume
We can say for you and for me instead (than of the thought).
of for you and me if we choose, but 5. Needless repetition of of. There
not between you and between me instead is a classical tag about the pleasure of
of between you and me', with cries being on shore and of watching other
and with tears means the same as with folk in a big sea. A matter not of
of 411 officialese
grammar, but of style and lucidity; officialese is a pejorative term for
in style the second of is heavy, and a style of writing marked by peculiari-
in sense it obscures the fact that the ties supposed to be characteristic of
pleasure lies not in two separate things officials. If a single word were needed
but in their combination. to describe those peculiarities, that
6. Omission of of. The prohibition of chosen by Dickens, circumlocution, is
meetings and the printing and distribu- still the most suitable. They may be
tion of flysheets stopped the Radicals* ascribed to a combination of causes:
agitation. Unless an of is inserted be- a feeling that plain words sort ill with
fore the printing, the instinct of sym- the dignity of office, a politeness that
metry compels us to start by assuming shrinks from blunt statement, and,
that the printing etc. of fly-sheets is above all, the knowledge that for those
parallel to the prohibition of meetings engaged in the perilous game of
instead of, as it must be, to meetings politics, and their servants, vagueness
alone For the modern tendency to is safer than precision. The natural
displace of and other prepositions result is a stilted and verbose style,
by using nouns attributively see not readily intelligible—a habit of
NOUN-ADJECTIVES a n d HEADLINE LAN- mind for instance that automatically
GUAGE. rejects the adjective unsightly in
7. Some freaks of idiom. You are favour of the PERIPHRASIS detrimental
the man of all others that I did not to the visual amenities of the locality.
suspect. He is the worst liar of any This reputation, though not al-
man / know. A child of ten years old. together undeserved, is unfairly exag-
That long nose of his. The modern gerated by a confusion in the public
tendency is to rid speech of patent mind between officialese and what may
ILLOGICALITIES; and all the above be termed legalese. For instance
either are, or seem to persons ignorant a correspondent writes to The Times
of any justification that might be found to show up what he calls this 'flower
in the history of the constructions, of circumlocution' from the National
plainly illogical: the man of all men; Insurance Act 1959; it ought not, he
the worst liar of all liars; a child of ten says, to be allowed to waste its sweet-
years, or a child ten years old; a friend ness on the desert air. For the purpose
of mine, i.e. among my friends, but of this Part of this Schedule a person
surely not that nose of his, i.e. among over pensionable age, not being an in-
his noses : so the logic-chopper is fain sured person, shall be treated as an
to correct or damn; but even he is insured person if he would be an insured
likely in unguarded moments to let the person were he under pensionable age and
forbidden phrases slip out. Some will would be an employed person were he
perhaps be disused in time; meanwhile an insured person.
they are recognized idioms—STURDY This is certainly not pretty or lumi-
INDEFENSIBLES possibly, though not nous writing. But it is not officialese,
without their defenders. Jespersen, nor is it circumlocution. It is legalese,
for instance, has shown that the use of and the reason why it is difficult to
of in such constructions as A child of grasp is not that it wanders verbosely
ten years old and That long nose of his round the point but that it goes
is as old as Caxton, and has argued straight there with a baffling economy
that of is here not partitive but apposi- of words. It has the compactness of
tional—merely a grammatical device a mathematical formula. Legalese
to make it possible to join words which cannot be judged by literary standards.
for some reason or another it would In it everything must be subordinated
otherwise be impossible to join. The to one paramount purpose: that of
latter construction may be found in the ensuring that if words have to be
opening lines of Antony and Cleopatra: interpreted by a Court they will be
*Nay but this dotage of our general's given the meaning the draftsman in-
o'erflows the measure'. tended. Elegance cannot be expected
officialese 412 often
from anyone so circumscribed. Indeed ing the standard daily rate of unemploy-
it is hardly an exaggeration to say ment benefit from two thirds of the
that the more readily a legal document remuneration lost in respect of that day
appears to yield its meaning the less each of those days.
likely it is to prove unambiguous. It That circumlocution may occasion-
is fair to assume that if the paragraph ally be found even in the utterances
quoted were to be worked out, as one of those official 'spokesmen' who
would work out an equation, it would ought to know better, may be illus-
be found to express the draftsman's trated by this extract from a London
meaning with perfect precision. evening newspaper:
If an official were to use those words Discussing Anglo-American talks on
in explaining the law to a 'person over the Barnes Wallis folding-wing plane,
pensionable age not being an insured a Ministry spokesman said:
person' he would indeed deserve to ' The object of this visit is a pooling
be pilloried. The popular belief that of knowledge to explore further the
officials use an esoteric language no possibility of a joint research effort to
doubt derives partly from the reluc- discover the practicability of making
tance they used to feel to explain the use of this principle to meet a possible
law in their own words lest they should future NA TO requirement, and
be accused of putting a gloss on it. should be viewed in the general
But, now that the daily lives of all of context of interdependence.'
us are affected by innumerable laws, Or, (our version):
officials have had to overcome this ' This visit is to find out zvhether we
inhibition and act as interpreters ; they can, together, develop the folding
could not get through their work if wing for NA TO.'
they had not learned to express them-
selves to ordinary people in a way that officious has a meaning in diplomacy
ordinary people can understand. Cir- oddly different from its ordinary one
cumlocution is rife in present-day A diplomatist means by an 0. com-
writing and speaking, but officials are munication much what a lawyer means
no longer markedly worse than other by one without prejudice; it is to bind
people; they are probably better than no one, and, unless acted upon by
most. But the following examples common consent, is to be as if it had not
show that they still sometimes fall been. It is the antithesis of official, and
into the old bad habit of giving the notion of meddlesomeness attach-
explanations in terms only fit for an ing to it in ordinary use is entirely
Act of Parliament, if that : absent. But the risk of misunderstand-
'Appropriate weekly rate' means, in ing is obvious, and the word is now
relation to any benefit, the weekly rate rarely used.
of personal benefit by way of benefit of offing, offish, etc. The vowel sound
that description which is appropriate in awf in off and its compounds that
the case of the person in relation to whom formerly prevailed in Southern or
the provision containing that expression 'standard' English (see RECEIVED PRO-
is to be applied, j Unemployment benefit NUNCIATION) is tending to disappear,
is not payable in respect of 13.2.56 to and off is now usual.
17.2.56 which cannot be treated as
days of unemployment on the ground often. The pronunciation awfn is
that the claimant notwithstanding that becoming old-fashioned and of'n or
this employment has terminated received, often is now usual. According to the
by way of compensation for the loss of OED the sounding of the t was not
the remuneration which he would have then recognized by the dictionaries.
received for that day each of those days But that was before the speak-as-you-
if the unemployment had not been termi- spell movement got under way, and as
nated, payment of an amount which long ago as 1933 the SOED recorded
exceeds the amount arrived at by deduct- that the sounding of the t was then fre-
oh 413 olden
quent in the south of England. That Otto Kaiser, a German-born Ameri-
would now be an understatement of can industrialist; to the Southern
its currency. The long-drawn-out joke French dialect word oc (= oui); to
in The Pirates of Penzance—'When aux quais stencilled on the casks of
you said orphan did you mean a person Puerto Rico rum specially selected for
who has lost his parents or often, fre- export; to Aux Cay es, a place in Haiti
quently'—will soon be unintelligible noted for the excellence of its rum; to
to the audience. See PRONUNCIATION I . the letters indicating rank appended to
the signature of a German Ober-
oh. For oh and O see o kommandant; to a misreading of O.R.
( = order recorded) ; to the Scots Och
O.K. The most weighty consideration aye', to the Finnish oikea; and to the
ever given to the origin and meaning Latin omnia correcta.
of O.K. must have been that of the Judi- Recent research is said to have
cial Committee of the Privy Council traced the earliest known use of O.K.
in 1935, when hearing the case of to the Boston Morning Post of
Nippon Menkwa Kabushiki Kaesha v. 23 March 1839. It was not until nearly
Dazvson's Bank. The issue turned on a hundred years later that, greatly
the responsibility that a rice merchant helped by radio and television, it won
must be held to have assumed by its present popularity in England. It
writing O.K. and his initials on certain is made to serve as an adjective, often
invoices. 'Without some assistance in predicative {That's O.K.) and occa-
the way of evidence', said Lord Russell sionally attributive {Advertising is in
of Killowen, 'their Lordships might these days a socially okay profession) ; it
have found themselves in a difficulty, supersedes the old formulas of assent
and all the more so since the origin of Very well, All right, and Right oh, and
this commercial barbarism (which ac- the questions Do you understand? and
cording to the OED was in use as far Are you ready?; as a verb it means
back as 1847) is variously assigned in sanction or approve, and as a noun is
different works of authority. The similarly used {Put an O.K. on or
general view seems to be that the Give the O.K. to). It has bred a jocular
letters hail from the U.S.A. and re- variant in Okidoke(y). Apart from its
present a spelling, humorous or un- use in COMMERCIALESE, it is still a
educated, of the words All Correct.' colloquialism and some day will no
The case was accordingly decided as doubt share the fate of all popular
it would have been if those words had colloquialisms and have to yield to a
been written on the invoices. newcomer.
After this authoritative pronounce-
ment, the search for other origins and old. 1. For the distinction between
meanings, in which many people have older,
exercised much ingenuity, may be ELDER. oldest, and elder, eldest, see
2 . For the phrase a boy etc.
regarded as of academic interest onlv. of ten etc. years old, see OF 7. 3 . For
But it is perhaps worth while briefly the o. lady of Threadneedle Street see
to record other suggestions, leaving
the reader to distinguish for himself SOBRIQUETS.
between the serious and the flippant.
The strongest rival of All Correct used olden. 1 . The adjective, which is of
to be that the letters represented the a strange formation and not to be
Choctaw oke { — it is), but this is reckoned among the numerous -EN
rejected by the OED Supp. as not ADJECTIVES, is also peculiar in use; the
according with the evidence. Others olden time{s) or days is common, but
ascribe the origin to the O.K. Club of outside that phrase the ./ord is usually
New York, so called after 'Old Kinder- as ridiculous as Ye substituted for the
hook', the nickname of Martin van in the sham-archaic advertisements of
Buren (1782-1862); to the initials of shop windows. The combination of
olden with regime in the following
olfactory 414 once
example is what one might expect the omniscience. The dictionaries are
author to call very tasty; see INCON- almost unanimous for the pronuncia-
GRUOUS VOCABULARY. They form part tion -sh(i)ens but -siens is a strong rival
of the olden railway regime, when every and likely to prevail.
Great Western main-line train was
deliberately halted for ten minutes at on. For on all fours, see FOUR. For
Swindon for refreshment. 2 . For the onto, on to, and on, see ONTO. For on
verb, = make or grow older, see -EN and upon see UPON.
VERBS.
-on. Of words derived from Greek
olfactory. For o. organ, see POLY- and having in English the termination
SYLLABIC HUMOUR. -on: 1. Some usually (or invariably)
form the plural in - a ; so asyndeton,
olive-branches. See HACKNEYED criterion, hyperbaton, noumenon, or-
PHRASES, and SOBRIQUETS. ganon, oxymoron, phenomenon. 2 .
Others seldom or never use that form
-ology. See -LOGY. (though it would not be incorrect) but
prefer the ordinary English -s; so
Olympian, Olympic, Olympiad. electron, lexicon, neutron, proton, skele-
The distinction between the first two, ton. 3 . In others again, the substitu-
not as old as Shakespeare and Milton, tion of -a for -on to form the plural
but now usually observed, is useful. would be a blunder (the relevant
Olympian means of Olympus, of or as Greek plurals being of some quite
of the Greek gods whose abode was on different form), and -s is the only
that mountain : Olympian Zeus, splen- plural used; such are onion, archon,
dour, indifference. Olympic means of canon, cation, cotyledon, cyclotron,
Olympia, of the athletic contests there demon, mastodon, nylon, pylon, siphon,
held: Olympic games, victors. Olym- tenon.
piad, sometimes misused for the
period during which the Olympic once. 1 . The use as a conjunction
games are celebrated, means the inter- (i.e. = if once or when once, as in Once
vals of four years between celebrations, you consent you are trapped) is sound
used by the ancient Greeks in dating English enough, but writers who use
events. it should remember both that there is
a vigorous abruptness about it that
omelet(te). The shorter spelling is makes it more suitable for some con-
preferable. texts than others, and also that, unless
omen. For synonymy see SIGN. preceded by if or when, it may lay a
FALSE SCENT, as in But their aloofness
ominous. Pronounce om-. The alter- might have quite the opposite result of
native dm-, as in omen, is no longer that which they desire; for once the
recognized by the dictionaries. crisis had arrived, home affairs would
indeed be swamped.
omnibus book. This term was coined 2 . Once and away, once in a way. The
for something which, like the vehicle, two phrases seem properly to have
was for everyone's us6—'a book or distinct meanings, the first 'once and
volume (usually containing several no more' (It is not enough to harrow
works) published at a price intended once and away—1759 in OED), and
to place it within the reach of all' the second 'not often'. Later, no doubt
(OED Supp.). It is now generally because the phrases are almost indis-
applied, irrespective of price, to a book tinguishable when spoken, both were
whose contents, like the passengers in used in the second sense. But even-
an omnibus, are many and varied, tually in a way or in a while became the
though probably linked either by ordinary phrase for not often; once and
common authorship or a common away is obsolescent and the phrase for
topic. once and no more is once (and) for all.
one 415 one
one. 1. Pronunciation. 2 . Writing of 'one of the best books' and 'the best
anyone, no one, etc. 3. One and a half book'; but we have been taught to
years etc. 4 . One of the, if not the, best avoid repetition of words, and there-
book(s). 5. One of the men who does fore desire that part of one of these
things. 6. Kind of pronoun—numeral, nearly similar expressions should be
indefinite or impersonal, or first- understood instead of said or written.
personal? 7. Possessive of the numeral Let us then enclose the partially
and the impersonal—his? one's? their? expressed one inside the other, as
8. Mixtures of one, you, we, etc. 9. One a parenthesis. Can this be done? It
as a prop-word. will be seen that (a), (b), and (c), though
1. It is much to be desired that those they differ in minor points, are alike in
who teach theological students, broad- failing to pass the most obvious test—
cast announcers, and others whose does the enclosing expression read
voices we have to listen to, should right if the parenthesis is left out? One
urge their pupils to pronounce the of spacious of salons, One of the finest
word briskly as wun instead of the poem, One ofprofessions open to women:
drawled wahn that is now so common. the first and second nonsense, the
2. The forms recommended are third the wrong sense. In (d)s (e), ( / ),
anyone, everyone, no one, someone. For the enclosing expression taken alone
discussion see EVERY ONE I . does give sense; the further test they
3. One and a half years ox a year and have to pass is—if the words under-
a half. The second is recommended, stood in the parenthesis are written in,
when words and not figures are used; does the whole read as sound, though
for discussion, see MILLION I , and perhaps inelegant, English? One of the
HALF 1. greatest {perhaps the greatest export
4. One of the, if not the, best book{s). article) export articles', One of the most
Grammar is a poor despised branch (if not the most enterprising nation)
of learning; if it were less despised, enterprising nations', One of (if not thé
we should not have such frequent oldest Voortrekker) the oldest Voor-
occasion to weep or laugh at the trekkers. Not sound English, but non-
pitiful wrigglings of those who feel sense; compare it with the expanding
themselves in the toils of this phrase. of a correctly compressed sentence:
That the victims know their plight He was, if not a perfect, a great orator,
is clear from the way they dart in which being filled up gives if not
different directions to find an outlet. a perfect orator, a great orator; that
Here are half a dozen attempts, all is not nonsense, but sound English.
failures, but each distinguishable in The rule that has been broken in the
some point of arrangement from the supposed compressions (d), (e), ( / ) ,
rest: (a) Given in the Costume Hall— and not broken in the real one, is that
one of, if not the most, spacious of salons you cannot understand out of a word
for dresses and costumes—the dancing that is yet to come another word (as
has been . . . (b) One of the finest, if not article out of a coming articles, nation
the finest, poem of an equal length pro- out of a coming nations, Voortrekker
duced of recent years, (c) / think the out of a coming Voortrekkers), but
stage is one of, if not the best of all, only the same word, as orator out of
professions open to women, (d) Fur was orator. When, as always happens in
one of the greatest—perhaps the greatest this idiom, there is a change of num-
—export articles of Norway, (e) The ber, the only thing is to see that the
Japanese were one of the most, if not the place from which the understood word
most, enterprising nations in the East. is omitted is after, not before, the
(/) One of, if not, the oldest Voortrek- word from which it is to be supplied;
kers of South Africa has just passed for from a word that has already been
away. expressed the taking of the other num-
The nature of the problem is this: ber is not forbidden. Accordingly, the
we have two expressions of the type right form for the words that concern
one 416
us in the examples (a)-(f) will be: the second, one has a special sense; it
One of the most spacious, if not the most stands for a person, i.e., the average
spacious, of salons', One of the finest person, or the sort of person we happen
poems of an equal length produced of to be concerned with, or anyone of the
recent years, if not the finest; One of class that includes the speaker; it does
the best prof essions open to women, if not not mean a particular person. It might
the best of all; One of the greatest export be called an indefinite, or an imper-
articles of Norway, perhaps the greatest; sonal, pronoun; for the sake of con-
One of the most enterprising nations in trast with the third use, impersonal
the East, if not the most; One of the pronoun will here be the name. In the
oldest Voortrekkers, if not the oldest. third, one is neither more nor less than
It may be thought that for (a) the a substitute for / , and the name that
best has not been done, and that One best describes it is the false first-
of the, if not the, most spacious of salons personal pronoun. The distinction
would have been less clumsy, and yet between the numeral and the imper-
legitimate. It is an improvement on sonal, which is plain enough, is impor-
the original, and by inserting a the and tant because on it depend such differ-
correcting the stops makes a plausible ences as that between One hates his
attempt at compromise. But it is not enemies and One hates one's enemies;
legitimate, because most spacious has to those differences will be treated in
be taken as at the same time singular section 7. The distinction between the
and plural. English disguises that fact impersonal and the false first-personal,
by its lack of inflexions, but does not a rather fine one in practice, is still
annul it; and, though most people are more important because it separates
not quite sure what is the matter, they an established and legitimate use from
can feel that something is. one that ought not to exist at all. The
5. One of the men who does things. false first-personal pronoun one is an
Does should be do. This blunder, invention of the self-conscious writer
easier to deal with than that in 3, but or speaker, and its suppression before
not less frequent, will be found dis- it can develop further is very desirable.
cussed in NUMBER 5. Outside this section, the rest of which
will be devoted to illustrating the
6. Kind of pronoun. To avoid con- attempts to popularize this usage, it
fusion in this and the later sections will be assumed that it does not exist
between certain uses of the pronoun except as a mere misuse of the im-
one that tend to run into each other, personal one.
it will be necessary to ask the reader
to accept, pro hac vice, certain names. Let us take a fictitious example and
One is a pronoun of some sort when- pull it about, in order to make the
ever it stands not in agreement with point clear: He asked me to save his
a noun, but as a substitute for a noun life, and I did not refuse ; the true first-
preceded by a or one: in 'I took one personal pronoun, twice. He asked me
apple' one is not a pronoun, but an to save his life; could one refuse?; true
adjective; in 'I want an apple; may I first-personal pronoun, followed by
take one?' one stands for an apple or impersonal pronoun. He asked me to
one apple, and is a pronoun. But for save his life, and one did not refuse;
the purpose of this article it is more true first-personal pronoun, followed
important to notice that one is not by false first-personal pronoun. The
always the same kind of pronoun; it is one of could one refuse? means I or
of three different kinds in these three anyone else of my kind or in my
examples: One of them escaped; One is position, and is normal English; the
often forced to confess failure; One knew one of one did not refuse cannot possibly
better than to swallow that. In the first, mean anything different from / by
one may be called a numeral pronoun, itself, and is a fraud. But the self-
which description will cover also / will conscious writer sees in this fraud
take one, One is enough, and so on. In a chance of eating his cake and having
417 one
it; it will enable him to be impersonal can, and now usually does, provide its
and personal at once. He has repined own possessive etc.—one's, oneself, and
at abstention from /, or has blushed one; thus One does not like to have one's
over not abstaining; here is what he word doubted; If one fell, one would
has longed for, the cloak of generality hurt oneself badly.
that will make egotism respectable. But thirdly, in American, in older
The sad results of this discovery are English, and in a small minority of
shown in the following extracts. In modern British writers, the above
none of them is there any real doubt sentences would rv.n One does not like
that one and one's mean I and my to have his word doubted; If one fell,
simply; but in some more than in he would hurt himself badly.
others the connexion with the legiti- The modern fashion (one's, oneself,
mate impersonal use is traceable. The etc.) gives a useful differentiation
writer should make up his mind that between the numeral and the im-
he will, or that he will not, talk in the personal, and it makes recourse to the
first person, and go on the sound horrible their etc. needless (One does
assumption that one and one's do not not like to have their word doubted;
mean I and me or my and mine. see THEY 1). The following examples
will suffice to show that not all writers
The false first-personal ONE yet accept the modern idiom, though
But one must conclude one's survey it is certainly in the interests of the
(at the risk, I am afraid, of tedious language that they should: There are
reiteration) by insisting that... / 1 have many passages which one is rather
knovm in the small circle of one's per- inclined to like than sure he would
sonal friends quite a number of Jews be right in liking (icjth-c. American). /
who . . . / This is not, I think, eccle- Assuredly, there is no form of 'social
siastical prejudice, for one has tried service' comparable to that which one
to be perfectly fair, j His later poems can render by doing his job to the very
have their great limitation, as one will best of his ability. / Let us, in fact,
presently suggest, but they are extra- substitute a 'graceful raising of one's
ordinarily powerful. I The book is bound hand to his hat, with a nod'. / As one
in red and gold, and has the novelist's goes through the rooms, he is struck by
autograph in gold upon the front; one the youth of most, j If seeing sixteenth-
mentions gold twice over, because . . . century Europe implied spending the
7. Possessive, and other belongings, nights in sixteenth-century inns, one
of one. By other belongings are meant imagines he would rather have stayed at
the reflexive, and the form to be used home.
when the pronoun one has already The difference between One hates his
been used and is wanted again either enemies and One hates one's enemies is
in propria persona or by deputy; as, at once apparent if to each is added
when Caesar has been named, he can a natural continuation: One hates his
be afterwards called either Caesar or enemies and another forgives them; One
he, so, when one has been used, does hates one's enemies and loves one's
it matter whether it is repeated itself friends. The first one is numeral, the
or represented by he etc.? second impersonal, and to make his
In the first place, there is no doubt and one's exchange places, or to write
about the numeral pronoun one; its either in both places, would be plain
possessive, reflexive, and deputy pro- folly.
noun, are never one's, oneself, and one, Let it be added, for anyone who may
but always the corresponding parts of regard one's and one(self) in the im-
he, she, or it. I saw one drop his stick; personal use as fussy modernism,
Certainly, if one offers herself as candi- that they are after all not so modern:
date; One would not go off even when / hope, cousin, one may speak to one's
I hammered it. own relations—Goldsmith. It is per-
Secondly, the impersonal one always haps a feeling that the repetition of one
one 418 only
is awkward, or even slightly pompous, was the U.S. one. / The satellite was
that has produced a tendency among a small test one. This is established
recent writers to avoid the impersonal idiom, but should not be employed
one and to say instead a man or people unnecessarily. It could perhaps be
or, informally, you. The writer of the argued that, even when not needed to
following seems to have had this feel- remove awkwardness or ambiguity,
ing so strongly that he could not bring one or ones may be justified as con-
himself to insert the one after oneself tributing a subtle emphasis: that His
that is needed to give the sentence life was a sedentary and lonely one
a grammatical construction. One be- gives a sharper picture than His life
comes ashamed: what in oneself has was sedentary and lonely, and that in
identified with the hero is seen to be We are apt to find that the very men
shabby and selfish. A case of CANNIBAL- who block a scheme are the ones who
ISM. clamour loudest . . . the use of ones
8. Mixtures of one with we, you, my, emphasizes the inconsistency of be-
etc. These are all bad, though the haviour (they are the very ones). But
degrees of badness differ; for instance, in such a sentence as the following
it is merely slipshod to pass from one ones is a clumsy and unwanted in-
in an earlier sentence to you in the truder. Handbooks which are too
next, but more heinous to bring two popular, or ones too exclusive, and
varieties into syntactical relations in technical, or both.
a single sentence. As one goes through
the rooms, he is struck by the youth of one another. See EACH 2 .
most of those who toil; the girls marry,
you are told. Here he belongs to sec- one word or two or more. For ALL
tion 7, in which the sentence has been RIGHT and alright, ALREADY and all
quoted ;you illustrates the more venial ready, ALTOGETHER and all together,
form of mixture. / As one who vainly ANY way and anyway, at ANY rate and
warned my countrymen that Germany at anyrate, COMMON SENSE and common-
was preparing to attack her neighbours sense, EVERY ONE and everyone, INTO
for many a long day before the declaration and in to, ONTO and on to, see the
of war, I say that... ; My should be his, •words in small capitals. For blackcap
one being the numeral pronoun; but and black cap, see HYPHENS; for no-one
this kind of attraction in relative clauses and no one, someone and some one,
(my taking the person of / instead of EVERY ONE, and for in no wise and in
that of one and who) is very common. / nowise, NO 5 .
To listen to his strong likes and dislikes
one sometimes thought that you were in only, adv. : its placing and misplacing.
the presence of a Quaker of the eigh- / read the other day of a man who 'only
teenth century; a bad case; you were died a week ago*, as if he could have
should be one was. / Perhaps there are done anything else more striking or final;
too many of them; we might have what was meant by the writer was that
enjoyed making their acquaintance still he 'died only a week ago\ There speaks
more had one been given pause; either one of those friends from whom the
we should be one, or one should be we. I English language may well pray to
No one likes to see a woman who has be saved, one of the modern pre-
shared one's home in distress; no one cisians who have more zeal than dis-
contains the numeral, not the imper- cretion, and wish to restrain liberty
sonal, one, and one's should be his. as such, regardless of whether it is
9. One as a 'prop-word* is a name harmfully or harmlessly exercised. It
given by grammarians to the use of one is pointed out in several parts of this
(or ones) to support an adjective or book that illogicalities and inaccuracies
other qualifying word or words that of expression tend to be eliminated as
would be awkward or ambiguous a language grows older and its users
standing alone. The second resolution attain to a more conscious mastery of
only 419 only too
their materials. But this tendency has the displacement here ill advised. Its
its bad as well as its good effects; the motive, however, is plain—to an-
pedants who try to forward it when nounce the limited nature of the wrong
the illogicality is only apparent or the before the wrong itself, and so mitigate
inaccuracy of no importance are turn- the censure: a quite sound rhetorical
ing English into an exact science or an instinct, and, if goes had been used
automatic machine. If they are not instead of seems to go, a sufficient
quite botanizing upon their mother's defence of the heterodoxy. But there
grave, they are at least clapping a strait are many sentences in which, owing
waistcoat upon their mother tongue, to greater length, it is much more
when wiser physicians would refuse to urgent to get this announcement of
certify the patient. purport made by an advanced only. For
The design is to force us all, when- instance, the orthodox It would be safe
ever we use the adverb only, to spend to prophesy success to this heroic enter-
time in considering which is the pre- prise only if reward and merit always
cise part of the sentence strictly quali- corresponded positively cries out to have
fied by it, and then put it there—this its only put early after would, and un-
irrespective of whether there is any less that is done the hearer or reader
danger of the meaning's being false or is led astray; yet the precisian is bound
ambiguous because only is so placed as to insist on orthodoxy here as much
to belong grammatically to a whole as in He died only a week ago.
expression instead of to a part of it, or The advice offered is this : there is an
as to be separated from the part it orthodox position for the adverb, easily
specially qualifies. determined in case of need; to choose
It may at once be admitted that there another position that may spoil or
is an orthodox placing for only, but it obscure the meaning is bad; but a
does not follow that there are not often change of position that has no such
good reasons for departing from ortho- effect except technically is not only
doxy. For He only died a week ago no justified by historical and colloquial
better defence is perhaps possible than usage but often demanded by rhetori-
that it is the order that most people cal needs.
have always used and still use, and that, See also POSITION OF ADVERBS.
the risk of misunderstanding being A specimen or two of different kinds
chimerical, it is not worth while to are added for the reader's unaided
depart from the natural. Remember consideration : The address to be written
that in speech there is not even the on this side only. / Europe only has a
possibility of misunderstanding, be- truce before it, but a truce that can be
cause the intonation of died is entirely profited by. / Some of the Metropolitan
different if it, and not a week ago, is crossings can only now be negotiated with
qualified by only, and it is fair that considerable risk. / If only the foundry
a reader should be supposed capable trades had been concerned, probably the
of supplying the decisive intonation employers would not have greatly ob-
where there is no temptation to go jected to conceding an advance. / / only
wrong about it. But take next an know nothing shall induce me to go
example in which, ambiguity being again. / We can only form a sound and
practically possible, the case against trustworthy opinion if we first consider
heterodox placing is much stronger: a large variety of instances. / Butter only
Mackenzie only seems to go wrong when served in this establishment (i.e. no
he lets in yellow; and yellow seems to be margarine).
still the standing difficulty of the colour For not only see NOT 6.
printer. The orthodox place for only
is immediately before when, and the only too. In this combination, idio-
antithesis between seeming to go and matic when properly used, too (says
really going, which, though not in- the OED) means 'more than is desir-
tended, is apt to suggest itself, makes able or more than might be expected',
onomatopoeia 420 opine
and only 'emphasizes the exclusion of such a preposition as onto or not. If
any different quality or state of things there is not, they should omit the to in
such as might be desired or expected'. such contexts as the above, which are
Recent examples, the first illustrating good English without it. If there is,
'more than is desirable' and the second and they like it better than the simple
'more than might be expected' are: on or to (an odd taste, except under
It seems only too probable that the very rare conditions), they should
Geneva Conference will open with long make one word of it. Abstain from the
and perhaps bitter wrangles about mem- preposition if you like ; use it and own
bership and procedure. / Proceedings up if you like ; but do not use it and
were interrupted during a debt case at pretend there is no such word; those
Bristol County Court yesterday when should be the regulations. The use of
a solicitor discovered that his gown had on to as separate words is, however,
been set alight by an electric fire. When correct when on is a full adverb; and
he apologized for creating a disturbance doubts may occasionally arise whether
the Registrar said he was only too glad this is so or not. Is on an adverb, or is
to have some interest introduced into the onto a preposition, for instance, in He
case. Colloquially the most frequent played the ball on to his wicket? As He
use of only too is with glad or pleased played on could stand by itself, being
or some other adjective of gratification, a PHRASAL VERB, it is hard to deny on
as the Bristol Registrar used it, and its independent status. Occasions for
is equivalent to Don't mention it or on to are : We must walk on to Keswick;
You're welcome. But as long ago as Each passed it on to his neighbour;
1933 the SOED noted that in recent Struggling on to victory. Occasions for
use only too was often a mere intensive, on or to or onto, but on no account on
equivalent to extremely. This loose to are : Climbed up on(to) the roof; Was
usage has since become deplorably invited {on)to the platform; It struggles
common and threatens to destroy the {on)to its legs again; They fell 300 ft.
point of a convenient idiom. See also on(to) a glacier.
TOO.
onward(s). The shorter form is much
onomatopoeia. Formation of names commoner in all senses, except pos-
or words from sounds that resemble sibly in phrases of the type from the
those associated with the object or tenth century onwards : onward is both
action to be named, or that seem sug- adjective and adverb, onwards adverb
gestive of its qualities ; babble, cuckoo, only.
croak, ping-pong, quack, sizzle, are
probable examples. The word is also opacity, opaqueness. The figura-
used of a sentence whose sound sug- tive senses are avoided with the
gests what it describes, as in Tenny- second, but the literal senses are not
confined to it, though there is perhaps
son's. a tendency to complete DIFFERENTIA-
Myriads of rivulets hurrying thro' TION: The opacity of his under-
the lawn, standing; Owing to the opaqueness, or
The moan of doves in immemorial opacity, of the glass.
elms,
And murmur of innumerable bees. operate makes -rable, -tor; see -ABLE
onto, on to, on. The logic of this 1, and -OR. Used as a transitive verb
(0. a machine, o. a business) it is an
electioneering leads straight to the aboli- Americanism formerly frowned on
tion of the contributions and the placing here but now established.
of the whole burden on to the State. /
The Pan-Germans are strong enough to opine is a stilted and obsolescent
depose a Foreign Secretary and force word for express an opinion, seldom
their own man on to the Government in used now except either jocularly or to
his place. Writers and printers should suggest that the opinion expressed is
make up their minds whether there is a dogmatic one based on inadequate
opinion 421 opus
data. After a brief look at the current of good, and pessimism, which affirms
trend of costs they o. that there should the definitive ascendency of evil, a third
be a good opportunity in 1958 to stop hypothesis is possible. / The optimistic
the rise in prices that has troubled the or sentimental hypothesis that wicked-
country for 20 years. (Cf. opinionated?) ness always fares ill in the world. / He
is reported to have been optimistic that
opinion. For Climate of o. see the work of the Monckton Commission
CLIMATE. will help to steer the London Conference
to a successful conclusion. / There is
opinionated, -ative. Both have cause for optimism that terms can be
existed long enough in English to arranged for a return to work tomorrow.
justify anyone in using either. But The first two quotations show the
for those who do prefer a sound to words in their proper sense, the last
a faulty formation it may be said that two in their modern popular triviality.
the first and commoner is unobjection- They have become VOGUE WORDS, on
able, and the second not. A Latin much the same level as INDIVIDUAL
opinionatus might have been correctly and REALISTIC. They belong in time
made from the noun opinio; cf. denta- between those two; they are not yet
tus from dens, and many others; and discredited like the former, but have
the English representative of opiniona- lost the charm of novelty that still
tus would be either opinionate or lingers about the latter. Like both
opinionated. But Latin -ativus belongs those, they owe their vogue to the
to verb-derivatives only, and opinati- delight of the ignorant in catching up
vus from the verb opinor, giving Eng- a word that has puzzled them when
lish opinative (which once existed), they first heard it, and exhibiting their
would have been the true source for acquaintance with it as often as pos-
a word in -ative. sible ; and, like both those, they displace
familiar words that would exactly
opportunity. He rapidly rose by the express the intended meaning by
display of rare organizing ability to be others that do not. In the third and
superintendent over the affairs of the fourth quotations, hopeful and hoping
company in the Far East, with practi- would have given the sense not less
cally a free hand—a fact of which he but more exactly than optimistic and
took every opportunity. You take the 0., optimism. Pessimism and pessimistic
or an o., or every o., of doing some- are similarly misused. The Admiral
thing. You take advantage, or all said that he was very pessimistic about
possible advantage, of a fact or event the possibility of finding anyone alive
or state of affairs. The two sets of (had very little hope that anyone
phrases must not be mixed; see CAST- would be found alive). See also
I R O N IDIOM, a n d ANALOGY.
SANGUINE.
opposite tempts careless writers to optimum is suffering a debasement
the slovenly telescoping seen in: He of the same kind as OPTIMISM. It has
can thwart him by applying it to the a precise meaning to which it should
opposite purpose for which it was in- be confined—the conditions in which
tended. Insert to (or from) that after an organism will thrive best or a
purpose; and for similar temptations machine work most satisfactorily. For
cf. AS 3 {the question as to zohom it be- the same reason as optimism is pre-
longs etc.), and CANNIBALISM. ferred to hope, optimum is preferred
to best, with the same lamentable
optic. For the noun use, = eye, see results.
PEDANTIC HUMOUR; 'Formerly the
learned and elegant term'—OED. opus. For a musical composition or
in the phrase magnum opus, usually
optimism, -ist(ic). Besides optimism, pronounced opus. PL, seldom used,
which affirms the definitive ascendency opera-, see LATIN PLURALS.
or 422 or
or. 1. Or, nor. 2 . Number, pronouns, which difference of gender causes
etc., after or. 3. Or in enumerations. difficulty with pronouns {A landlord or
4. Wrong repetition after or. landlady expects their, his or her, his,
1. Or, nor. There are sentences in rent) are usually avoided, their rent or
which it affects neither meaning nor the rent due to them being ungram-
correctness whether or or nor is used. matical (see THEY I ) , his or her rent or
/ can neither read nor write requires the rent due to him or her clumsy, and
nor. I cannot either read or write his rent or the rent due to him puzzling;
requires or. But in / cannot read nor some evasion, as expects rent, or the
(or or) write we may use either. The rent, is always possible.
alternatives in the last are differently 3. Or in enumerations. I never heard
arrived at, but are practically equiva- a sermon that was simpler, sounder, or
lent: / cannot read, nor (can I) write; dealt with more practical matters. In
I cannot read(-)or{-)write, where the the very numerous sentences made on
supposed hyphens mean that write this bad pattern there is a confusion
may be substituted for read if desired. between two correct ways of saying the
The use of nor in such cases was thing, viz. (a) that was simpler, sounder,
formerly in fashion, and that of or is or more practical, (b) that was simpler
now in fashion; that is all. But the or sounder or dealt with more practical
modern preference for or where it is matters. See ENUMERATION, and for
equally legitimate with nor has led to full discussion AND 2 . The abundant
its being preferred also where it is illustration of the latter makes similar
illegitimate ; so : It is of great impor- quotations here needless.
tance that they should face them in no 4 . Wrong repetition after or. A mis-
academic spirit, or trust too much to guided determination to be very
conclusions drawn from maps. / No explicit and leave no opening for doubt
Government Department or any other results in a type of mistake illustrated
Authority has assisted. The test of in the article OVERZEAL. It is peculiarly
legitimacy has been explained in NOR; common with or, and to put writers
and it suffices here to say that what on their guard a number of examples
rules out or in the first extract is the follow. False analogy from and ex-
position of no (alter to they should not plains it; with and, it does not matter
face them in any), and in the second whether we say without falsehood and
it is the presence of any (precluding deceit or without falsehood and without
the carrying on of no). deceit, except that the latter conveys
2 . Number, pronouns, etc., after or. a certain sledge-hammer emphasis;
When the subject is a set of alterna- but with or there is much difference
tives each in the singular the verb between without falsehood or deceit
must be singular however many the (which implies that neither is present)
alternatives, and however long the and without falsehood or without deceit
sentence; in the extract below, account (which implies only that one of the two
should be accounts; for discussion see is not present). In all the examples
NUMBER 3 : Either the call of patriotism except the last, either or must be
and the opportunity of seeing new lands, changed to and, or the word or words
or conscription, or the fact that tramping repeated after or must be cut out; in
was discouraged even by old patrons the last example, if or is to be retained,
when the call for men became urgent, it will be necessary, besides omitting
account for it. If the alternatives the second no, to change one to person.
differ in number or person, the No great economy or no high efficiency
nearest prevails {Wereyou or he, was he can be secured. / There would be nothing
or you, there?', either he or you were, very surprising or nothing necessarily
either you or he was), but some forms fraudulent in an unconscious conspiracy
(e.g. Was I or you on duty?) are to borrow from each other. / . . . prevents
avoided by inserting a second verb the labourer from being a free agent or
{Was I on duty or were you ?). Forms in from having a free market for his
-or 423 ornithology
labour. / Every arrangement ends in o r a t e . A BACK-FORMATION from ora-
a compromise, and no one or no party tion, and marked by the slangy jocu-
may ever be expected to carry its own larity of its class.
views out in their entirety.
Another type of wrong repetition oratio obliqua, recta. Latin names,
after or, not accidental but deliberate, the second for the actual words used
has of late been much favoured by by a speaker, without modification,
writers of popular tales, especially in and the first for the form taken by his
describing the cogitations of their words when they are reported and
characters. This consists of a rhetorical fitted into the reporter's framework.
question followed by another question Thus How are you? I am delighted to
posed as an alternative to the first but see you (recta) becomes in obliqua He
in fact a repetition of it. Hadn't he, in asked how I was arid said he was
her, the truth he had been seeking? Or delighted to see me; or, if the framework
hadn't he? / Was this an important clue is invisible, How was I? He was
that should be followed up at once? Or delighted to see me. Most newspaper
was it? Perhaps those who employ reports of speeches, and all third-
this gimmick want to titillate the person letters, are in oratio obliqua
reader by surprising him with hadn't or reported speech.
he when he was expecting had he and orchis, -chid. The first form is
with was it when he was expecting applied chiefly to the English wild
wasn't it, or perhaps they want to give kinds and is accordingly the poetic and
a realistic touch to a picture of the country word; pi. -ises, but -ids is
a fuddled mind. Whatever the pur- often used for both.
pose, it is the kind of conceit that is
unlikely to outlast its freshness. ordeal. All the verse quotations in
the OED (Chaucer, Spenser, Cowley,
-or is the Latin agent-noun ending Butler, Tennyson) show the accent on
corresponding to the English -er; the first syllable. But fashion has
compare doer and perpetrator. Eng- changed, and ordeal or ordê'l is now
lish verbs derived from the supine the ordinary pronunciation. The
stem of Latin ones—i.e. especially second is etymologically correct; the
most verbs in -ate, but also many ea has the same value as in meal, steal,
others such as oppress, protect, act, etc., not as in adjectives such as lineal,
credit, possess, invent, prosecute— corporeal, etc.
usually prefer this Latin form to
the English one in -er. Some other order. For wrong constructions after
verbs, e.g. govern, conquer, and purvey, in order that (i. o. t. the complaint that
not corresponding to the above de- colliery proprietors are diverting domes-
scription have agent nouns in -or tic coal for industrial purposes can be
owing to their passage through French considered), see IN ORDER THAT. For
or other circumstances that need not the periphrasis of the order of(= about)
here be set forth. A few odd differ- see COMPOUND PREPOSITIONS.
ences may be of interest : decanter and o r d e r l y . See -LILY.
castor', digester and collector', corrupter
and corrector; deserter and abductor; organ(on)(um). Pronounce org'-
eraser and ejector; promoter and abet- àn(pri)(um).
tor. Some verbs have alternative forms ;
generally preferring -er for the per- aorient, v., orientate. The second,
LONG VARIANT of the first, seems
sonal and -or for the mechanical likely to prevail in the common figura-
agent (e.g. adapt, convey, distribute, re- tive use.
sist), or -or for the lawyers and -er for
ordinary use (e.g. settle, pay, devise, orison. Pronounce ô'rïzn.
vend).
ornithology etc. In Greek the i is
oral. See VERBAL. long, but in the English words the
orotund 424 other
short i is now general. See FALSE You are the man I wanted to see beyond
QUANTITY. all others. A still popular ILLOGICALITY,
used by good writers and perhaps to
orotund. A PORTMANTEAU WORD from
be counted among the STURDY IN-
ore rotundo. The odd thing about the DEFENSIBLES that are likely to survive
word is that its only currency, at least their critics.
in its non-technical sense, is among 4 . Other, others or another. The
those who should most abhor it, the writers of the following sentences may
people of sufficient education to realize be supposed to have hesitated between
its bad formation; it is at once a mon- other and others. If they had decided
strosity in its form and a pedantry for others, they would have been more
in its use. If the elocutionists and in tune with modern usage ; to say they
experts in voice-production like it as would have chosen more correctly is
a technical term, they are welcome to hardly possible: The Unionist Party
it ; the rest of us should certainly leave will do well to remember that the wreck-
it to them, and not regard it as a good ing policy is, like other of their adven-
substitute for grandiloquent, highfiown, tures in recent times, a dangerous
pompous, and the like. gamble. / We find here, as in other of
osculatory has its serious uses in his novels, that he has no genius for ... /
biology and mathematics, but to Mrs. will, we hope, incite other
most of us is known only as a POLY- of her countrymen and countrywomen to
SYLLABIC-HUMOUR word: The two similar studies. / We were quite prepared
ladies went through the o. ceremony. / for the most rigid prohibition of trade
At the end of one letter were a number with Germany; so was France and other
of dots which he {counsel) presumed of our Allies. / A Privy Councillorship,
were meant to represent an o. per- an honour which has but rarely been won
formance. by other than those who were British
subjects from the moment of their birth.
ostensibly, ostentatiously. Both In four of these we have what the
mean 'by way of making a show', but OED calls the absolute use of the
the purpose in the first case is to adjective, the noun represented by
conceal a truth; in the second it is other being present elsewhere in the
merely display—'showing off'. What sentence, but not expressed with other
the writer of the quotation that follows {like other adventures of the adventures
intended ostensibly to mean is obscure; etc. would be the fully expressed
perhaps it is just a pleonastic reinforce- forms); in the fifth we have the full
ment of seem of the kind described in pronoun use, other meaning other
the article HAZINESS. The Royal Col- persons, and persons not being expressed
leges ostensibly seem smugly satisfied either with other or elsewhere. But in
with their role in directing the nation's both uses the OED describes the
medical future. plural other as archaic, and the plural
other, i. Each o.s one another. others as the regular modern form. In
2. On the other hand. 3. Of all others. older English, however, other was
4. Other, others or another. 5. Other normal in such contexts, so that those
than. who like the archaic can justify them-
1. Each o., one another. For the selves. And since the OED was pub-
syntax of these, and for the distinction lished others itself has been falling out
sometimes made between them, see of fashion for the absolute use; a
EACH 2 . modern writer will probably feel that
2 . On the 0. hand. For the difference neither other nor others is idiomatic:
between this and on the contrary, see he will avoid the absolute use of the
CONTRARY 2 .
adjective and fall back on the usage re-
ferred to in OF 7 as a STURDY IN-
3. Of all others. You are the man of
all others I wanted to see. A mixture DEFENSIBLE—like other adventures of
theirs, in other novels of his, other
of You are the man of all men etc. and
other 425 otherwise
countrymen and countrywomen of hers, being flattered; 0. t.when Parliament
other allies of ours. was sitting to when Parliament was
5. Abuses of other than. The exis- not sitting; so: Four years of war could
tence of an adverbial use of other is not leave a people o. t. restless. / Mr.
recognized by the OED, but sup- Collier has some faults to find, but no
ported by very few quotations, and Englishman can be o. t. flattered by the
those from no authors whose names picture which he paints of British activi-
carry weight; its recent development ties. I The Premier sent telegrams to the
may be heartily condemned as both various States suggesting that they
ungrammatical and needless. In each should concur in the Governor-General
of the following quotations it will be residing in New South Wales o. t. when
seen that the phrase on the other side Parliament was sitting. One or two of
of than is adverbial like otherwise, and these are justifiable, while one is cer-
not adjectival like other. In the article tainly not, from the grammarian's
OTHERWISE the converse mistake is point of view; regarded as ornaments,
shown to be at least equally common. they are clearly of no great value. On
Both mistakes are as stupid as they are the whole, other than should be re-
common; and, though the substitution gistered as a phrase to be avoided
of otherwise for other or vice versa re- except where it is both the most
moves the blunder, it would usually natural way of putting the thing and
be better to use neither other than grammatically defensible.
nor otherwise than, but some different
expression. otherwise has recently been having
very curious experiences—emphati-
Other for otherwise cally has recently, because, while the
A subordinate sprite will no more obey OED originally showed no trace what-
a conjuration addressed to him by ever of the two uses to be illustrated
a magician 0. t. in the name of his below, both of them have become so
proper superior than . . . (in any other common that probably no one ever
name than that). / The Court is not at reads his newspaper through without
liberty to construe the words other than meeting them and the OED Supp. had
strictly (otherwise). / Yet how many of to add to its definitions 'after a noun,
the disputants would know where to look adjective or adverb followed by or:
for them—0. t. by a tiresome search equivalent to a noun, adjective or
through the files of the daily Press—if adverb having an opposite or different
they desired to consult them? (short of). / meaning'. Being itself an adverb, it
Although the zvorld at large and for long can of course properly be so used with
refused to treat it 0. t. humorously (other- another adverb (He decided, sensibly or
wise).// should think the ' Times Literary 0., to take a chance). What we are here
Supplement' would want to avoid the concerned with is the popular exten-
services of a reviewer who . . . cannot sion of this usage to adjectives and
cope with allegedly bad work 0. t. by nouns. Whether this popularity is a
recommending its suppression (except). sign of lately developed indispen-
But simple confusion between other sability, or merely a new example of
and otherwise does not account for the speed with which a trick of bad
every bad other than. A notion seems English can be spread by fashion, it is
to prevail that one exhibits refinement hard to say with confidence; but, as
or verbal resource or some such ac- one use is a definite outrage on gram-
complishment if one can contrive matical principles, and the other not
an other-than variant for what would very easy to reconcile with them, we
naturally be expressed by some other may perhaps hope that they are freaks
negative form of speech: could not of fashion only.
leave 0. t. restless is thought superior in The first is the ungrammatical use of
literary tone to could not but leave the adverb otherwise when the adjec-
restless ; be other than flattered to help tive or pronoun other would be correct;
otherwise 426 otherwise
cf. OTHER for the converse mistake. reached the stage when many people
Comment will be better reserved till feel that to change the popular other'
the reader has seen some examples: wise to the correct other is sometimes
This reduction in total expenditure has pedantic; but it is only sometimes, and
been made concurrently with certain there are other resources. The above
increases—automatic and otherwise— examples would none of them be less
in particular items. / There are large natural if the offending expression
tracts of the country, agricultural and were rewritten thus : certain automatic
otherwise, in which the Labour writ and other increases—some agricultural
does not run. J No further threats, and some not—-no further economic or
economic or otherwise, have been other threats—industrial or non-indus-
made. / This is a common incident in trial—religious or non-religious. In
all warfare, industrial or otherwise. / correcting, the simple change of other-
No organizations, religious or other- wise to other has been avoided, though
wise, had troubled to take the matter in fact the critic who would cry
up. I An advisory council composed 'pedantry' at it must be a little crazy
entirely of those persons, musicians or on the subject. And when other would
otherwise, who have had a genuine be not an adjective but a pronoun, as
acquaintance with operatic tradition. in the last example, the change is
An apology may fairly be expected natural and obvious—those persons,
for presenting so long a string of musicians and others.
monotonous examples. The apology In the second use now to be depre-
is that, before asking writers and cated, the word to which otherwise sup-
speakers to give up a favourite habit, plies the parallel is not an adjective but
one should convince them that it is a noun.Take the three forms : What con-
their habit. That the habit is a bad one cerns us is his solvency; What concerns
needs no demonstration; but it is us is his solvency or insolvency; What
worth while to consider how it has concerns us is his solvency or otherwise.
come into existence, and whether Most of the sentences in which or other-
abstention from it is really a serious wise answers to a noun are of this type,
inconvenience. In all the above quota- and it makes no appreciable difference
tions, the structure is the same—an to the meaning and effect which of the
adjective (or descriptive noun) deferred three forms is chosen. The first and
till after its noun and followed by an the second are as much and as little
and or an or joining to it the adverb different in most contexts as Are you
otherwise. Now, what should possess ready? is different from Are you ready
anyone, under those circumstances, to or not?, though there is a possibility
match the adjective with otherwise that the expression of the alternative,
instead of other} Is it not (far-fetched which if not expressed would be im-
as the explanation may seem) that the plied, conveys a special emphasis. The
old saying 'Some men are wise and third differs from the second (if gram-
some are otherwise' once struck the mar is put aside) only as a piece of
popular consciousness as witty, and ELEGANT VARIATION differs from the
has incidentally inspired a belief that same meaning given without the varia-
otherwise, and not other, is the natural tion j otherwise is used to escape repeat-
parallel to an adjective? The justifica- ing, in insolvency, the previous solvency.
tion of the proverb's own wording is Few readers who will compare without
simple—that it is a pun, and that puns prejudice the three forms will refuse to
treat grammar as love treats locksmiths, admit that the best of the three, wher-
with derision. A pun, however, and ever it is possible, is the first and
still more the faded memory of a pun, shortest—What concerns us is his sol-
is a bad basis for a general idiom. Nor vency—, the additions or insolvency
is there any difficulty whatever in and or otherwise being mere waste of
abstaining from this bit of bad gram- words. If writers in general put the
mar. It is true that things have now question to themselves, made the
ought 427
admission, and acted upon it, not one go is wrong. We should be sorry to see
or otherwise in the list that follows English critics suggesting that they
would have been written. Or otherwise ought or could have acted otherwise;
after a noun is (a) nearly always super- insert to after ought, or write that they
fluous, (6) when it is not superfluous, could or ought to have acted. See
an inferior substitute for or with the ELLIPSIS 2.
negative form of the preceding noun 2 . You didn't ought to have done that
or an equivalent, and (c) grammatically is a not uncommon colloquial vulgar-
questionable. Examples of the ordi- ism. Ought, the past tense of owe
nary foolish use now follow, and the (now used as present also) is the only
reader is invited to agree that each surviving form of that verb in its sense
would be improved by the simple of be under a duty to, or be expected
omission of or otherwise: The to. An auxiliary cannot therefore be
electorate may be consulted on the used with ought as though it were an
merits, o. 0., of a single specific measure. infinitive, and it must be negatived
I Whatever an up-to-date survey may with a bare not in the old-fashioned
reveal as to the necessity 0.0. for inner way; you ought not to have done that.
relief roads within the city. / / wanted Cf. the somewhat similar restrictions
to learn Mr. Khrushchev's views on the on used. See USE.
possibility, o. o.t of the conflict leading
to war between the two blocs. Finally, our. 1. Our, ours. 2 . Our editorial
to point the contrast between the and ordinary. 3. Our, his.
foolish way and the sensible way, the 1. Our, ours. Ours and the Italian
opening sentences of two 'letters to troops are now across the Piave. The
the editor' appearing in the same right alternatives are: The Italian
column: The variegated assortment of troops and ours, The Italian and our
opinions and arguments given in your troops, Our and the Italian troops; the
columns as to the suitability o. o. of wrong one is that in the quotation;
Lord Home for the premiership, . . . / see ABSOLUTE POSSESSIVES.
In view of recent discussions as to the 2 . The editorial our, like we and us
advantages or disadvantages of a tote of that kind, should not be allowed to
monopoly. . . . appear in close proximity to any non-
It must be conceded that o. o. in editorial use of we etc. In the following,
this construction is not invariably our and the second we are editorial,
superfluous. It is not superfluous in while us and the first we are national :
With the view of showing the applica- For chaos it is now proposed to substitute
bility (o. o.) to the practical affairs of law, law by which we must gain as
government of the principles which . . . neutrals, and which, in our view,
Without o. o. this would mean that inflicts no material sacrifice on us as
the purpose was to demonstrate that belligerents. We do not propose to argue
the principles were applicable, not to that question again from the beginning,
examine whether they were or not. but...
But 0.0. has become such a plague 3. Our, his. Which of us would wish
that even when defensible it is better to be ill in our kitchen, especially when
avoided, as it easily can be here by it is also the family living-room? If
writing either examining for showing or a possessive adjective were necessary,
how far these principles are applicable his and not our would be the right one,
for the applicability o. o. of these prin- or, at greater length, his or her. People
ciples. of weak grammatical digestions, unable
to stomach his, should find means of
ought, v., 1 . is peculiarly liable to be doing without the possessive; why
carelessly combined with auxiliary not simply the kitchen, here? But
verbs that differ from it in taking the many of them, who prefer even the
plain infinitive without to. Can and repulsive their to the right forms (see
ought to go is right, but Ought and can THEY), are naturally delighted when of
-our and -or 428 out-herod
us gives them a chance of the less than there is room for here. See also
repulsive though slovenly our. It is SPELLING POINTS.
undeniable that which of us is a phrase -our- and -or-. Even those nouns
denoting a singular, and that the that in our usage still end in -our (see
possessive required by it is one that -OUR and -OR), as opposed to the
refers to a singular. American -or, e.g. clamour, clangour,
humour, odour, rigour, valour, vapour,
-our and -or. The American aboli- vigour, have adjectives ending in -orous,
tion of -our in such words as honour not -ourous—humorous, vaporous, etc.
and favour has probably retarded Derivatives in -ist, -ite, and -able,
rather than quickened English pro- should perhaps be regarded as formed
gress in the same direction. Our first directly from the English words, and
notification that the book we are read- therefore more ready to retain the u;
ing is not English but American is so colourist, labourite (cf. favourite, of
often, nowadays, the sight of an -or. different formation), colourable and
'Yankee' we say, and congratulate our- honourable; while derivations in -ation
selves on spelling like gentlemen; we and -ize are more suitably treated, like
wisely decline to regard it as a matter those in -ous, as formed first in Latin,
for argument. The English way cannot and therefore spelt without the -u-\
but be better than the American way; so coloration, invigoration, vaporize,
that is enough. Most of us, therefore, and deodorize.
do not come to the question with an
open mind. Those who are willing to ours, our. See OUR I.
put national prejudice aside and exam-
ine the facts soon realize, first, that outcome is one of the words specially
the British -our words are much fewer liable to the slovenly use described in
in proportion to the -or words than the article HAZINESS; SO: The outcome
they supposed, and, secondly, that of such nationalization would undoubted-
there seems to be no discoverable line ly lead to the loss of incentive and initia-
between the two sets so based on tive in that trade. The o. of nationaliza-
principle as to serve any useful pur- tion would be loss; nationalization
pose. By the side of favour there is would lead to loss.
horror, beside ardour pallor, beside out-herod. In view of the phrase's
odour tremor, and so forth. Of agent- continuing popularity and many adap-
nouns saviour (with its echo paviour, tations (Mr. Acheson's is a programme
itself now tending towards pavior) is that out-Adenauers Adenauer), two
perhaps the only one that retains cautions are perhaps called for. The
-our, governor being the latest to shed noun after out-Herod should be Herod
its -u-. What is likely to happen is either and nothing else. The OED quotes
that, when some general reform of
spelling is consented to, reduction of 'out-Heroding the French cavaliers in
-our to -or will be one of the least compliment'. Other examples are
disputed items, or that, failing general Ecclesiastical functionaries who out-
reform, we shall see word after word in Heroded the Daughters of the Horse-
-our go the way of governour. It is not leech. I The stench emanating from the
worth while either to resist such a barrels containing the fruit before boiling
gradual change or to fly in the face of would never be forgotten. It even out-
national sentiment by trying to hurry Heroded smog. Similarly after adapta-
it; it would need a very open mind tions of the out-herod phrase, the
indeed in an Englishman to accept name should be repeated (out-Mc-
armor and succor with equanimity. Carthy McCarthy, not out McCarthy
Those who wish to satisfy themselves the communist-hunters). Secondly, the
that it is right to deny any value to the name used should be one at least that
-our spelling should go to the article passes universally as typifying some-
-or in the OED for fuller information thing; to out-Kautsch Kautsch (The
similar German compilation edited by
out of the frying-pan 429 overall
Kautsch was good; but Charles easily rently illogical, has been corrected to
out-Kautsches Kautsch) is very frigid. what is neither logical {of all would
have been nearer to sense) nor Eng-
out of the frying-pan. A very large lish. / The claim yesterday was for the
proportion of the mistakes that are difference between the old rate, which
made in writing result neither from was a rate by agreement, and between
simple ignorance nor from careless- the new. The writer feared, with some
ness, but from the attempt to avoid contempt for his readers' intelligence,
what are rightly or wrongly taken to that they would not be equal to carry-
be faults of grammar or style. The ing on the construction of between ; he
writer who produces an ungrammati- has not mended matters by turning
cal, an ugly, or even a noticeably sense into nonsense; see OVERZEAL. /
awkward phrase, and lets us see that The reception was held at the bride's
he has done it in trying to get rid of aunt. The reporter was right in dis-
something else that he was afraid of, liking bride's aunt's, but should have
gives a worse impression of himself found time to think of 'at the house of.
than if he had risked our catching him The impression must not be left,
in his original misdemeanour ; he is out however, that it is fatal to read over
of the frying-pan into the fire. A few and correct what one has written. The
typical examples will be here collected, moral is that correction requires as
with references to other articles in much care as the original writing, or
which the tendency to mistaken cor- more; the slapdash corrector, who
rection is set forth more at large. should not be in such a hurry, and the
Recognition is given to it by no matter uneducated corrector, who should not
whom it is displayed. The frying-pan be writing at all, are apt to make things
was 'no matter whom it is displayed worse than they found them.
by', which the writer did not dare
keep, with its preposition at end; but outstanding, with its two meanings
in his hurry he jumped into nonsense; of standing out, conspicuous, and
see MATTER, and PREPOSITION AT END. / standing over, unsettled, needs careful
When the record of this campaign comes handling to avoid ambiguity. The
dispassionately to be written, and in just announcer of election results who be-
perspective, it will be found that... The gan The other 0. result is . . . may have
writer took 'to be dispassionately misled listeners into thinking that he
written' for a SPLIT INFINITIVE, and by was about to tell them of a result of
his correction convinces us that he special interest; he would have made
does not know a split infinitive when his meaning clear if he had said The
he sees it. / In the hymn and its setting other result still o.
there is something which, to use a word
of Coleridge, 'finds' men. 'A word of outworn. There is, however, a little
Coleridge's' is an idiom whose genesis more in Mr. Bonar Law's speech than
may be doubtful, but it has the advan- these husks of a controversy outworn.
tage over the correction of being Eng- Allusions like this, shown to be such
lish; a word of Coleridge is no more by the position of outworn, to A pagan
English than a friend of me. See OF 7. / suckled in a creed outworn betray mortal
But the badly cut-up enemy troops were dread of being commonplace, and
continually reinforced and substituted by draw attention to the weakness they
fresh units. The frying-pan was RE- are meant to cloak. See IRRELEVANT
PLACE in the sense 'take the place of; ALLUSION.
the fire is the revelation that the writer overall in its established senses is
has no idea what the verb SUBSTITUTE used as a noun for the garment, as an
means. / Sir Starr Jameson has had one adverb ( = all over) in the naval phrase
of the most varied and picturesque a ship dressed 0., and as an adjective to
careers of any Colonial statesmen. 'Of describe a measurement taken between
any statesman', idiomatic but appa- the extreme points of the thing
overlay 430 overtone and undertone
measured, especially the length of a of its parent verb, and is now little used
ship. In recent years it has blossomed except in the sense of a failure to ob-
in its adjectival use into one of the most
serve. Confusion would be removed if
pervasive of VOGUE WORDS; few can be the following differentiation, repre-
playing greater havoc with the vocabu- senting the main current usages, were
lary. Among its victims are absolute» strictly observed:
aggregate, average, complete, compre- Look over: 1. inspect casually. 2.
hensive, general, inclusive, net, over- look beyond.
riding, supreme, total, and whole. Its Overlook: 1. command a view of,
allure is indeed so strong that it is 2. fail to notice, ignore, condone.
often used in contexts where it con- Oversee: supervise.
tributes nothing to the sense. It was Oversight: failure to notice, inadver-
not until the third ballot that Mr. tence.
Michael Foot secured an absolute o.
majority, f In more than 3,000 miles of oversea(s). According to the OED
running there was an o. net gain of -sea is the adjective and -seas (rarely
14 minutes on schedule. / The o. growth -sea) the adverb. The plural form has
of London should be restrained. Perhaps now become usual for both—British
Ivor Brown is right in attributing the Overseas Airways Corporation, Over-
popularity of the word to 'the presence seas Services of the B.B.C., British
of sonority, almost of poetry, in its Overseas Trade—and the singular is
composition'. disappearing, though Oversea Settle-
ment remains as an item in the Civil
overlay, -lie. It has been mentioned Estimates. It is right that overseas
(see LAY AND LIE) that the two simple should prevail ; it is more fitting for the
verbs are sometimes confused even in sense of far and wide in which it is
print especially in the p.p. form, for generally used; to an island people
which -lay makes -laid and -lie makes oversea is no different from abroad.
-lain. It is still more common for
overlay and underlay to be used where overthrowal. The drama lies ir. the
-lie is wanted, because the -lie verbs development of a soul towards the know-
too are transitive, though in different ledge of itself and of the significance of
meanings from those in -lay. The talk life, and the tragedy lies in the over-
about things in general which overlays throwal of that soul. This NEEDLESS
the story is quite dull. This should be VARIANT of overthrow was unknown to
overlies; similarly newborn pigs with the original edition of the OED, but
a clumsy mother are liable to be seems to have had some ill-advised
overlain, not overlaid. patronage since; the 1933 Supp. inserts
it with examples. See -AL nouns.
overlook, oversee. There is much
avoidable confusion in the use 01 these overtone and undertone. There is
words and their derivatives. Overlook a difference worth preserving in the
though sometimes still used in the figurative uses of these words. Over-
sense of inspect or supervise {Lord tones are the higher notes produced by
Hailsham, as Lord Privy Seal, is to the vibration of a string or column of
overlook scientific development), and air or piece of metal, seldom separately
often in that of to command a view of, distinguishable by the ear from the
has as its chief current use the mean- main note. Overtone is therefore an
ing of to look beyond and therefore fail apt metaphor for suggesting that
to see, ignore, condone. Thus there is a word has implications over and above
now an unfortunate ambiguity in the its plain meaning. 'Artificial' cannot be
notice Gentlemen are requested not to used without an overtone of disparage-
overlook the Ladies* Bathing Place. ment. I 'Split in the Party!' 'Split' is
Oversee and overseer retain their mean- one of those convenient words that not
ings of supervise and supervisor, but only fit easily within the limits of a
oversight has followed overlook instead headline but are also rich in dramatic
overzeal 431 pace
overtones. Undertone is not a technical courses. / Had Bannockburn never been
term of music, though sometimes fought, or [had] seen another issue, Scot-
misused as one. It means a low or land would have become a second Ireland.
subdued utterance or sound (OED) The motive is to exclude never from
and is suitably used figuratively for the second clause; but either that
a communal state of mind inferred ambiguity must be risked and had
from evidence rather than expressed omitted, or had it must be inserted
outright. There was an undertone of instead of had.
optimism in Geneva yesterday. / There
was little business in the gilt-edged owing to is often used in combination
market, but the undertone was firm. with the fact that as a clumsy peri-
phrasis for a simple conjunction such
overzeal. Readers should be credited as because, since, for, as; and for this
with the ability to make their way from purpose we could do with less of it.
end to end of an ordinary sentence But for another we should like to see
without being pulled and pushed and more of it; its rights are now per-
admonished into the right direction; petually infringed by DUE TO (q.v.)
but some of their guides are so deter- which has not yet won, as 0. t. has,
unquestioned recognition as a preposi-
mined to prevent straying that they tion.
plant great signposts in the middle of
the road, often with the unfortunate Oxbridge. See PORTMANTEAU WORDS.
result of making it no thoroughfare.
In the examples the signpost word, oxymoron. PI. -s or -ra; see -ON. The
always needless, often unsightly, and combining in one expression of two
sometimes misleading, is enclosed in terms that are ordinarily contradic-
square brackets : tory, and whose exceptional coinci-
But it does not at all follow that dence is therefore arresting. A cheerful
because Mr. Long is 6$ [that] he will pessimist; Harmonious discord; His
not be equal to . . . See THAT, CONJ. 4 , honour rooted in dishonour stood, And
for more. / We agree that the Second faith unfaithful kept him falsely true.
Chamber would be differently consti- The stock example is Horace's
tuted according as we went forward to Splendide mendax. The figure needs
other schemes of devolution and federa- discreet handling or its effect may be
tion, [and according as we] decided to absurd rather than impressive. We are
make Home Rule for Ireland our one too much accustomed to saying that
and only experiment. Read or decided, we are terribly pleased to notice that
see ACCORDING AS for more. / The work- absurdity (see TERRIBLY), but the de-
ing man has to keep his family on what monstrator who says As you can seet
would be considered a princely wage in the discrepancy is immensely slight, does
England, but [which], in point of fact, is not make a happy choice of adverb.
barely enough to keep body and soul
together. See WHAT 4 for more. / The
object for which troops were sent was
[for] the protection of British property.
The object was not for protection; it pace (ablative of pax, pronounced
was protection. / But what no under- pâsè"). This latinism {p. tuâ by your
graduate or [no] professor in the art of leave, or if you will allow me to say so;
writing verse could achieve is . . . See p. Veneris if Venus will not be offended
OR 4 for more. / There are others who by my saying so) is one that we could
talk of moving and debating a hostile very well do without in English. Not
amendment, and then [of] withdrawing only is it often unintelligible to many
it. Moving, debating, and then with- readers even when rightly used; it is
drawing make up a single suggested also by many writers wrongly used. In
course; but the superfluous of implies the two following pieces, which unfor-
that the talkers vacillate between two tunately have to be long if the point is
pachydermatous 432 pair
to be clear, the meaning is 'according package, long established as a noun,
to Mr .Begbie 'or 'according to the Jung- has been given fresh duties both as
born enthusiasts'; it ought to be just a verb and as an adjective. The appear-
the opposite—'though Mr. B . (or the ance of a new verb, to package, when
enthusiasts) will doubtless not agree': we already have to pack, puts on those
After the beauty of rural life in the who use it the onus of showing that it
South his picture of Belfast is a vision is not merely a LONG VARIANT. They
of horror. On the details of that picture have a good case : to package means—
we need not dwell; but the moral which or should mean—something more than
Mr. Begbie appears to draw from his to pack. Anyone can pack by cramming
contrast is that a Conservative Irish things anyhow into a suitcase ; to pack-
Parliament will do little to better the age is to fit things neatly and securely
conditions of town life, and that the into parcels ; it is a skill that has to be
industrial classes would find relief from taught. Moreover, packaging is the
those conditions more quickly wider the name suitably given to a busy and
ride of the English Parliament, which, growing industry engaged in devising
pace Mr. Begbie, is advancing rapidly and manufacturing new types of wrap-
towards some form of Socialism. / For pers and containers. As an adjective,
more than ten thousand years these package is used attributively of terms
things have been recognized in some of agreement offered by one negotiat-
part of the world; during that lapse of ing party to another, or of the deal that
time, at least, some men and women have results, meaning that what is offered
been living according to their own lights all hangs together; it may be accepted
rather than according to the light of or rejected as a whole, but the package
nature. Now, pace the Jungborn enthu- must not be undone and some of its
siasts, the time has come to change all contents taken and others left. Has the
this. If man would survive as a species, untying of the Western package plan
we learn in effect, he must begin the for German reunification and European
return journey to the place whence he security already begun, and will a sepa-
came. rate agreement on Berlin now be discus-
Minor objections are that the con- sed? In this sense it can claim to be
struction is awkward in English (it a useful metaphor, saying in one word
needs a genitive but pace Mr. Smith is what would otherwise need several.
the nearest we can get to p. Caesaris),
and that the Latinless naturally, but pair. In such expressions as p. of scis-
distastefully to those who know Latin, sors, p. of spectacles, p. of trousers, etc.—
extend the meaning or application as 'articles compounded of two corre-
they do those of VIDE, RE, and E.G. SO: sponding parts which are not used
But in the House of Lords there is no separately' (OED)—the word denot-
hilarity—pace Lord Salisbury's speech ing the thing of which there are
last night. Pace does not mean notwith- two parts (scissors etc.) is obviously
standing a fact or instance, but despite plural. But when we drop the pair(s)
someone's opinion, as in The great poet of, as we usually do, and just say
need not be (pace Coleridge) a philo- scissors etc., we may mean either one
sopher. I Modern history, pace Ford, pair or more than one; and even when
is not wholly bunk. we mean only one we always treat the
word as grammatically plural. It fol-
pachydermatous. A favourite with lows that, although its use for more
t h e POLYSYLLABIC HUMOURistS. than one pair may be unambiguous
(There are plenty of scissors in the
pacif(ic)ist. The longer form is the house), its use for a single pair ( These
better etymologically, but euphony scissors need sharpening) must always
favours the shorter and probably be grammatically ambiguous, how-
accounts for its having prevailed. See ever clear the intention may be. If we
-1ST A. want to indicate unambiguously that
pact 433 palpable
we mean a single article, or a specified ascendant; autarchy and autarky;
number of single articles, we cannot ceremonial and ceremonious; comity
do without pair(s) of (Get me a pair, or and company; complacent (-ency) and
two pairs, of scissors). The less familiar complaisant (-ance); compose and
words are, however, not so insistent on comprise ; consequent and consequen-
being treated as plurals as the more tial ; contemptible and contemptuous ;
familiar. No one would say Hand me definite and definitive; deprecate and
that trousers, but some might say Hand depreciate; derisive and derisory; dis-
me that shears. For other difficulties creet and discrete; disinterested and
with words plural in form but singular uninterested ; e.g. and i.e. ; euphemism
in meaning see PLURAL ANOMALIES and and euphuism ; fatal and fateful ; force-
SINGULAR S, ful and forcible; fruition and fructifica-
pact. See HEADLINE LANGUAGE.
tion; immovable and irremovable;
infer and imply; impassable and im-
pairs and snares. Of the large num- passible; inflammable and inflamma-
ber of words that are sometimes con- tory; ingenious and ingenuous ; judicial
fused with others a small selection is and judicious; laudable and laudatory;
here given. It will be noticed that luxuriant and luxurious ; masterful and
nearly all are of Latin origin; the con- masterly; mendacity and mendicity;
fusion arises largely from the English- militate and mitigate; observance and
man's natural failure, if he has not observation; perspicacity (-acious) and
learnt Latin, to realize instinctively the perspicuity (-uous); policy and polity;
force of suffixes that are not native. precipitate and precipitous ; predicate
Those who have any doubts of their and predict; prescribe and proscribe;
infallibility may find it worth while to proportion and portion; purport and
go through the list and make sure that purpose; regretful and regrettable ; re-
these pairs have no terrors for them; source, recourse, and resort; reverend
under one or other of most of the and reverent; reversal and reversion;
pairs in its dictionary place they will seasonal and seasonable; sensual-and
find remarks upon the difference, and sensuous; titillate and titivate; trans-
usually proofs that the confusion does cendent and transcendental ; triumphal
occur. While the Englishman's vague- and triumphant; unexceptionable and
ness about Latin suffixes or préfixes is unexceptional. See also MISPRINTS.
the most frequent cause of mistakes, it
is not the only one. Often the two pajamas is the American word for the
words might legitimately have been garment known to us as pyjamas.
equivalents, or actually were in older palace. Educated usage is exception-
usage, and the ignorance is not of ally divided between the two pronun-
Latin elements but of English idiom ciations pâ'lâs and pâ'lïs. In spite of
and the changes that DIFFERENTIATION Milne's well-known lines They're
has brought about. And again there changing guard at Buckingham Palace;
are pairs in which the connexion be- Christopher Robin zuent down with
tween the two words is only a seeming Alice, the speak-as-you-spell move-
one. To exemplify briefly, contemp- ment will probably secure the victory
tuous and contemptible are a pair in of the first.
which suffixes may well be confused;
masterful and masterly one in which palaeo-, palaeo-, paleo-. The first
differentiation may well be overlooked ; is recommended; see M, Œ.
and deprecate and depreciate one of
the wholly false pairs. P a l l Mall. See MALL.
The list is as follows: acceptance palpable. The work that has yet to be
and acceptation; advance and advance- done is palpable from the crowded paper
ment; affect and effect; alternate and of amendments with which the House is
alternative; antitype and prototype; faced. A good illustration of the need
apologue and apology; ascendancy and for caution in handling dead metaphors.
pander 434 paragraph
Palpable means literally touchable, or has ousted knickerbockers which, in
perceptible by touch; that meaning is its curtailed form knickers, has been
freely extended to perceptible by any appropriated by women. Bloomers was
of the senses, and even to appreciable short-lived for cyclists, but survives
by the intelligence. The final extension for schoolgirls; drawers is falling into
is necessary here, and would pass but genteel obsolescence, and even the
for the from phrase that is attached. highly respectable trousers is menaced
From the paper implies sensuous per- by slacks and jeans.
ception; when intellectual inference
is intended the dead metaphor is papyrus. The horse that won the
stimulated into angry life by the in- Derby in 1923 was known to many as
consistency; see METAPHOR. P. is one of
Pâp'ïrus, but the right pronunciation
the words that are liable to clumsy is Pâpï'rus. PI. -ri.
treatment of this sort because they p a r a - . Two prefixes of différent origin
have never become vernacular English, are used in forming English words:
and yet are occasionally borrowed by the Greek preposition meaning along-
those who have no scholarly know- side of or beyond, and (through Italian)
ledge of them. the Latin imperative meaning guard
against. The first gives us a large
pander, n. and v. Though -ar is the number of words such as paradox,
older and better form, it is waste of paragraph, parallel, paraphrase and
labour to try to restore it. paramilitary, the second such words
pandit. See PUNDIT as parapet, parasol, and parachute.
panegyric, -rize, -rist. The pronun- parable. For p. and allegory, see
ciations recommended are : pânëjî'rïk, SIMILE AND METAPHOR.
pân'ëjïrïz, pânëjï'rist. paradise rivals NECTAR in the number
pantaloons, pants. The words we of experiments that the desire for a
use for what were once called generi- satisfactory adjective has occasioned.
cally nether garments have undergone But, whereas nectar is in the end well
some curious variations, partly due to enough provided, no one uses any
changes of fashion in the way we like adjective from paradise without feeling
to cover or expose our legs, and partly that surely some other would have
under the influence of EUPHEMISM, been less inadequate. The variants are
which demands constant change in the paradisaic*(al*), paradisal, paradisean,
names we give to anything supposed paradisiacal), paradisial*, paradisian*,
to have indelicate associations, in this paradisic(al), of which the asterisked
case even going so far at one time as ones are badly formed. Paradisal
to throw the cloak of unmentionables or seems the least intolerable, perhaps
inexpressibles over the whole shocking because it retains the sound of the last
business. Pantaloons, a word imported syllable of paradise; but the wise man
from France for the trousers that takes refuge with heavenly or other
superseded breeches or small-clothes, is substitute.
now obsolete except as the formal word paraffin. See KEROSENE.
for the trews worn by certain Scottish
regiments; so is the female equivalent paragraph. The purpose of para-
pantalettes, the long frilly drawers graphing is to give the reader a rest.
worn by little girls in the early Vic- The writer is saying to him : 'Have you
torian age. But the diminutives sur- got that? If so, I'll go on to the next
vive: in U.S. pants for trousers and in point.' There can be no general rule
England pants (for women panties), or, about the most suitable length for a
when particularly exiguous, briefs, or paragraph; a succession of very short
scanties, as undergarments. Breeches ones is as irritating as very long ones
has returned and, with the help of are wearisome. The paragraph is essen-
jodhpurs, plus-fours, shorts, and trunks, tially a unit of thought, not of length:
parallel 435 parenthesis
it must be homogeneous in subject- headed Inversion in Parallel Clauses is
matter and sequential in treatment. If devoted to this and similar types.
a single sequence of treatment of a 3 . Dependent and independent. The
single subject means an unreasonably municipality charged itself with the pur-
long paragraph, it may be divided into chase of these articles in wholesale quan-
more than one. But passages that have tities, and it was to the Town Hall that
not this unity must not be combined poor people applied for them, and were
into one, even though each by itself served by municipal employees. The
may seem to make an unduly short parallel clauses in question were, in
paragraph. their simple form, (a) The poor people
Paragraphing is also a matter of applied for them to the Town Hall, and
the eye. A reader will address himself (b) The poor people were served by
more readily to his task if he sees from municipal employees. The writer has
the start that he will have breathing- decided, for the sake of emphasizing
spaces from time to time than if what Town Hall, to rewrite (a) in the it was
is before him looks like a marathon . . . that form; but he has forgotten
that he cannot make (a) dependent and
leave (b) independent unless he sup-
parallel. I . Exceptionally among plies the latter with a subject {and they
verbs in -1 (see -LL-, - L - ) , p. does not were served). The correct possibilities
double the 1: paralleled etc.; the are : (i, both independent) The people
anomaly is due to the -11- of the applied to the Town Hall for them, and
previous syllable. 2 . We have already were served by municipal employees;
had occasion to comment on the re- (ii, both dependent) It was to the Town
markable parallelity between. ..and... Hall that the people applied, and by
The noun used, where p. itself will municipal employees that they were
not serve, is parallelism, not parallelity; served; (iii, dependent and indepen-
dent) It was to the Town Hall that the
the latter is not even recorded in the people applied, and they were served by
OED. municipal employees.
parallel-sentence dangers, i. Nega-
tive and affirmative. 2 . Inverted and parallelepiped. Pronounce pârâ-
uninverted. 3. Dependent and inde- lëlë'pîpëd or more conveniently pârâ-
pendent. lëlëpï'pëd.
1. Negative and affirmative. A single
example may be given here to show paraplegia is usually pronounced
the kind of difficulty that occurs: with a soft g. See GREEK G.
There is not a single town in the crowded
district along the Rhine which is not paraselene. Five syllables (-ë'në).
open to these attacks, and must be Pl.ae.
prepared for defence with guns, troops,
and aeroplanes. For discussion and parasitic(al). The longer form has
illustration of this and many other no special function, and might well
varieties, see NEGATIVE MISHANDLINGS. be discarded. See -IC(AL).
2 . Inverted and uninverted. And not
merely in schools and colleges, but as parenthesis (pi. -theses). 1. Length.
organizers of physical training, are 2 . Relevance. 3. Identification. 4 .
women readily rinding interesting and Stops after parentheses.
important employment. The not merely 1. Length. A parenthesis is a con-
part requires the inverted are women venient device, but a writer indulges
finding; the but part requires the un- his own convenience at the expense of
inverted women are finding. The right his readers' if his parenthesis is so long
solution is to start the sentence with that a reader, when he comes to the
And women are finding employment not end of it, has little chance of remem-
merely etc. In INVERSION the section bering where he was when it began.
parenthesis 436 park
Mr. B. makes full use of both these since the Bill had left the Committee,
advantages; after a rather slow start— and expressed doubts as to whether the
Bevin was himself a slow starter, of Minister altogether approved of the new
minor importance, save for the much- turn of affairs. In this, he suggested is
publicized appearance as the Dockers' as much a parenthesis as if it had been
K. C.j until the early twenties were well enclosed in brackets; if it were not
begun, and Mr. B. finds little fresh to parenthetic, the sentence would run
say about the early period—the narra- He suggested that a change had come.
tive is full of interest and documentation. But the writer, not knowing a paren-
2. Relevance. A parenthesis may or thesis when he sees one (or even when
may not have a grammatical relation to he makes one), has treated it as parallel
the sentence in which it is inserted. with expressed, and so fully parallel
In This is, as far as I know, the whole that its he may be expected to do duty
truth there is such a relation, and in with expressed as well as with suggested.
This is, I swear, the whole truth there Either the first part should be re-
is not; but one is as legitimate as the written as above with suggested for its
other. It is not equally immaterial governing verb, or another he must be
whether the parenthesis is relevant or inserted before expressed.
not to its sentence; parentheses like 4 . For stops after parentheses and
the following cannot possibly be justi- for the choice between square brackets,
fied : In writing this straightforward and round brackets, dashes, and commas
workmanlike biography of his grand- see STOPS s.f.
father {the book was finished before the
war, and delayed in publication) Mr. parenthetic(al). In most uses the
Walter Jerrold has aimed at doing longer form is obsolescent; but it has
justice to Douglas Jerrold as dramatist, still a special sense worth preserving,
as social reformer and as good-natured i.e. full of or addicted to parentheses
man. The time of writing and the delay (a horribly -ical style). See -IC(AL).
in publication have no conceivable
bearing on the straightforwardness, pariah. About the four possible pro-
workmanlikeness, biographicality, nunciations (jpâr'ïa, pâr'ïa, pahr'ïa, and
grandfatherliness, justice, drama, re- pan'a) there is little agreement among
form, or good nature, with which the the dictionaries, except that the mod-
sentence is concerned. If it had been ern ones have dropped the last, and,
called a long-expected instead of a on the whole, pâ- and pà- are more
straightforward biography, it would favoured than pah-,
have been quite another matter; but, pari passu. Pronounce pâT'î pâ'su.
as it is, the parenthesis is as disconcert-
S e e LATIN PHRASES.
ing as a pebble that jars one's teeth in a
mouthful of plum pudding. The very park, v. To park, in the sense of to
worst way of introducing an additional deposit temporarily, especially a motor
fact is to thrust it as a parenthesis into car, is modern; but the seeds of it can
the middle of a sentence with which be found in Shakespeare's How are we
it has nothing to do. A similar example parked and bounded in a pale. True, it
is: Napoleon's conversations with Ber- there implies inability to get out, but
trand and Moncholon (it is unfortunate that experience is not unknown to the
that there are several misprints in the motorist either. The usage started in
book) are a skilful blending of record America; its acceptance in Britain and
and pastiche. its extension, often jocular, to things
3. Identification. Still more fatal other than cars have been whole-
than readiness to resort to parenthesis hearted. Hats and coats are now
where it is irrelevant is inability to parked at least as often as they are left
tell a parenthesis from a main sen- or deposited, and the OED Supp. gives
tence. A remarkable change had come examples of its use for deposits varying
over the Government, he suggested, from children to chewing-gum.
Parkinson 437 partially
Parkinson. Though there may be Lady Macbeth just after it: / / the
little risk of confusion between the assassination could catch . . . with his
two men who have won eponymous surcease success. I If he do bleed, PU
fame, it is perhaps worth while to dis- gild the faces of the grooms withal; for it
tinguish them. P.'s disease (paralysis must seem their guilt.
agitans, or shaking palsy) is so called
because it was first fully described by parricide, patricide. The first is
James Parkinson in 1817. P.'s law the orthodox form. Patricide has no
('Work expands so as to fill the time doubt been substituted by some de-
available for its completion'), based liberately, in order to narrow the mean-
on a statistical study of the staffing ing to murder(er) of a father, as matri-
of British government departments, cide and fratricide are limited, and by
was propounded by Professor C. others in ignorance of the right word.
Northcote Parkinson in 1957 in a Parricide includes not only the murder
whimsical exposition of a funda- of either parent or any near relative or
mental truth. anyone whose person is sacred, but
also treason against one's country; and
parlance. See JARGON. the making of patricide to correspond
to matricide is therefore natural enough.
parliament. Dictionaries differ about
the pronunciation par'lâment or par'- Parthian shot. It seems to be a
lïment. The former is recommended. coincidence that the popular corrup-
tion parting shot, which no doubt owes
parlous is a word that wise men leave its origin to the similarity of sound,
alone. It is the same by origin as has a meaning akin to that of the
perilous, but centuries ago it suffered parent phrase. Parthian shot refers to
the same fate that has befallen awful the tactics of the Parthian mounted
and chronic in more recent times ; it be- archers, who would discharge a volley
came a VOGUE WORD applied to many into the enemy while moving smartly
things very remote from its proper out of range of retaliation ; parting shot
sense. It consequently lost all signifi- is ordinarily used to describe a 'last
cance, 'died of its own too much', and word' fired by one of the parties to an
was for a long time (for most of the argument at the other before breaking
18th c.) hardly heard of. In the 19th c. off the verbal engagement. Although
it was exhumed by ARCHAISM and the Parthian tactics were undoubtedly
PEDANTIC HUMOUR, and the adepts in formidable, it is a MISAPPREHENSION to
those arts should be allowed exclusive use Parthian shot to mean merely an
property in it. attack that strikes home; the essence
parody. See BURLESQUE for synonyms. of it is that the attack is made at the
moment of retreat.
paronomasia. Puns, plays on words,
making jocular or fanciful use of simi- partially is often used where partly
larity between different words or of a would be better. This is, no doubt,
word's different senses.The best known because it is formed normally, by way
of all (though concealed in English) is of the adjective partial, while partly
perhaps that of Matt. xvi. 18 : Thou art formed direct from the noun part is
Peter (Greek Petros), and upon this rock abnormal. There is much the same
(Greek petra) I will build my church. difference between the two words as
Now that we regard puns merely as between wholly (opp. partly) and com-
exercises in jocularity, and a pretty pletely (opp. partially) ; in other words,
debased form even of that (see PUN), partly is better in the sense 'as regards
we are apt to be jarred by the readi- a part and not the whole', and partially
ness of Shakespeare's characters to in the sense 'to a limited degree' : It is
make them at what seem to us most partly wood; This was partly due to
unsuitable moments, as Macbeth does cowardice; A partially drunken sailor;
just before the murder of Duncan, and His partially re-established health.
participles 438 participles
Often either will give the required to two months' imprisonment for false
sense equally well; partly is then statements to the registration officer are
recommended, since it is partially that not to be recommended for deportation, j
tends to be over-used; see LONG Winner of many rowing trophies, Mr.
VARIANTS for other such pairs. An Robert George Dugdale, aged seventy-
example or two of the wrong partially five, died at Eton. / Believed to be the
are : The two feet are partially of iron youngest organist in the country, Master
and partially of clay. / Whether 'The Herbert Woolverton, who officiates at
Case is Altered' may be wholly or par- Hutton Church, Essex, has passed the
tially or not at all assignable to the hand examination as Associate of.../ Thirty-
of Jonson. four years in the choir of the Chapel
Royal, Hampton Court Palace, Mr.
participles. 1. Unattached p. 2 . Ab- Francis P. Hill, of Milner Road, Kings-
solute construction. 3. Fused p. ton, has retired. / Found standing in play
4. Sentry p. etc. 5. Accent and pro- astride the live rail of the electric line at
nunciation in p.p. (or participai adjec- Willesden and in danger of instant death,
tive or noun) and verb. Walter Spentaford, twelve, was fined
1. Unattached p. For this danger, as 12s. for trespass. The device of the
insidious as notorious, see UNATTACHED sentry participle is now worked so hard
PARTICIPLE. that the participle is liable to become
2 . Absolute construction. The Muni- UNATTACHED, though it cannot often
cipal Council, having refused their be left in the air quite so egregiously
assistant clerks' demand for a rise in as are the two participles in this
salary, those in the Food Supply offices description of the departure of Grivas
today declared a strike. This false from Cyprus. Seen off at Nicosia air-
stopping (there should be no comma port by the head of the security forces
after Council) is an example of what is which had failed to track him, boastfully
perhaps both the worst and the com- claiming that he had spent his time 'with
monest of all mistakes in punctuation. the British', seldom has an Imperial
S e e ABSOLUTE CONSTRUCTION. Power looked so ridiculous.
3. Fused p. The construction so 5. Accent and pronunciation in p.p.
called is fully discussed in the article (or participial adjective or nouns) and
FUSED PARTICIPLE. verb. Beside many of the verbs formed
4 . Sentry participle etc. If news- from Latin supine stems (animate,
paper editors, in the interest of their dilute, extract, etc.) there are passive
readers, maintain any discipline over participles of the same spelling, now
the gentlemen who provide inch-long used as adjectives or nouns. They are
paragraphs, they should take measures often distinguished from the verbs by
against a particular form that, by a a difference in sound. This may be
survival of the unfittest, bids fair to (A) a shifting of the accent, as in
swallow up all others. In these para- attri'bute v., a'ttribute n. ; co'nsummate
graphs, before we are allowed to enter, v., consummate a. ; convi'ct v., co'nvict
we are challenged by the sentry in the n.; dicta'te v., di'ctates n.j dige'st v.,
guise of a participle or some equivalent di'gest n. ; extra'ct v., e'xtract n. ; refu'se
posted in advance to secure that our v., re'fuse n.; (B) the obscuring of
interview with the C O . (or subjectof the vowel of-ate into an indeterminate
the sentence) shall not take place light sound, as modérât v. becomes
without due ceremony .The fussiness of moderet a., and the same phenomenon
this is probably entertaining while it is can be seen in advocate, animate,
quite fresh ; one cannot tell, because it articulate, degenerate, delegate, de-
is no longer fresh to anyone. It is likely liberate, designate, desolate, elaborate,
to result in jamming together two un- estimate, legitimate, regenerate, repro-
related ideas in one sentence. Exam- bate, separate, subordinate. (This dif-
ples : Described as 'disciples of Tolstoi', ferentiation is weakening with the
two Frenchmen sentenced at Cheltenham progress of the speak-as-you-spell
particular 439 passive disturbances
movement—see PRONUNCIATION I; 2. To make a pass at in the sense of to
delegates to the United Nations are make amorous advances to is a natur-
now as likely to be called -ates as -ets alized American colloquialism.
by the reader of a news bulletin.) Or, passable, passible. See IMPASS-
(C) there may be a change of consonant ABLE.
sound, as in diffuse (-z) v., diffuse (-s) a. ;
refuse (-z) v., refuse (-s) n. See also passive disturbances. i. The double
NOUN AND VERB ACCENT. passive. 2 . Passive of avail oneself of.
3. Do after passive. 4 . The misplaced
particular. This is a strong adjective, as. 5. The impersonal passive.
emphasizing that there is a reason why The conversion of an active-verb
the noun to which it is attached should sentence into a passive-verb one of the
be singled out and distinguished from same meaning—e.g. of You killed him
others. It is emasculated when it is into He was killed by you—is a familiar
used as an unnecessary reinforcement process. But it sometimes leads to bad
of this etc. It is time that consideration grammar, false idiom, or clumsiness.
was given to this particular problem. / 1. The double passive. People believed
Availabilities of this particular material him to have been murdered can be
are extremely limited. / That per- changed to He was believed to have
formance brings 'Music at Night' to a been murdered; but They attempted to
close for this particular Thursday. carry out the order cannot be changed
This trick is mostly to be found in to The order was attempted to be carried
political speeches; perhaps it comes out without clumsiness or worse. For
from a vague feeling that the mono- full discussion see DOUBLE PASSIVES.
syllabic demonstrative is not impres- 2 . Passive of avail oneself of. We
sive enough by itself. understand that the credit will be availed
of by three months' bills, renewable three
parting. i.The United Nations Organi- times, drawn by the Belgian group on
zation is at the p. of the ways. Organiza- the British syndicate. A passive is not
tions and men are now so familiar with possible for avail oneself of; see AVAIL.
that position that, when told they are 3. Active of do after passive verb.
there once more, they are not dis- Inferior defences could then, as now, be
quieted; their only impulse is to feel in tackled, as Vernon did at Porto Bello,
their breeches pockets for the penny Exmouth at Algiers, and Seymour at
with which they may toss up. See Alexandria. The active form would be
HACKNEYED PHRASES. 2 . For parting [An admiral] could then, as now, tackle
shot see PARTHIAN. inferior defences; if defences could be
tackled is substituted, it is better to
partisan. Unlike the obsolete change the voice of did too—as was
weapon, the word meaning adherent done, or as they were, by Vernon etc.
of a cause or guerilla fighter (see RE- But the use of the active is common ;
SISTANCE) is usually accented on the see DO 3 c.
last syllable. 4 . The misplaced as. The great suc-
pasquinade. See LAMPOON. cesses of the Co-operators hitherto have
been won as middlemen. Active form,
pass. i. The verb makes passed for its sound enough— The Co-operators have
past tense (You passed me by), and for won their successes as middlemen. Con-
its p.p. used verbally (It has passed out version to the passive has had the
of use); but when the p.p. has become effect of so tying up the co-operators
a mere adjective it is spelt past (In past with of that it is not available, as in
times). The distinction between p.p. the active form, for as middlemen to
and adjective is rather fine in Those be attached to. A common and perhaps
times have passed away (p.p.), TJiose venial lapse.
times are passed away (INTRANSITIVE 5. The impersonal passive—it is felt,
P.P.), Those times are past (adjective). it is thought, it is believed, etc.—is a
past 440 patron
construction dear to those who write the general senses comes direct from
official and business letters. It is Latin, and in the technical sense
reasonable enough in statements made through French. The one pronuncia-
at large—It is believed that a large tion pa-, however, is recommended
green car was in the vicinity at the time for British use in all senses. It should
of the accident. / It is understood that be remembered that the Latin quantity
the wanted man is wearing a raincoat (pâ-) is of no more importance than
and a cloth cap. But when one person it is in the opposite word latent, now
is addressing another it often amounts universally la-; see FALSE QUANTITY.
to a pusillanimous shrinking from paterfamilias. In Roman historyi
responsibility {It is felt that your com- or references to it, the plural should
plaint arises from a misunderstanding. / be patresfamilias ; but as an adopted
It is thought that ample provision has English word it makes paterfamiliases.
been made against this contingency). See LATIN PLURALS. Pronounce pât- in
The person addressed has a right to spite of the FALSE QUANTITY.
know who it is that entertains a feeling
he may not share or a thought he may pathetic fallacy is a phrase made by
consider mistaken, and is justly resent- Ruskin ; the OED quotes from 'Modern
ful of the suggestion that it exists in Painters' : All violent feelings... produce
the void. On the other hand, the im- . . . a falseness in . . . impressions of
personal passive should have been external things, which I would generally
used in For these reasons the effects of characterize as the 'Pathetic fallacy'.
the American recession upon Britain In ordinary modern use pathos and
will be both smaller and shorter than pathetic are limited to the idea of
were originally feared. Were should be painful emotion; but in this phrase,
was (i.e. than it was originally feared now common, the original wider sense
they would be). of emotion in general is reverted to,
and the p.f. means the tendency to
past. See PASS. credit nature with human emotions.
Sphinxlike, siren-sweet, sly, benign, im-
past master. The OED derives the passive, vindictive, callously indifferent
use of this expression in the sense of the sea may seem to a consciousness
expert from the phrase to pass master, addicted to pathetic fallacies.
i.e. to graduate as master in some Burns was under the influence of the
faculty. p.f. when he wrote:
pastiche. The Italian form pasticcio Ye banks and braes o' bonnie Doon,
is usual for the musical medley, the How can ye bloom sae fresh and fair!
French for the literary. Pronounce How can ye chant, ye little birds,
pastêsh', pastï'cho. And I sae weary fu* o' care!
pathos. For this and bathos the OED
pastorale. Pronounce -ahlë; pi. -li(-ë). recognizes only the pronunciations
pâ-, bâ-, and this is now established.
pasty, n. The pronunciations pa- and But in compounds (e.g. pathology,
pa- seem to be encroaching on the bathometer) the a is short.
once orthodox pah-. The adjective is
always pa-. patois. For p., dialect, etc., see
JARGON.
patent. Pâ-, or pâ-7 Pâ- predominates
in Britain, pâ- in America. But even patriot(ic). The sounds usually heard
in Britain many retain pâ- for the are perhaps â in the noun and â in the
sense connected with letters p., i.e. for adjective though neither is fixed. There
the technical uses (e.g. Patent Office) is no objection to the difference, and
the FALSE QUANTITY â is of no impor-
as opposed to the general or etymo- tance.
logical sense open and plain.This dis-
tinction is based on the fact that p. in patron, -age, -ess, -ize. 1. The
pave 441 pedantic humour
dictionaries agree that patron should stupid, been pedantic humourists in
have a long a and patronize a short. our time. We spend much of our child-
About the other two words they differ. hood picking up a vocabulary; we like
Patronage and patroness are here re- to air our latest finds ; we discover that
commended. our elders are tickled when we come
2.The pejorative use of patronize (treat out with a new name that they thought
with condescension) has almost driven beyond us; we devote some pains to
out its older meaning, protect and tickling them further; and there we
encourage, be a patron of {Chatterton, are, pedants and polysyllabists all. The
angry at being, as he felt, merely patron- impulse is healthy for children, and
ized where he had sought patronage, nearly universal—which is just why
grew insolent). The expression to warning is necessary; for among so
patronize a shop, once common, is many there will always be some who
now rare, and this need not be fail to realize that the clever habit
regretted; one's relationship to a shop applauded at home will make them
is that of a customer, not a patron. insufferable abroad. Most of those
who are capable of writing well enough
pave makes the exceptional agent- to find readers do learn sooner or
noun paviour. later that playful use of long or
pawky. The Englishman is tempted learned words is a one-sided game
to use the word merely as a synonym boring the reader more than it pleases
in certain contexts for Scotch; any jest the writer, that the impulse to it is
uttered by a Scot is pawky, and pawky a danger-signal—for there must be
humour is understood to be unattain- something wrong with what they are
able except by Scots. The underlying saying if it needs recommending by
notions are those of craftiness, conceal- such puerilities—and that yielding to
ment of intention, apparent gravity, the impulse is a confession of failure.
ironical detachment (cf. U.S. deadpan). But now and then even an able writer
The pawky person says his say, and, if will go on believing that the incon-
the hearers choose to find more point gruity between simple things to be said
in the words than a plain interpretation and out-of-the-way words to say them
necessitates, that is their business ; for in has a perennial charm. Perhaps it
him more than other people his Jest's has for the reader who never outgrows
prosperity lies in the ear Of him that hobbledehoyhood; but for the rest of
hears. us it is dreary indeed. It is possible that
acquaintance with such labels as pedan-
pay. Suddenly a girl was heard tic and polysyllabic humour may help to
screaming for help. The crowd paid no shorten the time that it takes to cure
notice. We pay attention and heed but a weakness incident to youth.
we take notice. See CAST-IRON IDIOM. An elementary example or two should
pay off. See PHRASAL VERBS. be given. The words homoeopathic
(small or minute), sartorial (of clothes),
peccadillo. PI. preferably -05; see interregnum (gap), are familiar ones,
-O(E)S 7. or were so in their day ; the popularity
pedantic humour. No essential dis- of such conceits is short. To intro-
tinction is intended between this and duce ''Lords of Parliament* in such
POLYSYLLABIC HUMOUR; one or the homoeopathic doses as to leave a pre-
other name is more appropriate to ponderating power in the hands of those
particular specimens, and the two who enjoy a merely hereditary title. /
headings are therefore useful for refer- While we were motoring out to the
ence. But they are manifestations of station I took stock of his sartorial aspect,
the same impulse, and the few remarks which had changed somewhat since we
needed may be made here for both. parted. / In his vehement action his
A warning is necessary, because we breeches fall down and his waistcoat runs
have all of us, except the abnormally up, so that there is a great interregnum.
pedantry and purism 442 pediment
These words are, like most that are apart from the great number of
much used in humour of either kind, elements (vocabulary, grammar, idiom,
both pedantic and polysyllabic. A few pronunciation, and so forth) that go to
specimens that cannot be described as make it up, is so relative a term that
polysyllabic are added here, and for the almost every man is potentially a
larger class of long words the article purist and a sloven at once to persons
POLYSYLLABIC HUMOUR s h o u l d b e looking at him from a lower and a
consulted: adipose tissue; aforesaid; higher position in the scale than his
beverage; bivalve (the succulent); own. The words have therefore not
digit; eke (adv.); ergo; erstwhile; been very freely used; that they should
Jupiter Pluvius; optic (eye); parlous; be renounced altogether would be too
sanctum sanctorum; save the mark; much to expect, considering the sub-
this thusness; tonsorial artist. ject of the book.
It follows that readers who find a
pedantry and purism. Pedantry usage stigmatized as pedantry or
may be defined, for the purpose of purism have a right to know the stig-
this book, as the saying of things in matizer's place in the scale, if his
language so learned or so demonstra- stigma is not to be valueless. Accord-
tively accurate as to imply a slur upon ingly, under headings of various mat-
the generality, who are not capable or ters in which these propensities may
not desirous of such displays. The colour judgement, a few articles are
term, then, is obviously a relative one; now mentioned by referring to which
my pedantry is your scholarship, his the reader who has views of his own
reasonable accuracy, her irreducible will be able to place the book in the
minimum of education, and someone scale, and judge what may be expected
else's ignorance. It is therefore not of it.
very profitable to dogmatize here on Carelessness: CANNIBALISM: JINGLES:
the subject; an essay would establish HAZINESS.
not what p. is, but only the place in the Choice of Words: SAXONISM: FORMAL
scale occupied by the author. There WORDS: WARDOUR ST.
are certainly many accuracies that are Idiom: ANALOGY 3 : CAST-IRON IDIOM:
not pedantries, as well as some that INCOMPATIBLES.
are; there are certainly some pedan- Grammar: CASES: ELLIPSIS: NUMBER.
tries that are not accuracies, as well as Misuse of Words: POPULARIZED
many that are; and no book that TECHNICALITIES : SLIPSHOD EXTEN-
attempts, as this one does, to give SION: VOGUE WORDS.
hundreds of decisions on the matter Pretentiousness: DIDACTICISM: LOVE
will find many readers who will accept OF THE LONG WORD : SUPERIORITY.
them all. Pronunciation: FALSE QUANTITY:
Purism is like pedantry, except that RECEIVED PRONUNCIATION: RECESSIVE
it does not necessarily imply a parade ACCENT.
of superior learning. Now and then Punctuation etc.: HYPHENS: ITALICS:
a person may be heard to 'confess', in STOPS.
the pride that apes humility, to being Spelling: SPELLING POINTS.
'a bit of a purist' ; but purist and purism Style: ELEGANT VARIATION: ONLY:
are for the most part missile words, PREPOSITION AT END: SPLIT-INFINI-
which we all of us fling at anyone who TIVE.
insults us by finding not good enough Verbosity: COMPOUND PREPOSITIONS:
for him some manner of speech that PERIPHRASIS : TAUTOLOGY.
is good enough for us. It is in that dis- Word Formation: ANALOGY 2 : BAR-
paraging sense that the words are used B A R I S M S : HYBRIDS AND MALFORMATIONS.
in this book; by purism is to be under-
stood a needless and irritating insis- pediment is a corruption of périment
tence on purity or correctness of (itself probably a corruption of pyra-
speech. Pure English, however, even mid) and means a triangular structure
peewit 413 percentage
over a portico. The natural assumption preposition is needed, and no English
that it was derived from Latin pes, one is available, per may be useful even
foot, led as early as 1726 to its being with an English noun. Output a man-
used in the sense of foundation. The shift a day is an awkward way of
use of the same word to mean both expressing a formula which is clear if
foundation and superstructure is not per is used. Generally, however, it is
to be encouraged, and the choice of p. best to confine per to its own language
is unfortunate in Efficient farming is in established phrases such as per cent.,
one p. of national prosperity. PER CAPITA, per contra, and per stirpes.
For as per see COMMERCIALESE and for
peewit. See PEWIT. PER PRO see that heading.
pellucid. See TRANSPARENT.
peradventure. See ARCHAISM.
pendant, pendent, pennant, pen-
non. There is much confusion be- per capita. The consumption of tobacco
tween these; the reasonable distribu- and alcohol lias increased during the year
tion of meanings to forms would be as as follows: spirits, 1 - 1 1 2 gallons per
follows: pendent, the adjective, hang- capita, compared with 1-030 in 1911. /
ing; pendant, a noun, a hanging orna- The entire production of opium in India
ment or appurtenance ; pennant, a noun is two grammes per capita yearly. This
in nautical use for certain pieces of use is a modern blunder, encouraged
rigging and certain flags; pennon, a in some recent dictionaries. '(So much)
noun in chivalric and military use for a head', or 'per man', which is the
a lance-streamer or the like. Pendent meaning here, would not be per capita
should not be used as a noun; pendant (any more than it would be 'per men'),
should be neither an adjective nor the but per caput if Latin had to be used.
nautical noun; pennon should not be Per capita describes the method of
the nautical noun. sharing property in which persons,
and not families, are the units, and its
pendente lite. Pronounce pëndë'ntë opposite is per stirpes (Patrimonial
lï'të. S e e LATIN PHRASES. estates are divided per capita; purchased
pendulum. PI. -ms; see -UM. estates, per stirpes) ; it is out of place,
and something of a barbarism, how-
peninsula(r). Uses of the noun (-la) ever lately popular, except in such a
instead of the adjective (-lar), as the context. Even more out of place is the
Peninsula War, or vice versa, as the invention of an adjectival inflexion:
Spanish Peninsular, are not uncom- Not a day passes but what the Moscow
mon. The latter is clearly wrong, but press summons the Soviet people to catch
the former can be justified on the up with and surpass America in the per
ground that the noun is used attribu- capital production of meat, milk, and
tively. butter.
penman should be used with refer-
ence to handwriting only, not to the percentage. See LOVE OF THE LONG
writing of books or articles; in the WORD. The notion has gone abroad
sense writer or author it is an affecta- that a percentage is a small part. Far
tion—not indeed a new invention, but from that, while a part is always less
a REVIVAL. than the whole, a percentage may be the
pen-name. See NOM DE GUERRE. whole or more than the whole ; there is
little comfort to be had today from re-
pennant, pennon. See PENDANT. flecting that our cost of living can be
per. It is affected to use Latin when expressed as a percentage of 1939's.
English will serve as well; so much a The uneducated public prefers a word
year is better than per annum and much that sounds scientific, even if it gives
better than per year, and there is no the sense less well, to another that
point in saying per passenger train is commonplace; see POPULARIZED
when we can say by. But when a TECHNICALITIES. In all the following
perchance 444 perfect infinitive
examples but the last the word per- sible, would have been the first to, the
centage has no meaning at all without present infinitive is (almost invariably)
the addition of small or of something the right form, but the perfect often
else to define it; and in the last the intrudes, and this time without the
greater part would be the English for compensation noted in i ; for the impli-
the large percentage. But in London cation of non-fulfilment is inherent
there is no civic consciousness; the in the governing verb itself. So: If my
London-born provides only a percentage point had not been this, I should not have
of its inhabitants. / This drug has endeavoured to have shown the con-
proved of value in apercentage of cases. / nexion. I Jim Scudamore would have been
It is none the less true that the trade the first man to have acknowledged the
unions only represent a percentage of the anomaly. / Peggy would have liked to
whole body of railway workers. / A have shown her turban and bird of
mere percentage of listeners tune in to paradise at the ball, j The Laboxir mem-
the Third Programme. / The largest bers opened their eyes wide, and except
percentage of heat generated is utilizable, for a capital levy it is doubtful whether
but the rest escapes and is lost. For an they would have dared to have gone
exact parallel see PROPORTION, and for a further. Sometimes a writer, dimly
contrast see FRACTION. aware that 'would have liked to have
done' is usually wrong, is yet so fasci-
perchance is a POETICISM very much nated by the perfect infinitive that he
out of place in pedestrian prose, as, for clings to that at all costs, and alters
instance, in There is nothing, perchance, instead the part of his sentence that
which so readily links the ages together was right: On the point of church James
as a small store of jewels and trinkets. was obdurate; he would like to have
insisted on the other grudging items
peremptory. Pronounce pë'rëmtôri (would have liked to insist).
or përë'mtôrï. The former is recom-
mended. See RECESSIVE ACCENT. 3. With seem, appear, and the like,
people get puzzled over the combina-
perfect infinitive, i.e. to have done tions of the present and past of seem
etc. These are forms that often push etc. with the present and perfect of the
their way in where they are not infinitive. The possible combinations
wanted, and sometimes, but less often, are: He seems to know, He seems to
are themselves wrongly displaced by have known, He seemed to know, He
present infinitives. seemed to have known. The first ad-
1. After past tenses of hope, fear, mits of no confusion, and may be left
expect, and the like, the perfect infini- aside ; the last is very rarely wanted in
tive is used, incorrectly perhaps, but fact, but is constantly resorted to as an
so often and with so useful an im- en-tout-cas by those who cannot decide
plication that it has become idiomatic. whether the umbrella of He seems to
That implication is that the thing have known or the parasol of He seemed
hoped etc. did not in fact come to pass, to know is more likely to suit the
and the economy of conveying this weather. Thus : / warned him when he
without a separate sentence justifies spoke to me that I could not speak to him
the usage. S o : Philosophy began to at all if I was to be quoted as an
congratulate herself upon such a authority; he seemed to have taken this
proselyte from the world of business, and as applying only to the first question he
hoped to have extended her power asked me (seems to have). / It was no
under the auspices of such a leader. / It infrequent occurrence for people going
was the duty of that publisher to have to the theatre in the dark to fall into the
rebutted a statement which he knew to marshes after crossing the bridge; people
be a calumny, j I was going to have seemed to have been much more willing
asked, when . . . to run risks in those days (seemed to be
2 . After past conditionals such as if the writer was a contemporary j
should have liked, would have been pos- seem to have been if a historian).
perfect 445 periphrasis
perfect, adj., in its sense 'free from writing wt (not wt.) for weight, Bp (not
imperfection, fautless' (OED), ought Bp.) for bishop, Mr (not Mr.) for
logically to be treated as one of those Mister, Bart or Bt (not Bart, or Bt.)
absolutes (cf. UNIQUE) that will not for baronet, bot. for botany but bot
tolerate adverbs of degree or com- for bought, Copt, for captain but Cpl
parison such as rather, very, more; one for corporal, doz. for dozen but cwt for
thing may be more nearly p. than an- hundredweight, Feb. for February but
other, says logic, but it cannot be fcp for foolscap, Frl. for Fraulein but
more p. But logic is an unsure guide Mile for Mademoiselle, in. for inches
to usage (see IDIOM), and those who but ft for feet, Geo. for George but
choose to regard this restriction as Thos for Thomas, Lat. for Latin but
pedantry can cite the OED: 'Often Gk for Greek, h.w., but ht wt, for hit
said of a near approach to such a state wicket. As to abbreviations formed by
and hence capable of comparison' and combining the initial letters of two or
G. M. Trevelyan on Lady Jane Grey: more words, practice is not uniform,
As learned as any of the Tudor sovereigns, but the tendency is to omit the periods
this gentle Grecian had a more perfect —OED, BBC, UNO, NATO, etc.
character than the best of them. See also CURTAILED WORDS.
perhaps. Of the pronunciations, that periodic(al). The -ic form is not used
with the r and the h both sounded can of publications (periodical literature,
only be managed by a Scot; that with periodicals) ; the -ical form is not used
the r slurred and the h sounded is of literary composition (Johnson's
orthodox ; that in two syllables with r periodic style) or in certain scientific
sounded but h silent is rare among the terms (periodic table, motion, etc.);
educated; that in one syllable (prâps) otherwise the two words do not differ
is used by many more than would in meaning, but the longer tends to
plead guilty, and does not deserve oust the shorter.
the scorn heaped on it by those who peripeteia. A sudden change of for-
parody mispronunciations in print. tune in a drama or tale, e.g. in The
period. For synonyms see TIME. For Merchant of Venice, the downfall of
the full stop, see STOPS. AS a term of Shylock, with Gratiano repeating to
rhetoric, strictly, any complete sen- him his own words 'O learned judge'.
tence; but applied usually to one con-
sisting of a number of clauses in periphrasis is the putting of things in
dependence on a principal sentence, a round-about way. The cost may be
and so, in the plural, to a style marked upwards of a figure rather below £iom.
by elaborate arrangement. is a periphrasis for The cost may be
nearly jCI0m. In Paris there reigns a
period (full stop) in abbreviations. complete absence of really reliable news is
Abbreviations are chiefly made in two a p. for There is no reliable news in
ways : one by giving the beginning of Paris. Rarely does the 'Little Summer'
the word in one or more letters and linger until November, but at times
then stopping, the other by dropping its stay has been prolonged until quite
out some portion of the middle. Those late in the year's penultimate month
of the first kind are rightly ended with contains a p. for November, and
a period, but the common practice of another for lingers. The answer is in
doing the same to the second is ill the negative is a p. for No. Was
advised. Abbreviations are puzzling, made the recipient of is a p. for Was
but to puzzle is not their purpose, and presented with. The periphrastic style
everything that helps the reader to is hardly possible on any considerable
guess their meaning is a gain. One such scale without much use of abstract
help is to let him know when the first nouns such as basis, case, character,
and last letters of the abbreviation are connexion, dearth, description, duration,
also those of the full word, which can framework, lack, nature, reference, re-
be done by not using the period, but gard, respect. The existence of abstract
periwig 446 person
nouns is a proof that abstract thought per pro CD (agent); but it is not the
has occurred; abstract thought is a usual one. It is said to be common in
mark of civilized man; and so it has Scotland and occasionally used by
come about that periphrasis and civili- English solicitors, and has been called
zation are by many held to be in- the 'proper form' in a judicial obiter
separable. These good people feel that dictum (Scrutton L.J. in Slingsby v.
there is an almost indecent nakedness, District Bank, 1 K.B. 1933). But the
a reversion to barbarism, in saying No matter is one of custom, not of law,
news is good news instead of The and the sequence customary in Eng-
absence of intelligence is an indication of lish banking practice is per pro CD
saisfactory developments. Neverthe- (agent) AB (principal). For other uses
less, The year's penultimate month is of per see PER and COMMERCIALESE.
not in truth a good way of saying
November. persiflage, 'whistle-talk'. Irrespon-
Strings of nouns depending on one sible talk, of which the hearer is to
another and the use of compound make what he can without the right to
prepositions are the most conspicuous suppose that the speaker means what
symptoms of the periphrastic malady, he seems to say; the treating of serious
and writers should be on the watch for things as trifles and of trifles as serious.
these in their own composition. For 'Talking with one's tongue in one's
examples of the first see ABSTRACTITIS, cheek' may serve as a parallel. Hannah
HEADLINE LANGUAGE, NOUN ADJECTIVES,
More, quoted in the OED, describes
and -TiON, and for examples of the French p. as 'the cold compound of
latter see COMPOUND PREPOSITIONS and
irony, irreligion, selfishness, and sneer'.
most of the words cited above as Frivolity and levity, combined with
periphrasis-makers. gentle 'leg-pulling', are perhaps rather
the ingredients of the compound as
periwig is the same word as peruke now conceived, with airy as its stock
and much older than wig, which is a adjective. Yeats said of it that it was
shortened form of it. 'the only speech of educated men that
expresses a deliberate enjoyment of
permanence, -cy. One of the pairs w o r d s . . . . Such as it is, all our
(see -CE, -CY) in which the distinction comedies are made out of it.'
is neither broad and generally recog-
nized, nor yet quite non-existent or persistence, -cy. The distinction is
negligible. Writers whose feeling for the same as with permanence, ~cy, but
distinctions is delicate will prefer -ce is more generally appreciated : the per-
for the fact of abiding, and -cy for the sistence of poverty or of matter', courage
quality or an embodiment of it : The and persistency are high gifts. See -CE,
essential quality of a monument is per- -CY.
manence. I His new post is not a per- person. 1. Verb forms. 2 . Person
manency.
of pronoun.
perorate is not in fact one of the 1. When a compound subject con-
modern BACK-FORMATIONS like revolute, sists of two or more alternative parts
enthuse, and burgle, but it suffers from differing in person, there is sometimes
being taken for one, and few perhaps a doubt about the right verb form to
use it without some fear that they are use (Are you or I next? etc.). See
indulging in a bold bad word. NEITHER 4 , OR 2 , for discussion.
2 . Person of pronoun.Two questions
per p r o c , per pro., p.p., are abbre- arise which are exemplified in (a) To
viations of per procurationem, by the me, who has [or have?] also a copy of it,
agency of. There are differences of it seems a somewhat trivial fragment,
opinion about the proper placing of for which see WHO AND WHOM 5 and
the words. One would suppose the (b) Most of us lost our [or their?] heads,
natural sequence to be AB (principal) for which see us 2 .
persona 447 personally
persona. One can only conclude that But grahta is usual when the words are
Mr. N. is correct to wonder whether used not as a naturalized English phrase
he was ever really cut out for politicsy but in their original sense as part of
an enterprise in which a man's persona the international language of diplo-
is at least as important as his private macy.
person. Persona (originally the mask
worn by an actor) is a term of Jungian personal equation is a phrase of
psychology which Jung himself de- definite meaning; it is the correction,
fined as 'The individual's system of quantitatively expressed, that an indi-
adaptation to, or the manner he vidual's observation of astronomical or
assumes in dealing with, the world. other phenomena is known by experi-
. . . One could say, with a little ex- ment to require; minutely accurate
aggeration, that the persona is that assessment is essential to the notion.
which in reality one is not, but The learned sound of equation, how-
which oneself as well as others think ever, has commended it to those who
one is'. It would seem therefore, so want some expression or other with
far as the ordinary man can under- personal in it, and are all the better
stand these things, that a persona is pleased if such commonplace words as
much the same as an IMAGE; if it view or opinion or taste or judgement
becomes a POPULARIZED TECHNICAL- can be replaced by something more
ITY it may relieve that greatly over- imposing. So: M. Poincaré likes Mr.
worked word of some of the burden Bonar Law better than he liked Mr.
now put upon it. Lloyd George; let us hope that the
personage, personality. Both improved p. e. will count for something. /
words are used for exceptional kinds If Lady Astor's entrance upon the par-
of persons, but with a difference. A liamentary scene is worthy of com-
personage is one who owes his impor- memoration, the cost of it . . . should
tance to birth or high office ; he is now have been under the control of the House,
known more familiarly as a VIP which naturally resents the treatment of
(= very important person), a term this matter as a family affair; in general
adopted during the second world there is too much p. e. about Astorian
war by pilots and others to whose care politics. See POPULARIZED TECHNI-
such persons might be temporarily CALITIES.
entrusted. A personality (long estab-
lished in the sense of a 'man of parts') p e r s o n a l i t y . Personal property in
is now popularly applied, generally the legal sense is -alty, the other noun
with an attributive noun (film p., tele- work of personal is done by -ality; cf.
vision p.), to a person who has won his real(i)ty. See PERSONAGE.
fame by his talents in the world of
entertainment. In terms of monetary personally is apt to be used redun-
reward a personality is rated much dantly with the personal pronoun, like
higher than a personage. Sometimes PARTICULAR with the demonstrative
the two merge. The party is rather adjective. He was undeniably a man
startled to find that it has its biggest with the power and the courage to
electoral asset in Mr. G. He has already record the life of the Antwerp compine
broken through as a TV personality. exactly as he p. saw it. / He spoke p. to
And it was clearly right to choose each of his supporters as they left the
the word of greater appeal when meeting. He could not have seen or
coining a phrase {personality cult) for spoken otherwise than p.; he by itself
that factitious veneration of a person- is enough. The legitimate uses of p.
age that commonly follows a success- are (a) to signify that something was
ful revolution. done by or to someone in person and
not through an agent or deputy ( The
persona grata. Pronounce grdta, say writ was served on the defendant p. at
the dictionaries; see LATIN PHRASES. his residence. / The appointment was
personification 448 personification
made by the Secretary of State p.) and want of literary instinct. On the other
(b) to exclude considerations other hand a personification may be a more
than personal (/ welcome the decision convenient object of attack than
although I am not p. interested). persons; it cannot answer back: He
accused imperialism and colonialism of
personification, nouns of multi- being behind the plot to murder him.
tude, metonymy. When a country is 2 . Vacillation. Britain, Paris, and the
spoken of as She, we have personifica- like, are words naturally admitting of
tion ; when we doubt whether to write personification, and can be referred to
The Board refuse or The Board in their literal sense by it and its, or in
refuses, we are pulled up by a noun of their personified sense by she and her.
multitude ; when we call Queen Eliza- So much everyone knows; what will
beth the Crown, we use metonymy. perhaps surprise the reader is to find
Some mistakes incident to these forms how many writers are capable of ab-
of speech run into one another, and surdly mixing the two methods in a
are therefore grouped together here, single phrase. In the following ex-
under the headings: 1. Ill-advised amples the words in which the vacilla-
personification. 2 . Vacillation. 3. Un- tion is exhibited are in roman type:
attached possessives. Germany deserted and rearmed. So did
1. Ill-advised personification. To Japan, which defied efforts to stop her
figure 'the world' as a female, a certain invading Manchuria. / When Poplar no
'quarter' or certain 'circles' as sentient, longer maintains its own paupers she
or 'Irish womanhood' as a woman, is must no longer determine the standard on
to be frigid—the epithet proper to which they are to be maintained. / The
those who make futile attempts at United States has given another proof of
decoration. Such personifications are its determination to uphold her neutral-
implied in Just now the world wants ity. For other examples see WHICH,
all that America can give her in ship- THAT, WHO 8, and for similar vacilla-
ping (read it for her), in But on applica- tion between singular and plural verbs
tion to the quarter most likely to know with nouns of multitude see NUMBER 6.
/ was assured that the paper in question 3. Unattached possessives. Danish
was not written by Dickens (The quarter sympathy with Finland is writ large over
is no doubt a person or persons, and all her newspapers, literature, and public
capable of knowledge; but it will speeches, as the most casual visitor to
surely never do to let that secret out), Copenhagen can see. Her means 'of (the
in According to Foreign Offices circles personified) Denmark' ; we can all see
reports on him by the British Embassy in that; but we most of us also resent,
Moscow were ignored by the Admiralty nevertheless, a personification that is
(Perhaps the writer thought that done not on the stage, but 'off' ; a Den-
'circles' had a more intimate air than mark personified and not presented is
the usual 'spokesman', who can only a sort of shadow of a shade. / This is
hand out what he has been given, cf. a timely tribute from a man who has
SOURCE), and in The womanhood of spent a large part of his life in Friendly
Ireland stands for individualism as Society work, and who would be the last
against co-operation, and presents the to sanction anything that imperilled
practical domestic arguments in her their interests. Their means 'of the
support (Whether her implies the Friendly Societies'; but where are
personification of womanhood or of they? The adjective Friendly Society
individualism does not much matter; it is as unavailing here as Danish in the
must be one or the other, and neither previous example. / The true doctrine
is suited for the treatment). It is in is that every public act of the Crown is
places like these, where a writer an act for which her advisers are respon-
hardly intends personification, but sible. In some contexts it does not
slips unconsciously or half-heartedly matter whether one says the Queen,
into implying it, that he reveals his Her Majesty, or the Crown', but while
personnel 449 phantasm
the Queen has her advisers, the Crown p e s s i m i s m . See OPTIMISM for com-
can only have its. ments on the popular use.
pestle is perhaps the only -stle- word
personnel. Pronounce persônë'l. The in which the t is sometimes sounded
word is widely used for the people (see PRONUNCIATION 2) ; but this is not
composing one or other of the Services recommended.
of the Crown, military and civilian, or
any large-scale organization. Although petitio principii or 'begging the
it is far from new, its increasing use has question'. The fallacy of founding a
incurred some criticism as an un- conclusion on a basis that as much
necessary and undesirable innovation. needs to be proved as the conclusion
It can claim in justification that, when itself, ARGUING IN A CIRCLE is a com-
all Services include women, the old mon variety of p. p.; other (not cir-
expression men and material will no cular) examples are that capital
longer do, and some other word must punishment is necessary because with-
be used. But it has no doubt become out it murders would increase, and
too popular and is often made to serve that democracy must be the best form
as jargon for such words as staff, em- of government because the majority
ployees, men, women, people, etc. are always right.
petrol(eum). For synonyms see
perspio. Perspicacious, -acity, mean KEROSENE.
having or showing insight ; perspicuous, pewit, pee-. The OED puts first the
-uity, mean being easy to get a clear form pewit, but the pronunciation is
idea of; see PAIRS AND SNARES. Shrewd
and shrewdness, clear and clearness, or pê'wit, an imitation of the bird's cry.
other short words, are used in pre- In Will Waterproof Tennyson rhymes
ference by those who are neither the word with cruet, but the pronun-
learned nor pretentious. The learned ciation pu'it, given in some dictionaries
can safely venture on the perspic- as an alternative, is dialect.
pairs, but when the unlearned pre- phalanx. Ordinary pi. -xes, but in
tender claims acquaintance with them, anatomy and botany phalanges (falâ'-
they are apt to punish the familiarity njëz)', singular usually phalange. See
by showing that he is in fact a stranger LATIN PLURALS.
to them. The usual mistake is to write phantasmagoria is sing., not (as in
•uity for -acity, as in : He claims for the following) pi.: We shall then be
it superiority to other alternatives, the able to reach some conclusion as to the
defects of which he sees with that pers- meaning and effect of these bewildering
picuity which the advocates of each phantasmagoria. The word was de-
ideal system invariably display towards signed to mean 'crowd of phantasms'.
rival systems, j The high-class West phantasm, phantom. The two are
End and provincial tailors are displaying by origin merely spelling variants,
considerable perspicuity in buying checks.differentiated, but so that the differ-
ences are elusive; the following ten-
persuade makes -dable as well as per- dencies are discernible, but sometimes
suasible; the latter is now more usual conflict. 1. Phantom is the more popu-
(see -ABLE 2 ) .
lar form, -asm being chiefly in literary
persuasion. Parodies of the phrase use. 2 . Both meaning roughly an
'of the Roman, Protestant, etc. p.', e.g. illusive apparition, phantom stresses
Hats of the cartwheel p., are to be the fact that the thing is illusive, and
classed with WORN-OUT HUMOUR. -asm the fact that it does appear, so
that they give respectively the negative
pertinence, -cy. There is no useful and the positive aspect. 3. A phantom
distinction; the first will probably pre- presents itself to the eye bodily or
vail. See -CE, -CY. mental, a phantasm to any sense or
peruke. See PERIWIG. to the intellect. 4 . Phantasm has an
Pharisee 450 philosophic(al)
adjective (phantasmal) of its own; avhp- man), once used by the Greeks
phantom has not, but is used attribu- as a term of praise for a faithful wife,
tively (phantom hopes etc.) with much should now be a term of disparage-
freedom, and where a true adjective ment for a less than faithful husband.
is necessary borrows phantasmal; the 2. That certain marsupial animals are
two nouns are no doubt kept from so called is due to their having been
diverging more definitely than they first described by a naturalist with this
do by this common property in curious Christian name.
phantasmal.
Pharisee. The adj. Pharisaic is pre- philately, -ist. The derivation is,
ferable to Pharisaical; see -IC(AL). The through French, from Greek areAem,
exemption from tax; the word thus
-ism noun is Pharisaism, not -seeism. means fondness for the symbols that
pharmacopoeia. Pronounce -pë'â. vouch for no charge being payable,
For the spelling see &, Œ. namely stamps. It is a pity that for one
phenomenal means 'of the kind of the most popular scientific pursuits
apprehended by (any of) the senses' : one of the least popularly intelligible
everything that is reported to the names should have been found. The
mind by sight, hearing, taste, smell, best remedy now is to avoid the official
or touch—whether the report answers titles whenever stamp-collecting and
to reality or not—is phenomenal. -collector will do.
If the report is correct, the thing
reported is also real; if not, it is 'merely -phil(e). The -e originally taken on
phenomenal'. The question of real from French is now often dropped,
existence and its relation to perception with the good result of bringing back
and thought is the concern of META- the pronunciation from the queer -ill
PHYSICS, and p. is a metaphysical word, to -fa.
contrasted variously with real, abso-
lute, and noumenal. But the object here philharmonic, philhellenic, etc. On
is not to expound the metaphysical the question whether the h should be
meaning of these terms ; it is only to sounded see PRONUNCIATION 3.
point out that p. is a metaphysical Philistine. The special modern mean-
term with a use of its own. To divert ing is thus given by the OED : 'A per-
it from this proper use to a job for son deficient in liberal culture and
which it is not needed, by making it enlightenment, whose interests are
do duty for remarkable, extraordinary, chiefly bounded by material and
or prodigious, was a sin against the commonplace things (But often applied
English language, but the conse-
quences seem now to be irremediable; contemptuously by connoisseurs of
this meaning is recognized without any particular art or department of
comment by most dictionaries. learning to one who has no knowledge
or appreciation of it; sometimes a mere
phenomen(al)ism. The longer form term of dislike for those whom the
is recommended; see -IST, -ALIST. speaker considers bourgeois).' The
phenomenon. PI. -ena; see -ON. Philistine retorts by calling the speaker
P. in the sense 'notable occurrence' a highbrow, or, if American, an egg-
or 'prodigy' is open essentially to the head. See INTELLIGENT.
same objections as PHENOMENAL used philosophic(al). Except where -ical is
correspondingly. It also has dictionary stereotyped by forming part of a title
recognition, but seems to be less (Philosophical Society, Transactions,
freely used; perhaps it has been etc.), the -ic form is now commoner in
tainted by the absurdity of Mr. Crum- all the more specific senses; -ical still
mles's 'infant phenomenon*. prevails in the very general sense
philander(er). i. It is odd that these 'resembling* or 'befitting a philo-
words (compounded of 4>L\o- love and sopher', i.e. wise or unperturbed or
phobia 451 phrasal verbs
well balanced; and this gives a basis have a different nuance. This pre-
for DIFFERENTIATION; see -IC(AL). ference is largely of U.S. origin, but
we have proved ready pupils. It may be
phobia. See POPULARIZED TECHNI- that new combinations are invented, as
CALITIES. meet up with is used for meet, visit with
for visit, lose out on for lose, match up
phon(e)y. This slang word for 'sham* for match, miss out on for miss, man up
first became widely known when it for man, and win out for win. Or it may
was applied by Americans in the be that an established combination is
autumn of 1939 to a war of which they used not in its proper sense but as a
were then spectators only. The COD synonym of the simple verb. The
makes no guess at its derivation, but differences in meaning between check
Eric Partridge, rejecting the sugges- and check up on, close and close down,
tions that it may come from funny face and face up to, start and start up,
or from telephoney (simulation being stop and stop off, try and try out,
easier on the telephone than face to though real, are subtle—in some the
face), or from a seller of imitation particle is merely an intensification—
jewellery named Forney, traces the and it is perhaps natural, however
word back to 1781 when 'the ring- regrettable, that they should be disap-
dropping game, one of the old ever- pearing owing to this curious dislike of
lastings for fooling the credulous, was the verb standing alone. A less ex-
known as the fawney rig, the fawney cusable example of the ousting of a
trick, fawney being an English attempt simple verb by a phrasal one is that of
at the Irish fainné, a finger ring'. pay, in the sense of prove profitable,
photogenic. See -GENIC. by pay off, which already had its
special and very different meanings of
phrasal verbs. A name given by finally discharging an obligation or a
Henry Bradley to those fixed combina- crew and of letting a sailing-boat fall
tions of verb and adverbial particle away from the wind. This novel use of
from which (to quote Pearsall Smith) pay off has become so common that
'we derive thousands of vivid collo- pay as an intransitive verb seems
quialisms and idiomatic phrases by likely to disappear. Nothing paid off
means of which we describe the great- more quickly on the railways than the
est variety of human actions and substitution of diesel locomotives for
relations'—the combinations for in- steam. / His view that if Mr. Cousins
stance of verbs such as get, put, take, wanted to get tough he could not carry
set, with adverbs such as in, out, to, the bulk of the trade-union leaders with
from, up, down, to give differences of him has paid off fairly well. / He
meaning which in languages of a more recognizes that Pope's conscious artistry,
synthetic structure are represented by his endless patient polishing, his wish
compound verbs. The use of phrasal always to write at his best, pays off. /
verbs as nouns, a prominent feature The Prime Minister's remaking of his
of contemporary English (e.g. set-to, Cabinet has paid off handsomely.
take-over, hold-up, show-down, wash- A few examples of other phrasal
out), has also proved an invaluable verbs used for the simple verb are:
method of enriching our vocabulary You may be interested to listen to an
vigorously from native material instead item at ten past one if you have missed
of relying on foreign borrowing. out on this week's Radio Times. / The
This useful resource is now being duke has gone to Inverary to rest up for
abused. Owing perhaps to a craving a few days, j It is not an issue of whether
for prolixity we have got into the we meet up with public disapproval. /
habit of using phrasal verbs in senses Mr. Herter has not yet been sounded
no different from that of the parent out as to his willingness to succeed
verb alone, though some of them, when Mr. Dulles. / / have not seen the colonel
coined, may have been intended to for many years and am very anxious to
phthisis 452 picaresque
visit with him. / He told me that the physics, physiology. The two
merger could be successfully consummated words had once the same wide mean-
only if I agreed to join and head it up. j ing of natural science or natural philo-
All we can do in this way will be of no sophy. They have now been narrowed
avail if we are going to lose out to the and differentiated, physics retaining
communists in other ways. / There are only the properties of matter and
at least twenty shades of cream, so energy in inorganic nature, and physio-
matching up needs some care. / It is logy only the normal functions and
expected that by that time the usual phenomena of living organisms. Each
afternoon temperatures of about go° will has been copiously subdivided, but
have started to drop off. / Which do you they have met again in the science of
think will win out, Mr. , Mr. biophysics. Physic, as the old term for
Lumumba, or Mr. Tshombe? / The the science of medicine, survives in
rumble of the great guns drowned out all the title of the chair of medicine at
other noises. I The countries that go up Cambridge—the Regius Professorship
to make the Commonwealth. In the last of Physic. For the adjective of physio-
example the writer perhaps intended logy, -ical is so much the commoner
to say go to make up, using the phrasal that it might be treated as the only
verb in its proper sense of compose; but form. See -IC(AL).
the up has lost its way.
physiognomy. Phiz as slang for face,
phthisis. The old pronunciation one of the abbreviations that annoyed
dropped the ph-; this might have Swift, had a long life but is now dead;
recovered its sound now that everyone so is the conceit of using the word in
can read if the word were still in full for the same purpose by way of
POLYSYLLABIC HUMOUR. Pronounce
general use, but T.B. (the initial
letters of tubercle bacillus, used for preferably with silent g.
tuberculosis) has the advantage of piano, as an adjective or adverb, the
presenting no difficulties of pro- Italian for soft, has retained its Italian
nunciation. The Greek word had pronunciation (pyah'no), whether used
short i, but thï- is now the accepted as a musical direction or in its figura-
pronunciation; see FALSE QUANTITY. tive sense of listless or depressed. The
noun, a curtailed word from pianoforte,
physician, doctor, surgeon. In the has been anglicized into pïà"no;pyah'-
United Kingdom every medical prac- no, sometimes heard, is an affectation.
titioner is required to have a qualifica-
tion as Physician and also as Surgeon piazza. The OED gives pïâ'zâ; but
(i.e. to have at least a Bachelor's degree the Italian consonant sound -âtsâ (or
in both medicine and surgery). Many -ahtsâ) is now more usual. The proper
general practitioners still formally meaning of the Italian word is a
style themselves Physician and Surgeon, public square or market-place, but in
and the survival of the name surgery America the word is used, like porch,
for the general practitioner's consult- for what we call a veranda and in Eng-
ing-room is evidence that the two land sometimes for a colonnade.
branches of the profession were once pibroch. Pronounce as Scotch (pê-,
less separate than they are now. In and ch as in loch). The word means a
ordinary parlance physician is more type of music played on the bagpipe,
often used to distinguish the specialist not, as is often supposed, the instru-
or consultant from the general practi- ment itself.
tioner than both of them from the
surgeon; for that purpose the ordinary picaresque. The p. novel is defined
distinction is that the former are called in the Enc. Brit, as : 'The prose auto-
Dr even though they may not have a biography of a real or fictitious person-
doctor's degree and the latter Mr even age who describes his experiences as
though they may have one. a social parasite, and who satirizes the
picket 453 placard
society which he has exploited.' The Pindar's own odes the structure is an
type is Spanish, but the most widely elaborate one of strophe, antistrophe,
known example is the French Gil Bias. and epode, far removed from irregu-
Picaro is a Spanish word meaning larity; but the English imitators noted
vagabond. The type has its modern the variety of metre within his strophes
analogue. It [the 1950s] was the decade and neglected the precise correspon-
of the p. novel, and the new, shambling, dence between them. Horace too must
oafish anti-heroes, flotsam and jetsam of have found him difficult to scan, for he
the Welfare State. See ANTI-. says of him Numéris fertur lege solutis.
P. came consequently to be the name
picket, picquet, piquet. The second for verse in which regularity of metre
form serves no purpose at all; the third was scorned under the supposed im-
(a different word from the other two) pulse of high emotion.
should be reserved for the card-game,
and picket be used for all other senses, piscina. Dictionaries differ in their
including that of the military outpost preferences betweenpïsë'na and pïsï'na ;
often spelt with -qu- or -cqu-, the former is probably now more
usual. Plural -ae or -as.
picture. See PRONUNCIATION I .
pidgin, pigeon. 'Business-English' pistachio. PL -05; see -O(E)S 4. The
was the name given by the Chinese to pronunciation put first in the OED is
the Anglo-Chinese lingua franca; but pïstâ'shïd.
they pronounced business pidgin, and piteous, pitiable, pitiful. There are
we have confused the meaningless three broadly different senses for the
pidgin with the significant pigeon. The words: 1. Feeling pity; 2 . Exciting
same explanation accounts for the ex- pity; 3 . Exciting contempt. It would
pression That's not my p. have been easy, then, if the problem
piebald, skewbald. P. is properly had been posed beforehand, to assign
of white and black, s. of white and a word to a sense, piteous to no. 1,
some colour. pitiable to no. 2 , and pitiful to no. 3.
But language-making is no such
pigeon, dove. Used absolutely, the simple affair as that, and spontaneous
words are coextensive in application, development has worked badly here.
every d. being a p., and vice versa; Piteous has senses 1 and 2 (though now
but p. is the ordinary word, and d. is archaic in the former), pitiable senses
now the rarity, suited for poetical con- 2 and 3, and pitiful senses 1, 2 , and
texts, symbolism, etc., and surviving 3—a very wasteful confusion, but too
in dovecote as the home of the domesti- inveterate to be got into order now.
cated pigeon. D. is also still used with- See also PLENTEOUS.
out special significance of particular
kinds of p. especially the turtle and pituitary. Pronounce pïtû'ïtârï.
other natives, but not of exotics ; and Latinists grieved by the accent and the
much more often the kind is specified, short second i may find consolation in
as in stock, ring, turtle, -d. FALSE QUANTITY.
pigmy. For spelling see GYPSY. pity, n. In the meantime, we can only
pilule. Preferably so spelt, not -//-; muse upon the pity of it. For the p. of
it, and p. 'tis 'tis true, see STOCK PATHOS,
the Latin is pilula.
a n d HACKNEYED PHRASES.
pindarics. The form of English verse placable. The OED gives plâ- prece-
in which a poem consists of several dence, but custom has disregarded
stanzas, often of unequal length, with this guidance; plà- is now usual.
the rhymes within the stanza irregu-
larly disposed, and the number of feet placard is one of the words that have
in the lines arbitrarily varied. In resisted the tendency described in
placate 454 pleasure
NOUN AND VERB ACCENT. Though some than an imported novelty; as early as
dictionaries give the pronunciation the Shakespearian era p. was used in
plakar'd as an alternative for the verb, the sense of design or plan, especially
it is ordinarily pla'kard, like the noun. for a scheme of Church government.
placate. The pronunciation recom- platitude, -dinous. For the differ-
mended is plâkâ't; the variants plâ'kât ences between p., commonplace, and
and plâ'kât are dying. The word is truism, see COMMONPLACE.
quoted from the 17th c. Beside the
adjective placable, placatable can be Platonic love. For the origin of the
made for the gerundive use; see -ABLE expression, see Plato's Symposium.
1. For its meaning, the definition, and
one or two quotations, from the OED
place. For going places see PREPOSI- here follow: (Definition) Applied to
TION DROPPING. love or affection for one of the opposite
sex, of a purely spiritual character, and
plague makes -guable, -guing, -guy, free from sensual desire. (Quotations):
-guily; see MUTE E, -EY AND - Y . (Howell) It is a love that consists in
plaid. Pronounced plâd in Scotland, contemplation and idaeas of the mind,
but plâd in England. Confusion be- not in any carnall fruition. (Norris)
tween plaid and tartan is common Platonic Love is the Love of Beauty
outside Scotland. Plaid is the shawl- abstracted from all sensual Applica-
like outer garment of the Highlander's tions, and desire of Corporal Contact.
national dress. Tartan is the woollen (Lewes) Love is the longing of the
cloth woven in coloured stripes with Soul for Beauty; the inextinguishable
distinctive patterns for the different desire which like feels for like, which
Highland clans; it can be made into the divinity within us feels for the
plaids or kilts or any other sort of gar- divinity revealed to us in Beauty. This
ment. The English outfitter's adver- is the celebrated Platonic Love, which,
tisement Traditional Plaid Kilts is from having originally meant a com-
nonsense to the Scotsman. Dickens munion of two souls, and that in a
made the same mistake in describing rigidly dialectical sense, has been de-
Lord George Gordon as dressed in graded to the expression of maudlin
trousers and waistcoat of the Gordon sentiment between the sexes.
plaid.
platypus. PI. -puses, not -pi; see -us.
plain makes plainness. P. sailing is
('probably'—OED) a popular use of plausible has moved a long way from
the nautical term plane sailing, which its original meaning 'deserving of ap-
means navigation by a plane chart, plause'. Applied to a person it is
'a simple and easy method, approxi- always pejorative; a p. man is one who
mately correct for short distances'. obtains a credence he does not deserve.
The corruption, if it is one, is so little Applied to an argument the word has
misleading, since plain sailing is as not travelled so far on the downward
intelligible in itself as clear going or any path: it may still be used of one that
such phrase, that any attempt to cor- commends itself, though speculative.
rect it is needless as well as vain. plead in Scots law and U.S. usage has
plateau is so far naturalized that the past tense, pled, elsewhere pleaded.
sound plâ'tô, and the pi. -s, are now For special pleading see SPECIAL.
usual; see also -x and RECESSIVE pleased. For very p., see VERY.
ACCENT.
pleasure. / have the pleasure of (or /
platform. The political sense of party have pleasure in) doing so-and-so
programme is still rather American means I do it and am glad to do it,
than English, but is increasingly (/ have already had the pleasure of
common with us. It is a revival rather meeting him; I have pleasure in declar-
plebiscite 455 pleonasm
ing this exhibition open). It is a pleasure plenty. Excuses are plenty (i.e. plenti-
to do means the same (It is a pleasure ful), There is p. wood (i.e. p. of), That
for me to be here). On the other hand is p. hot enough (i.e. quite), are irregu-
It is my pleasure to do so-and-so, or that larities of which the first is established
so-and-so should be done, means I in literature, the second is still con-
choose to, and therefore of course sidered a solecism (though the omis-
shall, do it or have it done—an im- sion of of is easily paralleled, as in
perious statement of intention. The a little brandy, a dozen apples, more
second idiom is based on the definite courage, enough food), and the third is
special sense of p. with possessives recognized colloquial, but not literary,
(my, his, the king's, etc.)» viz. one's English. For aplenty see WARDOUR
will, desire, choice (The accused was STREET.
found guilty but insane and was ordered
to be detained during Her Majesty's pleonasm is the using of more words
pleasure). Insensibility to idiom often than are required to give the sense
causes It is my or our p. to be sub- intended (see also TAUTOLOGY).
stituted for it is a p. or for / or We 1 . It is often resorted to deliberately
have the p. Examples of the mistake for rhetorical effect (Lest at any time
are : Once again it is our p. to notice the they should see with their eyes and hear
annual issue of ' The Home Messenger'. / with their ears). The writer who uses
In the experiment which it was my p. to p. in that way must be judged by
witness, M. Bachelet used only two whether he does produce his effect and
traction coils. / When it was my p. to whether the occasion is worthy of it.
address a public meeting of more than 2 . There are many phrases originally
2,000 at the Royal Theatre the put together for the sake of such em-
organized opposition numbered less than phasis, but repeated with less and less
seven score. effect until they end by boring instead
of impressing the hearer. Such are
plebiscite, -tary. Pronounce plë'bï- the pairs of synonyms if and when,
stt, plîbï'sïtârï. unless and until, save and except, in any
plectrum. PI. -tra. shape or form, of any sort or kind. These
and many others have long worn out
Pleiad. Pronounce pll'ad. PL -ds or their force, and what those who would
-des (-ëz). In the singular the word has write vigorously have to do with them
been applied to more than one brilliant is merely to unlearn them; see IF AND
cluster of persons or things (usually WHEN, the apparently least pleonastic
seven), notably to the Pléiade of poets of these stock phrases, for fuller dis-
of the French Renaissance. cussion. Those who use this form of p.
can hardly be unconscious that they
pleistocene, pliocene, miocène, are are saying a thing twice over, the and
regrettable BARBARISMS. It is worth or or being there as a reminder. See
while to mention this, not because the a l s o SIAMESE TWINS.
words themselves can now be either 3. In other phrases the offender is
ended or mended, but in the hope that evidently unconscious, and expresses
men of science may remember their the same notion twice over in the belief
duties to the language—duties much that he is saying it once. Such are
less simple than they are apt to suppose. EQUALLY AS, more PREFERABLE, more
plenteous, -iful. As with other pairs especially, and continue to REMAIN,
in -eous and -iful (e.g. from bounty, which mean neither more nor less than
beauty, duty, pity), the meaning of the equally'(or as),preferable, especially, and
two is the same, but the -eous word is remain, by themselves, but which can
the less common and therefore the be defended, by those who care to
better suited to the needs of poetry and defend them, as not worse than use-
exalted prose; for these it should be lessly pleonastic. With these may be
reserved. classed the queer use of both, repugnant
plethora 456 plural anomalies
to sense but not to grammar, where glanders, can be treated as singular
it takes the place of they or the two or plural; chickenpox and smallpox,
though the emphasis necessarily at- originally plural, are now reckoned
taching to it is absurd; so: Both singular. Innings, corps, and some
men had something in common. / Archer other words in -s, are singular or
Bey telephoned to General Morris and plural without change of spelling, but,
both conferred at the Residency. See while corps has -s silent in singular and
BOTH 2 for more varieties of this very sounded in plural, an innings and
common ineptitude. several innings show no distinction,
4 . A further downward step brings whence arises the colloquial double
us below the defensible level, and we plural inningses. For proper names
come to the overlappings described in ending -s the correct plural form is
the article HAZINESS: The resolution -es—t)ie Joneses, the Rogerses, etc. Cf.
was unanimously passed by the whole FORCEPS and GALLOWS. The growing
meeting. / He always preserved his tendency to indicate the plural of
equanimity of mind. / He will not pre- proper names, especially if of more
judge the verdict in advance. / The Suez than one syllable, by writing the
Canal's international control must be Rogers', the Evans' is an abuse of the
perpetuated for all time. / The decline apostrophe on which see POSSESSIVE
in attendances at matches may have PUZZLES 7.
caused some apathy towards the out- 3. Plurals of compound words. These
come of the results. / The future of the ordinarily form their plurals logically,
Federation would be short-lived. See by attaching the -s to the noun element
also AGO and BECAUSE. in them, or, if there is more than one
5. Lastly, there are the pleonasms in noun, to the significant one. Listeners-
which, by wrongly repeating a negative in, sons-in-law, heirs presumptive,
or a conjunction, the writer produces a master mariners, tugs of war, deeds poll.
piece of manifest nonsense or impos- But many familiar compounds now
sible grammar. So: We can only say make their plurals as if they were
that if the business men who read The single words (char-a-bancs, will-o'-the-
Times are really of opinion that this is wisps, four-in-hands), especially if they
a sensible procedure, and that, if they contain no noun (ne'er-do-wells, for-
find any satisfaction whatever in the get-me-nots), or are -ful compounds
writing down of a huge sum, which (handfuls, mouthfuls, spoonfuls), or are
everybody knows can never be recovered, PHRASAL VERBS used as nouns (take-offs,
they will have only themselves to thank knock-outs, call-ups). Compounds con-
if... See also NEGATIVE MISHANDLING, taining man or woman make both
THAT CONJ., and OVERZEAL. elements plural (menservants, women
clerks), and so usually, though not
plethora. Pronounce plë'thôra in always, do two words linked by and
spite of the FALSE QUANTITY this gives (ins-and-outs, pros and cons, rights-and-
to both first and second syllables. lefts, ups-and-downs). Our compounded
pleura. PI. -rae. drinks we usually think of as a single
entity, and are likely to ask for two
plexus. PL -uses or rarely plexus {-ils), whisky-and-sodas, two gin-and-tonics,
not -xi; see -us. etc. ; if we make an exception in asking
plumb-. The b is silent in plumber, for two gins-and-French, it will only
plumbery, plumbing, and plumbless, but be because of the awkwardness of
sounded in plumbago, plumbeous, plum- Frenches.
bic, plumbiferous, and plumbism. Lord Chancellors, Lord Mayors, and
plural anomalies. 1. See -ics 2 for Lord Provosts, being special kinds of
the question whether words in -ics are chancellors, mayors, and provosts,
singular or plural. logically put the s on the second word
2 . Plurals of words ending-5. Names as the significant one; and for the
of diseases, such as mumps, measles, same reason Lords of Appeal, Lords of
plural anomalies 457 podium
Session, Lords in Waiting, etc., being Private soldiers used to be tommies,
special kinds of lords, put it on the and johnnies are so spelt; but the hats
first. But the Lords Commissioners called after du Maurier's heroine
of the Treasury and the Lords Justices are trilbys.
of the Court of Appeal traditionally 5. For the number of mews, news,
add the s to both words. For Lord and porridge, see those words, and
Lieutenant the official plural is Lords for the plurals of initial-letter abbre-
Lieutenant, but the OED gives as viations (M.P., A.D.C., N.C.O., etc.)
alternatives both Lords Lieutenants see M.P. Other articles on plural forma-
and Lord Lieutenants. Lieutenant tions are -AE, -AS (of words ending in a) j
General and Major General, being -EX, -ix (of words so ending); LATIN
now regarded as special kinds of PLURALS; -O(E)S (of words ending o);
general, and not, as they once were, -ON; -UM; -US; -TRIX (of words so
special kinds of lieutenant and major, ending) ; VE(D), -VES (of words ending
logically have the s at the end, and / ) ; -x (or s of words ending -eau).
Adjutant Generals and Quartermaster
Generals have followed suit by analogy. plurality. With three-cornered con-
The officials called General in civil tests as common as they now are, we
life, e.g. Attorney G., Solicitor G., may have occasion to find a convenient
Governor G., Postmaster G., Pay- single word for what we used to call
master G., being special kinds of an absolute majority, but now, under
attorney, solicitor, etc., should be the baneful influence of OVERALL, have
Attorneys General and so on. But rechristened an overall majority, i.e. a
Attorney Generals and Solicitor Gen- majority comprising more than half
erals are now the usual plurals for the votes cast. In America the word
those officers (said by the OED to majority itself has that meaning, while
be 'better') ; and, although Whitaker's a poll greater than that of any other
Almanack still gives Governors General candidate, but less than half the votes
and the OED would have us say Post- cast, is called a plurality. It might be
masters General, titles such as these, so useful to borrow this distinction, but
far as they have need of a plural, to better it by changing plurality to
will no doubt eventually fall into line, plurity. The correct meaning of plural-
following the popular tendency to dis- ity is not moreness (which is the notion
regard these niceties that has already wanted, but which would be plurity),
made court martials and poet laureates but pluralness or seyeralness or more-
sound at least as natural to us as the than-oneness. Plurity is an obsolete
more correct courts martial and poets English word exactly suited to the
laureate. need; cf. REVIVALS. See also MAJORITY.
4. Plurals of words ending -y. There pn-. For the pronunciation of pneuma-
are few exceptions to the rule that, tic and pneumonia the OED gave nu-
when the y is preceded by a vowel, the only, but preferred pnu- for less
plural is formed by adding -s in the familiar words from the same stems,
ordinary way, and when it is preceded such as pneumatology, pneumonometer.
by a consonant the plural is -ies {days, But all such compounds, now more
donkeys, spies, jetties). Soliloquies is not numerous, have taken the easier way,
a true exception, for qu in English is and nu- is now invariable. Cf. PS- and
in effect a single consonant; monies as PT-.
an alternative plural to moneys is obso-
lescent, and so is the vehicle that used pochard. The OED puts poch- first,
to make its plural flys to distinguish and it is still the most common pro-
them from insects. But proper names nunciation; but pôch-, pdk-, and pok-,
do not conform. There are now two are also recognized.
Germany s. / The three Marys at the
Crucifixion. In applying proper names pocketful. PI. -Is; see -FUL.
to other purposes we are inconsistent. podium. Pronounce po-', pi. -ia.
poetess 458 polity
poetess. See FEMININE DESIGNATIONS. translation of the German Standpunkt,
poetic(al). See -IC(AL). The two and appears in the form standpunct in
forms are more or less peculiar in one of the earliest OED quotations.
being both in constant use without as What is against/», o. v. is the awkward-
yet any clear division of functions ness of following it, as is constantly
between them. Certain tendencies, not necessary, with another of {from the
always operative, there are: poetical p. o. v. of philosophy). There is no valid
labels, while -ic admires {The -ical objection to standpoint but p. 0. v.
works of —; Conceived in a truly -ic holds its own where the of difficulty
spirit); -ical is the form for 'written in does not present itself. Viewpoint, an
verse', and -ic for 'instinct with poetry' earlier product of the repugnance to
{Poetical composition; The -ic impulse, standpoint, has the disadvantage of
-ic justice, -ic licence); -ical is the calling to mind what standpoint allows
commonplace, and -ic the rhetorical to be forgotten, that the idiomatic
form {In a poetical mood; but In -ic English is undoubtedly p. of view. The
mood); -ical is sometimes used at the perplexed stylist is at present inclined
end of a sentence when in another to cut loose and experiment with
position -ic would be more natural angle. What is here recommended is to
{An idea more true than -ical3 cf. A no use/). 0. v. as the normal expression, but
less true than poetic idea); and -ic is not be afraid of standpoint on occasion.
sometimes jocularly substituted for 3. But to say this is not to condone
-ical {The -ic effusions of an advertising the too common use of p. 0. v. merely
soapboiler). as a clumsy PERIPHRASIS : The amount
offered seems not unreasonable from the
poeticisms. By these are meant p. o. v. of a living wage (as). / Bare
modes of expression that are thought boards are inconvenient from the p. o. v.
(or were once thought) to contribute to of cleaning (for). Trees not worth plant-
the emotional appeal of poetry but ing from either the use or beauty p. o. v.
are unsuitable for plain prose: 'To (either for use or for beauty). Another
most people nowadays, I imagine,' misuse of p. o. v. and viewpoint is where
says T. S. Eliot, 'poetic diction means the right word would be view or views.
an idiom and a choice of words which Examples: He had to buy a news-
are out of date and which were never paper to secure expression of his p. o.v.j
very good at their best.' Poeticisms are To many Americans this p. 0. v. appears
not favoured even by poets any more. cynical or even immoral. / A chief con-
The revolt against them advocated by stable supports my p. o. v. that traffic
Wordsworth in his preface to Lyrical control duties should be separated from
Ballads has gone to lengths that would apoliceman's other duties. / Mr. HaxelVs
have surprised him. Nevertheless in- viewpoint zoas that the affairs of the
judicious writers of prose are still E. T. U. were in the control of its mem-
occasionally tempted to use them as bers.
tinsel ornaments. See INCONGRUOUS
VOCABULARY and WARDOUR STREET.
polemic(al). It would be convenient,
Simple reference of any word to this and not be counter to any existing
article is intended as a warning. distinctions, if -ic were kept to the
pogrom. Pôgrô'm is the orthodox noun use and -ical to the adjectival ;
pronunciation, but with the wider see -IC(AL).
currency of the word that has followed
greater recourse to such practices it is polity is a word that has emerged
often pronounced with what is to us from its retirement in the writings
a more natural stress on the first of philosophic historians or political
syllable. philosophers, become a newspaper
point. 1. For synonyms in the sense word, and suffered the maltreatment
province etc., see FIELD. 2. P . of view usual in such cases. It has been seized
is the native phrase; standpoint is a upon as a less familiar and therefore
polity 459 polysyllabic humour
more impressive spelling of policy (with on force. / Keynes points out that the
which it is indeed identical in origin), commercial and industrial system of
and the differences that have long Europe has grown up with the pre-war
existed between the two have been polity as its basis. / (Gladstone) At a
very vaguely grasped or else neglected. period antecedent to the formation of
A useful indication that the two words anythitig like polity in Greece. / (Hux-
are of widely different meanings is that ley) Those who sliould be kept, as certain
policy is as often as not without a or the to be serviceable members of the polity.
in the singular, whereas polity in its
right senses is very rarely so. Polity is polloi. See HOI POLLOI.
not (like policy or principle) a line of pollster, a word slow to gain entry
action, nor (like politics) a branch of to the dictionaries, is now commonly
activity, nor (like statesmanship) an art used for one who conducts a 'poll' of
or quality. But in the following news- public opinion by getting samples of
paper extracts it will be seen that one it through questioning individuals.
of those senses is required, and that This now popular method of finding
one of those words, or at any rate some out what people think about current
other word, would be the right one issues, especially for forecasting the
instead of polity: This Nezospaper results of elections and for obtaining
Trust has during the last two years data for sociological conclusions, is
increasingly assumed the right and the generally associated with the name of
power to upset ministries, to nominate Dr. George Gallup, who founded the
new ministers and discharge others, and American Institute of Public Opinion
to dictate and veto public polity, j The in 1936. He did much to develop and
main obstacles to advancement have improve the device, but did not
always been social superstitions, political originate it. Its first recorded use was
oppression, rash and misguided ambi- as a journalistic enterprise in Dela-
tions, and gross mistakes in polity. / ware and North Carolina for fore-
Habits of living from hand to mouth casting the result of the presidential
engendered by centuries of crude polity election of 1824. See also CROSS-
toill not die out in a month. / And now SECTION. Complementary to the activi-
that by their feats in arms peace has been ties of the pollster are those of the
brought within sight, the work in the psephologist (a recent coinage from
field has admittedly to be rounded off, Greek </^?<£or, voting-pebble) who
completed, and made lastingly effective analyses the results of elections.
for the common good by a work of Polity.
The true meanings of polity are: polypus. PI. -pi(.-t) or -puses, see -us.
i (now rare) a condition, viz. the being The inconsistency between this and
organized as a State or system of OCTOPUS is due to its having come to
States; 2 (most frequent) some par- us through classical Latin, in which it
ticular form of such organization, was declined like the ordinary Latin
e.g. a republic, monarchy, empire, nouns in -us.
confederation, etc. ; 3 (not uncommon)
a people organized as a State. The first polysyllabic humour. See PEDANTIC
three of the following examples are HUMOUR for a slight account of the
newspaper extracts showing the cor- impulse that suggests long or abstruse
rect and usual sense 2 ; the fourth words as a means of entertaining the
and fifth are OED quotations from reader or hearer. Of the long, as
Gladstone and Huxley illustrating distinguished from the abstruse, ter-
senses I and 3 : Dr. Hezeltine's minological inexactitude for lie or false-
lecture is an interesting account of hood is a favourable example (see
the influence of English political and INEXACTITUDE), but much less amus-
legal ideas upon the American polity. / ing at the hundredth than at the first
If the terms are accepted the future polity time of hearing. Oblivious to their pris-
of Europe must be more than ever based tine nudity (forgetting they were stark
naked) is a less familiar specimen.
pomade 460 popularized technicalities
Nothing need here be added to what pommel, pu-. The first spelling is
was said in the other article beyond usual for the noun, the second for the
a short specimen list of long words or verb, though the verb is merely a use
phrases that have been used for this of the noun, and not of different
purpose. Polysyllabic humour was origin. Both are pronounced pitm-}
a favourite device of igxh-c. humorous and make -lied (see -LL-, -L-).
writers, Dickens, Surtees, and Gilbert
for instance. It is out of fashion now, poncho. Pronounce with -ch-. PI.
though still occasionally ventured; -os', see -O(E)S 6.
modern examples are : The bath in that pontificate, pontify. The first is now
day and age was still a mark of social the more usual word for play the
distinction. Regular and lengthy un- pontiff.
availability by immersion a matter of
social prestige. 1 1 went into the Memorial poor. For poorness and poverty see
Library. . . . There was no visible libra- the latter. For 'a p. thing but mine
rian in its vasty desuetude. / East was own', see MISQUOTATION. For pro-
surveying his prospects pleasurably, nunciation See RECEIVED PRONUNCIA-
though he knew that something pisca- TION.
torial was afoot. We do not think it popularized technicalities. The
funny any more. There is plenty of term of this sort most in vogue when
polysyllabic writing today, especially this article was first written in the
by officials and scientists, but it is 1920s was undoubtedly acid lest (The
done in all seriousness. The doctor measure, as our correspondent says,
who comments on the scantiness of provides an acid test for every Free
a patient's eyebrows by saying The Trader), which became familiar
supraorbital ridge hair is partially through a conspicuous use of it by
depleted has no thought of raising a President Wilson during the first
laugh; nor has the official who explains world war. It still shows remarkable
to an applicant for rehousing the diffi- vigour. In contrast with this com-
culty of" finding alternative accommoda- paratively recent acquisition may be
tion. Examples of the old-fashioned set intoxicated, so long popular as to be
type of humour are : Solution of con- not now recognizable for a medical
tinuity) femoral habiliments, refrain term at all; it is just a ponderous
from lacteal addition, and olfactory GENTEELISM for drunk. Have we to
organ, for gap, breeches, take no milk, fear something of the kind with
and nose. Osculatory, pachydermatous, allergic? Its popularity raises ap-
matutinal, fuliginous, fugacious, esurient, prehension. The audience showed
culinary, and minacious, for kissing, itself highly allergic (i.e. very hostile)
thick-skinned, morning, sooty, fleet- to the exhortations of the speaker is the
ing, hungry, kitchen, and threatening. kind of thing one may read without
Frontispiece or physiognomy, cachinna- surprise in any newspaper today. A
tion, epidermis, and natatory art for few examples of these popularized
face, laughter, skin, and swimming. technicalities may be gathered to-
Paterfamilias, perambulate, and pere- gether; they will be only as one in a
grinate for father, walk, and travel. score or a hundred of those that exist,
but will serve as specimens. Upon
pomade. The OED gives -âd as the many of them some remarks will be
English pronunciation, and -ahd as a found in their dictionary places. Two
foreign one; the latter, however, is general warnings will suffice : first, that
now more common. See -ADE, -ADO. the popular use more often than not mis-
represents, and sometimes very badly,
pomegranate. Of the four possible the original meaning; and secondly,
pronunciations of pome- (pômë-, pom-, that free indulgence in this sort of
pùmê-, and pum-) the second is now term results in a tawdry style. It does
probably the commonest. See PRO- not follow that none of them should
NUNCIATION 5.
popularized technicalities 461 port
ever be used; many are valuable in (abbreviated to psycho, and replacing
their proper places. the old mental), repression, schizophrenic
From Philosophy—optimism and (abbreviated to schizo.), subconscious,
pessimism, category, concept, dualistic. and trauma. Gossip columnists report
From Mathematics—factor, progres- this jargon as current in what might be
sion (arithmetical and geometrical), to the thought improbable places. Mrs. R.,
nth, to be a function of, percentage and wife of a Texas businessman, a tall
proportion (= part), curve (= ten- handsome woman, refused a glass of
dency), brackets(= groups), differential. champagne. 'It makes me sneeze', she
From Religion—devil's advocate, im- said. 'And I don't feel masochistic
manent, incarnation, enough to drink champagne right now.' /
From Law—special pleading, leading Raven-haired actress Miss C. gave me
question, party (= person), aforesaid this quote from New York last night:
and such and same, re, exception that 'I am introverted to the extent that I do
proves the rule, prescriptive right. not care to discuss my most personal
From War—decimate, echelon, inter- affairs in public' And, on a higher
necine, objective (n.). level of journalism, The American
From Logic—dilemma, idols of the bases have superimposed an encirclement
market, beg the question, dichotomy. complex on the older interventionist
From Commerce—asset, liquidate. trauma. As has been well said, these
From Architecture—;flamboyant, ba- quasi-scientific clichés 'have many
roque, rococo. advantages : their use evokes and even
From Agriculture etc.—intensive, releases emotion, they have the know-
hardy annual, aftermath. ing look of key concepts, and no one
From Astronomy—ascendant, per- is quite sure what they mean'. But any
sonal equation. gratification they give to their users is
From Chemistry and Physics— at the cost of the harm done to the
eliminate, acid test, reaction, end language by wearing down the points
product, potential, ultimate analysis. of words which, one suspects, may not
From Literature—protagonist, euphu- always have been very sharp, even
ism, Homeric laughter, myth, pathetic when confined to esoteric use.
fallacy.
From Chess—checkmate, gambit, porcelain is china, and china is p.;
stalemate. there is no recondite difference be-
From Seamanship — by - and - large, tween the two things, which indeed
dead reckoning, plain sailing, under way. are not two, but one; and the differ-
From Medicine and Psychology. This ence between the two words is merely
section calls for special treatment. Our that china is the homely term, while
interest in our bodies has always made porcelain is exotic and literary. See
us prone to popularize medical terms, WORKING AND STYLISH WORDS. A ten-
generally to their detriment, as we dency to differentiate by using china
have spoiled hectic and chronic, and are as a generic term and confining porce-
now spoiling allergic. Freud and his lain to the finest semi-transparent
sorts has been rudely checked by the
successors have awakened in us a modern
similar interest in our minds, and the ware. use of porcelain for sanitary
cult of psychoanalysis, especially in
America, has produced a new jargon, Porch. For the P. in Philosophy see
sometimes called Freudian English, ACADEMY.
that employs with greater freedom than
accuracy terms such as ambivalent, port, harbour, haven. The broad
antitype, complex, ego, egocentric, euph- distinction is that a haven is thought
oric, extrovert, father figure, fixation, of as a place where a ship may find
id, imbalance,inhibition, introvert,libido, shelter from a storm, a harbour as one
manic, masochistic, moron, narcissism, offering accommodation (used or not)
persona, phobia, psyche, psychopath in which ships may remain in safety
port 462 position of adverbs
for any purpose, and a port as a town its noun poser unanswerable question)
whose harbour is frequented by naval is a different word from that meaning
or merchant ships. to lay down or place, being shortened
port, larboard. The two words mean from appose.
the same, but p. has been substituted position. 1. For the overworking of
for /. (the earlier opposite of starboard) abstract nouns such as position and
because of the confusion resulting, situation see -TION. 2 . The use of
when orders were shouted, from the position as a verb has met with some
similarity between /. and starboard. criticism. But there are instances,
portmanteau (word). PI. -s (or -x; going back many years, of its use in
see -x). For p. word the OED quotes the senses both of to place in position
from Through the Looking-glass : 'Well, and of to ascertain the position of;
"slithy" means "lithe and slimy" . . . and if it can claim a useful role on
You see it's like a portmanteau—there the ground that neither place nor
are two meanings packed up into one post nor pose will always give quite
word.' Some examples will be found the same meaning (which is at
under FACETIOUS FORMATIONS. But p. least arguable), it need not be rejected
words are not always facetious; we merely because it is primarily a noun.
have of late made free use of this Cf. petition, partition, condition.
device, as we have of CURTAILED WORDS
and acronyms, to provide us with new position of adverbs. The word ad-
words for new things. There are, for verb is here to be taken as including
instance, transistor, telescoping trans- adverbial phrases (e.g. for a time) and
fer and resistor, motel for a motorist's adverbial clauses (e.g. if possible), ad-
hotel, moped for a motor-assisted pedal jectives used predicatively (e.g. alone),
bicycle, trafficator for a contrivance and adverbial conjunctions (e.g. then),
by which a motorist can indicate his as well as simple adverbs such as soon
intentions to other traffic, and SUBTOPIA and undoubtedly. To lay down and
for a Utopia consisting entirely of illustrate exhaustive rules would not be
suburbs. Oxbridge, as the name of a possible in reasonable compass. Nor
fictitious university for a fictitious is there any need to do so; the mistakes
that occur are almost always due to
character, is a p.w. of long standing; certain false principles, and these may
it was there that Arthur Pendennis be isolated for treatment. Many read-
had the misfortune to end his under- ers may justly feel that they do not
graduate days by being 'plucked'. In require advice on so simple a matter as
its current sense of 'Oxford or Cam- where their adverbs should go. To
bridge or both' it is in constant use; save them the trouble of reading this
its obvious convenience has almost, long article, here is a string of sen-
though perhaps not quite, won it tences exhibiting all the types of mis-
literary status. Its rival Camford placement to be discussed. Those who
(where Sherlock Holmes went to find perceive that the adverb in each is
out what Professor Presbury was up wrongly placed, and why, can safely
to) has the fatal handicap of reversing neglect the rest ; the bracketed number
the natural order of the component after each refers to the section in which
words. Pakistan is a mixture of a port- its type is discussed: The people are
manteau word and an acronym: it is now returning and trying to again get
said to be compounded of elements together a home (1). / He came to study
from Punjab, Afghan Frontier, Kashmir, personally the situation (2). / He exer-
Sind, and Baluchistan. cised an influence that is still potent and
Portuguese, n., is both singular and has yet adequately to be measured on the
plural. 'In modern times a sing. education of our younge* artists (3). / It
Portug(u)ee has arisen in vulgar use' deals with matters as to which most
—OED. Cf. Chinee. persons long ago have made up their
pose. The verb meaning nonplus (with minds (4). / We still are of opinion that
position of adverbs 463 position of adverbs
the only way of getting rid of 'abuses' is of this offence is estimated in the
a root-and-branch alteration of the thing article SPLIT INFINITIVE. Here the
itself (5). / The Food Ministry must general result of that estimate is merely
either take action or defend effectively assumed, viz.: (A) that to love is a
their inactivity (6). / To decry the in- definitely enough recognized verb-
fantry arm for the sake unduly of piling form to make the clinging together of
up artillery and what not, is the notion its parts the natural and normal thing,
of persons who . . . (7). / As 'the Monroe (B) that there is, however, no sacro-
doctrine1 of late years has loomed so sanctity about that arrangement, (C)
largely in all discussions upon the inter- that adverbs should be kept outside if
national policy of the United States, an there is neither anything gained by
attempt to trace its growth and develop- putting them inside nor any difficulty
ment as a popular 'cry1 might prove of in finding them another place, but
some service (8). (D) that such gain or difficulty will
There are certain verb groups about often justify the confessedly abnormal
which the question is conceivable— splitting. One pair of examples will
Should they be allowed to be inter- throw light on C and D : The people
rupted by adverbs? Such are the in- are now returning and trying to again
finitive, e.g. to try (may we say to get together a home, j With us outside
earnestly try}), the compound verb, the Treaty, we must expect the Com-
e.g. have thought (may we say / have mission to at least neglect our interests.
never thought so?), the copula and In the first, it is easy to write to get a
complement, e.g. was a riddle (may we home together again, and, as again does
say He zvas in some ways a riddle}), the not belong to the single word get, but
verb and its object, e.g. passed the time to get a home together, nothing is gained
(may we say It passed pleasantly the by its abnormal placing. In the second,
time}), the gerund and its governing at least cannot be put before to because
preposition, e.g. by going (may we say it would then go with Commission
by often going}). The first of these (i.e. the Commission, even if not other
questions is a very familiar one; almost people), nor after neglect because it
all who aspire to write English have would then be doubtful whether it
had the split infinitive forced on their referred back to neglect or forward to
attention, and the avoidance of it has interests, nor after interests because it
become a fetish. The other questions would then belong either to interests
are not familiar, but the points here or to neglect our interests, neither of
to be made are that they also require which is what is meant; where it
consideration, that a universal yes or stands, it secures our realizing that the
a universal no is not the right answer writer has in mind some other verb
either to the split-infinitive question or such as injure or oppose with which the
to any of the others, that the various weaker neglect is to be contrasted.
answers sometimes come into conflict,
and that to concentrate on the split- In a split infinitive, however, we have
infinitive question and let the others not so much a misplacing of the adverb
take care of themselves is absurd. as a violence done to the verb. It is by
repulsion, not by attraction, that the
The misplacements to be considered infinitive acts in effecting the many
will be taken under the heads : 1. Split misplacings, to be shown below, for
infinitive. 2 . Fear of split infinitive. which it is responsible.
3. Imaginary split infinitive passive. 2 . Fear of split infinitive. The order
4. Splitting of the compound verb. of words in the following examples is
5. Separation of copulative verb and bizarre enough to offend the least
complement. 6. Separation of transi- cultivated ear; the reason why the
tive verb and object. 7. Separation of writers, whose ears were perhaps no
preposition and gerund. 8. Heedless worse than their neighbours', were not
misplacings. struck by it is that they were obsessed
1. Split infinitive. The heinousness by fear of infinitive-splitting. It will
position of adverbs 464 position of adverbs
be seen that the natural (not necessarily participle. When an adverb is to be
the best) place for the adverb in each used with such a verb, its normal place
is where it would split an infinitive. is between the auxiliary (or sometimes
Such gentlemen are powerless to analyse the first auxiliary if there are two or
correctly agricultural conditions, j A more) and the rest. Not only is there
body of Unionist employers which still no objection to thus splitting a com-
has power to influence greatly opinion pound verb, but any other position for
among those who work for them. / Might the adverb requires special justifica-
I kindly ask you to forward? The place tion : / have never seen her, not / never
into which each adverb has been have seen her, is the ordinary idiom,
shifted is such that one or other of the though the rejected order becomes the
faults explained in later sections is right one if emphasis is to be put on
committed, and the writer is OUT OF have (/ may have had chances of seeing
THE FRYING-PAN into the fire; see her but I never have). But it is plain from
especially 6. the string of examples now to come
But the terrorism exercised by the that a prejudice has grown up against
split infinitive is most conspicuous dividing compound verbs. It is prob-
where there is in fact (see next section) ably a supposed corollary of the ac-
no danger. cepted split-infinitive prohibition; at
3. Imaginary split infinitive passive. any rate, it is entirely unfounded. In
In the following examples it is again each of the first four extracts there is
clear that the natural place for the one auxiliary; and after that, instead
adverb is not where it now stands, but of before it, the adverb should have
invariably after the words to be. To been put; the other four have two
insert an adverb between to and be auxiliaries each (which raises a further
would be splitting an infinitive; to question to be touched upon in the
insert one between to be and concerned, following paragraph): Single auxi-
pained, etc., is nothing of the kind, but liary: If his counsel still is followed, 'the
is a particular case of the construaion conflict' is indeed inevitable. / Its very
explained in 5. The position after to be brief span of insect-eating activity hardly
is not only the natural one in these can redeem its general evil habit as a
sentences, but the best. The mistake— grain-devourer. j Politicians of all sorts
and that it is a definite mistake there is in the United States already are girding
no doubt whatever—is illustrated in up their loins for the next election. / Yet
the following extracts: Every citizen one of the latest Customs rulings by
worth the name ought vitally to be con- the United States Board of Appraisers
cerned in today's election. / All of us who assuredly, to use the phrasel its members
believe in parliamentary institutions best would understand, is the limit'. /
cannot fail deeply to be pained at read- Double auxiliary : Oxford must heartily
ing the story. / The nuisance of allowing be congratulated on their victory. / If
visitors to cross the footlights had begun the desired end is ever attained it earn-
so much to be felt by the London estly may be hoped that especial care
theatrical managers that they . . . / We will be taken with the translation. / The
think the public will not fail unfavour- importance which quite rightly has been
ably to be impressed by the shifting given to reports of their meetings, j The
nature of the arguments. / An Act has Maharaja made arrangements for her
been passed enabling agricultural land education, which never since has been
compulsorily to be acquired at a fair permitted to languish. Write must be
market price, j At a time when NA TO heartily congratulated, it may be earnest-
needs drastically to be reformed in its ly hoped, which has quite rightly been
structure arid purpose. given, which has never since been per-
mitted.
4 . Splitting of the compound verb.
By compound verb is meant a verb This minor point of whether the
made up of an auxiliary (or more than adverb is to follow the first auxiliary
one) and an infinitive (without to) or or the whole auxiliary depends on
position of adverbs 465 position of adverbs
the answer to a not very simple tive or inculcated, to keep the parts of
riddle—Is it in intimate connexion a verb group together and allow no
with the verbal notion itself inde- adverb to intrude into it. But there is
pendently of the temporal or other one kind of group that is only too often
limitations imposed by the auxiliaries ? broken up by adverbs that ought to
Fortunately this riddle can be trans- have been placed before or after the
lated into simpler terms—Do the ad- whole. That is the group consisting of
verb and verb naturally suggest an a transitive verb and its object. / had
adjective and noun? If so, let them to second by all the means in my power
stand next each other, and if not, not. diplomatic action. To second diplomatic
Heartily congratulated, earnestly hoped, action is the verb and object, separated
suggest hearty congratulations and by a seven-word adverb. It is a crying
earnest hope; but rightly given does case; everyone will agree to deferring
not suggest right gift or right giving, the adverb, and the writer had either
and still less does never since permitted no literary ear or some grammatical or
suggest no subsequent permission. stylistic fad. The longer the adverb in
That means that the notions of giving proportion to the object, the more
and permitting are qualified by rightly marked is the offence of interpolating
and never since not absolutely, but it. But the same mistake is seen,
under the particular limitations of the though less glaringly, in the following
auxiliaries, and that the adverb is examples; the roman-type adverb
better placed between the auxiliaries in each should be removed, some-
than next to given and permitted. This, times to a place before the verb, some-
however, is a minor point, as was said times to one after the object : Are they
above; the main object of this section quite sure that they have interpreted
is to stress the certain fact that there rightly the situation? / A lull of the
is no objection whatever to dividing breeze kept for a time the small boat in
a compound verb by adverbs. the neighbourhood of the brig. / He spoke
5. Separation of copulative verb and in a firm voice, marking strongly the
complement. This is on the same foot- syllables, but in tones rather harsh. / The
ing as the splitting of the compound only conceivable exception is some great
verb discussed in 4 ; that is, it is a question affecting vitally human liberty
delusion to suppose that the insertion and human conscience. / Continuation
of an adverb between the two parts is with the university courses would most
a solecism, or even, like the splitting certainly elevate further the people.
of the infinitive, a practice to be re- There are conditions that justify the
garded as abnormal. On the contrary, separation, the most obvious being
it is the natural arrangement, and in when a lengthy object would keep an
the following examples fundamentally, adverb that is not suitable for the early
also, and often, have been mistakenly position too remote from the verb. One
shifted from their right place owing to of the extracts below may be adapted
a superstition: It would be a different to illustrate; if it had run 'would ex-
thing if the scheme had been found fun- pose to ridicule an authority that, as
damentally to be faulty, but that is not it is, is not very imposing' instead of
the case. / It is not always in these times 'expose to the ridicule of all the restless
that the First Lord of the Treasury also elements in East Europe their author-
is Prime Minister. / The immense im- ity which' etc., the shortness of 'to
provement which they have wrought in ridicule' compared with the length
the condition of the people, and which of the object would have made that
often is quite irrespective of the number order the best and almost necessary
of actual converts. one. But anyone who applies this
6. Separation of transitive verb and principle must be careful not to reckon
its object. The mistakes discussed in as part of the object words that either
sections 2 to 5 have this in common, do not belong to it at all or are unessen-
that they spring from a desire, instinc- tial to it; otherwise he will offend the
position of adverbs 466 possessive puzzles
discerning reader's ear as cruelly as the (and we doubt whether, in all deference
authors now to be quoted: They are to M. Saint-Saens, such an anomaly did
now busy issuing blue prints and instruc- ever or could ever exist) would seem to
tions, and otherwise helping in all sorts belong more properly to the sphere of
of ways our firms to get an efficient grip mathematics (the putting of the defer-
of the business of tractor-making in a ence adverb after instead of before
hurry. The object is our firms alone, whether makes nonsense). / Should, too,
net that and the rest of the sentence ; not our author be considered? (too might
put it next to helping. / Who are risking go after not, or author, or considered,
every day with intelligence and with according to the meaning wanted; but
shrewdness fortunes on what they be- no meaning can justify its present
lieve. Fortunes alone is the object; put position). See also ONLY and EVEN I .
it after risking. / His make-up, which
approached too nearly sheer caricature possessive puzzles. I. Septimus's,
to be reckoned quite happy. A very odd Achilles'. 2 . Whose, of which. 3. Mr.
piece of tit for tat; too nearly divides Smith (now Lord London)'s. 4 . *The
approached from caricature, and in Times''s opinion. 5. Somebody's else.
revenge caricature divides to be 6. Five years7 imprisonment. 7. The
reckoned from too nearly; put sheer non-possessive 's.
caricature next to approached. / Failure 1. Septimus's, Achilles'. It was for-
of the Powers to enforce their will as to merly customary, when a word ended
the Albanian frontier would expose to in -s, to write its possessive with an
the ridicule of all the restless elements apostrophe but no additional 5, e.g.
in East Europe their authority, tuhich, Mars' hill, Venus' Bath, Achilles'
as it is, is not very imposing. There are thews. In verse, and in poetic or
two differences from the adaptation reverential contexts, this custom is
made above—first that the adverb has retained, and the number of syllables
eleven words instead of two, and is the same as in the subjective case,
secondly that the relative clause is not e.g. Achilles' has three, not four syl-
an essential part of the object; their... lables, Jesus' two, not three. But else-
imposing should be put directly after where we now usually add the 5 and
expose.
the syllable—always when the word is
7. Separation of preposition and monosyllabic, and preferably when it
gerund. This hardly needs serious is longer, Charles's Wain, St. James's
treatment. But here is amusingly ap- Street, Jones's children, the Rev. Septi-
parent somebody's terror of separating mus's surplice, Pythagoras' s doctrines.
of and piling by an adverb—which is Plurals of proper names ending 5 form
no more than an exaggeration of the their possessives in the same way as
superstitions dealt with in 3, 4, and 5. ordinary plurals (the Joneses' home,
To decry the infantry arm for the sake the Roger ses' party). For goodness'
unduly of piling up artillery and what sake, conscience' sake, etc., see SAKE.
not, is the notion of persons who . . . 2 . Whose, of which. See WHOSE for
8. Heedless misplacings. It would the question whether the use of whose
appear from the analysis attempted as the possessive of which, and not only
above that when adverbs are found in of who, is permissible.
wrong positions it is usually due to 3. (A) Air. Smith (now Lord London)'s
mistaken ideas of correctness. But intervention was decisive? or (B) Mr.
now and then it is otherwise, and an Smith's (now Lord London) interven-
example or two of merely careless tion? or (C) Mr. Smith's (now Lord
placing may be given : The terms upon London's) intervention? or (D) The
which the British 'governing classes' intervention of Mr. Smith (now Lord
have obtained their influence are those London)? C is clearly wrong because
upon which it alone may be retained the intervention was not Lord Lon-
(upon which alone it may). / But a work don's; B is intolerable because we
of art that is all form and no emotion cannot be happy without the 's close
possessive puzzles 467 possible
before intervention, just as we cannot 7. The non-possessive 's. The ordi-
endure someone's else umbrella though nary purpose of inserting an apostrophe
we can with an effort allow the um- before a final s is to show that the s is
brella to be someone's else. A is the possessive, not plural; it originally
reasonable solution, but has no chance indicated the omission of the e from
against the British horror of fussy the possessive inflexion es. It may
correctness; and, failing it, the only occasionally be used before a plural s
thing is to run away, i.e. to use D. as a device for avoiding confusion, but
The same difficulty arises in other this should not be extended beyond
forms. This was this most gallant and what is necessary for that purpose.
consistent horse (? horse's) and his We may reasonably write dot your i's
veteran rider's second win in this event. and cross your t's, but there is no need
The only satisfactory way out is to for an apostrophe in but me no buts
write This was the second win in this or one million whys, or for the one
event of . . . / The people in the house we sometimes see in such plurals as
opposite's geraniums and / never knew M.P.s, A.D.C.s, N.C.O.s, the 1920s,
that the woman who laced too tightly's etc. To insert an apostrophe in the
name was Matheson will pass as dia- plural of an ordinary noun is a fatuous
logue in a novel; that is the way people vulgarism which, according to a corre-
do talk. But it will not do in serious spondent of The Times, is infecting
prose. Even in a thriller the reader display writing. 'TEA'S outside the
ought not to be asked to solve the wayside cottage is bad enough, but I
puzzle set by Photographs of the have seen SHIRT'S and VEST'S in a
Piccadilly Palace lounge, the smart large Oxford St. shop, and at one of
waitress, the doorkeeper, and the wife London's terminal stations a beauti-
of one of the charwomen's brother fully written board calls attention
appeared in every journal. to ALTERATION'S AND ADDI-
TION'S.' A notice at the edge of a
4 . In ' The Times''s opinion. This also wood KEEP OUT, POLICE DOG'S
has to be run away from. To write in WORKING cannot escape suspicion
'The Times's' opinion is not running of using an apostrophe in the same way.
away, but merely blundering; if the
newspaper title is to have inverted
commas and the possessive is to be possible. 1. Do one's p. 2 . Construc-
used, the form at the top with two tion. 3 . P., probable.
independent apostrophes jostling each 1. Do one's possible is a GALLICISM;
other is the only correct possibility. and, with do what one can in estab-
But there are two ways of escape ; one lished existence, it is superfluous.
is to write the title in italics instead of 2 . Construction. But no such questions
inverted commas, but the possessive s are possible, as it seems to me, to arise
in roman type ( The Times's)—illogical, between your nation and ours. / No
because the possessive 5 is an inflexion, breath of honest fresh air is suffered to
and therefore part of the word—and enter, wherever it is possible to be
the other is to fly to of (in the opinion of excluded. These are wrong. Unlike
'The Times'). able, which ordinarily requires to be
completed by an infinitive {able to be
5. For somebody else's or somebody's done, to exist, etc.), p. is complete
else see ELSE. in itself and means able to be done
6. Five years' imprisonment, Three or occur. The English for are p.
weeks' holiday, etc. Years and weeks to arise and is p. to be excluded is
may be treated as possessives and can arise, can be excluded. The mis-
given an apostrophe or as adjectival takes are perhaps due to the frequency
nouns without one. The former is per- of such forms as It is p. to find an
haps better, so as to conform to what is explanation, in which it is not an
inevitable in the singular—a year's ordinary pronoun, but merely antici-
imprisonment, a fortnight's holiday. patory; that is, the sentence in its
post hoc (ergo) propter hoc 468 poverty
simpler form would not be An explana- of literature or art executed merely to
tion is p. to find, but To find an make a living. A potwalloper (or pot-
explanation is p. When it is felt that p. waller) was an elector who before 1832
does require to be amplified, it is done derived his franchise as a householder
by of with a verbal noun—Limits that from the possession of a separate fire-
are p. of exact ascertainment', but admit place to cook his food on.
or are susceptible or some other word
is usually better. poteen, -th-. The OED treats -teen
3. P., probable. It would be too as the established spelling. The stress
much to demand that p. should always is on the second syllable.
be kept to its strict sense and never so potency, -nee. In general senses -cy
far weakened that impossible (or possible is universal, and -ce is confined to its
in a negative context) means no more technical senses in engineering, watch-
than very unlikely ; but, when probable making, etc. See -CE, -CY.
and p. are in explicit contrast, the
demand may fairly be made. The potential has no longer the meaning
Prohibition Amendment can only be of potent, which should have been the
revoked by the same methods as secured word in: The Labour Party . . . was
its adoption. I met no one in America exercising most potential influence on
who deemed this probable, few who some social problems. The substantival
thought it even possible. As all sensible use in the sense of available resources
people knew that, whatever its im- (the army's war potential) is a modern
probability, it was possible, the picture POPULARIZED TECHNICALITY from p h y -
of American intelligence was uncom- sics.
plimentary; but this literal absurdity pother is now, except in dialects, a
is common enough, and ranks with the LITERARY WORD. Its old form was
abuse of LITERALLY and UNTHINKABLE. pudder, and the more corrrect, but
now less usual, pronunciation is
post hoc (ergo) propter hoc. The pu'ther rhyming with other. There
fallacy of confusing consequence with is no proof of connexion with either
sequence. On Sunday we prayed for bother or powder, though it is thought
rain; on Monday it rained; therefore that bother may be an Irish cor-
the prayers caused the rain. ruption of pother. Between pother
posthumous. The -h- is silent, and and bother there is the difference in
also, though never omitted, etymologi- meaning that p. denotes ado or bustle
cally incorrect. Postumus, = last, or confusion in itself, while b. empha-
superlative of Latin post, was applied sizes the annoyance or trouble caused.
in English usage especially to the pot(t). The paper size is so named
last-born of a family, and so to one from the pot that it formerly bore as
born after his father's death. The h a watermark; the right spelling is pot,
was inserted because the word was the -tt being merely like that in matt,
wrongly supposed to be derived from NETT, and SET(T).
post humum—i.e. after the father had
been laid in earth—and so it eventually poverty, poorness. The dominant
became confined to that meaning. sense of poor is having little money or
Another example of an intrusive A is property. The noun corresponding to
lachrymose. this dominant sense is poverty, and
poorness is never so used in modern
postprandial. Chiefly in PEDANTIC English. The further the dominant
HUMOUR. sense is departed from, the more does
poverty give way to poorness—Poverty
potboiler, potwalloper. These words is no excuse for theft; The poverty (or
have the same primary meaning (see poorness) of the soil; The poorness (or
WALLOP) but in colloquial use have poverty) of the harvest; The poorness
diverged widely. A potboiler is a work of his performance. See -TY AND -NESS.
-p., -pp- 469 pray
"P"> "PP~« Monosyllables ending in words Secession is not practicable. /
-p double it before suffixes beginning But to plunge into the military question
with vowels if the sound preceding without settling the Government question
it is a short vowel, but not if it is a long would not be good sense or practicable
one or a vowel and r : trapped, scrappy, policy; and no wise man would expect to
uppish, popping, sleepy, carping, leaper. get serviceable recruits in this way. The
Words of more than one syllable fol- policy was certainly practicable, for it
low the rule for monosyllables if their was carried out; and the writer, though
last syllable is accented (entrapped, but he had not the proof that we have of
escarped); they also double the p if, its practicability, probably did not
like handicap and kidnap, they have a mean to deny that, but only to say that
clear vowel sound as opposed to the it was not suited to the conditions, i.e.
obscure sound in wallop and gallop, or practical. / We live in a low-pressure
if, like horsewhip and sideslip, they are belt where cyclone follows cyclone; but
compounded with a monosyllable; but the prediction of their arrival is at
otherwise they do not double it except present not practical.
worship. Thus: chirruped, enveloping,
galoping, galloper, gossipy, filliped, practically. It is unfortunate that
equipped, trans-shipping, hiccuped, practically should have escaped from
handicapper, kidnapped, walloping, its true meaning into something like
horsewhipping, worshipper, sideslipped. the opposite. It is easy to see how this
In U.S. the final p, like the final /, is came about. The word is reasonably
doubled less freely. used in such sentences as It is prac-
tically worn out, He is practically
practicable, practical. 1. The insane, meaning that the thing,
negative forms are impracticable, but though it still works after a fashion,
unpractical; impractical is often wrong- cannot be relied on as effective, or that
ly written ( The most impractical of all the person, though not certifiable, is as
persons—the man who works by rule of incompetent to deal with the practical
thumb); see IN- AND UN-. affairs of life as if he were. From this
2 . Meanings. Each word has senses it is a short step to treating practically
in which there is no fear that the other as synonymous with almost, and to
will be substituted for it; but in other absurdities such as saying of the losing
senses they come very near each other, horse in a photographic finish that it
and confusion is both natural and practically won, which is exactly what
common. Safety lies in remembering it did not do. This straining of practi-
that practicable means capable of being cally is the less excusable because more
effected or accomplished, and practical suitable adverbs are plentiful: e.g.
means adapted to actual conditions. almost, nearly, ail-but, virtually, sub-
It is true that the practicable is often stantially.
practical, and that the practical is practice, -se. Noun -ce, verb -se but
nearly always practicable; but a very
practical plan may prove impracti- in U.S. commonly -ce; see LICENCE.
cable owing to change of circum- practitioner. See PHYSICIAN.
stances, and a practicable policy may
be thoroughly unpractical. In the ex- pragmatic(al). In the diplomatic,
tracts that follow each word is used historical, and philosophical senses,
where the other was wanted: In the the -ic form is usual. In the general
case of a club, if rules are passed ob- sense of officious or opinionated, -ical is
noxious to a large section of the members, commoner. In the interests of DIFFER-
the latter can resign; in our national ENTIATION these tendencies should be
relationships, secession is not practical encouraged; see -IC(AL).
nowadays. The last sentence is in clear p r a y . Pray in aid. One of the pic-
antithesis to the latter can resign, and turesque phrases that people catch up
means You cannot secede, or in other and use without understanding: We
pre- 470 preciseness
are disturbed to find that this principle preciosity and preciousness illustrate
of praying in aid the domestic circum- well the DIFFERENTIATION that should
stances of the vjoman appears to have be encouraged whenever there is an
been sanctioned officially by the Com- opening for it between the two termina-
mittee on Production. This writer, and tions; see -TY AND -NESS . Since -ty is now
most of those who use the words, never used except in the special sense
suppose that in aid is an adverb, and of excessive fastidiousness in diction,
that pray is therefore free to take an pronunciation, and the like, -ness might
object—here circumstances. The fact is well have been confined to the more
that the object of pray is aid, and in general senses instead of being treated,
is not a preposition but an adverbial as it now is, as a synonym of -ty. See
particle, to pray in aid being word for a l s o PRECISENESS, PRECISION.
word to call in help; if the helper or
helping thing is to be specified, it must precipitance, -ancy, -ation. The
have an of before it, as in the following most economical way of dealing with
OED quotations : A city or corporation, the words would have been to let -ancy
holding a fee-farm of the King, may perish, and make -ance mean rashness
pray in Aid of him, if anything be of action or suddenness of occurrence
demanded of them relating thereto, f or speed of motion, and -ation the
An incumbent may pray in aid of the bringing or coming to pass with
patron and ordinary. especial rashness or speed. But what
is happening is that all three exist side
pre-. On the question whether this by side, -ance and -ancy slowly giving
prefix should be hyphened see way to -ation just as their parent
HYPHENS, where the advice is given precipitant has given way to precipitate.
that a hyphen should not be used This is the more regrettable because
unless it is needed to prevent con- precipitation has also to do duty for the
fusion, and the practice of hyphening technical senses of the verb precipitate
such words as preeminent is deprecated. in chemistry, physics, and meteoro-
logy. In the adjectives, on the other
precedence, precedent. The pro- hand, a useful differentiation has taken
nunciation is tricky. The OED gives place. See next article.
for the first precedence only and for
the second precedent only in adjectival precipitate, precipitous. It appears
use, but pré'cèdent only in noun use. that Mr. Campbell has prevailed upon
This, which is a very disputable ac- his executive not to take any precipitous
count of present usage, is not likely to action at this stage. / The step seems
remain true; the COD now puts pre- a trifle rash and precipitous when one
cedence before precedence and admits remembers the number of banking and
pre cèdent as an alternative for the commercial failures that... Those who
adjective. It looks as if prè"ce- might write thus either are ignorant of the
prevail for all except perhaps the established difference between pre-
adjective. This has been superseded cipitous (steep) and precipitate (rash),
in ordinary use by preceding and is or must not be surprised if they are
now rarely used except in the expres- taken to be so. Formerly, -ous was
sion condition precedent, which lawyers freely used where we now always say
usually pronounce pre- (or prê-)cê'dent. -ate', but that time has long passed
away. See PAIRS AND SNARES.
precedent. The House of Commons is
always ready to extend the indulgence preciseness, precision. For the
which [it] is a sort of p. that the mover natural difference {-ness representing
and seconder of the Address should ask a state or quality and -ion a process
for. A bad piece of SLIPSHOD EXTEN- or action) see -ION and -NESS. SO far
SION; a p. is not a custom or a tradition as the words are used with overlapping
(though it may start one; cf. HAZINESS), meanings, preciseness is differentiated
but a previous case. by implying that the importance of
predacious 471 prefer (able)
precision is exaggerated. Preciseness with any propriety be predicated of
rather than precision is the attribute of motives. / To predicate mortality of
a precisian. Socrates, i.e., to state that Socrates
predacious, predatory. Predacious is mortal). The words (apart from
is applied only to animals and organ- predicate n., the grammatical term)
isms that prey on others. Predatory, are mainly used in logic, and are best
an older word, besides having the left alone by those who have no
meaning of predacious, is applied also acquaintance with either logic or
Latin. See PAIRS AND SNARES.
to human beings who prey on others.
Predacious is usually pronounced with preface. 1 . Vox p. and FOREWORD see
a iong e and predatory with a short. the latter. 2 . For p. and prefix, vv.,
predicate, i . The OED pronounces see PREFIX.
p., and its derivatives predicable and prefect. The adjective prefectorial is
predication, with prëd-, not prëd-, better than -toral.
and this is still usual. The verb is
said with -at, the noun with -et; prefer(able). 1. -r(f)-. 2. More
see PARTICIPLES 5 B . 2 . P., predict. preferable. 3. To, rather than, than.
The Latinless have great difficulty in 1. Prefer makes -rring, -rred (see -R-,
realizing that the words are not inter- -RR-), but preferable (prë'fërabl) ; the
changeable variants. P. is from Latin latter formation is anomalous but
praedkare to cry forth or proclaim, established; see CONFER(R)ABLE for
but predict from Latin praedïcere to similar words.
say beforehand or foretell; the Latin 2 . More preferable is an inexcusable
simple verbs are different, and prae PLEONASM. The cure for that is clearly
has not the same meaning in the two the alternative vote^ or the second ballot,
compounds. P. makes predicable and the former alternative being, in our view,
predication, predict makes predictable on every ground the more preferable.
and prediction. It is naturally predicate 3. To, rather than, than. If the re-
and its derivatives that are misused; jected alternative is to be expressed,
examples of the misuse are : The case the normal construction for it is to:
for establishing compulsory and volun- I p. pears to apples, riding to walking.
tary systems side by side in the same The OED, denning the construction,
country is not only not proven, but involves gives nothing besides to except before
a change in strategic theory that predi- and above, both of which it obelizes as
cates nothing but disaster (threatens? archaic or disused. A difficulty arises,
foreshadows? presages? just possibly however, with to: the object of prefer
predicts; certainly not predicates). / A is often an infinitive, but the sound of
profound change in the balance of the I p. to die to to pay blackmail, or even
Constitution predicable by anyone who of / p. to die to paying, is intolerable.
had searched the political heavens during It is easy sometimes to change the verb
the last four years and observed the to a noun (to die to death), but by no
eccentric behaviour of certain bodies and means always. When the infinitive is
their satellites is now upon us (predict- unavoidable, the way out is to use
able). / What she would say to him, how rather than instead of to: I p. to die
he would take it, even the vaguest predi- rather than pay blackmail.
cation of their discourse, was beyond To use simple than instead of rather
him to guess (anticipation? outline? than (I p. to die than pay) is clean
prevision? just possibly prediction; against established idiom, as bad as
certainly not prédication). saying superior than or prior than
Predicate and its derivatives mean to instead of superior to or prior to. But
assert, and especially to assert the this solecism, of which there is hardly
existence of some quality as an a trace in the OED article (1908), has
attribute of the person or thing that is become common ; the array of quota-
spoken of {Goodness or badness cannot tions given below is in amusing
prefix 472 prelude
contrast with the solitary specimen of India. / Many others are Austrian
(dated 1778) that the OED could show. Barons of modern creation, these titles
Even the rather than mentioned above being very numerous, because every son
is not much to be recommended. If is allowed to prefix his name with the
the writer is bent on using prefer, it will title. I A 'Collection of Poems and
pass, but a better plan is to change the Essays by Mary Queen of Scots', pre-
verb prefer to choose rather or would fixed by an essay on the character and
rather (He chose to die rather than pay; writings of Mary Stuart. / Two notes
I would rather die than pay). The dealing with recent cases on the subject
main point is that prefer than with- of company directors are prefixed by the
out rather is not English: The catchwords in very prominent type:
majority of them, we rather think, would 'Retirement and Remorse'. / The story
p. to bear the ills they know than to fly is prefixed by an introductory sketch of
to the untried remedy of the State regula- Pope Alexander VF s Spanish ancestry. /
tion of wages (Shakespeare preferred Every paragraph is prefixed with a kind
rather bear . . . than to prefer to bear ... of title to it.
than ; the other rather has caused him The poor old word preface, with
to be corrected, but not improved)./ FOREWORD assailing it on one front
They have always preferred to speculate and prefix on another, is going through
on the chance of winning a General Elec- troubled times.
tion than to settle with their opponents
(rather than settle). / Surely the public pregnant construction. 'But Philip
would prefer to arrive half an hour later was found at Azotus' is in the Greek
than run the ghastly risks (would choose 'But Philip was found to Azotus'; i.e.
. . . rather than run). / The nine deportees the expressed sentence contains an
ivould p. to go home than to undergo implied one—Philip was conveyed to
sentence after trial by Court-martial and Philip was found at Azotus.
(would sooner g o . . . than undergo). / Though we cannot (except in the
He is persuasive rather than dogmatic, dialect of Devon etc.) say He was
and prefers to suggest than to conclude found to Azotus, we do habitually say
(suggesting to concluding). Put it in your pocket, meaning Put it
in(to and keep it in) your pocket.
prefix. 1 . The noun is accented on
the first syllable, the verb on the prejudice, n. The Committee's Report
second, see NOUN AND VERB ACCENT. adds that without doubt a marked preju-
2 . The meaning of the noun is an affix dice to the eating of eels exists in Scot-
attached to the beginning of a word or land. The prepositions after p. when
stem to make a compound word, as it means a preconceived opinion are
re-, ex-, be-, a-, in reform, ex-officer, against and in favour of; this to is
belabour, arise. 3. For derivative nouns on the analogy of objection or perhaps
it is better to rub along with prefix and of without p. to which has its special
prefixing than to resort to prefixion and meaning of without abandoning (a right
prefixture. 4 . Prefix, v., preface, v. or claim); see ANALOGY.
P. is one of the verbs liable to the
OBJECT-SHUFFLING abuse. You can pre- preliminary, adv. See QUASI-AD-
fix a title to your name, but not VERBS.
prefix your name with a title. Several
examples of the confusion follow; prelude. The noun is prë'lûd; the
in each the construction must be verb used to be prëlû'd ('All the verse
turned inside out if p. is to be kept, quotations and the dictionaries down
but in most of them the change of to c 1830'—OED), but is now pro-
prefixed) to preface(d) would put nounced like the noun—a remarkable
things right : The speeches in the present exception to the tendency mentioned
volume are prefixed by a clear and in NOUN AND VERB ACCENT. See also
connected account of the administration PRONUNCIATION 6.
premature 473 preposition at end
premature. The pronunciation prë'- for he refused and / am willing is to be
mâtûf is recommended, but the e is deprecated as wantonly blurring the
sometimes long and the stress is some- meaning of p. Prepared to should be
times on the last syllable ; in any case, reserved for cases in which there is
the last syllable is fully pronounced some element of preparation, e.g.
and not weakened to -cher. / have read the papers and am now
prepared to hear you state your case.
premier as an adjective is now sug-
gestive of tawdry ornament, though preposition at end. It was once a
it was formerly not avoided by good cherished superstition that preposi-
writers and has shown signs of coming tions must be kept true to their name
back into favour in the wake of the and placed before the word they
now popular première. The ELEGANT- govern in spite of the incurable Eng-
VARiATiONist finds it useful ( There was lish instinct for putting them late
a time when the School of Literae ('They are the fittest timber to make
Humaniores stood first in point of num- great politics of' said Bacon; and 'What
ber, but of late the History School has are you hitting me for"?' says the
taken p. place), but would do better to modern schoolboy). 'A sentence end-
find some other way out. It is wise ing in a preposition is an inelegant
to confine it now to such traditional sentence' represents what used to be
phrases as the Duke of Norfolk is p. a very general belief, and it is not yet
duke and earl of the U.K. Premier (n.) dead. One of its chief supports is the
for Prime Minister dates from 1726. fact that Dryden, an acknowledged
The usual pronunciation is premier but master of English prose, went through
the dictionaries admit premier as an all his prefaces contriving away the
alternative. final prepositions that he had been
premise(s), -ss(es). 1. The noun is guilty of in his first editions. It is
prë'mïs and the verb prëmï'z, see NOUN interesting to find Ruskin almost
AND VERB ACCENT. 2 . The verb is spelt
reversing this procedure. In the text
premise, not -ize; see -IZE, -ISE. 3 . The of the Seven Lamps there is a solitary
two noun spellings (-ises and isses in final preposition to be found, and no
the plural) may perhaps be thought more; but in the later footnotes they
useful; but ambiguity cannot often are not avoided (Any more wasted
arise between the parts of a SYLLOGISM words . .. I never heard of. / Men whose
(-isses) and those of a parcel of real occupation for the next fifty years would
property (-ises) ; and there is no reason be the knocking down every beautiful
for the variation. The two words are building they could lay their hands on).
one, the parts of a syllogism being 'the Dryden's earlier practice shows him
previously stated', and the parts of the following the English instinct; his
parcel of real property being 'the later shows him sophisticated with
aforesaid' (buildings, land, etc., pre- deliberate latinism: ' I am often put to
viously set out in the deed). The a stand in considering whether what I
uniform spelling premise (pi. premises) write be the idiom of the tongue, . . .
is recommended. and have no other way to clear my
doubts but by translating my English
premium. PI. -rns only; see -UM. into Latin'. The natural inference
from this would be: you cannot put
preparatory. For the use in They a preposition (roughly speaking) later
were weighing it p. to sending it to town, than its word in Latin, and therefore
See QUASI-AD VERBS. you must not do so in English. Gibbon
improved upon the doctrine, and,
prepare. The common use of pre- observing that prepositions and ad-
pared, especially in OFFICIALESE, in verbs are not always easily distin-
such contexts as he was not prepared to guished, kept on the safe side by not
disclose the source of his information / ending sentences with on, over, under•,
/ am prepared to overlook the mistake
preposition at end 474 preposition at end
or the Like, even when they would have tuted for it: The War Office does not
been adverbs. care, the Disposal Board is indifferent,
The fact is that the remarkable freedom and there is no one on whom to fix the
enjoyed by English in putting its pre- blame or to hang (no one to fix the
positions late and omitting its relatives blame on or to hang). / The day begins
is an important element in the flexi- with a ride with the wife and as many
bility of the language. The power of others as want to ride and for whom
saying A state of dejection such as they there is horseflesh available (and as there
are absolute strangers to (Cowper) in- are horses for). / This was a memorable
stead of A state of dejection of an expedition in every way, greatly appre-
intensity to which they are absolute ciated by the Japanese, the Sinha-
strangers, or People worth talking to lese, the Siamese, and with whomever
instead of People with whom it is worth else B.O.A.C. briefly deposited their
while to talk, is not one to be lightly valuable cargo (and whomever else
surrendered. But the Dryden-Gibbon B.O.A.C. briefly deposited their
tradition has remained in being, and valuable cargo with). / It is like the art
even now immense pains are some- of which Huysmans dreamed but never
times expended in changing executed (the art that Huysmans
spontaneous into artificial English. dreamed of). / That promised land for
That depends on what they are cut with which he was to prepare, but scarcely to
is not improved by conversion into enter (that he was to prepare for).
That depends on with what they are cut', It was said above that almost all our
and too often the lust of sophistication, great writers have allowed themselves
once blooded, becomes uncontrollable, to end a sentence or a clause with a
and ends with, That depends on the preposition. A score or so of specimens
answer to the question as to with what follow ranging over six centuries, to
they are cut. Those who lay down the which may be added the Bacon, Cow-
universal principle that final preposi- per, and Ruskin examples already
tions are 'inelegant' are unconsciously given: (Chaucer) But yit to this thing
trying to deprive the English language ther is yit another thing y-ijoigned,
of a valuable idiomatic resource, which more to ben wondred upon. (Spenser)
has been used freely by all our greatest Yet childe ne kinsman living had he
writers except those whose instinct for none To leave them to. (Shakespeare)
English idiom has been overpowered Such bitter business as the day Would
by notions of correctness derived from quake to look on. (Jonson) Preposi-
Latin standards. The legitimacy of tions follow sometimes the nouns they
the prepositional ending in literary are coupled with. (Bible) I will not
English must be uncompromisingly leave thee, until I have done that which
maintained; in respect of elegance I have spoken to thee of. (Milton)
or inelegance, every example must be What a fine conformity would it starch
judged not by any arbitrary rule, but us all into. (Burton) Fit for Calphur-
on its own merits, according to the nius and Democritus to laugh at.
impression it makes on the feeling of (Pepys) There is good ground for what
educated English readers. he goes about. (Congreve) And where
In avoiding the forbidden order, un- those qualities are, 'tis pity they should
skilful handlers of words often fall into want objects to shine upon. (Swift)
real blunders (see OUT OF THE FRYING- The present argument is the most
PAN). A few examples of bad grammar abstracted that ever I engaged in.
obviously due to this cause may fairly (Defoe) Avenge the injuries . . . by
be offered without any suggestion that giving them up to the confusions their
a rule is responsible for all blunders madness leads them to. (Burke) The
made in attempting to keep it. The less convincing on account of the party
words in brackets indicate the avoided it came from. (Lamb) Enforcing his
form, which is not necessarily the best, negation with all the might . . . he is
but is at least better than that substi- master of. (De Quincey) The average,
preposition dropping 475 present
the prevailing tendency, is what we a common American colloquialism, is
look at. (Landor) The vigorous mind beginning to infiltrate into Britain, but
has mountains to climb, and valleys to is not yet enough at home to have lost
repose in. (Hazlitt) It does for some- its air of self-conscious jocularity.
thing to talk about. (Peacock) Which Another Americanism, going places,
they would not otherwise have dreamed seems to appeal to some of our political
of. (Mill) We have done the best that correspondents as a more sprightly
the existing state of human reason idiom than their native equivalent
admits of. (Kinglake) More formid- 'getting somewhere'. As soon as the
able than any . . . that Ibrahim Pasha Liberals succeeded in peeling off one
had to contend with. (M. Arnold) Let Lloyd George to the Tories and another
us see what it amounts to. (Lowell) to the Socialists they began to do better.
Make them show what they are made A party without a Lloyd George can
of. (Thackeray) So little do we know hope to go places. / Mr. Gaitskell used
what we really are after. (Kipling) Too to speak of 'keeping the ship on an even
horrible to be trifled with. keel' . . . but a ship has sometimes to be
If it were not presumptuous, after handled a little roughly if the captain
that, to offer advice, the advice would wants to go places.
be this : Follow no arbitrary rule, but
remember that there are often two or prescience. The OED gives prëshyëns
more possible arrangements between only; but prë- has since become at
which a choice should be consciously least as common, and is likely to pre-
made. If the final preposition that has vail. The sounding of -se- as -s- (as in
naturally presented itself sounds com- science) instead of -sh- is now often
fortable, keep it; if it does not sound heard, and the speak-as-you-spell
comfortable, still keep it if it has com- movement will probably establish it.
pensating vigour, or when among awk- prescribe, proscribe. These words
ward possibilities it is the least awk- are often confused, especially by the
ward. If the 'preposition' is in fact the use of pro- for pre-. Pro- means to put
adverbial particle of a PHRASAL VERB, outside the protection of the law, to
no choice is open to us; it cannot be denounce as dangerous ; pre- means to
wrested from its partner. Not even lay down as a rule or direction to be
Dryden could have altered which I will followed. / / / look at the list of pro-
not put up with to up with which I will scribed authors in our various universi-
not put. ties, I notice with pleasure that since
1940 no year has passed without Jane
preposition dropping, i . For the Austen appearing in the syllabus of at
disappearance of of s and other preposi- least one. The speaker clearly did not
tions due to the habit of using nouns mean, as one might infer from the
attributively see NOUN ADJECTIVES and word he used (or perhaps the printer
HEADLINE LANGUAGE. 2 . The Puritan substituted), that Jane Austen's works
way of eating fish is to eat it Saturday were on the INDEX.
instead of Friday. / Can you dine with
us Thursday at eight? Of this construc- prescriptive. That a p. right has some
tion the OED says : 'The adverbial use special sanctity is a common MIS-
of the names of the days of the week is APPREHENSION, perhaps due to con-
now chiefly U.S. except in collocations fusion With IMPRESCRIPTIBLE. A p.
like next Saturday, last Sunday.* This right is one acquired by prescription,
is still substantially true, though the i.e. by uninterrupted use or possession.
usage is less uncommon here than it So far from having any special sanc-
was. It is true also of the similar use of tity, it is more likely to be open to
the plural in such sentences as He sees challenge than titles derived in other
patients mornings. / We always go there ways.
summers. 3 . The adverbial use of place present, adj. The p. writer is a peri-
in such phrases as living some p. neary phrasis for / and me that is not entirely
presently 476 previous
avoidable under existing journalistic prestige. It is surprising that the
conditions (cf. your reviewer) and is at pronunciation has not been anglicized,
any rate preferable to the false first- like that of vestige, which also came to
personal one (see ONE 6) that is some- us from Latin through French. Prëst'tj
times tried as a substitute. But it is is indeed given as an alternative pro-
very irritating to the reader; personal- nunciation by the OED and some
ity, however veiled, should be intro- other more recent dictionaries, but it is
duced into impersonal articles only never heard. Prestige is one of the few
when the necessity is quite indisput- words that has had an experience op-
able. The worst absurdity occurs when posite to that described in WORSENED
a contributor or correspondent whose WORDS. It formerly meant illusion or
name appears above or below his imposture.
article or letter puts on this Coa vestis
of a veil; but they often do it. See also presumptive. For heir p., see HEIR 2.
WE 3.
pretty is in good usage as an ironical
adjective : He has made a p. mess of the
presently. 1 . P . = by - and - by. job. I Things have come to a p. pass.
When Sir Andrew exclaimed For the It can also be used as an adverb mean-
love of God a surgeon! Send one p. to ing fairly, moderately ( The performance
Sir Toby he was using the most was p. good, I He did p. much what he
urgent adverb he could think of. liked), but only when qualifying an-
The barren fig-tree that p. withered other adverb or an adjective. Other-
away did so with a promptitude that wise the adverb is prettily; in the
astonished the disciples. But today colloquialism sit pretty and the notice
no one who was told The doctor will to motorists PLEASE PARK PRET-
see you p. would expect to be shown TY it can be argued that the word
immediately into the consulting-room. is a predicative adjective. See UN-
That a word which should mean, and
once meant, instantly has come to IDIOMATIC, - L Y .
mean by-and-by must reflect a stub- prevent. The idiom is p. me from
born resistance of hope to experience. going or p. my going; p. me going,
Cf. the cliché / won't keep you a though common colloquially, is better
moment, generally the prelude to a avoided in writing; see FUSED PAR-
longish wait. 2 . P . = at present. Five TICIPLE. Preventable is recommended
per cent, of British steel capacity is p. rather than -ible; see -ABLE 2 .
idle. I Actor Mr. C. S., p. playing
Professor Higgins in 'My Fair Lady'. / prevent(at)ive. The short form is
Europe p. can only be defended by better; see LONG VARIANTS.
American nuclear weapons. This sense
of p. was said by the OED to be previous. 1 . For the construction in
obsolete in literary English since the will consult you previous to acting, see
17th c , though in regular use in most QUASI-AD VERBS. 2 . Too p., originally
English dialects and common in Scot- amusing both because the sense of p.
tish writers. It is now enjoying a was a specially made one, and because
vigorous revival, though whether for too was with that sense deliberately
any better reason than NOVELTY HUNT- redundant, has passed into the realm
ING may be doubted, seeing that we of WORN-OUT HUMOUR. 3 . The p. ques-
have available for the same purpose tion is a phrase that does not explain
not only now but also for those who itself. We all know that in the House
dislike monosyllables at present and of Commons moving the p. q. is
currently. somehow a way of attempting to
shelve the matter under debate, but
the light of nature would suggest only,
pressure group. See LOBBY. and wrongly, that the proposal was to
prestidigitator, -tion. Now chiefly go back to what the House had been
i n POLYSYLLABIC HUMOUR. engaged upon before this present mat-
pre-war 477 primary colours
ter. The p. q. is in fact a proposal that prig is a word of variable and indefi-
the matter under debate should not nite meaning; the following, from an
now (formerly, should now) be divided anonymous volume of essays, may be
upon. Those who wish to shelve the useful : 'The best thing I can do, per-
matter move this p. q., to which they haps, is to give you the various descrip-
now vote ay (formerly no). If the tions that would come into my head at
motion is negatived the original ques- different times if I were asked for one
tion must be put forthwith. suddenly. A prig is a believer in red
tape; that is, he exalts the method
pre-war. The only justification for above the work done. A prig, like the
saying p. instead of before the war is Pharisee, says : "God, I thank thee that
that before the war makes a very un- I am not as other men are"—except
handy adjective, and we are now con- that he often substitutes Self for God.
stantly in need of a handy one; before- A prig is one who works out his paltry
the-war conditions, politics, prices, as accounts to the last farthing, while his
phrases for everyday use, will never millionaire neighbour lets accounts
do, and the only justification is also take care of themselves. A prig expects
sufficient. But it fails to cover the use others to square themselves to his very
of pre-war as an adverb, a practice that inadequate measuring-rod, and con-
began after the first world war but demns them with confidence if they
is still called vulg. by the COD. There do not. A p. is wise beyond his years
is nothing unhandy in that use of in all the things that do not matter.
before the war, which might well be A p. cracks nuts with a steam hammer:
restored in all contexts of the kind here that is, calls in the first principles of
shown—The suggestion is utterly un- morality to decide whether he may, or
true, as a comparison of present prices must, do something of as little impor-
with those prevailing pre-war will tance as drinking a glass of beer. On
show. I The season-ticket holder, too, is the whole, one may, perhaps, say that
to pay about j$ per cent, more than he all his different characteristics come
did pre-war. / The number of houses from the combination, in varying pro-
demolished annually pre-war is again portions, of three things—the desire to
not accurately known. do his duty, the belief that he knows
better than other people, and blindness
pride. For P. goeth before a fall, see to the difference in value between
MISQUOTATION. different things.'
prideful. This Scotticism has been p r i m a donna. Pronounce prë-. PI.
taken up by English NOVELTY HUNTERS,
but the meretricious attraction of prima donnas.
novelty seems to be the only advantage prima facie. Pron. prï'mâfâ'shïè. See
it can claim over proud or arrogant. LATIN PHRASES.
pride of knowledge is a very un- primary colours. As the phrase is
amiable characteristic, and the display used in different senses, the OED
of it should be sedulously avoided. definition is here given: 'Formerly,
Some of the ways in which it is dis- the seven colours of the spectrum, viz.
played, often by people who do not red, orange, yellow, green, blue, in-
realize how disagreeable they are digo, violet; now, the three colours
making themselves, are illustrated in red, green, and violet (or, with painters,
the following among many articles: red, yellow, and blue), out of different
DIDACTICISM, FRENCH WORDS, GAL- combinations of which all the others
LICISMS, IRRELEVANT ALLUSIONS, LIT- are said to be produced.' That the
ERARY CRITICS' WORDS, NOVELTY- painters have the better of the argu-
HUNTING, POPULARIZED TECHNICALI- ment will be admitted by anyone who
TIES, QUOTATION, SUPERIORITY, WORD- has tried to produce a pure yellow out
PATRONAGE. of red, green, and violet.
primates 478 probe
primates. Pronounce prïmâ'têz when simple word are called p. or negative.
used as a term for the highest order of The a- of aseptic and the in- of innocent
mammals. Archbishops, though they are privative, whereas the a- of arise
belong to that order, must be content and the in- of insist are not.
with a disyllabic plural prt'mâtz.
privilege, v. 1. He was generally
p r i m e r . The traditional pronuncia- believed to be an exceptionally taciturn
tion is prï'mër, and the word was very man, but those who were privileged with
commonly spelt with -mm-. This pro- his friendship say that this was a habit
nunciation was retained in the obso- assumed against the inquisitive. An un-
lescent names of types {long primer is idiomatic use, on the ANALOGY of
now io point and great primer 18 point) ; honoured with. 2 . A privileged person
in the names of school manuals and is one who enjoys some special right
other uses of p. prl'mer is universal. or immunity. Those who—like most
of us—possess no special right or
principal, principle. Misprints or immunity might reasonably be de-
even mistakes of one for the other are scribed as unprivileged. But who are
very frequent, and should be guarded the people in between, whom we
against. often hear referred to as the under-
privileged classes? Those who find
prior. For the adverbial and preposi- an emotive value in that cliché must
tional use (p. to = before) see QUASI- be presumed to have some notion
ADVERBS. But the phrase is incon- of the answer; the rest of us are left
gruous, and ranks merely with FORMAL guessing.
WORDS, except in contexts involving
a connexion between the two events probable. Two temptations call for
more essential than the simple time notice. The first is that of attaching an
relation, as in Candidates must deposit infinitive to p.; cf. POSSIBLE; a thing
security prior to the ballot. The use may be likely to happen, but not p. to
deprecated is seen in : Prior to going to happen; ANALOGY is the corrupter:
Wiltshire, Mr. very successfully Military cooperation against Russia is
hunted the Hounds. Cf. FOLLOW- scarcely probable to be more than a
ING. dream. The second is the wrong use of
the future after p. The result will prob-
Priscian. To break Priscian's head ably be is right; but The probable result
is to violate the rules of grammar. will be is a mixture between that and
Priscian was a 6th-c. Roman gram- The probable result is; correct accord-
marian greatly respected in the Middle ingly to is in: It is believed that Said
Ages. Pasha will be forced to resign, and that
his most probable successor will be
prise. This spelling is often used, as Kiamil Pasha.
is pry in U.S., to differentiate the verb
meaning to force up by leverage from probe. We may well have to wait for
the other verb or verbs spelt prize', it the close approach of a space-probe to
is also the old spelling of the nautical Jupiter before this problem can be settled.
verb meaning to capture. A p., says the OED, is a surgical in-
strument for exploring the direction
privacy. The OED recognizes only and depth of wounds and sinuses. So
priv-, but prtv- must now be at least perhaps to apply the word to an instru-
as common (cf. privet, privilege, and ment that explores direction and depth
privy) and is recognized as an alterna- in space is a reasonable extension. But
tive by the COD. p. has reached this suitable and respec-
table niche only accidentally, after
privative. Prefixes that deny the doing much damage on the way; for
presence of the quality denoted by the of all the monosyllabic VOGUE WORDS
problematic(al) 479 progress
produced by HEMLINE LANGUAGE it is, why the anglicized prô'fîl is supplant-
with the exception of bid, the most ing -fël. See -ÎLE.
popular and therefore the most mis-
chievous. program(me). 1. Spelling. It ap-
If an -able adjective is required, as pears from the OED quotations that
seems likely, it must be probeable for -am was the regular spelling until
fear of confusion with the ordinary the 19th c , and the OED's judge-
probable—one of the extremely rare ment is: 'The earlier program was
necessary exceptions to the rule given retained by Scott, Carlyle, Hamil-
under MUTE E. ton, and others, and is preferable,
as conforming to the usual English
problematic(al). The longer form representation of Greek gramma,
is slightly more common; there is in anagram, cryptogram, diagram,
no clear difference in usage. See telegram, etc' But the British prefer-
-IC(AL). ence for -amme seems to be as firmly
established as the American for -am.
proboscis. The pi. recommended is 2 . P. as a verb. 'He [the Minister
-seises; the Latin form is -scides (-êz), of Education] has done some large
and probosces is wrong. For p. = nose, things well, but he did a small thing
See POLYSYLLABIC HUMOUR. PrO- badly when he informed Miss Bacon
nounce -bô'sis. that 250,000 more secondary places
were "programmed" to start building
procatalepsis. A figure by which an in the next 12 months. That is a sad
opponent's objections are anticipated verb to receive a Ministerial imprima-
and answered in advance. tur* It is true that the use of p. as a
verb is new. It was unknown to the
procedural. The earliest example SOED in 1933; in 1951 the COD
given by the OED Supp. is dated 1919. admitted it without comment. Its
The word is now much used of inter- newness is not necessarily against it;
national conferences, almost always to use a noun as a verb is a recognized
with some inauspicious noun, e.g. p. way of adding to our vocabulary.
difficulties, p. wrangles. Whether we are justified in doing so
in any particular case depends on
whether we are supplying a need or
process, n. The OED gives pro'ses as merely inventing an unwanted syno-
the better pronunciation ; but pro'ses nym for an existing word. To the
is winning. argument that p. does not pass this
test because plan will do just as well,
process, v., meaning to institute legal the Minister might reply that his
p. or to treat material or food, is pro- department works on a building pro-
nounced like the noun; meaning to go gramme and that he chose a con-
in procession it is a BACK-FORMATION; venient way of saying that these places
pronounce prose's. were included in it. The verb is estab-
lished in the vocabulary of those who
proem, proemial. Pronounce pro'' use electronic computers.
ëm, prôê'mïâl. But the words, not
having made their way like poem and progress. The OED gives pro- as
poetic into common use, remain puzz- preferable to pro- and it has maintained
ling to the unlearned and are better its lead. Noun pro'grës, verb progrê's;
avoided in general writing. see NOUN AND VERB ACCENT. But pro'-
grës is usual for the transitive verb,
proffer makes -ering, -ered; -R-, -RR-. now much used in the manufactur-
ing and building industries in the
profile. Popular use in the sense of sense of pushing a job forward by
a character-sketch perhaps explains regular stages. Cf. PROCESS.
progression 480 prolific
progression. Arithmetical p. and legitimate use, according to what it is
geometrical p. These are in constant meant to convey, and the third the
demand to express a rapid rate of usual absurdity: The healthy portion
increase, which is not involved in of the population is increasing by
either of them, and is not necessarily a. p., and the feeble-minded by g. p. /
even suggested by a. p. Those who use Scientific discovery is likely to proceed
the expressions should bear in mind by g- P- / As the crude prejudice against
(1) that you cannot determine the the soldier's uniform vanished, and ai
nature of the progression from two ex-Regular officers joined the Volunteers,
terms whose relative place in the and Volunteers passed on to the Army,
series is unknown, (2) that every rate the idea that every man owes willing
of increase that could be named is service to his country began to spread in
slower than some rates of a. p. and an almost geometrical ratio.
of g. p., and faster than some others,
and consequently (3) that the phrases prohibit. The modern construction,
'better than a. p., than g. p.', 'almost apart from that with an object noun as
in a. p., g. p.', are wholly meaning- in an Act prohibiting export, is from
less. doing, not to do; the OED marks the
In 1903 there were ten thousand 'pay- latter as archaic, but it is less archaism
ing guests', last year [1906] fifty thou- than ignorance of idiom and the
sand. The rate of increase, is better, it analogy of forbid that accounts for it
will be observed, than a. p. Better, cer- in such contexts as: Marshal Oyama
tainly, than a. p. with increment 1, of prohibited his troops to take quarter
which the fourth annual term would within the walls. / The German Govern-
have been 10,003; but as certainly ment has decided to issue a decree pro-
worse than a. p. with increment a hibiting all Government officials to
million, of which the fourth term strike.
would have been 3,010,000; and
neither better nor worse than, but a prolate, -lative. Many verbs have
case of, a. p. with increment 13,333^. meanings that are not self-sufficient,
The writer meant a. p. with annual but need to be carried forward by
increment 10,000; but as soon as we another verb in the infinitive; such
see what he meant to say we see also are the auxiliaries, and other verbs
that it was not worth saying, since it meaning be able or willing or wont or
tells us no more than that, as we knew desirous, begin, cease, seem, be said,
before, fifty thousand is greater than etc. This infinitive is called prolate or
forty thousand. prolative.
Even g. p. may be so slow that to prolepsis. Anticipatory use of an
raise 10,000 in three years to as little epithet, i.e. the applying of it as if
as the 10,003 mentioned above is already true to a thing of which it only
merely a matter of fixing the increment becomes true by or after the action
ratio low enough. Neither a. p. nor now being stated. A strong example is
g. p. necessarily implies rapid progress. So the two brothers and their murder'd
The point of contrast between them is man
that one involves growth or decline at Rode past fair Florence
a constant pace, and the other at an i.e., the man who was afterwards their
increasing pace. Hence the famous victim. More ordinary examples are
sentence in Malthus about population He struck him dead, Fill full the cup,
and subsistence, the first increasing in etc.
a geometrical and the second in an
arithmetical ratio, which perhaps prolific 1. The adjective is in com-
started the phrases on their career as mon use, but to make a satisfactory
POPULARIZED TECHNICALITIES. O f the noun from it has passed the wit of man.
following extracts, the first is a copy Prolificacy, prolificalness, prolificity,
of Malthus, the second a possibly and prolificness, have been tried and
promenade 481 pronouns
found wanting; substitutes such as 4. One pronoun should not represent
two principals on one occasion. 5. The
fertility, productiveness, fruitfulness, are
the best solution. 2 . P. can only be pronoun should seldom precede its
properly applied to what produces principal.
{a p. writer, orchard, etc.), not to what is1. No pronoun without a principal
produced, as in His works, which are p., in being. Viscount Wolverhampton,
include many which have been trans- acting under medical advice, has re-
lated into English. signed the office of Lord President, and
His Majesty the King has been pleased
promenade is still ordinarily -ahd to accept it (it is resignation; but as
though modern dictionaries allow -âd that word has not been used we can
is an alternative. See -ADE, -ADO. only suppose H.M. to have accepted
Promethean. Pronounce Promêth'- the office). / Nozv, the public interest is
ëân, as Othello did. See also HERCU- that coal should be cheap and abundant,
LEAN.
and that it should be got without the
dangerous friction which has attended
promiscuous. The colloquial use for the disputes between masters and men in
random, chance, casual, etc., springs this trade. And, if nationalization is to
from POLYSYLLABIC HUMOUR and is out be the policy, it looks to an assured peace
of place in serious writing. in the coal-trade as its main advantage.
For this it will pay a fair price and be
promise. The noun promisor is con- willing that a considerable experiment
fined to legal use, and -er is the ordi- should be made, but without the sure
nary word. P., v., is liable to the abuse prospect of such a peace it will see no
discussed in DOUBLE PASSIVES : If it had benefit to itself and a very doubtful bene-
been taken down, even though promised fit to the miners in the change from
to be re-erected, it might have shared private to State ownership (Each of the
the fate of Temple Bar. its in roman type means the public,
not the public interest). / The number of
promissory. So spelt, not -isory. these abstainers is certainly greater than
The stress is on the first syllable. See can be attributed to merely local or per-
RECESSIVE ACCENT.
sonal causes, and those who have watched
prone. See APT and SUPINE. the election agree that a portion of them
are due to doubts and uncertainties
pronounce makes -ceable; see -ABLE I . about the Act (A portion, that is, of
Pronouncedly has four syllables; see the abstentions, not of the abstain-
-EDLY. Pronouncement is kept in being ers). / An American Navy League
by the side of pronunciation owing to Branch has even been established in
complete differentiation; it means only London, and is influentially supported
declaration or decision, which the by their countrymen in this city (Whose
other never does. countrymen?).
pronouns and pronominal adjectives 2 . The principal should not be very
are tricky rather than difficult. Those far off. We have to go further back
who go wrong over them do so from than the beginning of the following
heedlessness, and will mostly plead extracts to learn who he and she are:
guilty when they are charged. It is And yet, as we read the pages of the
enough to state the dangers very book, we feel that a work written when
shortly, and prove their existence by the story is only as yet half told, amid
sufficient citations. 1. There must be the turmoil of the events which he is
a principal in existence for the pro- describing, can only be taken as a pro-
noun or proxy to act for. 2 . The visional impression. J It is always a shock
principal should not be very far off. to find that there are still writers who
3. There should not be two parties regard the war from the standpoint of
justifying even a momentary doubt the sentimentalist. It is true that this
about which the pronoun represents. story comes from America and bears the
pronouns 482 pronunciation
traces of its distance from the field of This local option in the amount of out'
action. But even distance cannot zvholly door relief given under the Poor Law has
excuse such an exterior view as she always operated inequitably and been
permits herself. one of the greatest blots on the system;
3. There should not be two parties to extend it to the first great benefit
justifying even a moment's doubt under the Insurance Act will greatly
about which the pronoun represents. lessen its usefulness (It is the blot, but
There is no doubt that the Home Secre- its is the Act's). / Again, unconscious-
tary is justified in law in issuing a ness in the person himself of what he is
deportation order and therewith goes the about, or of what others think of him,
right, absolutely within his discretion, to is also a great heightener of the sense of
place him in a ship or an aircraft bound absurdity; it makes it come the fuller
for a destination of his selection (The home to us from his insensibility to it
Home Secretary's selection or the (It is first the unconsciousness, second-
deportee's?). In the December previous ly the sense of absurdity, and thirdly
to his raid on the Tower he was chief absurdity).
of a gang who, overpowering his 5. The pronoun should seldom pre-
attendants, seized the Duke of Or- cede its principal. For Plato, being then
monde hi St. James Street when about twenty-eight years old, had listened
returning from a dinner-party (His to the 'Apology* of Socrates; had heard
refers not to the preceding he, but to from them all that others had heard or
the following Duke; see 5, and FALSE seen of his last hours (had heard from
SCENT). / Professor Geddes's fine exam- others all that they had heard etc.). /
ple of sociology applied to Civics, his The old Liberal idea of cutting expendi-
plea for a comprehensive and exact ture down to the bone, so that his money
survey of his ozvn city as a branch of might fructify in the pocket of the tax-
natural history required for the culture payer, had given place to the idea of...
of every instructed citizen (The pro- (the taxpayer's money might fructify
fessor's own city? Ah, no; here comes, in his pocket). / Both these lines of criti-
perhaps better late than never, the cism are taken simultaneously in a mes-
instructed citizen, the true prin- sage which its special correspondent
cipal). / As it is, the short-sighted sends from Laggan, in Alberta, to the
obstinacy of the bureaucracy has Daily Mail this morning (which the
given its overzvhelming strength to the D.M. prints this morning from its
revolution (Not bureaucracy's, but correspondent etc.).
revolution's, strength; see also 5). /
Coriolanus is the embodiment of a great pronunciam(i)ento. The Spanish
noble; and the reiterated taunts which spelling is with the i, but we have
he hurls in play after play at the rabble dropped it in anglicizing the word.
only echo the general temper of the PI. -os; see -O(E)S 6.
Renascence (Not Coriolanus, but
Shakespeare, is the hurler; the inter- pronunciation. In the article RE-
loping of Coriolanus between Shake- CEIVED PRONUNCIATION (R.P.) some
speare and his proxy makes things account is given of the system of pro-
difficult for the reader). nunciation that is regarded as correct
for an educated Englishman. The
4 . One pronoun, one job . . . which article RECESSIVE ACCENT deals with one
opens up the bewildering question as to feature of the R.P. that calls for special
how far the Duma really represents the notice. The present article is con-
nation. The answer to this is far from cerned with certain trends now dis-
solving the Russian riddle, but without cernible in our pronunciation and with
answering it it is idle even to discuss it a few particular points.
(It represents, first, the bewildering
question, secondly, the discussion of 1. GENERAL
that riddle, and last, the riddle itself— The R.P. has always been to some
which is not the same as the question)./ extent conventional; the spelling of a
pronunciation 483 pronunciation
word is not necessarily a safe guide to may sound as odd as the once correct
its sound. If, for instance, the con- azvspitl and obleeged do to us.
ventional pronunciation of forehead The other force that can hardly fail
is fô'red, and of knowledge nô'lïj, to have its effect is American pro-
precisians who try to restore the nunciation, now an easy second to
supposed true sounds of those words the R.P. over the air in Britain, and
expose themselves to an imputa- markedly different from it, espe-
tion of either ignorance or pedantry; cially in some of its vowels, such as
the right rule is to speak as our neigh- sounding o as ah and ù as oo} and its
bours do, not better. But pronuncia- more even distribution of stress.
tion is never static, and there are American influence no doubt ac-
forces at work today that make it more counts for the fact that Englishmen
than usually subject to change. seem to be taking to saying rê'search
One of the forces is a movement, and defect instead of putting all the
not springing from the vagaries of emphasis on the second syllable with
individual precisians, but more a hardly perceptible vowel sound in
broadly based, towards speaking the first, and also perhaps for the
words as they are spelt. This is increasing number of words in which
a natural result of the growth of we pronounce lu as loo. See 6 below.
popular education, of words being A third trend, deprecated elsewhere
visible and not merely audible symbols in this book, is our greater tendency
to far more people than they used to to give foreign values to the vowels in
be, of the teaching of careful articula- any word, however well acclimatized
tion in schools as an antidote to slip- in England, that has any foreign look,
shod speech and local accent, and of however slight. Even our Marias and
the precise enunciation cultivated by Theresas are being turned into Mare'as
some professional broadcasters. and Therâ'sas. For this see FRENCH
Modern dictionaries afford plenty of WORDS and LATIN PHRASES.
evidence that the speak-as-you-spell
movement is encroaching on many 2. SILENT T
conventional pronunciations ; not only With the possible exception of pestle,
the older and more esoteric, such as the speak-as-you-spell movement has
that hotel and humour must not be not yet made any impression on the
aspirated and that girl must be gairl, large class of words ending in -sten and
Ralph Raft and golf gof, but also -sue in which the t is not sounded
many others in general use. The (fasten, listen, castle, bustle, etc.). But
experiences of OFTEN (q.v.) are typical; it is encouraging the sounding of t in
and those who say for'tun instead of words in which -st- is followed by a
for'chun, clothes instead of cloz, consonant. The COD now puts wasif)-
pik'tûr instead of pik'cher, and kôt before the once correct wëskôt and
make six syllables of extraordinary can anyone using the R.P. is likely to give
claim the COD's recognition of these full value to the t in such words as
either as the now prevalent pro- postpone, coastguard, and dustbin. On
nunciations or as admissible alterna- the other hand, soften shows no dis-
tives : Regiment and medicine are given position to follow the lead of often, or
their three syllables quite as often as not enough to have reached the dic-
their conventional pronunciations rej- tionaries.
ment and medsin. The same thing is But the convention that condones the
happening to proper names. Maryle- omission of the r-sound in many words
bone, St. Mary Axe, Cirencester, gives no excuse for the slovenly drop-
Daventry, and Pontefract are now ping of either that or any other con-
rarely given their old telescopic pro- sonant from a word in which conven-
nunciations Alaribn, Simeryax, Sisiter, tion requires it to be sounded, such as
Dântriy and Pumfret (see 10 below). (to take examples that may sometimes
To a future generation forchun and clôz be heard over the air) saying fax for
pronunciation 484 pronunciation
facts, instinx for instincts, seketary for tions such as novel and sovereign. All
secretary, and Febyuary for February. that can be said is that the speak-as-
It was all very well for Miss Pinker- you-spell movement is likely to bring
ton to tell her sister to put Becky's down on the side of 0 those words that
dixonary back in the closet, but the are still hesitating and probably also
headmistress of today is expected to some of those that now seem to have
articulate more carefully. Artie for settled for a u. Among the words
arctic and strenth for strength give the classed as hésitants by the COD
same impression of slovenliness to the are: (preferring 0) Covent Garden,
hearer, though in fact they differ by Coventry, hovel, hover, pomegranate,
being old alternative pronunciations sojourn, and (preferring u) combat,
that have gone out of fashion. comrade, conduit, Lombard.
3. SILENT H 6. LONG U
In the first edition of this dictionary Long u may be pronounced either
it was said that in many compounds yoo or 00, and what determines the
whose second element begins with h choice is not obvious. It seems that
the h is silent unless the accent falls on we in Britain, unlike the Americans,
the syllable that it begins; thus phil- prefer yoo unless difficulties of articu-
hellenic and philharmonic should not lation deter us. It is not easy to say
sound the h', in nihilism also it should yoo after ch, j , r, or sh, and so we fail
be silent. Here too the speak-as-you- back on 00 after those consonant
spell movement has been at work, and sounds, e.g. chute, jute, rude, and
though the COD does not favour the sugar. No other consonant inhibits
pronunciation of the h in these words, yoo quite as much, and with most of
it is in fact often heard, and some the others it is standard: abuse, acute,
modern dictionaries give it. See also duty, funeral, argument, huge, kudos,
A, AN I , HONORARIUM, HOTEL, a n d WH-. music, nude, putrid, tune. L is, how-
4. A AND O ever, exceptional. It is not so difficult
to say yoo after / as after ch etc., but it
The variations ah and a for a, and aw is more difficult than after most
and 0 for o, widely prevalent in large other consonants, and there is clearly a
classes of words (pass, telegraph, ask, movement going on, shared to a small
gone, soft, loss) are largely local dis- extent by su-, in the pronunciation of
tinctions, ah and aw roughly southern lu-. It was formerly de rigueur to put in
and a and o northern, with o tending the y sound; a lute, and even a flute,
to displace aw. had to be called lyoot and flyoot, not
5. SHORT O loot and floot, or the speaker was
Short 0 in a stressed position, not damned in polite circles, just as
content with vacillating between aw Syoosan was once the only genteel way
and 0, is sometimes given the sound of pronouncing that name, and the
of a short u. This is one of the many dictionaries still give that sound for
arbitrary features of our pronunciation suit. Some people seem to count the
that defy all rule. It is not apparent, victorious progress of loo one of the
for instance, to the ordinary man, vulgarities of modern speech. Among
though there may be an explanation these was the OED which went so far
known to the etymologist, why we as to prefer glyoo to gloo for the
should give the vowel different pronunciation of glue, though it
sounds in brother and brothel, company reversed the order for blue (bloo,
and compact, colour and column, blyoo). For most of us, as the dic-
dozen and lozenge, honey and honest, tionaries now concede, anything but
mongrel and mongoose; or why, when bloo and gloo is surely impossible,
the o is followed by a v, we should however refined we like to be where
show unusual consistency in pro- the trials of articulation are not so
nouncing it u with only rare excep- severe. Indeed, it seems clear that loo
pronunciation 485 pronunciation
is slowly but surely displacing lyoo, alphabet) or rarely awl (palfrey) and,
helped no doubt by the general prefer- exceptionally, â in the syncopated
ence for the 00 sound in U.S. What pronunciation of halfpenny and the
governs its progress is not easy to say : old pronunciation of Ralph. With G it
there is no apparent reason why dilute is âl (algebra, hidalgo). With L it is awl
and prelude should cling firmly to y 00 in words ending -all (call, fall, etc.)
while delude and allude are still hesitat- and their compounds and inflexions
ing and conclude and recluse are com- but elsewhere âl (ballot, callous). (The
plete converts to 00, or why aluminium long a in Balliol comes from the old
should be y00 and aluminous 00. spelling Baliol.) With M it is ah (alms,
palm) with variants azvl (almanac), âl
7. -ER- OR -UR- (halma) and â (salmon). With N it is
What should be the vowel sounds in rare and unruly: awl in walnut, ah in
participles and other inflexions and Calne, and âl in the èa/ne-compounds.
derivatives containing -err- or -urr-} With P it is âl (alpaca, scalp) but awl
Is erring, for instance, to have the same in Walpole. In the few words in
vowel sound as err, or does it change which it occurs with R it is awl
to that of error} Is the vowel sound (Alresford, walrus). With S and soft C
in furry and currish to be that of err or it is ordinarily awl (false, palsy) but
that of hurry} The OED is nearly but sometimes âl (halcyon, Alsatia, salsify).
not quite consistent; in the words con- With T it is awl (or ol) (salt, falter)
curring, currish, demurring, deterring, with some âl exceptions (see below).
erring, furry, purring, slurring, and With V it is ah in inflexions of the
spurring the err sound is prescribed; words ending -alf (halve, calve) other-
recurring, recurrence, and occurrence, wise âl (valve, salvo) but awl in
however, are to be said like hurry. Malvern.
It may be taken that the err sound is The commonest mistake is the mis-
the orthodox one. Demurrer has two pronunciation of alt by speakers who
pronunciations : as hurry for the legal forget that in some words it is alt
term and as err for the person who instead of the normal awlt. These are
demurs. words derived from the Latin adjec-
tive altus such as alto and altitude, the
8. AL FOLLOWED BY A alter of alter ego and altruism and its
CONSONANT kindred.
Al followed by a consonant is pro-
nounced in six different ways: âl, as 9. OUGH
in calculate; awl (or ol) as in altar; aw, This combination of letters has de-
as in walk; ah, as in almond; a, as in servedly become the classic example of
salmon; and â as in Ralph and half- the notorious inconsequence of Eng-
penny. Where such a combination lish spelling. There are nine different
occurs in a word that is a syncopated ways of saying it : ô as in though, 00 as
compound of all (albeit, also, altogether, in through, ow as in bough, aw as in
etc.) the pronunciation is always awl. ought, off (ox awf) as in cough, uffas in
Elsewhere it varies capriciously. rough, ok as in hough, ôch as in lough
With B it is al (Albania, albatross) or, and an indeterminate er sound as in
rarely, awl (Albany, Talbot). With borough. A tenth might be added
hard C and K it is aw in words (up) if it were not that hiccough is
ending k (talk, walk, etc.) and, ordin- merely a misspelling of HICCUP. Most
arily, in falcon; elsewhere it is âl of the words containing ough are fami-
(talc, balcony, Dalkeith, alkali) or liar, and their pronunciation estab-
rarely awl (Balkan and, sometimes, lished, however unreasonably. A few
falcon). With D it is awl (bald, alder) exceptions will be found in their dic-
or, rarely àl (aldehyde). With F and tionary places. See for instance HOCK
PH it is ah in calf and half and their (for hough), LOUGH, SLOUGH, SOUGH,
compounds; in others âl (Alfred, and TROUGH.
pronunciation 486 proportion
10. PROPER NAMES Poulett Pawlet
Many proper names have a traditional Ruthven Riven
pronunciation not easily inferred from St. John (the title) Sin'jun
their spelling. The list that follows St. Léger (the sur- Sent'lejer
gives some examples; more will be name)
found in an appendix to the COD. Sandys Sandz
In titles and surnames these curiosities Tyrwhitt Tïrït
are naturally more persistent than in Waldegrave Wawgrave
place-names, where the speak-as-you- Wavertree Wawtry
spell movement is eroding them (see Wemyss Wëmz
section 1 above). But even among the Woburn Wôôbûn
former this is beginning to tell. The propaganda is not unnaturally mis-
Pepys family are now not Peeps but taken for a Latin neuter plural =
Peppiss; the Auchinlecks no longer call things to be propagated; it is in fact
themselves Affleck as they did in an ablative singular from the title
Boswell's day, and the Dalziels and Congregatio de Propaganda Fide =
Menzieses who pronounce their names Board [of Cardinals] for Propagating
as they are spelt must outnumber those the Faith.
who are still the traditional DëëV and
Mingis. propensity. That propensity of lifting
every problem from the plane of the
Name Pronounced understandable by means of some sort of
Abergavenny (the title) Abergenny mystic expression is very Russian. Pro-
Althorp Awltrup pensity to do or for doing, not of doing',
Beauchamp Bëcham the ANALOGY of practice, habit, etc., is
Beauclerk Bôclâr responsible.
Beaulieu Bûlï
Belvoir (the castle) Bêver prophecy, - s y . The noun prophecy,
Bethune Bëten the verb prophesy; see LICENCE.
Blount Blunt prophetic(al). The -al form perhaps
Blyth Blï lingers only in such phrases as the -al
Bohun Boon books, in which the meaning is defi-
Broke Brôok nitely 'of the Prophets'. See -IC(AL).
Caius (the college) Këz
Cherwell Charwell proportion. It has been recorded as
Cholmondeley Chumli a common MISAPPREHENSION that p. is
Cockburn Côburn a sonorous improvement upon part.
Coke Cook What was meant will be plain from the
Colquhoun Cohôôn' following examples, in all of which the
Cowper Cooper word has been wrongly used because
Crespigny Crë'pïny the writers, or others whom they ad-
Devereux Deverôôks mire and imitate, cannot resist the im-
Fiennes Fînz posing trisyllable; the greater part,
Glamis Glahmz most, etc., should be substituted. The
Harewood Harwood greater proportion of these old hands
Home Hûm have by this time already dropped out;
Knollys Nôlz it is estimated that only 25,000 of them
Ker Kar remain now (Most of). / A few years ago
Keynes Kânz the largest proportion of the meat coming
Legh through Smithfield had its origin in the
Le United States (the greater part). /
Leveson Gower Looson Gore
Magdalen(e) (the Maudlin There was a large and fashionable
colleges) audience, and, as might be expected, the
Marjoribanks Marchbanks greater proportion of them were natives
Pole Carew Pool Kârî of India (most of them). / By far the
proportion 487 proposition
largest proportion of applications for expressed by p. It is a clumsy blunder
using the machinery of the Act came to use words like greater and largest
from the employees (the most applica- with p. when the comparison is be-
tions). / The larger proportion of the tween the parts of one whole and not
children received are those of unmarried between the ratios borne by parts of
mothers (Most of). different wholes to their respective
'The word has been wrongly used.' wholes. To give contrasted examples
It is not merely that here are two of the wrong and the right : We passed
words, each of which would give the the greater proportion of our candidates
sense equally well, and that the writer is wrong; read part. We hope to pass
has unwisely allowed LOVE OF THE LONG a greater proportion of our candidates
WORD to decide the choice for him. next year is right.
Proportion does not give the sense For a parallel, see PERCENTAGE.
so well as part. Where p. does so
far agree in sense with part that the proportionable, -nal, -nate. All
question of an exchange between them three adjectives have existed since the
is possible, i.e. where it means not a 14th c ; so it may be presumptuous to
ratio but a quota or amount, there is advise the superannuation of any of
nevertheless a clear difference between them. But the fact is that, so far from
them. A proportion is indeed a part, needing three words, we can hardly
but a part viewed in a special light, viz. provide two with separate functions.
as having a quantitative relation to its If any of the three is to go, it should
whole comparable with the same rela- be -able, for which the latest OED
tion between some analogous whole quotation is dated 1832. Proportional
and part. Thus a man who out of an is better suited to the most general
income of £1000 spends £4°° upon sense of all, 'concerned with propor-
house-rent is rightly said to spend a tion', and -ate to the particular sense
large p. of his income on rent, if it is 'analogous in quantity to', -al repre-
known that most people's rent is about sentation but punishment -ate to the
1/5 of their income; p. is there a more offence. But both are so fully in posses-
precise and better word than part, just sion of the most usual sense 'in propor-
because other ratios exist for compari- tion' or 'in due proportion' that it is
son. But to say 'A large p. [instead of useless to think of confining that sense
a large part] of these statements is un- to either.
verified', where there is no standard of
what ratio the verified facts bear to the proposal. See PROPOSITION.
unverified in most statements, is to use
a worse long word instead of a better proposition. The use as a VOGUE
short one. WORD is American in origin. The
OED
1
Supp. quotes from OwenWister :
The case is much stronger against p. Proposition' in the West does in fact
when it is accompanied, as in the ex- mean whatever you at the moment please.
tracts given above, by a comparative or This remark, made in 1902, seems now
superlative (greater, largest, etc.) show- to have become true in Britain also.
ing that the comparison implied by p. Those who will look through the ex-
is not between two ratios (e.g. between amples collected below may perhaps
the ratio of the part in question to the be surprised to see the injury that this
whole in question and that of some single word is doing to the language,
other part to some other whole) but and resolve to eschew it. It won its
simply between the two parts into popularity partly because it combined
which one whole is divided. Of these the charms of novelty and length,
two parts of course one is greater or and partly because it ministers to lazi-
less than or equal to the other, but that ness; there is less trouble in using it
relation is adequately given by greater than in choosing a more suitable word
etc. part, and only confused by the from the dozen or so whose places it is
dragging in of the comparison of ratios apt to usurp.
proposition 488 protagonist
It may be granted that there is nothing a more attractive proposition to the man
unsound in principle about the de- and the employer.
velopment of sense. Proposition does Used for enterprise worth undertak-
or did mean propounding, and, like ing : Middlesex had everything to gain by
other -lion words, may naturally de- going for the runs, but Warr decided that
velop from that the sense of thing pro- it was not a proposition.
pounded, from which again is readily Used for area, field: The mining dis-
evolved the sense thing to deal with, trict, according to the best information
and that sufficiently accounts for all or obtainable, is a placer proposition, and
nearly all the uses to be quoted. The placer mining ruins the land. / Lanca-
mischief, as with all vogue words, is shire is vitally interested to secure a
that they drive more precise words out sufficient supply of cotton on the Gezira
of business and make for loose think- plains in the Sudan, this locality being
ing. P. ought to have been kept to its what one speaker described as lthe very
former well-defined functions in logic finest cotton-growing proposition in the
and mathematics, instead of being whole world'.
given this new status as Jack-of-all- Used for method, experiment: The
trades. territories will certainly require many
Used for proposal : What's your pro- novel propositions for their development.
position (i.e. how much will you offer?)/ The crowning outrage on this long-
'Let us pull down everything' seems to be suffering word is its use as a verb in
his proposition. / Newman said to Mr. the sense of make amatory advances.
Hastings ' You must share my room and This originated as U.S. slang, but now
bed'. This {says Mr. Hastings) was to seems to have won a foothold in serious
me a curious proposition, but one I had writing on both sides of the Atlantic.
to accept. I This is a 50:50 proposition The central idea is of a donnish house-
(i.e. we go halves). hold in which the stingy economist hus-
Used for task, job, problem, objective : band is suddenly propositioned in the
England has now to meet France, which middle of the night by his wife's college
is a different proposition. / There are a girl friend.
good many stages at which a disciplinary
proposition may present itself. proscribe. See PRESCRIBE
Used for undertaking, occupation, prosecutrix. For plural see -TRIX.
trade: He has got a foothold mainly
because the English maker has been prosody. That part of the study of a
occupied with propositions that give a language which deals with the forms
larger proportion of profit. / Establishing of metrical composition. The adjective
floating supply depots at frequent inter- recommended is prosodie, and the
vals across the ocean, a proposition which agent noun prosodist.
only a multi-millionaire could have
undertaken. / Railways are carrying the prospect, v., makes -tor; see -OR. The
burden of a capital structure related to OED accents pro'spect, not prospe'et,
the cost of their assets, many of which in the only current verb senses; but
cannot be made paying propositions. the analogy of similar NOUN AND VERB
ACCENTS has since prevailed.
Used for opponent : Australia's foui
seam-bowlers are sure to be a nasty prospectus. PI. -tuses, not -ti. See
proposition. / The former is a very tough LATIN PLURALS.
proposition as an opponent in singles. /
This Sixth Army now standing opposite prostrate. The adjective pro'strate,
us was not a very fearsome proposition. the verb prostra'te; see PARTICIPLES 5 A.
For meaning see SUPINE
Used for possibility, prospect : Petrol
at 6\d. or j\d. a gallon was hardly a protagonist. The word that has be-
commercial proposition. / The only way come a "prime favourite, and is more
to increase the recruiting standard of the often than not made to mean champion
Territorial Force is to make the service or advocate or defender, has no right
protagonist 489 protest
whatever to any of those meanings, pp. in the drama, which has the motion
and almost certainly owes them to the and structure of a Greek tragedy, are ...
mistaking of the first syllable (repre- (Fie! fie! a Greek tragedy and pp.?).
senting Greek vpuros first) for pro on Confusions with advocate etc.: En-
behalf of—a mistake made easy by the thusiastic p. of militant Protestantism. /
accidental resemblance to antagonist. It was a happy thought that placed in
'Accidental*, since the Greek aycovioTrjs, the hands of the son of one of the great
the second part of both compounds, pp. of Evolution the materials for the
has different meanings in the two words, biography of another. / But most of the
in antagonist combatant, but in pro- pp. of this demand have since shifted
tagonist play-actor. The Greek•npcorayoi- their ground.
viorrjs means the actor who takes the It was admitted above that we need
chief part in a play—a sense readily perhaps not consider the Greek scho-
admitting of figurative application to lar's feelings ; he has many advantages
the most conspicuous personage in any over the rest of us, and cannot expect
affair. The deuteragonist and tritago- that in addition he shall be allowed to
nist take parts of second and third forbid us a word that we find useful.
importance, and to talk of several Is it useful? Or is it merely a preten-
protagonists, or of a chief p. or the tious blundering substitute for words
like, is an absurdity as great, to anyone that are useful? Pro- in protagonist is
who knows Greek, as to call a man the not the opposite of anti-; -agonist is not
p. of a cause or of a person, instead of the same as in antagonist', advocate and
the p. of a drama or of an affair. It is champion and defender and combatant
now a rarity to meet p. in a legitimate are better words for the wrong senses
sense; but two examples of it are put given to p., and p. in its right sense of
first in the following collection. All the the (not a) chief actor in an affair has
others are (for Greek scholars, who still work to do if it could only be
perhaps do not matter) outrages on allowed to mind its own business.
this learned-sounding word, because But in the time that has passed
some of them distinguish between since the above was written there has
chief pp. and others who are not chief, been little sign of its being allowed to
some state or imply that there are more do so. Forty years later we may come
pp. than one in an affair, and the rest
use p. as a mere synonym for advocate. across such examples as these almost
any day: The Bishop of Bath was the
Legitimate uses: In Jeppë the sub- Crown's chief p. against the Church
sidiary personages do little more than courts. / Do the Channel bridge pp.
give the p. his cues. / Marco Landi, the suppose that navigational interests will
p. and narrator of a story which is skil- allow the littering of the waterway with
fully contrived and excellently told, is a obstacles at every 2$o yards? The
fairly familiar type of soldier of fortune. temptation to regard protagonist as the
Pro- and ant- in contrast: Protagon- antonym of antagonist seems ir-
ists and antagonists make a point of resistible, and its use in this sense may
ignoring evils which militate against soon have to be classed as a STURDY
their ideals. INDEFENSIBLE.
Absurd uses with chief tie. : The chief
p. is a young Nonconformist minister. / protean. The dictionaries that recog-
It presents a spiritual conflict, centred nize prôtë'ân as well as pro'tian still
about its two chief pp., ('co-starring' give it second place, but it is a strong
them, no doubt) but shared in by all rival and likely to win, see HERCULEAN.
its characters. protest. Verb prôtë'st, noun pro'test;
Absurd plural uses: By a tragic but see NOUN AND VERB ACCENT. As a tran-
rapid process of elimination most of the sitive verb protest, in British idiom,
pp. have now been removed, j As on a means either {a) to state formally or
stage where all the pp. of a drama solemnly (something about which a
assemble at the end of the last act. / The doubt is stated or implied), e.g. he
protestant 490 provost
protested his innocence, or (b) to refuse weave woven, cleave cloven. Except in
to accept (a bill of exchange). In the the phrase not proven as a quotation
sense of to protest against (the students from Scots law, proven is better left
will probably protest the decision) it is alone.
recognized by the OED Supp. without provenance, provenience. The
comment, but is still an Americanism; word is, and will doubtless continue
to a British reader such a sentence as to be, in literary and artistic use only.
the following cries out for the insertion It is therefore needless to take excep-
of against: It has been an impressive tion to the first much better known
piece of passive resistance, protesting the form on the ground that it is French
rigid pass laws, police shooting, and. the and try to convert users to the second,
arrests of African leaders. even if it is better in itself.
protestant, when used as adjective or
noun without reference to the special- provided (that) is better than pro-
ized sense in religion, is often pro- viding as an introduction to a proviso.
nounced protë'stânt for distinction. The following examples show that
care is needed in substituting it for if:
protocol has travelled a long way from Ganganelli would never have been
its original meaning of the first leaf poisoned provided he had had nephews
glued on to a manuscript. As a term of about to take care of his life. / The
diplomacy it is now used in two very kicks and blows which my husband
different senses. One is for an agree- Launcelot was in the habit of giving me
ment that supplements, amends, or every night, provided I came home with
qualifies an existing treaty, or deals less than five shillings. / She and I
with some temporary aspect of it. The agreed to stand by each other, and be
other is for the ceremonial etiquette true to old Church of England, and to
observed in diplomacy. The second is give our governors warning, provided
the sense in which it is popularly they tried to make us renegades. / The
understood; the word seldom appears chances are that the direction to
in the newspapers except in con- proceed to Vladivostok at all costs,
nexion with some delicate proce- provided such instruction were ever
dural question in diplomatic relations. given, may have been reconsidered.
A long sigh of relief floated down It will be agreed that if should have
the corridors of the Foreign Office been written in all, and the object-
yesterday when advices arrived from lesson is perhaps enough. Those who
Gravesend that Nina was safely on wish for an abstract statement in addi-
board ship. So long as she remained tion may find that the following test,
incarcerated in the Soviet Embassy there applied to each of the examples, will
was a danger of agonizing problems of compel their rejection : A clause intro-
p. and extraterritoriality, f Meanwhile duced by provided must express a
Mr. Khrushchev was conforming to his stipulation (i.e. a demand for the prior
usual p. on these occasions by making fulfilment of a condition) made by the
a threatening speech attacking the coun- person who in the main sentence gives
try which his guest represented. a conditional undertaking or vouches
prototype. See -TYPE.
conditionally for a fact.
protrude makes -dent and -sive (pro- province. For synonyms, see FIELD.
truding), -sible (able to be protruded) provost. Provosts may be found in
and -sile (able to be protruded and the Church, in education, in local
withdrawn). government, and in the armed services.
prove makes -vable; see MUTE E. In the more modern dioceses of the
Proved, not proven, is the regular p.p., Church of England, where the cathe-
the latter being properly from the verb dral is also a parish church, the provost
preve used in Scotland after it had corresponds to the dean in the older;
given way to prove in England; cf. he is head of the chapter, and has
proxime accessit 491 psychological moment
the same style and status as a dean, and ambiguity or to a disguising of the
is also a parish priest. As an academic composition of the word'. It may be
term provost (instead of the more usual significant that the COD now gives
master) is the title of the head of three the ps- pronunciation first, unlike the
colleges at Oxford (Oriel, Queen's, and SOED (1933) which preferred s-. But
Worcester) and one at Cambridge ps- is a long way off victory; the nor-
(King's), and also of the resident head mal pronunciation is still s-. Cf. PN-
of the governing body of Eton College and PT-.
(The Provost and Fellows). In local
government a provost is the Scottish psephologist. See POLLSTER.
equivalent of an English mayor. In the pseudonym. See NOM-DE-GUERRE.
armed services it is the designation of
certain officers with police duties, e.g. psychic(al). Both forms have been
P.-marshal. A provost of the last kind and are in common use in all senses,
is called prôvô; the others are pro- but -al is tending to prevail, partly
nounced as spelt. perhaps as corresponding in form to
the frequent antithesis physicaly and
proxime accessit. PL, used in nam- partly because -ic is now ordinarily
ing more than one, proxime accesserunt used to describe a person who
(àksësëf'ûnt). possesses extra-sensory perception.
prox(imo). See COMMERCIALESE.
psychological moment. The origi-
prudent(ial). While -ent means hav- nal German phrase, misinterpreted by
ing or showing prudence, -ial means the French and imported together with
pertaining to, or considered from the its false sense into English, meant the
point of view of, or dictated by, pru- psychic factor, the mental effect, the
dence. To call an act -ent is normally influence exerted by a state of mind,
to commend it; to call it -ial may be to and not a point of time at all, das
disparage it: the prudential act may Moment in German corresponding to
prove to have been dictated by a mis- our momentum, not our moment. Mis-
taken idea of what was prudent; e.g. take and all, however, it did for a time
a prisoner's decision not to go into express a useful notion, that of the
the witness-box. But the difference moment at which a person is in a
is often neglected, and -ial preferred favourable state of mind (such as a
merely as a LONG VARIANT. skilled psychologist could choose) for
one's dealings with him to produce the
prunella. For the meaning of leather effect one desires. But, like other
or (usually misquoted and) p., see POPULARIZED TECHNICALITIES, i t h a s
LEATHER 2 .
lost its special sense and been widened
prurience, -cy. There is no differen- till it means nothing more definite
tiation; -ence is recommended; see than the critical moment or the nick
-CE, - C Y . of time, to which as an expression of
the same notion it is plainly inferior.
pry. See PRISE. It should be avoided in the extended
ps-. With the advance of literacy and sense as a HACKNEYED PHRASE, and at
of the speak-as-you-spell movement least restricted to contexts in which
(see PRONUNCIATION i) it might be psychological is appropriate; see also
expected that the pronunciation of the IRRELEVANT ALLUSION. Three examples
p in words beginning thus would be follow, going from bad to worse: It is
restored except in psalm and its family, difficult to believe that grievances which
e.g. in the compounds of pseudip)- and have been spread over many years have
such important words as psychical and suddenly reached the breaking-point at
psychology. The OED describes the the precise p. m. when the Franco-
dropping of the p sound as 'an un- German settlement was reaching its
scholarly practice often leading to conclusion, f There is a feeling that the
psychopathic 492 pupa
p. m. has come to fight with some hope publish and we once had a word publi-
of success against la vie chère. / Every- cate but have forgotten it. Publicize is
thing goes right, no sleeping calf or loud-new; the first example quoted by the
crowing cock grouse is disturbed at the OED Supp. is dated 1928. P . can
p. m.} the wind holds fair. justify its existence only if it is used in
a sense different from that of publish.
psychopathic, psychotic, neurotic. To publish is to make available to the
No brief definition of these terms public; to publicize should mean to
would be likely to command universal advertise what has thus been made
assent; the disorders of the human available. Unfortunately these NEW
mind are too multifarious, and still too VERBS IN -IZE seem to have an attrac-
mysterious, to admit of sharp classifi- tion that makes for their use merely as
cation. This is specially true of psycho- synonyms for older words, and there
pathic, which, it has been said, 'has been are signs that publicize is no exception
used for years as a convenient psychiat- to the operation of this Gresham's
ric waste-paper-basket for cases diffi- Law.
cult to classify'. (The Mental Health
Act 1959 tries to remove this reproach puisne from puis né, born later and so
by denning the condition as a persistent inferior, is the same word as puny
disorder of personality which results (undersized) and is so pronounced.
in abnormally aggressive or seriously A puisne judge is any judge of the High
irresponsible conduct.) But there Court of Justice other than (by statute)
seems to be fairly general agreement the Lord Chancellor, the Lord Chief
that psychotic alone of the three can Justice, and the Master of the Rolls,
properly be used of mental derange- and (by custom) the President of the
ment amounting to insanity. In the Probate, Divorce, and Admiralty Divi-
language of analogy it has been said sion.
that 'in the psychotic we suppose that
there has been some radical breakdown puissant. The disyllabic pwï'sânt, the
in the machinery; in the neurotic we older pronunciation, is recommended,
suppose that it is working badly, the word itself being archaic.
though perhaps only temporarily; in
the psychopath we suppose that the p u m m e l . See POMMEL.
machinery was built to an unusual
pattern or is faulty'. pun. The assumption that puns are
per ?e contemptible, betrayed by the
habit of describing every pun not as
pt-. In ptarmigan and ptomaine, and a pun, but as a bad pun or a feeble pun,
in Ptolemy and its derivatives, the p is is a sign at once of sheepish docility
always silent. In other words the and desire to seem superior. Puns are
OED favours its being sounded, and good, bad, and indifferent, and only
the COD puts this first in ptosis and those who lack the wit to make them
the ptero- compounds, though whether are unaware of the fact. See PARONO-
in fact this feat is ordinarily attempted MASIA.
in these rarely spoken words may well
be doubted. Cf. PN- and PS-. punctuation. See STOPS.
pundit. In serious use as the title of
ptomaine. Pronounce tômâ'n. The a learned Hindu, the original spelling,
OED allows that the p is not sounded, pandit, is preferred. Pundit and pun-
but stigmatizes the two-syllable pro- ditry have passed into the language as
nunciation as illiterate. But, as with facetious and slightly contemptuous
cocaine, it is impracticable to maintain terms for learned specialists and the
the three-syllable tômâ'ïn. (Cf. -IES, characteristics attributed to them by
EIN.) more ignorant people.
publicize. We have long had a word pupa. PI. -ae.
pupil 493 purpose
pupil. For the derivatives pupil(l) fabrications, f An alternative, briefer,
age, pupil(l)ary, etc., the double / is and much more probable account of
recommended; see - L L - , - L - . the Controversial Parts of the Dialogue
Purported to be Recorded in the Re-
purchase. As a substitute for buy public of Plato. Though the verb is an
(goods for money), p. is to be classed old one, there is in the OED quotations
among stylish words (see WORKING only one passive use, and that dated
AND STYLISH WORDS), but in figurative
1894. The above extracts are doubtless
use {p. victory by sacrifice etc.) it is not due to the corrupting influence of the
open to the same objection. DOUBLE PASSIVE; that construction is
puritanic(al). The long form is com- especially gratuitous with p., the sense
moner, and there is no perceptible of which fits it to serve, in the active,
difference in meaning. The existence as a passive to suppose, represent, etc.
of a third adjective puritan, which In all the extracts supposed would
suffices for the mere labelling function stand; pretentiousness has suggested
(= of the puritans), makes the -ic form purport as a less familiar and therefore
even less useful than it might other- more imposing verb, and ignorance
wise be, and it seems to have been has chosen the wrong part of it (pur-
squeezed out; see -IC(AL). ported) instead of the right (purporting).
The first idiomatic limitation, then,
purlieu is a WORSENED WORD. is that the verb, though not strictly in-
purport, i . Noun pur'port, verb pur- transitive only, should never be used
por't; see NOUN AND VERB ACCENT. in the passive. The second is that the
2 . Meaning. The word is one that, subject, which is seldom a person at
whether as noun or as verb, requires all, should at any rate not be a person
cautious handling. The noun may be as such—only a person viewed as a
said to mean 'what appears to be the phenomenon of which the nature is
significance' (of a document, an action, indicated by speech, actions, etc., as
etc.); its special value is that it is non- the nature of a document is indicated
committal, and abstains from either by its wording. Normal subject: The
endorsing or denying the truth of the story purports to be an autobiography.
appearance, but lightly questions it. Legitimate personal subject: The
When such an implication is not in- Gibeonites sent men to Joshua purporting
tended, the word is out of place, and to be ambassadors from a far country.
tenor, substance, pith, gist,drift, or other Illegitimate personal subject : She pur-
synonym, should be preferred. But ports to find a close parallel between the
NOVELTY-HUNTING discovers p. some- Aeschylean Trilogy and The Ring, but
times in place of scope or purview, she does it by leaving out Siegfried
and even of purpose. Read purview or altogether. / Sir Henry is purported to
scope in: In lA Note on Robert Fergus- have said 'The F.A. are responsible for
son' he touches a theme outside the everything inside the Stadium'. / From
general purport of the book. observation I would say that the strength
of the demand for a Republic is not what
As to the verb, there are certain well- the Nationalists purport it to be.
defined idiomatic limitations on its
use, one of which, in an ugly develop-
ment, is sometimes neglected. This purpose, n. It serves very little p. to
development is the use of the passive, ask the Chancellor of the Exchequer to
as in: Professor Henslow compiles give a little more in this direction or in
from published works the information that. There are three idioms : Be to the,
as to the other world, Christian life to (very) little, to no,p.', Do something
and doctrines, the nature of man, etc., to some, to much, to no, to (very) little,
purported to be conveyed in communi- p.; Serve the, my, etc., no, p. These
cations from 'the other side'. / Many ex- should not (see CAST-IRON IDIOM) be
tracts from speeches purported to have confused. Serve very little p. is a mix-
been made by Mr. Redmond are pure ture of the third with one of the others.
purposive 494 qua
purposive ('an anomalous form'— pyrrhic. The p. dance was the Spartan
OED) is a word of the kind described war-dance, said to have originated in
as 'spurious' in the article HYBRIDS Crete; the origin of the name is un-
AND MALFORMATIONS; the Latin suffix certain. A p. foot is a term of prosody,
-ive is unsuited to the delatinized and meaning the metrical foot used in the
anglogallicized pur-, which represents dance (uu). A p. victory is a victory won
but conceals the Latin pro. Purposeful at too great a cost, so called from the
in some contexts, and purposed in remark attributed to Pyrrhus king of
others, should meet most needs, and Epirus after his victory over the
there are deliberate, designed, calcu- Romans at Asculum in 279 B.c. 'One
lated, and many more synonyms. But more such victory and we are undone.'
the psychologists have now adopted
purposive for a colourless word to
mean the opposite of aimless, without
the element of resolution or determina-
tion that most people feel to be con- Q
tained in purposeful. Pre-Freudian qua is sometimes misused like other
psychologists supposed that only some Latin words; see E.G., I.E., PACE, RE, VIA,
behaviour has some purposive explana- VIDE. The real occasion for the use of
tion. All behaviour, Freud said, has q. occurs when a person or thing
some purposive explanation. That might spoken of can be regarded from more
be a useful differentiation if it were not than one point of view or as the holder
that other writers, always eager to of various coexistent functions, and a
seize on technical terms, especially of statement about him (or it) is to be
psychology, now use -ive in contexts limited to him in one of these aspects,
where -ful would be better. Qua lover he must be condemned for
doing what qua citizen he would be con-
pur sang. The men who direct it are demned for not doing', the lovir aspect
pur-sang mandarins, trained in all the is distinguished from another aspect in
traditions of a bureaucracy which lives which he may be regarded. The two
not for, but on, the people. If one is nouns (or pronouns) must be present,
brave enough to use the French words, one denoting the person or thing in all
one should be brave enough to place aspects {he), and the other singling out
them as such—are mandarins pur sang. one of his or its aspects {lover, or citi-
pursuant(ly). See QUASI-ADVERBS. zen). Qua is wrongly used in the fol-
lowing two extracts : The root of this
pursuivant. Pronounce per'swîvânt. conviction, qua Great Britain, is the
purview. For synonyms see FIELD. preposterous fiction of the military value
of the Ulster volunteers; and the root
put(t). According to the OED the of this conviction, qua Ireland, is the
pronunciation put, with or without the shameful and cruel bamboozling of a
additional -t, and with verbal forms section of my unfortunate fellow-Provin-
putted instead of put, universal in golf, cials into the delusion that few soldiers
in weight-putting is confined to Scot- and no artillery will be available against
land. them. I The familiar gentleman burglar
pygmean, -aean. The first is recom- who, having played wolf to his fellows
mended; see &, Œ. Pronounce ptg- qua financier, journalist, and barrister,
mê'ân. undertakes to raise burglary from being
a trade at least to the lupine level of
pygmy, pi-. For the reason why py- those professions. In the first of these,
is the better, see GYPSY. a gross misuse, Great Britain, and
Ireland, are not aspects of the con-
p y r a m i d a l . Pronouncepïrâ'mïdl, not viction,
pîràmî'dl. but things as different from
a conviction as an hour from a walking-
pyrites. Pronounce pïrî'têz. stick. Perhaps the writer was confusing
quad 495 quasi-adverbs
qua with quoad (so far as . . . is con- and authoritive were not defensible
cerned). In the second, a much less forms; but at any rate good English
definite offence, financier etc. do not usage is against them.
give aspects of the man to be distin-
guished from other coexistent aspects, quantity. 1 . A negligible q., a POPU-
but merely successive occupations; the LARIZED TECHNICALITY and a GALLI-
fault is that the occasion does not CISM, is often used where negligible
justify the substitution of the very by itself gives all that is wanted.
precise qua for the here quite suffi- 2 . As a term of prosody quantity
cient as. is applied chiefly to Greek and
Latin verse, the metres of which
quad in all compound words of which are based on 'quantity', i.e. on the
it forms a part is pronounced as it length or shortness of sounds or
is when used as a CURTAILED WORD syllables measured by the time taken
{kwod), though the dictionaries still to pronounce them; the long indicated
admit kâ- as an alternative for quad- by a macron (-) and the short by a
rille. Cf. -QUAT-. breve (y). The difference between the
long and short vowels in English,
quadroon. See MULATTO 2 . though indicated in the same way
quagmire. Pronounce kwag-. The (ô and a; ë and ë etc.), is qualitative
COD does not admit kwog- even as an and has no true analogy with the
alternative, though some dictionaries difference between the long and short
allow it a second place. quantities of classical prosody.
rough(en), w . See -EN VERBS; but ruddle (red ochre, and, as verb, colour
the relation between this pair demands with this) has the two variants raddle
some further treatment. I . The in- and reddle, of which raddle is the form
transitive verb in its literal sense of be- usually preferred as a contemptuous
come rough is always roughen, except synonym for rouge and rouging, and
that the addition of up occasionally en- reddle is an occasional variant of ruddle.
Ruddle itself is applied chiefly to
ables rough to serve, e.g. of the sea. 2 . sheep-marking.
In the simple transitive senses also
(= make rough), roughen is usual, but ruff (bird) has fern, reeve. 'A very
if up is added rough is preferred, and remarkable form, which has not been
rough by itself is the word for arming explained' (Skeat).
horseshoes against slipping. 3 . In the
other transitive senses of to treat ruination is not, like flirtation,
roughly or shape roughly (the latter floatation, and botheration, a HYBRID,
usually with adverbs, in, off, out), the being regularly formed from ruin-
verb is rough: rough a horse, break it ate; but it now has the effect of a
in; rough a calf, harden it by exposure ; slangy emphatic lengthening of the
rough (up) a person, abuse or maltreat noun ruin. This is only because the
him {Briton freed after being roughed parent verb ruinate, which was com-
up)', rough in the outlines', rough off mon in serious use 15 50-1700, is no
timber', rough out a scheme', rough a lens, longer heard; but the result is that
shape without polishing it. 4 . To take ruination is better avoided except in
things in the rough is to rough it. facetious contexts.
rout (poke about). See ROOT. rule. 1 . For 'The exception proves
the r.' see EXCEPTION. 2 . Rule the roast
route. The ordinary pronunciation (roost). The OED gives no countenance
root has now largely displaced the rowt to roost, and does not even recognize
that formerly prevailed in military that the phrase ever takes that form.
phrases such as r. march, column of r. But most people say roost and not
roast', they have never heard of rule
rowan. The OED gives rô'ân as the the roast, and think that the refer-
English and row'ân as the Scottish ence is to a cock keeping his hens
pronunciation, but the latter is now in order. Against this tempting
common in England also. piece of popular etymology the OED
rumbustious 532 sac
offers us nothing more succulent than way strike of 1912. Neither is con-
'None of the early examples throw vincing; there is no need to look fur-
any light on the precise origin of the ther for an explanation than the
expression'. In seven out of the eight figurative use of sabot, at least a hun-
pre-i8th-c. examples quoted the spell- dred years old, for any scamped or
ing is not roast but rost or roste; but botched piece of work; hence by the
the OED philologists would doubtless end of the 19th c. sabotage had come
tell us that rost(e) is more likely to to mean anything done maliciously by
represent Old-French rost (roast) than workmen, especially by way of bad
Old-English hrost (roost). Writers workmanship, to injure their em-
should take warning, at any rate, that ployers' interests. Once established in
rule the roast is the orthodox spelling, the English language, it quickly be-
and that when they have written it the came a VOGUE WORD, especially for
compositor must be watched. But the supporters of any project to
rule the roost is so much commoner, apply to people who successfully
and to most of us seems so much opposed it—a synonym for such
more intelligible, that the day may words as obstruct, frustrate, wreck,
come when we shall not be able destroy. It is properly used only
to write roast without being suspected in contexts appropriate to its essential
Of DIDACTICISM. implication of malice and disloyalty;
perhaps one of the reasons for its
rumbustious. See ROBUSTIOUS. popularity is that it enables its users
to imply a charge of malice without
run. For fresh-run salmon etc., see actually making one. Even within its
INTRANSITIVE P . P . proper implication of disloyalty it
ruridecanal. The pronunciation -dë~ is given plenty of work to do. In the
câ'nal is preferable to -de'canal. General Law Amendment Act passed
by the South African Parliament in
1962 the word is defined as including
any action that endangers law and
order, health, water, or electrical ser-
vices, medical, sanitary, or fire services,
' s . 1. For for conscience* sake etc., see food, the free movement of traffic and
SAKE.
postal communications, as well as
damage to property in certain cases,
2 . For Achilles'3 Jones's, etc., and for and
questionable uses of 's see POSSESSIVE and the illegal possession of weapons
explosives. That, as others have
PUZZLES.
said for other reasons, is really too
3. For such corrections as to use a much.
word of Coleridge instead of Coleridge's,
see OUT OF THE FRYING-PAN.
saccharin(e). See -IN AND -INE ; there
Sabbatic(al). Both forms are now is, however, some convenience in using
rare, except sabbatical in such phrases saccharin for the noun and saccharine
as s. term, s. year. See -IC(AL). (-en) for the adjective.
sabotage. The use in English of this sacerdotage. See FACETIOUS FORMA-
French word (n. and v.) in the sense TIONS.
of malicious damage by workmen to
their employers' property dates from sack, dismiss(al), having been on
the early 20th c. The origin of the record for well over a hundred years,
usage has been attributed to the prac- has earned promotion from the slang
tice of throwing sabots into machinery to the colloquial class. See also FIRE.
(cf. our 'throw a spanner into the sac, sack, sacque. Sac is a medical
works'), or, alternatively, to 'the cut- and biological word, not a dress-
ting of the shoes (sabots) holding the maker's or tailor's. For the garment,
railway lines' during the French rail- sack is the right form. The other
sacrilegious 533 salad days
spellings are pseudo-French, wrong in barking, speculating, parrying, wail-
différent degrees: there is no French ing, wheedling, or grunting whatever
word sacque; there is a French word they have to say'). But to put said
sac, but it is not, as the English sack is, before the words said (Said a Minister:
the name for a particular garment. 'American interests are not large enough
in Morocco to induce us to . . .') is not
sacrilegious is often misspelt from equally irreproachable. The sprightli-
confusion with religious and the anal- ness of it was indeed denounced as
ogy of the ordinary pronunciation of intolerable in the first edition of this
the noun (sacrilij). The pronunciation dictionary. It can no longer be called
-tjus is indeed so common that the that; we have to bear it whether we
dictionaries now recognize it as an like it or not, for it has become a
alternative to -ëjus. commonplace of popular journalism.
saga. Any of the narrative composi- An extension even more distasteful to
tions in prose that were written in old-fashioned people is the use of says
Iceland or Norway during the Middle so-and-so to introduce quotations in
Ages; in English use often applied to serious writing. (Says Dr. Johnson:
any tale of high adventure, and also, 'A writer of dictionaries is a harmless
following a fashion set by Galsworthy, drudge.') For further discussion and
to a series of novels of contemporary illustration of the points mentioned in
life in which the same characters this paragraph see the last section of
reappear. But there is an epic quality INVERSION.
in the word that should be respected, sail. For plain sailing, see PLAIN. By
and save it from the VULGARIZATION of
being applied to a strip cartoon. One the side of the usual but etymologically
suspects she would have figured in one abnormal sailor, the normal agent-
of Flook's sagas, if Flook had only met noun sailer exists for use in such con-
her. texts as She (ship) is a slow sailer.
Saint. St or 5 . is better than St. for
sage. For the s. of Chelsea, see the abbreviation (see PERIOD IN ABBR.) ;
SOBRIQUETS. PI. Sts or S S .
said. i. 5 . = aforesaid. 2 . 5 . he etc. St. Stephen's. See SOBRIQUETS.
1. (The) said. In legal documents, sake. For God's s., for mercy's s., for
phrases like 'the s. Robinson', ' s . Jones's s.,for Phyllis's s. ; but when the
dwelling-house', are traditional pre- enclosed word is a common noun with
cautions against any possible ambi- a sibilant ending, whose possessive is
guity that may lurk in he and it. a syllable longer than its subjective,
Jocose imitation of this use (regaling the s of the possessive is not used ; an
themselves on half-pints at the s. village apostrophe is sometimes, but not
hostelries), once common, but now in- always, written; for conscience s., for
dulged in only by writers desperately goodness' s.,for their office s., for peace's.
anxious to relieve conscious dullness, is
to be classed with WORN-OUT HUMOUR salad days (one's raw youth) is one of
2 . Said he etc. Said he, said So-and- the phrases whose existence depends
so, placed after the words spoken, is on single passages (see Ant. and Chop.
entirely unobjectionable ; the ingenuity I. v. 73 My s. d. when I was green in
displayed by some writers in avoiding judgement). Whether the point is that
what they needlessly fear will bore youth, like salad, is green and raw, or
their readers is superfluous ('One of that salad is highly flavoured and youth
the only attempts at a literary heighten- loves high flavours, or that innocent
ing of effect', says a famous critic about herbs are youth's food as milk is babes'
a popular mid-20th c. novel, 'is the and meat is men's, few of those who
substitution for the simple "said" of use the phrase could perhaps tell us;
other more pretentious verbs—so that if so, it is fitter for parrots' than for
the characters are always shrilling, human speech.
sal(e)able 534 sanction
sal(e)able. See MUTE E. settled, and consequently any further
discussion on s. is pure waste of time. /
saline. Pronounce sâ'lïn, and see -IN In view of the dissatisfaction caused by
AND -INE a n d FALSE QUANTITY. the management in dealing with the
salivary. Pronounce sâ'lïvârï, and wage application and the antiquated
system of labour relations we feel that
s e e FALSE QUANTITY.
immediate steps should be taken to
salve. The noun and verb meaning remedy t. s. Did the writer of the last
remedy ought strictly to be pro- quotation fall back on the same because
nounced sahv. The verb meaning save the choice between it and them would
or rescue is an entirely separate one, have faced him with the problem of
a BACK-FORMATION from salvage, pro- making up his mind what the pro-
nounced sâlv. It is no doubt because noun's antecedent was?
the first is now usually mispronounced
salv that salvage has assumed the role samurai. Pronounce sâ'moorï. PI.
of a verb and is displacing the second. same.
The Latin word meaning Hail!, and sanat-, sanit-. The chief words, as
used chiefly as the name of a R.-C. they should be spelt, are: sanatorium
antiphon, is pronounced sà'lvë. a healing-place ; sanative and sanatory
curative; sanitary conducive to public
sal volatile. Pronounce sâl vôlà'tïlï. health; sanitation measures to secure
public health; sanitarian one who fav-
s a m e . 5 . or the s., in the sense the ours sanitary reform. Sanitarium is the
aforesaid thing(s) or person(s), as a usual U.S. word for sanatorium; sani-
substitute for a pronoun (it, him, her, torium, sanatorium, and sanitory, do
them, they) was once good English, not exist.
abundant in the Bible and the Prayer
Book, but is now an ARCHAISM, surviv- sanction, n. The popular sense (per-
ing mainly in legal documents and mission, authorization, countenance,
COMMERCIALESE; a modern example of consent) has made such inroads into
the latter is This charge was an error the more original senses still current
and we have struck same from our books. especially in Law and Ethics that it is
We enclose a revised account and trust worth while to draw attention to these.
you will now be able to pass same. But They have had a popular revival,
it is by no means confined to law and especially in the phrase economic
commerce. It has the peculiarity sanctions, as a possible method of
that it occurs chiefly in writing, not enforcing decisions of the League of
often in speech, and yet is avoided by Nations and its successor the United
all who have any skill in writing. In Nations. The s. of a rule or a system
all the extracts below, as well as in the is the consideration that operates to
letter quoted above, the writers would enforce or induce compliance with it;
have shown themselves much more at judicial punishment is the s. of the law
their ease if they had been content with against breaches of it. The OED
it, them, or other pronoun. Shops filled quotes from T. Fowler: 'Physical ss.
to the doors with all kinds of merchan- are the pleasures and pains which
dise and people eager to acquire t.s./If follow naturally on the observance or
not directly, at least through the official violation of physical laws, the ss. em-
presence of their representatives, or by ployed by society are praise and blame,
a chosen delegation of t. s. / «SzV,— the moral ss. . . . are . . . the approval
Having in mind the approaching General and disapproval of conscience; lastly,
Election, it appears to me that the result the religious ss. are either the fear of
of s. is likely to be as much a farce as the future punishment, and the hope of
last. I I again withdraw the statements, future reward, or, to the higher reli-
and express my regret for having made gious sense, simply the love of God,
t. s. / / consider this question as already and the dread of displeasing Him.'
sand-blind 535 satire
sand-blind is neither (like, say, pur- sapor, apart from its use in medicine,
blind) a current word, nor (like, say, is a merely LITERARY WORD; for the
bat-blind) intelligible at sight. Its mod- spelling -or, see -OUR AND -OR.
ern existence depends on one passage
(Af. of V. II. ii. 35-80), and it can rank sarcasm does not necessarily involve
only as an ARCHAISM. The latest quota- irony, and irony has often no touch of
tion in the OED is dated 1905, But sarcasm. But irony, or the use of ex-
there is a sort of sand-blindness endemic pressions conveying different things
in the Liberal party just now. Sand is according as they are interpreted, is
now generally taken to be a corruption so often made the vehicle of s., or the
of OE 5am = half. If so, the appear- utterance of things designed to hurt
ance of the word misled both Shake- the feelings, that in popular use the
speare ( This is my true-begotten father, two are much confused. The essence
who, being more than sand-blind, high of s. is the intention of giving pain by
gravel blind, knows me not) and Dr. (ironical or other) bitter words. See
also IRONY, and HUMOUR.
Johnson, whose definition is Having a
defect in the eyes by which small par- sardine (stone; Rev. iv. 3). Pronounce
ticles appear to fly before them. sar'dïn. It is probably an error for
sanguine has been virtually put out sardius, a variety of cornelian, which is
of business by the very inferior OPTI- substituted for it in the R.V. and the
MISTIC. Candour, however, compels N.E.B.
the admission that optimism and opti- sardonic. See HUMOUR for some
mist have the advantage in mechanical rough distinction between this, cynical,
convenience over sanguineness and san- sarcastic, etc.
guine person.
sartorial. See PEDANTIC HUMOUR.
Sanhedrim, -in. 'The incorrect form
sanhedrim . . . has always been in Eng- satellite. The word is now much to
land (from the 17th c.) the only form the fore in more than one sense—5.
in popular use'—OED. states, earth s., s. towns. Primarily it
means (from Lat. satelles) a member
sans. As an English word, pronounce of a body-guard of an important per-
sânz; but it is at best WARDOUR-STREET sonage, often with an implication of
English: The poet whom he met sans subservience; it is therefore applied
hat and coat one four-6'clock-in-the- with singular aptness to the s. states
morning. of the Soviet Union. Its use for a
secondary body revolving round a
Santa Claus is from a Dutch-dialect planet is nearly as old. Its adjectival
form of Saint {Ni)cholas and there can use for towns built to absorb some of
be no good reason for preferring it to the population and industries of over-
our Father Christmas. crowded cities is recent; it reflects the
idea of 'hangers-on' implicit in the
sapid, unlike its negative insipid, is original meaning and is a legitimate
a merely LITERARY WORD. extension.
sapient. Except in the expression satiety. Pronounce sâtï'ëtï.
homo sapiens is chiefly a LITERARY
WORD, and usually ironical, e.g. M. satire. For rough distinction from
Arnold's doctor who shakes his s. head some near-synonyms, see HUMOUR.
and gives the ill he cannot cure a name, Here it may be added that s. has
and T. S. Eliot's sapient sutlers of the recently been suffering VULGARIZATION .
Lord. A word that suggests the powers of an
Aristophanes, a Juvenal, or a Swift,
saponaceous, apart from its use in and an impulse of saeva indignatio is
chemistry, is a favourite POLYSYLLABIC prostituted when it is applied to mere
HUMOUR word. snook-cockers of whom it has been said
satiric(al) 536 save
by one critic, jealous for the integrity The word is originally plural, but,
of the word, that their only concern is being the name of a festival, comes to
to 'find someone who is doing some- be construed, both in literal and meta-
thing—no matter who, no matter what phorical use, more often as singular
—and fling a few insults at him', and by (the S. was, or were, at hand; now
another that their conception of follows a s. of crime). When a real
satire is 'a cannibal dance round the plural is required (the sack of Magde-
idea of authority'. burg, the French Revolution, and other
such s. of slaughter), the form is -ia
satiric(al). The senses addicted to, not -ias.
intending, good at, marked by, satire
are peculiar to the long form (a -al satyr. See FAUN for distinctions.
rogue; you are pleased to be -al; with
-al comments; a -al glance). In the save (except). 1. For s. and except,
merely classifying sense of or belong- see PLEONASM 2 . 2 . Trench (English
ing to satire {the poems of Pope; Synonyms, 4th éd., 1858), writing on
'except, excepting, but, save', has no
the Latin writers), either form more to say of the last than that
may be used, but -ic is commoner. ' "Save" is almost exclusively limited
This DIFFERENTIATION might well be to poetry'. He would have a surprise
hastened by deliberate support; but if he were to see a modern newspaper;
the line of demarcation between the we can still say that it ought to be al-
two groups is not always clear. See most limited to poetry, but no longer
-IC(AL).
that it is. Though nearly everyone uses
satiric, satyric. The two spellings except or but, not s., in speaking, and
represent two different and uncon- perhaps everyone in thinking, and
nected words; satyric, which is in though the natural or 'dominant' word
learned or literary use only, means except is neither undignified nor in-
of satyrs, and especially, in s. drama, ferior in clearness, some people seem
a form of Greek play having a satyr to have made up their minds that it is
chorus. not good enough for print, and very
mistakenly prefer to translate it, ir-
satisfy. There is ample authority, respective of context, into s, making
going back several centuries, for the s. a FORMAL WORD, like the police-
use of s. in the sense of 'to furnish with man's proceed for go. No doubt it
sufficient proof or information; to set is natural to fall back on s. to avoid
free from doubt or uncertainty' (OED). a jingle such as Permission will not be
But this meaning sometimes clashes granted except in very exceptional cir-
with that of to please or content; the cumstances. But does anyone not a
fact of which one is satisfied in one writer—and does any good writer—
sense may be far from satisfactory in think that the substitution of the
the other. For this reason it is un- formal s. for the natural except in the
fortunate that, especially in official following sentences (or but in the first
pronouncements, the word convinced of them) has improved them? The
seems to be forgotten, and satisfied is handful of ship's officers could do nothing
becoming the standard way of an- s. summon the aid of a detachment of the
nouncing factual conclusions. Perhaps Civic Guard. / The spur proved to be so
its extra syllable seems to give it a more admirably adapted to its purpose that
authoritative air. An announcement of it has existed unaltered, s. in detail, to
the type in which convinced would have the present day. / So completely sur-
been more suitable is The rescue party, rounded by other buildings as to be
on returning to the surface, said they absolutely invisible—s. from a balloon
were satisfied that there was no possi- or an aeroplane. / The baby takes no
bility of any more of the men being found special harm, s. that it is allowed to do
alive. as it likes, and begins to walk too soon. /
The increased rates will take effect on
Saturnalia. See LATIN PLURALS 3.
save 537 say
the Underground lines, s. on one stretch The truth is perhaps that conscious
between Bow and Barking. deliberate Saxonism is folly, that the
choice or rejection of particular words
save, v. S. the mark (with variants should depend not on their descent
God s., bless, God bless, the mark) is a but on considerations of expressive-
stylistic toy, of which no one can be ness, intelligibility, brevity, euphony,
said to know the original meaning, or ease of handling; at the same time
though different people make different any writer who becomes aware that the
guesses at it. The OED's description Saxon or native English element in
of it, as it now survives, is : 'In modern what he writes is small will do well
literary use (after some of the examples to take the fact as a danger-signal.
in Shakespeare), an expression of im- But the way to act on that signal is
patient scorn appended to a quoted not to translate his Romance words
expression or to a statement of fact.' into Saxon ones ; it is to avoid abstract
and roundabout and bookish phrasing
saw has p.p. sawn, rarely sawed. whenever the nature of the thing to be
said does not require it.
Saxonism and anti-Saxonism. Anti-Saxonism is not, like Saxonism,
Saxonism is a name for the attempt a creed. There are indeed, properly
to raise the proportion borne by the speaking, no anti-Saxonists. The term
originally and etymologically English is here used as a name for the frame of
words in our speech to those that come mind that turns away not so much
from alien sources. The Saxonist forms from the etymologically English voca-
new derivatives from English words to bulary as from the homely or the
displace established words of similar simple or the clear. It is a practice and
meaning but Latin descent; revives a propensity that go far to account for
obsolete or archaic English words for the follies of Saxonism. Happenings
the same purpose; allows the genea- and birdlore and bodeful and the like
logy of words to decide for him which are the products of a healthy revulsion
is the better of two synonyms. Exam- from the turgid taste that finds satisfac-
ples of the first kind are FOREWORD tion in such words as adumbrate,
(earliest OED quotation, 1842) for ameliorate, and eventuate, and in the
preface, and birdlore (1830) for ornitho- many other ways that are described in,
logy, and BODEFUL (1813) for ominous; for instance, ABSTRACTITIS, AVOIDANCE
of the second, BETTERMENT for im- OF THE OBVIOUS, LOVE OF THE LONG
provement, HAPPENINGS for events, WORD, PEDANTIC HUMOUR, PERIPHRASIS,
english for translate (into English), and -TiON WORDS. That the meaning of
FOLK for people, and FOREBEAR for many of the words and phrases fav-
ancestor; of the third, BELITTLE for oured by the anti-Saxonist is vague is
depreciate, burgess or burgher for a recommendation to one kind of
citizen. The wisdom of this writer as saving him the trouble of
nationalism in language—at least in so choosing between words of more pre-
thoroughly composite a language as cise meaning, and to one kind of
English—is very questionable. We reader as a guarantee that clear thought
may well doubt whether it benefits the is not going to be required of him.
language; that it does not benefit the
style of the individual, who may or say. 1. Except as a poeticism, the
may not be prepared to sacrifice him- noun survives only in such phrases as
self for the public good, is pretty clear. to have a s. (to have the right to be
Here is the opinion of the Dictionary consulted) and to have said one's s. (to
of National Biography on Freeman's
English: 'His desire to use so far as have finished expressing one's opinion).
possible only words which are purely 2 . The use of the verb's imperative to
English limited his vocabulary and introduce an hypothesis or an approxi-
was some drawback to his sentences.' mation (Let us meet soon—say next
Monday ; You will need some cash—say
saying 538 scene
£5) is established idiom. 3. The ordi- such avoidance is a case of OUT OF THE
nary pronunciation of says (v.) is sez, FRYING-PAN.
and it is odd that many writers of fic-
tion, including Kipling, should spell it scarcely. 1. S. . . . than. 2. Not
sez in dialogue by way of indicating etc. . . . s.
Irish brogue. 4 . For said or says So- 1. S. . . . than. S. was the nice new
and-so see SAID. drainfinished than several of the children
sickened with diphtheria. For this con-
saying. 'As the s. is', or 'goes', is often struction, condemned in OED (s.v.
used by simple people, speaking or than) as erroneous, see HARDLY 2 . The
writing, who would fain assure us that ANALOGY of no sooner . . . than is no
the phrase they have allowed to pro- doubt responsible. Before or when is
ceed from their lips or pen is by no what should be used with scarcely.
means typical of their taste in lan- 2 . Not etc. . . . s. We most of us feel
guage; it only happens to be 'so safe against even saying ' I don't s.
expressive' that one may surely con- know', with not and s. in hand-to-hand
descend to it for once. Well, qui conflict; but, if a little space intervenes,
s'excuse s'accuse; if the rest of their and the negative is disguised, the same
behaviour does not secure them from absurdity is not very rare in print : The
insulting suspicions, certainly the apo- services of the men who have worked the
logy will not. See SUPERIORITY. railway revolution without the travel-
ling public being scarcely aware that we
scabies. Now usually two syllables: are at war should not be forgotten, j It
skâ'bëz. See -IES, -EIN. has been impossible to tell the public s.
anything about American naval co-
scallop, sco-. The spelling is usually operation with the British. The English
with -a-, but the pronunciation with for without s. realizing is either s.
-o-. The verb makes -oping, -oped; see realizing, or without quite realizing, or
- p - , -PP-. not fully realizing.
scandalum magnatum. The second scarf. The dictionaries have not yet
word is the genitive plural of Latin decided whether to prefer the plural
magnas a magnate, not a p.p. agreeing -fs or -ves. In practice, -ves is probably
with scandalum. The phrase means the more usual for the article of clothing,
offence of uttering a malicious report and -fs is invariable for the carpentry
against some high official, and the use term.
of it in such senses as 'a crying scandal'
is a blunder. scavenge(r), w . Scavenger, n., is the
origin, in English, from which to
scant, adj., is a LITERARY WORD, pre- scavenge is a BACK-FORMATION, the
ferred in ordinary contexts to scanty, normal verb being to scavenger; cf. to
small, few, short, etc., only by those soldier, to filibuster, to buccaneer, to
who have no sense of incongruity ( The privateer, to mountaineer, to volun-
attendance was so scant as to suggest that teer, to solder, to bicycle, and hun-
many members must have anticipated the dreds of other verbs that are in fact
holiday). It survives as a current word, verbal uses of nouns. Scavenge, how-
however, in some isolated phrases, ever, is now much commoner than
as s. courtesy, s. attention, s. regard, and, scavenger as the verb.
echoing Hamlet's mother, s. of breath.
scena (mus.)- Pronounce shâ'nah. But
scarce, adv., used instead of scarcely, the cognate and commoner scenario is
is a LITERARY WORD. It is true that the now anglicized into sënârio, at least in
OED says : 'Before adverbs in -ly the the world of films.
form scarce is often adopted instead of
scarcely, to avoid the iteration of the scene. For synonyms in the sense
suffix.' On that iteration, see -LY; but locale, see FIELD.
sceptic(al) 539 science and art
sceptic(al), scepsis, etc. The estab- by the unlearned with sciolist, a super-
lished pronunciation is sk-, whatever ficial pretender to knowledge.
the spelling; and with the frequent
modern use of septic and sepsis (the school (of fish etc.), shoal. The two
latter a I9th-c. word only), it is well words are etymologically one, and
that it should be so for fear of con- equally unconnected with the ordinary
fusion. But to spell sc- and pronounce word school; both are also current, and
sk~ is to put a needless difficulty in the without difference of sense except that
way of the unlearned, for see- is ordi- school is more usual for the cetacea;
narily pronounced se even in words a school of porpoises but a shoal of
where the c represents a Greek k, e.g. herring.
scene and its compounds and ascetic. sciagraphy etc., ski-. The regular
America spells sk-; we might pocket representative in English of Greek sk~
our pride and copy. (here OKICL shadow) is sc-'s but it is
schedule. Pronounce she'did in Bri- legitimate to pronounce c as k, cf.
tain; skë'dùl in U.S. SCEPTIC. This particular set of words
has been taken into English twice—in
schismatic(al). See -IC(AL). The the 16th c. as terms in perspective,
short form is now ordinarily used for usually with the spelling sc-, and in
the noun, and the long one for the the 19th as equivalent to radiography
adjective. etc., usually with the spelling sk-. To
schist. Pronounce sh~. The apparent maintain both the sc- and the sk- forms
inconsistencies of English treatment would have been very unsatisfactory,
of Greek words are well illustrated by and, with radiography in existence,
schism (si-), schist (shï-), and the schizo- also needless. The X-ray sense has
compounds (ski- or skt-), all being from now been properly abandoned to the
the same Greek word. The explanation radio- words and the scia- words are
is that only the last were consciously restricted to their older use in perspec-
taken direct from Greek ; the other two tive, spelt only sc- and pronounced sk-.
came to us through French (scisme and
schiste). science and a r t . S. knows, a. does;
a s. is a body of connected facts, an a.
schizomycetes. See MICRO-ORGAN- is a set of directions; the facts of s.
ISMS. (errors not being such) are the same
scholar. Though there is no apparent for all people, circumstances, and oc-
reason why s. and 55. should not mean casions; the directions of a. vary with
pupil(s) at a school, schoolboy, school- the artist and the task. But, as there
girl, schoolchildren, etc., it is some- is much traffic between s. and a., and,
thing of a solecism to use them in those especially, a. is often based on s., the
senses. A scholar at a school or univer- distinction is npt always clear; the a.
sity is a pupil who holds a scholarship, of self-defence, and the boxer's s.—
or, more loosely, one who is of scholar- are they the same or different? The
ship standard intellectually, and the OED, on s. 'contradistinguished from
use of the word in the other sense art', says: 'The distinction as com-
implies that the user is unacquainted monly apprehended is that a s. is con-
with school idiom. It is the sincere cerned with theoretic truth, and an a.
hope of the council that its endeavour to with methods for effecting certain re-
promote the 'sport' in the schools will be sults. Sometimes, however, the term
recognized by the masters, and that they s. is extended to denote a department
will bring the proposed championships to of practical work which depends on
the notice of their scholars. the knowledge and conscious applica-
scholarly. For adverb see -LILY. tion of principles; an a., on the other
hand, being understood to require
scholiast, an ancient commentator on merely knowledge of traditional rules
a classical text, is liable to be confused and skill acquired by habit.'
scilicet 540 Scotch
scilicet, usually shortened to scil. or ing (or disabling) and killing is ex-
s e , is Latin (scire licet you may know) pressly drawn in five quotations given
for 'to wit'. It is not so often misused in the OED for the correct use, and is
as e.g. and i.e., not having been popu- understood to be implied even when it
larized to the same extent. Its function is not expressed. S., then, can say in
is to introduce : (a) a more intelligible six letters and in one syllable 'put tem-
or definite substitute, sometimes the porarily out of action but not destroy'
English, for an expression already —a treasure, surely, that will be
used: The policy of the I.W.W (sc. jealously guarded by the custodians
Independent Workers of the World); The of the language, viz. those who write.
Holy Ghost as Paraclete (scil. advo- But no; too many of them are so
cate); (b) a word or phrase that was delighted at finding in s. an uncommon
omitted in the original as unnecessary, substitute for such poor common
but is thought to require specifying for words as kill or destroy to remember
the present audience: Eye hath not that, if they have their way, the value
seen, nor ear heard (sc. the intent of of a precious word will be not merely
God). See also viz. scotched, but killed and destroyed, or,
as they would put it, 'finally scotched'.
scintilla is rarely used except in the Finally or entirely with s. should be, in
singular (a s. of doubt; not a s. of view of the history of 5., an impossi-
evidence) ; if a plural should be needed bility. But it is now to be met with
it is sufficiently at home to make -as often in the newspapers ; and, after all,
rather than -ae. a writer who, like the author of the
first extract below, does not know the
scleroma, sclerosis. PI. -5'mata, difference between a rumour and the
-5'ses (-ëz); see LATIN PLURALS 2 . The contradiction of a rumour, can hardly
derivation is from Gk. oK^pôs, hard. be expected to recognize so super-
Laymen should be on their guard subtle a distinction as that between
against calling the disease scelerosis as wounding and killing : The contradic-
though it had something to do with tion of a rumour affecting any particular
Lat. scelerosus, wicked. company, although it may have a certain
scon(e). The spelling scone, and the effect upon the price of shares at the
pronunciation skdn, are given prefer- time, is seldom entirely scotched by
ence by the OED ; but in Scotland, its directorial statements. / Nine months
land of origin, the pronunciation is have gone by since the Crown Estate
skôn, and English people who know Commissioners finally scotched rumours
this so pronounce it. The place is pro- that wholesale demolition of the Nash
Terraces in Regents Park was contem-
nounced Skoon. plated. I The idea is so preposterous
scope. For synonyms see FIELD. that by the time this is in print it may
be definitely scotched. These writers
score, n. (= 20). See COLLECTIVES 5. might perhaps plead that they were
scoria is a singular noun, pi. -iae; but, not using Macbeth's word but drew
as the meaning of the singular and of their metaphor from the scotch, thought
the plural is much the same (cf. ash to be of different origin, that is placed
and ashes, clinker and clinkers), it is no under a wheel to prevent it from
wonder that the singular is sometimes moving. But the plea is not con-
wrongly followed by a plural verb ( The vincing, and they cannot escape the
scoria were still hot etc.), or that a false reproach of having in fact blunted the
singular scorium is on record. point of a useful word.
scotch. This verb owes its currency
entirely to the sentence in Macbeth— Scotch, Scots, Scottish. 1. (as
'We have scotch'd the snake, not kill'd adjj.). The third represents most
it' (Theobald's famous emendation of closely the original form, the first and
scorch'd). The contrast between scotch- second being the contractions of it
Scot 541 sear
adopted in England and Scotland s c r i m m a g e , scru-. The form with
respectively. Scottish is still both good -u-, abbreviated to scrum, is preferred
English and good Scotch. The English in rugby football, that with -i- in more
form Scotch had (OED, 1914) 'before general uses.
the end of the 18th c. been adopted
into the northern vernacular; it is used scrip, script. The commonest uses of
regularly by Burns, and subsequently these words today are: scrip for the
by Scott. . . . Within the last half cen- provisional acknowledgement of a sub-
tury there has been in Scotland a scription to the capital of a company,
growing tendency to discard this form to be replaced eventually by a certifi-
altogether, Scottish, or less frequently cate; script for print that imitates
Scots, being substituted.' Regimental handwriting and handwriting that imi-
titles vary: the King's Own Scottish tates that kind of print, for the text of
Borderers and the Scottish Rifles, but a talk or play broadcast on radio or
the Scots Guards, the Royal Scots, the television, and, by examiners, for can-
Scots Fusiliers, and the Scots Greys. didates' written answers. Both are
Scots law and pound Scots are the only derived from Latin scribere and have
forms. Out of deference to the Scots- no connexion with the obsolete scrip
man's supposed dislike of Scotch, that meaning a pilgrim's wallet. See also
word has been falling into disuse in LONGHAND.
England also, but it remains in both
countries in numerous associations,
e.g. whisky, broth, tweed, mist, terrier, scrumptious. See FACETIOUS FORMA-
fir. TIONS.
2 (as nn.). For the name of the Scotch scull, skull. The one-handed oar
dialect, the noun Scottish is little used; has sc-, the cranium sk-. The notion
Scotch is the English noun, and Scots that the words are ultimately the same
the usual Scotch one. is discountenanced by the OED,
though Skeat derived both from Ice-
Scot, Scots(wo)man, Scotch(wo)- landic skal, a hollow, the scull being so
man. Englishmen use the third forms called on account of the shape of its
by habit, the first sometimes for brev- blade.
ity or for poetical or rhetorical or
jocular effect, and the second occasion-
ally in compliment to a Scottish hearer, sea. 5 . change. Suffer a s. c. is one of
Scots- being (OED) 'the prevalent the most importunate and intrusive of
form now used by Scotch people'. IRRELEVANT ALLUSIONS, and HACK-
NEYED PHRASES. We hope that the
scot(t)icism. The usual spelling is Prime Minister will on this occasion
-tt-. stick to his guns, and see that his policy
does not for the third or fourth time
scout, gyp. College servants at Ox- suffer a s. c. when its execution falls
ford and Cambridge respectively. into the hands of his colleagues. On the
hyphening of sea- compounds see
scream, screech, shriek. The first is
the 'dominant' word for a cry uttered, HYPHENS.
under emotion, at a higher pitch than
that which is normal with the utterer. seal. For some synonyms, see SIGN.
Those who wish to intensify the pitch
and the emotion substitute shriek', seamstress, semps-. The OED
those who wish either to add the
notion of uncanny effect, or to make treats the first as the word, and the
fun of the matter, substitute screech. second as the variant.
sear, sere. Sear for the nouns (part
screw your courage to the sticking-place of gunlock, mark of burn), and for the
(not point) ; MISQUOTATION. verb (burn); sere for the adjective
seasonable 542 seem
(withered). Sere and yellow is a favour- logy that derives the word from the
ite with the PEDANTIC HUMORIST. Latin seco (cut)—called by Skeat 'base-
less and unworthy of serious mention'
seasonable, seasonal. These adjec- —is naturally interpreted as giving 'a
tives are fully differentiated: -able part cut away' from a Church etc., and
means appropriate to the time of year, so a company of schismatics. Accord-
especially seasonable weather, or, more ing to the first, and probably correct,
generally, opportune; -al means de- derivation, the Church of England, or
pending on or varying with the the Roman Catholic Church, may be
seasons, e.g. seasonal employment. called a s. without offence to its mem-
OED Supp. quotes this example of bers, according to the second it will
the misuse of seasonable for seasonal: not.
Persons engaged in seasonable trades in
which the duration of seasonable employ- secundum quid. See SIMPLICITER.
ment is too short to enable them to qualify sedilia. Pronounce sëdt'lyâ. A plural
for benefit. noun, rarely used in singular (sedile,
second. I . 5 . chamber. 2. S. floor. pr. sëdï'lë).
3. 5 . (-)hand etc. 4 . 5 . intention. see, bishopric, diocese. A bishopric
5. S. sight. 6. S., v. (mil.). is the office belonging to a bishop;
1. S. chamber, in a parliament, is the a diocese is the district administered
upper house, as concerned chiefly with by a bishop; a see is (the chair that
rejection, confirmation, and revision. symbolizes) a bishop's authority over
2 . For s. floor and s. storey, see FLOOR. a particular diocese. A b. is conferred
3. 5". (-)hand etc. The second-hand of on, a d. is committed to, a s. is filled
a watch is so written. The adjective by, such and such a man. My prede-
meaning not new or original is best cessors in the see', All the clergy of the
written as one word, but if with two diocese', Scheming for a bishopric.
they should be hyphened (secondhand
clothing or information). The adverb seek. For two abuses to which the
should be two words unhyphened word is liable, see FORMAL WORDS, and
(always buys s. hand; heard only at s. DOUBLE PASSIVES.
hand). So too with other s. compounds : seem. 1. Pleonasms with s. 2 . Seem-
s.-class carriage but travel s. class; s.- (ed) to (have) be(en). 3. To my etc.
best bed but come off s. best. See seeming. 4 . As seem(s) to be the case.
HYPHENS. 1. Pleonasms. These conclusions, it
4 . For s. intention, see INTENTION. seems to me, appear to be reached
5. 5 . sight. Two words unhyphened; naturally. Such absurdities are not
see HYPHENS. uncommon with s.; see PLEONASM 4,
6. The verb s. in its technical military and HAZINESS.
sense is pronounced sëko'nd. 2 . For the very common confusion
secretive (pronunciation). The OED between seem(s) to have been and
gives only sëkrê'tïv; but së'krëtïv has seemed to be see PERFECT INFINITIVE 3.
3. To my etc. seeming. An example of
since gained ground, and the COD
puts it first. Probably those who con- the unsuitable use of this idiom is From
ceive the meaning as fond of secrets wherever he may start, he is sure to bring
us out very presently into the road along
say së'krëtïv, and those who conceive which, to his seeming, our primitive
it as given to secreting say sëkrê'tïv. ancestors must have travelled. The
See RECESSIVE ACCENT.
phrase to my etc. seeming has been
sect is a word whose sense is to some good English in its time; its modern
extent affected by its user's notion of representative is to my etc. think-
its etymology. The OED favours Latin ing, and to his seeming will pass
sequor (follow) as the origin, so that s. only in archaic writing. That the
would mean a following, i.e. a com- author of the extract is an archaizer is
pany of followers. The popular etymo- plain independently, from the phrase
seemly 543 self-
'very presently' (see PRESENTLY); but but in the legal phrases to s. a person
he has no business to be archaizing in of, i.e. put him in possession of, and
a sentence made unsuitable for it by to be -ed of, i.e. to possess, the -s-
the essentially unarchaic 'primitive spelling is usual. Mistakes are some-
ancestors'. times made over the preposition. With
4. As seem{s) to be the case. An should have been of in It must not be
example of the wrong use of the thought that the cooperative movement
plural is How can the Labour Ministry was satisfied that the Labour Party was
acquire proper authority if it has powers fully seised either with their deeds or
so limited as seem to be the case? To needs.
write as seem to be the case is al- self. As both self and wife were fond
ways wrong, because the relative of seeing life, we decided that . . . / He
pronoun as, for which see AS 5, ruined himself and family by his con-
never represents an expressed plural tinued experiments. Correct the first to
noun (such as powers here), but always both I and my wife, and the second to
a singular notion like fact or state of himself and his family. Such uses of s.
affairs, and that not expressed, but are said by the OED to be 'jocular or
extracted out of other words. As seems colloquial' extensions of a 'commer-
to be the case is, then, the only right cial' idiom (e.g. your good self, see
form of the phrase; but even that will COMMERCIALESE); and, unless the jocu-
not do here, because it involves the lar intent is unmistakable, they are
doubling of two parts by as, that of the best avoided. So is the common use
relative adverb, indispensable after the of myself for / or me when in associa-
preceding so, and that of the relative tion with someone else—My partner
pronoun required by the otherwise and myself will be glad to see you. The
subjectless verb seems. What has hap- use of myself without / in the subjec-
pened is this. The writer wanted to tive case {Myself when young did eagerly
say if it has powers so limited as its frequent) is now poetical only. The
powers seem to be. He shied at the word is best confined to its uses as a
repetition of powers, and felt about for reflexive or for emphasis. / have hurt
as seems to be the case as a substitute, myself. / / did it myself. / / can manage
though he forgot to alter seem to seems. by myself. I I am quite myself again.
But, since so makes the relative pro- But when a personal pronoun has been
noun as impossible, the true solution preceded by the same word used as
was to let the as be a relative adverb, a possessive adjective the addition of
writing if its powers are so limited as self may make a sentence run more
they seem to be. smoothly, e.g. The difficult relations
seemly. For the adverb, see -LILY. between her father, her mother, and
her{self).
seigneur etc. Spellings recognized in
the OED are seigneur, seignior; self-. Self- compounds (sometimes
seigneuress ; seigneury, seigneurie, invented) are often used when the
seign(i)orage, seign(i)ory; seigneurial, self- adds nothing to the meaning.
seign(i)or(i)al. The pronunciation in Agricultural depression and the rural
all begins with s an followed by the y exodus had made village life self-
sound. Differences in meaning or use despondent and anaemic. / Hence
between alternative forms (as seigneur it is self-evident that economic changes
and seignior, seigneury and seigniorage) in the agricultural system must greatly
cannot be detailed here, but exist and affect the general well-being. There
are sometimes of importance. could hardly be any difference of
meaning between despondent and self-
seise, seisin. Pronounce sëz, sê'ztn. despondent. Self-evident, on the other
The words are sometimes (but less hand, has its own valuable sense of
often) spelt -ze, -zin, and belong ety- evident without proof {res ipsa loqui-
mologically to the ordinary verb seize; tur, as the lawyers say) or intuitively
semantics 544 sense
certain; it should not be used in the through the work of I. A. Richards and
sense of no more than evident, without C. K. Ogden (notably their book The
any implication that proof is needless, Meaning of Meaning), it has since been
as hence shows that it has been in the greatly popularized, and, in spite of
above extract. Other words resem- excessive claims made for it by some
bling self-despondent in being never enthusiasts, has established itself not
preferable to the simple form with- only in philology but also in philo-
out self are self-collected (calm sophy and psychology. Postulating
etc.), self-conceit(ed), self-consistents that words 'mean' nothing by them-
self-diffidence, self-opinionated. And selves, and that 'the kind of simplifica-
others resembling self-evident in having tion typified by the once universal
a real sense of their own but being theory of direct meaning relation
often used when that sense is not in between words and things is the cause
place are self-assurance, self-complacent, of almost all the difficulties which
self-confidence, self-consequence. But thought encounters', it aims at remov-
these are samples only; there are ing the confusion between 'verbal'
scores of possible compounds that problems and 'real' ones and at fur-
a writer should not use without thering the use of words as instruments
first asking himself whether the of precision for the conveyance of
self- is pulling its weight. It is not thought from one mind to another.
to be supposed that the otiose use of
self- is a modern trick ; on the contrary, semi-. Compounds are innumerable,
the modern tendency is to abandon and restrictions little called for: but
many such compounds formerly preva- the claims of half-, which is often
lent, and the object of this article is better, should at least be considered:
merely to help on that sensible ten- This would be an immense gain over the
dency. On the other hand, the practice existingfashion of a multitude of churches
of affixing self- to a noun or an adjec- ill-manned and semi-filled. Pronounce
tival participle to mean automatically se- regardless of FALSE QUANTITY. See
is common and useful; Self-starter, also DEMI.
self-closing, self-raising, self-sealing. But semicolon. See STOPS.
it needs keeping in its place. This appa-
ratus self empties (to quote from an Semite. See HEBREW.
advertisement) is no more English sempstress. See SEAMSTRESS.
than This man self supports. On the
hyphening of self- compounds see senior. For the s. service, see SOBRI-
QUETS.
HYPHENS 6.
sensational means pertaining to or
perceptible by the senses. About the
semantics is the branch of the science middle of the 19th c. it acquired its
of linguistics that is concerned with special meaning of calculated to pro-
the meaning of words. The name is duce a violent impression, and in that
modern; it seems to have come into capacity it has been greatly in demand,
English from the publication in 1900 to the disgust of the purists. Its length
of Mrs. H. Cust's translation of the makes it unsuitable for modern popu-
Essai du Sémantique by the French lar journalese, and useless for the
philologist Michel Breal (1832-1915). headlines that now form so important
Unlike the many scientific terms that a part of the medium between the
are invented merely to give a new Press and its readers. But sensational
look to an old concept, this one is finding a new outlet : it is challenging
signified a new approach to what FABULOUS and fantastic for top place
had previously been called semasio- among the epithets by which adver-
logy. Its progress was at first slow; tisers hope to entice buyers.
all that the SOED said about seman-
tics in 1933 was that it was another sense, n. 5 . of humour is properly
term for the older word. But, largely the power of finding entertainment
sense 545 sensuous
in people's doings, especially in sensible, sensitive, susceptible. In
such of them as are not designed to certain uses, in which the point is the
entertain. But the phrase has received effect produced or producible on the
an extension, or perhaps rather a limi- person or thing qualified, the three
tation, that bids fair to supersede the words are near, though not identical, in
original meaning. When we say nowa- meaning. / am sensible of your kindness,
days that a person 'has no s. o. h.', or sensitive to ridicule, susceptible to beauty.
'lacks humour', we often mean less Formerly sensible could be used in all
that he is not alive to the entertainment three types of sentence; but its popular
provided by others' doings than that meaning as the opposite of foolish has
he is unaware of elements in his own become so predominant that we are no
conduct or character likely to stir the longer intelligible if we say a sensible
s. o. h. in others—has not, in fact, the person as the equivalent of a sensitive
gift of seeing himself as others see or a susceptible person, and even sensible
him even in the degree in which it is of is counted among LITERARY WORDS
possessed by the average man. though surviving as a cliché for the
opening of after-dinner speeches : I am
sense, v. We s. the tragedy of Anna deeply sensible of the honour you have
Wolsky as she steps light-heartedly into done me. . . . The difference between
Sylvia Bailey's life. / The water rail... sensible of, sensitive to, and susceptible
is somewhat unwieldy inflight, and senses to, is roughly that sensible of expresses
so much, for it seems to prefer to run. emotional consciousness, sensitive to
The verb has been used for some three acute feeling, and susceptible to quick
centuries in philosophic writing as a reaction to stimulus : profoundly, grate-
comprehensive form of 'see or/and fully, painfully, regretfully, sensible of;
hear or/and smell or/and taste or/and acutely, delicately, excessively, absurdly,
feel by touch', i.e. of 'have sense- sensitive to; readily, often, scarcely,
perception of. From that the use susceptible to. With of the meaning of
illustrated above is distinct, meaning susceptible is different; it is equivalent
according to the OED definition 'to to admitting or capable. A passage sus-
perceive, become aware of, "feel" ceptible of more than one interprétation;
(something present, a fact, state of an assertion not susceptible of proof.
things, etc.) not by direct perception
but more or less vaguely or instinc- sensitize is a word made for the needs
tively'. The OED's earliest example is of photography, and made badly. It
dated 1872, and the meaning has only should have been sensitivize; one might
recently become part of ordinary Eng- as well omit the adjective ending of
lish. It has the advantage of brevity as immortal, signal, fertile, human, and
compared with become conscious of, liberal, and say immortize, signize, fer-
get an inkling of, and other possibilities ; tize, humize, and liberize, as leave out
and that is no doubt the reason why it the -ive. The photographers, however,
has largely overcome the irritation and have made their bed, and must lie in
suspicion of preciosity which most it; the longer the rest of us can keep
readers at first felt—and some still feel clear, the better. But the OED quotes :
—when confronted with it. Education, while it sensitizes a man's
fibre, is incapable of turning weakness
into strength. Just as, failing pacificist,
sensibility. Just as ingenuity is not pacist would have been better than
ingenuousness, but ingeniousness (see pacifist (see -1ST), SO, failing sensitivize,
INGENIOUS), SO sensibility is not sen- sensize would have been better than
sibleness, but sensitiveness; to the sensitize.
familiar contrasted pair sense and sensi-
bility correspond the adjectives sensible sensuous is thought to have been
and sensitive—an absurd arrangement, expressly formed by Milton to convey
and doubtless puzzling to foreigners, what had originally been conveyed by
but beyond mending; -TY AND -NESS. the older sensual (connexion with the
sentence 546 sequelae
senses as opposed to the intellect) but 'such portion of a composition or utter-
had become associated in that word ance as extends from one full stop to
with the notion of undue indulgence another' (OED) or the meaning gram-
in the grosser pleasures of sense. At marians give it of a combination of
any rate Milton's own phrase 'simple, words in an analysable grammatical
sensuous, and passionate' in describing structure. Failure to distinguish be-
great poetry as compared with logic tween the two has been the cause of
and rhetoric has had much to do with much sterile argument about what the
ensuring that sensuous should remain word really means. The first seven of
free from the condemnation now in- these ten definitions take the 'popular'
separable from sensual. approach, the eighth and ninth the
'grammarians'. The tenth tries to
sentence is defined in every grammar reconcile the two by giving a gram-
book and every dictionary, but it would marians' definition with a procrustean
not be easy to find two that gave the device for fitting into it apparently
same définition, and some of them unconformable sentences of the 'popu-
make heavy weather of it. Here are lar' kind. It is more realistic to admit
some examples from standard works : that the two may be irreconcilable;
1. A word or set of words followed that what may suitably be placed be-
by a pause and revealing an intelligible tween one full stop and another may
purpose. lack even an elliptical grammatical
2 . A group of words which makes construction.
sense. Modern writers show greater free-
3. A combination of words which is dom than was once customary in what
complete as expressing a thought. they place in that position. And what
4. A collection of words of such kind of the will to power? J Finally on one
and arranged in such a manner as to small point. / So far so good, j So then. /
make some complete sense. Now for his other arguments. These,
5. A meaningful group of words that taken from scholarly writings by con-
is grammatically independent. temporary men of letters, cannot be
6. A complete and independent unit denied the right to be called sentences,
of communication, the completeness but it would be straining language to
and independence being shown by its say that they are elliptical in the sense
capability of standing alone, i.e. of that 'a subject or predicate or verb (or
being uttered by itself. more)' must be 'understood'. Gram-
7. A group of words, or in some marians are free to maintain that no
cases a single word, which makes a sequence of words can be called a s.
statement, or a command (or expres- unless it has a grammatical structure,
sion of wish), or a question or an but they should recognize that, except
exclamation. as a term of their art, the word has
8. A number of words making a broken the bounds they have set for it.
complete grammatical structure. For more on this subject see VERBLESS
9. A combination of words that con- SENTENCES, and on the danger of letting
tains at least one subject and one sentences get out of hand see HANGING
predicate. UP and TRAILERS.
10. A set of words complete in itself,
having either expressed or understood sentinel, sentry. The first is the
in it a subject and a predicate and wider and literary word, and the fitter
conveying a statement or question or for metaphorical use; the second is the
command or exclamation; if its subject modern military term.
or predicate or verb (or more) is
understood, it is an elliptical sentence. septcentenary. See CENTENARY.
These definitions show a difference of
approach, depending on whether 'sen- sequelae. A plural word with rare
tence' is given its popular meaning of singular sequela.
sequence of tenses 547 set(t)
sequence of tenses. I . A certain not knowing a parenthesis when one
assimilation normally takes place in sees it; see PARENTHESIS 3.
many forms of sentence, by which the
tense or mood of their verbs is changed seq., seqq., et seq(q)., are short for
to the past or conditional when they Latin et sequentes {versus) 'and the sub-
are made into clauses dependent on sequent Unes', or et sequentia 'and the
another sentence whose verb is past words etc. following'. The abbreviation
or conditional, even though no such differs from ETC. in two ways : et seq. is
notion needs to be introduced into the literary and etc. is not; and et seq.
clause. Thus, Two will do is a sentence; refers to words elsewhere specified;
turn it into a clause depending on I etc. may do so but is more likely to
think, and the tense remains unaltered : leave the reader to think of them for
/ think that two will do. Next, into one himself.
depending on / thought or / should
think; it becomes two would do; after seraglio. Pronounce serah'lyo. PI.
/ thought there is a change in the clause -os; see -O(E)S 4.
to past time, and therefore would do is sere. See SEAR.
not only normal, but invariable; after
the conditional / should think the con- sergeant, - j - . For the military and
ditional would do is also normal. But police rank, -g-; in legal titles (Com-
this is not invariable, s. of tense being mon S. etc.), -j-. In S. at arms, the
sometimes neglected and s. of mood official spelling is -j-.
often. Two will do ; / think that two will
do ; / thought that two would do ; I should serial. For the musical term see
think that two (normal sequence) would ATONAL.
do, or (vivid sequence) will do. (In
these examples, the usually omitted seri(ci)culture. The full form is the
that has been inserted merely to make right one etymologically but is not now
it clear that a real clause is meant, and used; cf. pacif(ic)ist in -1ST.
not a quotation such as / thought 'two serpent. See SNAKE.
will do'.) The point to be noticed is that
the change of tense or mood is normal service as a verb was unknown to the
s., and the keeping of it unchanged original OED ; its insertion in the 1933
(called vivid s. above) is, though com- Supp. is supported by a quotation from
mon and often preferable, abnormal. Stevenson's Catriona in which its
Further examples are: He explained meaning seems to differ little, if at all,
what relativity (normal) meant, or from that of serve. When used merely
(vivid) means; I should not wonder if he as an imposing synonym of that verb
(normal) came, or (vivid) comes. it must be condemned as a NEEDLESS
2 . Sequence out of place. One would VARIANT. But it has since established
imagine that these prices (normal) were, itself usefully in the special sense of
or (vivid) are, beyond the reach of the giving periodical attention to a mach-
poor; These prices, one would imagine, ine. That being so, the attempt to
are beyond etc. The base is These prices bring into currency a new verb servi-
are; if made dependent on One would cize is worse than useless.
imagine, are may be changed, or may
not, to were; but if one would imagine is sestet (te), sex-. The second is a late
a parenthesis instead of being the main variant of the first. The tendency today
verb, the change is impossible. Never- is to use ses- in prosody and sex- in
theless it happens: The shops have music. Spell -et.
never had such a display of Christmas
presents, but here again the prices, one set(t). The extra t is an arbitrary addi-
would imagine, were beyond the reach tion in various technical senses, from
of any but the richest persons. The a lawn-tennis to a granite set. Each
mistake, a common one, results from class of persons interested in some
special sense has doubtless added a t
severely 548 shall and will
to distinguish that sense from all figure 'cast' upon a surface by a body
others; but so many are the special intercepting light, a shadow; III. Pro-
senses that the distinction is now no tection from glare and heat. For
more distinctive than an ESQ. after a shadow. I . Comparative darkness;
man's name, and all would do well to II. Image cast by a body intercepting
discard it. Cf. the less futile matt for light; I I I . Shelter from light and heat.
MAT and nett for NET. The most significant point is that, in
II of shade, shadow is offered as a
severely. For leave s. alone, see definition of shade, without reciprocity
IRRELEVANT ALLUSION. There are in I I of shadow, the inference from
degrees of badness ; in the first of the which is that in division I I shadow is
two following extracts, for instance, s. the normal word, and shade excep-
is less pointless than in the other : That tional. This almost identity of mean-
immortal classic which almost all other ing, however, branches out into a
pianists are content to I. s. a. on the considerable diversity of idiom, one
topmost shelf. / If our imports and exports word or the other being more appro-
balance, exchanges will be normal, priate, or sometimes the only possi-
whatever the price, and I am glad that bility, in certain contexts. The details
Mr. Mason agrees that exchanges of this diversity are too many to be
should be left s. a. catalogued here, but it is a sort of clue
to remember that shadow is a piece of
sew. P.p. sewed or sewn. The first is, shade, related to it as, e.g., pool to
perhaps contrary to general belief, the water. So it is that shade is a state—
older form and (to judge by the OED viz. partial absence of light—and not
i9th-20th-c. examples) was then thought of as having a shape, nor
slightly the commoner. But sewn has usually as an appendage of some
since gained on it. opaque object, both which notions do
sew(er)age. It is best to use sewage attach themselves to shadow. So too
for the refuse, and sewerage for the we say light and shade but lights and
sewers or the sewer system. Sewage is shadows, in the shade but under a
defensible as a derivative of the for- shadow, and so too shady means full
merly recognized but now dialectal of shade, but shadowy like a shadow.
verb sew to ooze out. The use of shady in the sense 'of a
nature or character unable to bear the
sexcentenary. See CENTENARY. light, disreputable' dates from the mid
19th c.
sextet. See SESTET.
shade, n. For colour synonymy see Shakspere, Shakespear(e), -erian,
TINT. -earian, -ean, etc. The forms pre-
ferred by the OED are Shakspere,
shade, shadow, nn. It seems that the Shaksperian. It is a matter on which
difference in form may be fairly called unanimity is desirable, and it is un-
an accidental one, the first representing fortunate that the OED's verdict has
the nominative and the second the not been accepted as authoritative.
oblique cases of the same word. The But the preference today is un-
meanings are as closely parallel or doubtedly for Shakespeare. It is no
intertwined as might be expected from use trying to withstand a strong popu-
this original identity, the wonder being lar current in such a matter; even the
that, with a differentiation so vague, SOED has had to conform. Shake-
each form should have maintained its speare, Shakespearian are therefore
existence by the side of the other. The recommended.
OED's main heads of meaning are
three for each, one set hardly distin- shall and will, should and would.
guishable from the other. For shade. 1. Plain future. 2 . Plain conditional.
I. Comparative darkness; I I . A dark 3. / would like etc. 4 . Indefinite future
shall and will 549 shall and will
and relative. 5. Elegant variation. Perhaps we will soon be surfeited by the
6. 77zaf-clauses. unending stream of 'new' literature, and
'To use will in these cases is now will turn with relief to . . . / If we com-
a mark of Scottish, Irish, provincial, pare these two statements, we will see
or extra-British idiom'—Henry Brad- that so far as this point goes they agree./
ley in the OED. 'These cases' are of But if the re-shuffling of the world goes
the type most fully illustrated in 1 and on producing new 'issues', I will, I fear,
2 below, and the words of so high catch the fever again. / We never know
an authority are here quoted because when we take up the morning paper,
there is an inclination, among those some of us, which side we will be on next.
who are not to the manner born, to 2 . Plain conditional. Similarly the
question the existence, besides denying right auxiliary for a colourless con-
the need, of distinctions between sh. ditional in the first person is should,
and w. The distinctions are elaborate; and in the following examples the use
they are fully set forth in the OED; of would is contrary to the English
no formal grammar can be held to have idiom : If we traced it back far enough
done its duty if it has not stated them, we would find the origin was . . . j I
and their essence is briefly sum- would not be doing right if I were to
marized in WILL (v.) which should be anticipate that communication, j I think
read with this article. It will therefore I would be a knave if I announced my
be assumed here that the reader is intention of handing over my salary.
aware of the normal usage, and the Two other examples will provide for
object will be to make the dry bones a common exception to the rule that
live by exhibiting some sentences will or would is the colourless auxiliary
containing common types of violation for the first person. In sentences that
of it. The 'Scottish, Irish, provincial, are, actually or virtually, reported, a
or extra-British' writer will thus have verb that as reported is in the first
before him a conspectus of the pitfalls person but was originally in the second
that are most to be feared if he wishes or third often keeps vnll or would:
to observe the English idiom as People have underrated us, some even
described by the OED. But it is going so far as to say that we would not
necessary to add that the position is no win a single test match (the people said
longer as it was when Bradley wrote. You will not, which justifies, though it
The 'Scottish, Irish, etc. idiom', by no means necessitates, we would not
especially as followed on the American in the report). / He need not fear that
continent, has made formidable in- we^ will be 'sated' by narratives like his
roads; and insistence on the rules (his fear was You will be sated, which
laid down in the OED and illustrated makes we will not indeed advisable, but
in this article may before long have to defensible).
be classed as insular pedantry. This is
regrettable. The English idiom affords 3. The verbs like, prefer, care, be glad,
a convenient means of distinguishing be inclined, etc., are very common in
delicate shades of meaning; and that is first-person conditional statements (/
a valuable element in a language. should like to know etc.). In these
should, not would, is the correct form
1. Plain future. In the first person in the English idiom. But here would
'shall has, from the early ME period, has long been encroaching. ' I would
been the normal auxiliary for express- be glad to receive some instruction
ing mere futurity without any adventi- from my fellow-partner' says Pompey
tious notion'—OED. Will conveys an in Measure for Measure. The OED
implication of intention, volition, or (1928), quoting this and other early
choice. In the following examples, in examples, goes no further than to say
which there is clearly no such implica- that should is 'regarded as more cor-
tion, the use of will is contrary to rect', but that would is 'still frequent'.
English idiom : This is pleasant reading; It is now evren more frequent—as com-
hut we won't get our £2,000 this year, j mon as should if not commoner. Its
shall and will 550 shall and will
use with like is illustrated in LIKE (V.) Tory Party will have the courage to
Examples with other verbs are: We come into the open and declare war upon
cannot go into details, and would prefer it. An assurance from the writer that
to postpone criticism until. .. / Nor has by will have the courage he meant
he furnished me with one thing with chooses to have the courage would be
which I would care to sit down in my received perhaps with incredulity, but
little room and think. I If we should take would secure him a grudging acquittal;
a wider view, I would be inclined to has the courage is what he should have
say that. written.
It has been suggested (see LIKE) 5. Shall and will, should and would,
that the common use of would in the are sometimes regarded as good raw
first person with such verbs may be material for elegant variation. 'I wrote
partly due to a confusion between the would in the last clause; we will have
modern / should like to and the archaic should in the next for a change.'
/ would with the same meaning. If we found the instances invariably in
Another more general factor favouring mutual support we would be content with
will and would is that, when the auxi- but a few, but if we found even one in
liary is not emphasized, elided forms contradiction we should require a large
such as /'//, We'll, I'd, We'd are body of evidence. / We should have been
habitually used in speech and increas- exposed to the full power of his guns, and,
ingly in print (see ELISION), and these while adding to our own losses, would
are naturally resolved into / will etc. have forgone the advantage of inflaming
Possibly too the great popularity of his. I You shall not find two leaves of
that curious Americanism / wouldn't a tree exactly alike, nor will you be able
know has had something to do with it to examine two hands that are exactly
by making / and would seem natural similar. But the follies to which ELE-
partners. Whatever the reason, it seems GANT VARIATION gives rise are without
clear that attempts to repel this par- number.
ticular invasion from the other side of 6. 77?ar-clauses after intend or inten-
the Atlantic have now about as much tion, desire, demand, be anxious, etc.,
chance of success as Airs. Partington have shall or (more usually) should for
had with the Atlantic itself. all three persons. Among the etc. are
4 . In clauses of indefinite future time, not included hope, expect, and the like;
and indefinite relative clauses in future but the drawing of the Line is not easy.
time, will is now entirely unidiomatic; Roughly, shall and should are used
either shall is used, chiefly in formal when the word on which the that-
contexts and legal documents or, much clause depends expresses an influence
more often futurity is allowed to be in- that affects the result, as a demand
ferred from the context and the present does, but a hope or a fear does not.
tense is used. This mistake is now rare ; In 'England expects that every man
but it may be worth while to give one will do his duty', the substitution of
or two examples : He has now had to go shall for will would convert an ex-
clean out of the county tofindemployment, pression of confidence into an exhorta-
leaving his wife with her mother until he tion. Examples of the wrong will are:
will be able to make another home for her / am anxious that, when permanently
(until he is able to make). / So long as this erected, the right site will be selected. /
will not be made clear, the discussion will And it is intended that this will be
go on bearing lateral issues (is not made). / extended to every division and important
When this will be perceived by public branch. On the other hand, will in the
opinion the solution will immediately next quotation is justifiable, since here
become obvious (is perceived). Here desire cannot be regarded as affecting
also a borderline example may be the result; it means merely hope.
of service : We have strong faith that The strong desire that the relations of
a rally to the defence of the Act will be the English-speaking peoples will be so
a feature of next year's politics, if the consolidated that they may act as one
shambles 551 shear-hulk
people. But the American practice of wing-cases), which has so far prevailed
omitting the auxiliary in such sen- as to set up shard as an entomological
tences is becoming increasingly com- term for wing-case, appears to be an
mon in Britain. I am anxious that . . . error; the real meaning was 'born in
the right site be selected etc. See SUB- shard', there being another word
JUNCTIVE (s.v. ALIVES). shard, now obsolete except in dialects,
shambles. The Colonial Secretary meaning cowdung.
denied a statement by Mr. B. that the sharp, not sharply, is the right adverb
conference on the future of Malta had in matters of time, direction, and
been a shambles. So sensational an pitch. Pull up s., turn s. left, look s.,
event could hardly have remained at eight o'clock s., you are singing s.
secret. Shambles, originally a board on S e e UNIDIOMATIC - L Y .
which meat was exposed for sale, and she. 1. For she and her in ill-advised
then applied to the slaughter-house personifications (e.g. The world wants
from which it came, is legitimately all that America can give her), see
used by extension for any scene of PERSONIFICATION I .
blood and carnage. But to describe as 2 . Case. A fcv violations of ordinary
a i . a condition of mere muddle and grammar rules may be given; cf. HE.
disorder that is wholly bloodless is a
SLIPSHOD EXTENSION emasculating the
I want no angel, only she (read her). /
word. The Monte Carlo rally has When such as her die (read she). / She
become a s. Snowbound roads are littered found everyone's attention directed to
zoith abandoned cars, j We have the Mary, and she herself entirely over-
decorators in the house and the place is looked (omit she), j But to behold her
an absolute s. mother—she to zvhom she owed her being
(read her). / / saw a young girl whom I
shamefaced, -fast. It is true that guessed to be she whom I had come to
the second is the original form, that meet (read her), j Nothing must remain
-faced is due to a mistake, and that the that will remind us of that hated siren,
notion attached to the word is neces- the visible world, she who by her allure-
sarily affected in some slight degree by ments is always tempting the artist away
the change. But those who, in the (read her or preferably omit she).
flush of this discovery, would revert sheaf. The noun has pi. -ves. For the
to -fast in ordinary use are rightly verb, -ve or - / , see -VE(D).
rewarded with the name of pedants.
To use shamefast as an acknowledged shear, v., has past sheared in ordinary
archaism in verse is another matter. current senses (We sheared our sheep
yesterday, A machine sheared the bar
shanty, sailors' song. See CHANTY. into foot-lengths; This pressure sheared
shape. For in any s. or form see and the rivets). It has past shore in archaic
PLEONASM 2 and SIAMESE TWINS; Lord
poetical use (shore through the
cuirass, his plume away, etc.). For the
A— states that lhe is absolutely un- p.p., shorn remains commoner in most
connected i. a. s. o. f. zoith the matter'. senses than sheared, but is not used in
The p.p. is -ed and -en is archaic. the technical sense of distorted by
shapely. For the adv., see -LILY. mechanical shear, nor usually in that
of divided with metal-cutting shears.
shard. In the sense fragment of
pottery, the OED treats shard as the shear-hulk, shearlegs, sheer-. The
normal form and sherd as the variant; spelling sheer is due to and perpetuates
on the other hand, the greater fami- a mistake. Shears or shearlegs are two
liarity of potsherd tends to keep sherd (or more) poles with tops joined and
in being. In the well-known phrase feet straddled (and so resembling
'the shard-borne beetle' (Macbeth in. shear-blades) carrying tackle for hoist-
ii. 42), the interpretation 'borne ing weights. A shear-hulk is an old
through the air on shards' (i.e. the ship used for hoisting and provided
sheath(e) 552 ship
with shearlegs. The spelling sheer hulk sheriffalty, sheriffdom, shrievalty,
results from confusion with the adjec- sheriff ship. The first three are four
tive sheer (i.e. mere), and the omission or more centuries old, and are still
of the hyphen and shifting of the current. The last is a newcomer.
accent from shear to hulk naturally Sheriffdom is faintly suggestive of
follow, assisted by the rhythm of the bumbledom', shrievalty, though still the
line in Tom Bowling. It would be well standard word, has the disadvantage
to restore shear-hulk and make shear- of not instantly announcing its con-
legs (already often so spelt) invariable. nexion with sheriff; and sheriffalty
is unlikedly to hold its own against
sheath(e). The verb is sheathe (-dh); the competition of the more common-
the noun is sheath (-th) singular and place formation sheriff ship.
sheaths (-dhs) plural.
sheer(ly). They would say the money shew, show. 'The spelling shew,
has, to the present, been sheerly wasted, j prevalent in the 18th c. and not
A collection of brief pieces in which the uncommon in the first half of the
sheerly poetical quality is seldom looked 19th c , is now obs. exc. in legal
for and seldom occurs. / The economic documents'—OED. In shewbread the
condition of the people is sheerly des- old spelling naturally persists.
perate. Perhaps owing to the adverbial shibboleth is a WORSENED WORD.
use of sheer (falls sheer down etc.), the Ability to pronounce it properly was
adverb sheerly is usually avoided, and the means by which Jephthah dis-
always gives the reader a shock. Though tinguished his own Gileadites from the
the OED quotes it from Burns, Scott, refugee Ephraimites among them; the
and Stevenson, it may fairly be called true meaning of the word would today
unidiomatic. Possibly it is current in be expressed by the cliché ACID TEST.
Scotland ; at any rate the OED quota- It is now rarely used except in the
tions include no well-known English sense of a catchword adopted by a
writer. party or sect, especially one that is
sheikh is the correct spelling, and old-fashioned and repeated as a parrot-
shak the better pronunciation. cry, appealing to emotion rather than
reason. (Mr. C.'s own 'programme of
shelf. There are two separate nouns, radical reform', however, makes more
one meaning ledge, board, etc., and than one concession to the ancient ss.)
the other sand-bank etc. Each has pi. Sometimes it seems to be thought of
-ves, verb -ve, adjectives -ved, -fy, and merely as an ornamental synonym of
-vy ; see -VE(D). Shelf-ful(of books etc.), maxim or cliché. The s. of 'No duty
n., is ordinarily written with hyphen; towards trespassers' cannot be applied
pi. -Is (unless the two words shelves full generally. / We are offended by the need-
are suitable and preferred). less repetition of ss.—'subliminal uprush*
shelty, -ie. The word meaning Shet- for instance.
land pony is usually -ie. That mean- ship. The saying Lose (or spoil) the
ing a hut (which the OED perhaps ship for a halfpennyworth of tar is
makes out to be rarer than it is, and puzzling; it is not easy to picture so
condemns as 'prob. some error') is trifling a parsimony having so dire a
usually -y. result. The fact is that ship is a rustic
shereef, sherif, sheriff. The Mo- pronunciation of sheep ('Mutton's
hammedan and the English titles are mutton' said Sir Pitt Crawley. 'What
not etymologically connected. For the ship was it Horrocks and when did you
former the spelling -eef is preferable kill?') The original saying was Lose
to -if both as indicating the accent the sheep for a halfpennyworth of tar;
(shërë'f) of an unfamiliar word, and as that a sheep might die from neglect to
avoiding assimilation to the English dress a sore is a much less improbable
-iff. contingency. But to attempt to restore
-ship 553 short supply
the original form would of course be unnecessary and hardly in good use.
grOSS DIDACTICISM. Buteshire is found on maps but rarely
said—Bute, Isle of Bute, being pre-
-ship. For the ordinary significance ferred. Edinburgh can mean the
of this suffix see RELATION(SHIP); for county, and Edinburghshire, like the
-manship compounds see BRINKMAN- Loch Ness monster, is believed in only
SHIP and for the use of membershipy by those who have seen it. Midlothian
leadership, etc., for members, leaders, is the name of the county containing
etc., see MEMBERSHIP.
Edinburgh, and East and West Lothian
shire. The ruling principle for Great are much commoner than Haddington-
Britain is that -shire is added when the shire and Linlithgowshire.
county and its eponymous town (not 'The shires' can mean all the counties
always the 'county' town) would other- ending in -shire or, historically, all the
wise be identically named. (Sometimes counties as distinct from the boroughs.
the relation is obscured by change of But usually it means the midland
form. Shropshire reflects A.S. Chron- counties famous for fox-hunting.
icle 'Scrobbesbyriscir', i.e. Shrews-
buryshire. Hampshire goes back to shoal. See SCHOOL.
Hamtun, now Southampton.) shoot, chute, shute. The last is 'app.
But there need not be any eponymous in part a dial, form of shoot sb. and
town. Berkshire is an old name of which partly a variant spelling of chute1—
the first element means 'hilltop'. Flint- OED. Between the English shoot and
shire has no Flint. The towns corre- the French chute (lit. fall) there has
sponding to Dorset, Somerset, and been much confusion, and there seems
Wiltshire are Dorchester, Somerton, to be no good reason why shoot should
and Wilton. Where the relation be- not have been made the only spelling
tween town and county is obscure, and allowed to retain such senses as it
-shire is optional, as in Dorset(-shire), has annexed from chute. But the op-
Somerset(-shire), but Duke of Somer- portunity for this is past; chutes, so
set. Berkshire is invariable but Devon spelt, have become too common and
(with no town name) alternates with too useful.
Devonshire, the shorter form prevail-
ing in North and South Devon and in shop. For the talk called s. see
picturesque phrases like Sunny Devon. JARGON.
(There is a Duke of Devonshire and an short supply. In s. s. is an expression
Earl of Devon.) coined about the time of the second
Durham is an exception, the county world war: it was unknown to the
being a relatively modern institution, SOED in 1933 but appeared in the
and never takes -shire. Cornwall, 1951 COD. It is a harmless enough
Cumberland, Essex, Kent, Norfolk, phrase, scarcely deserving the rude
Suffolk, Surrey, Sussex, and West- things that have been said about it by
morland, never take -shire, but good some purists or the apologetic inverted
writers have committed Rutlandshire. commas in which it is sometimes
Some abbreviated forms are current dressed. We can say without offence
in writing, though little used in speech that a commodity is in great demand;
—Berks., Bucks.,Hants, Herts., Wilts., why should we not be allowed to say
Notts., Yorks. Salop serves for both that one is in s. s.? But it was over-
Shropshire and Shrewsbury, and a worked as soon as it appeared: so
member of Shrewsbury School is a many things were then in s. s., and
Salopian. there is a rotundity about it that to the
-shire is never applied to an Irish official mind no doubt made it seem
county, though there is a Marquess preferable to scarce. With the passing
of Downshire. of the period of chronic shortages
In Scotland counties came later and the vogue waned. But it lasted long
-shire is often absent. Fifeshire is enough to tempt even good writers
should 554 sibling
sometimes to use the phrase unsuitably wickedness, dissemble nor cloke, assemble
as a PERIPHRASIS for scarce. So Indo- and meet together, requisite and neces-
nesia has had to start life woefully sary.
understaffed. Administrators) engineers, In ordinary writing Siamese twins
doctors, teachers—all are in s. s. are a fruitful source of clichés, and
it may be worth while to examine a
should. For s. and would, see SHALL. sample of the commoner of them.
show. For spelling see SHEW. For the Many are merely tautological: a syno-
p.p. shown has ousted the variant nym or near-synonym is added for the
showed. sake of emphasis: Alas and alack,
betwixt and between, bits and pieces,
shred, v. In the p.p. shredded and gall and wormwood, heart and soul, jot
shred are both old and both extant ; or tittle, leaps and bounds, lo and behold,
but the shorter only as an archaism. nerve and fibre, rags and tatters, shape
shriek. See SCREAM. or form, sort or kind, toil and moil.
shrievalty. See SHERIFFALTY.
These are separable twins, but others,
superficially similar, are indivisible,
shrink has past shrank (arch, shrunk), either because one of the compo-
p.p. usu. shrunk as verb or pred. adj., nents is used in an archaic sense and
and shrunken as attrib. adj.: has shrunk, would not now be understood by
is shrunk or shrunken, her shrunken or itself, or because the combination
shrunk cheeks. has acquired a meaning different
shy. For the spelling of inflexions and from that of either component alone.
derivatives see DRY, and VERBS IN -IE
Such are chop and change, fair and
etc. square, hue and cry, kith and kin, might
and main, rack and ruin, odds and ends,
Siamese twins. This seems a suitable part and parcel, spick and span, use and
term for the many words which, linked wont. Others again consist not of
in pairs by and or or, are used to convey synonyms but of associated ideas (e.g.
a single meaning. As with the human bill and coo, bow and scrape, flotsam and
variety, some verbal twins can be jetsam, frills and furbelows, hot and
divided and each partner live sepa- strong, hum and ha, thick andfast, ways
rately; on others this cannot be at- and means) or of opposites or alter-
tempted without fatal results. Their natives (e.g. cut and thrust, fast and
abundance in English is perhaps partly loose, hither and thither, by hook or by
attributable to legal language, where crook, thick and thin, to and fro). Some
the multiplication of near-synonyms are from the law—act and deed, aid and
is a normal precaution against too abet, each and every, let or hindrance,
narrow an interpretation, and also null and void—and some quotations or
contributes a pompous sonority to literary allusions—fear and trembling,
ceremonial occasions. A Royal patent hip and thigh, prunes and prisms,
creating a peer, with a splendid rhyme nor reason, sackcloth and ashes,
prodigality of words, will advance, sere and yellow, whips and scorpions.
create, and prefer him to the state, A few can be classed as HENDIADYS
degree, style, dignity, title, and honour {grace and favour — gracious favour,
of his rank, and guarantee that he shall rough and ready = roughly ready).
enjoy and use all the rights, principles, Whenever a Siamese twin suggests
pre-eminences, immunities, and advan- itself to a writer he should be on his
tages appertaining to it. The phrase- guard; it may be just the phrase he
ology of the Prayer Book, seldom wants, but it is more likely to be one
content with one word if two can be of those clichés that are always lying in
used, may also have something to do wait to fill a vacuum in the brain.
with it: in the first few minutes the
congregation at Morning Prayer will sibling is a very old word that passed
hear acknowledge and confess, sins and out of use for centuries but was re-
sibyl(line) 555 side-slip
vived at the end of the 19th c. as a the ear of the public . . .' The quoter
technical term of anthropology and means 'Observe by the way this fel-
allied sciences. Ss. are brothers and low's ignorance of grammar—and who
sisters, other than twins. Sib is an without a preceding who !' As the sen-
archaic word meaning related, and is tence is one of those in which the and-
the second element in gossip (godsib), who rule of thumb is a blind guide (see
which originally meant godparent. WHICH WITH AND OR BUT), and is in
sibyl(line). The spelling (not sybi-) fact blameless, the (sic) recoils, as
should be noted; see Y AND I. The often, and convicts its user of error.
accent is on the first syllable, not, as sice, size, syce. Sice is correct for the
might be expected, the second. Cf. six at dice etc., size for the glutinous
Apennine. But the misspelling Sybil, substance, and syce for the Indian
as in the title of Disraeli's novel, is groom.
common in the modern use as a
Christian name. sick, i l l . The original and more
general use of sick was suffering from
(sic), Latin for so, is inserted after a any bodily disorder. English love
quoted word or phrase to confirm its of euphemism, shrinking from the
accuracy as a quotation, or occasionally blunt word vomit, has appropriated
after the writer's own word to empha- sick to that use, especially predicatively
size it as giving his deliberate meaning; (be, feel, s.), transferring its more
it amounts to Yes, he did say that, or general sense to ill. But we still so use
Yes, I do mean that, in spite of your it attributively (s. people, a s. child, s.
natural doubts. It should be used only bed, s. pay, etc.) and predicatively in
when doubt is natural; but reviewers the army phrase for declaring oneself
and controversialists are tempted to ill, go s., which has now entered civil
pretend that it is, because sic provides life. Instead of either Hier or sicker,
them with a neat and compendious form more ill or more s., worse is the com-
of sneer. The industrialist organ is in- parative wherever it would not be
clined to regret that the league did not fix ambiguous.
some definite date such as the year 1910
(sic) or the year 1912. The sic is inserted sickly. For adverb see -LILY.
because thereadermightnaturally won- side-slip. The grammatical accident
der whether 1910 was meant and not to which this name is here given
rather 1911 ; a right use. / The Boersen is most often brought about by the
Courier maintains that 'nothing remains word of, and in OF 3 its nature
for M. Delcassé but to cry Pater peccavi has been so fully explained that no-
to Germany and to retrieve as quickly thing more is now required than some
as possible his diplomatic mistake (sic)'. examples of the same accident not
Mistake is the natural term for the caused by of. In the earlier quotations
quoted newspaper to have used; other prepositions play the part of of',
the quoting one sneeringly repu- in the later ones the mistakes, though
diates it with (sic). I An Irish peer has also due to the disturbing influence of
issued a circular to members in the what has been said on what is to be
House, zvith an appeal for funds to carry said, are not of quite the same pattern,
on the work of enlightening (sic) the and will need slightly more comment.
people of this country as to the condition
of Ireland. What impudence ! says (sic) ; Prepositional side-slips
but, as no one would doubt the authen- . . . possessing full initiative after its
ticity of enlightening; the proper appeal success, and able at will to expend a
to attention was not (sic), but inverted minimum force in defending itself against
commas (see STOPS). / A junior subal- one half of the defeated body, and a
tern, with pronounced military and maximum effort against destroying the
political views, with no false modesty in other half (in, for the second against), j
expressing them, and who (sic) possesses But there is one that deserves special
side-slip 556 sign
mention because it lies at the root of the HAZINESS. / He therefore came round to
nation's confidence in the Navy and in the view that simple Bible-teaching were
the Navy's own cohesion as a loyal and better abolished altogether and that the
united service (read of for the second open door for all religions were estab-
in). I He has little in common with those lished in its place. If the writer had been
union leaders who seem to be little more content with would be in place of the first
than faithful retainers to the ex-public were, he would certainly not have been
school socialists, nor for those brawny trapped into thinking that the same
strong-arm 'We'll show 'em? leaders who auxiliary gave the right sense where
now seem equally out of date (read with the second were stands; but ventur-
for for). I In a plea for the setting aside ing on dangerous ground, which the
of this accord, or at least for certain subjunctive always is except to skilled
parts of the accord, by the Conference, performers, he side-slips. See SUB-
thel Temps' intimates that... (omit the JUNCTIVES.
second for). / The Independents would
then be in the position in which the sidle is a BACK-FORMATION from side-
pledged Liberals now are of being unable ling, an obsolete form of sidelong.
to appear on a platform or helping any
Liberal movements in any of the 330 sien(n)a, Sien(n)a, Sien(n)ese. The
Tory constituencies (read to help for place is now usually spelt Siena, but
helping). the paint and the school of painting
retain the old-established -nn-.
Miscellaneous sign (indication) and some synonyms.
Today we can but be thankful that the The synonyms are so many that it
nerve of Fisher proved cool at the crisis, seems worth while to collect some of
and that to him we mainly owe it that them and add sentences showing each
we have not to record a disaster of almost of them in a context to which it is
historical importance in the history of the better suited than any, or than most,
railway. Who is Fisher, that we should of the others. The selected words are:
prefer him as saviour to other signal- badge, cachet, character, characteristic,
men? The second that is there only cognizance, criterion, device, differen-
because the first has sent the writer off tia, emblem, hall-mark, impress, index,
at a tangent. To mend, either (a) omit indication, mark, motto, note, omen,
the second that ; or, (b) omit 'to him we portent, prognostic, seal, shibboleth,
mainly owe it that'. / If it can be sign, slogan, stamp, symbol, symptom,
done, and only if it can be done, shall test, token, touch, trace, trait, type,
we be in the position to re-establish watchword.
civilization. The intervention of the Sufferance is the badge of all our tribe.
parenthesis with its only is allowed to All his works have a grand cachet.
upset the order of words, viz. we shall These attributes of structure, size, shape,
be, required by the start of the sen- and colour, are what are called its
tence; this variety of side-slip is fur- 'specific characters'. Superstition is not
ther illustrated in the section of the characteristic of this age. Geoffrey
INVERSION dealing with inversion in assumed as his cognizance the Sprig of
parallel clauses. / Whether the cessation Broom. Success is no criterion of ability.
of rioting, looting, and burning which has Shields painted with such devices as
been secured largely by the declaration they pleased. The chief differentiae
of martial law and rigorous shooting of between man and the brute creation.
leaders of the rabble is merely temporary The spindle was the emblem of woman.
or has been put an end to for good Lacking the hall-mark of a university
remains to be seen. If the cessation of degree. Lucerne bears most strongly the
rioting has been put an end to for good, impress of the Middle Ages. The pro-
a lively time is coming. To mend, read verbs of a nation furnish the best index to
permanent instead of the words just its spirit. There is no indication that
italicized; and for this variety see they had any knowledge of agriculture.
signal 557 similar
Suspiciousness is a mark of ignorance. vote in it may be significant without
'Strike while the iron's hot' was his being important. There is no important
motto. Catholicity is a note of the true change in the patient's condition means
Church. Birds of evil omen fly to and that he is neither markedly better nor
fro. A sky dark with portent of markedly worse. There is no significant
rain. From sure prognostics learn to change in the patient's condition means
know the skies. Has the seal of death in that there is no change which either
his face. Emancipation from the fetters confirms or throws doubt on the pre-
of party shibboleths. An outward and vious prognosis.
visible sign of an inward and spiritual It doesn't signify, meaning it doesn't
grace. Our slogan is Small Profits and matter, once fashionable, has had its
Quick Returns. Bears the stamp of day.
genius. The Cross is the symbol of
Christianity. Js already showing symp- Signor(a), -rina, Italian titles. Pro-
toms of decay. Calamity is the true test nounce sên'yor, sënyor'a, sênyôrê'nâ.
of friendship. By what token could it silk(en). See -EN ADJECTIVES.
manifest its presence? One touch of
nature makes the whole world kin. sillabub, s y l - . The OED attributes
Traces of Italian influence may be the -y- to 'the influence of syllable'.
detected. They have no national trait See Y AND I for intrusions of y.
about them but their language. The
paschal lamb is a type of Christ. The sillily. One of the few current -lily
old Liberal watchword of Peace, Re- adverbs; see -LILY s.f.
trenchment, and Reform. silo. The noun has pi. -os; see -O(E)S 6.
The verb makes -o'd or -oed', see -ED
signal, single, w . But there is intense AND ' D .
resentment that Japan should be sig-
nalled out for special legislation, j There silvan, sylvan. There is no doubt
was one figure more sinister than the rest, that si- is the true spelling etymo-
whom Lloyd George signalled out logically (Latin silva, a wood, changed
for his wrath in true revivalist style. / in M S S . to syl- under the influence
The German Emperor has been spared of Greek vA^) ; there is as little doubt
an inglorious end in obscurity; but why that sy- now preponderates, and
has he been signalled out for the dignity the OED does the word under that
of a special trial? Three specimens of spelling, giving silvan as a variant.
a very common MISPRINT or blunder; Silvan is here recommended, just as in
singled should be the word. Unfortu- Y AND i restoration of the right letter is
nately, there is just nearness enough in recommended in other words. Though
meaning between the verb single on the the false form does prevail nowadays,
one hand and, on the other, the adjec- it is by no means universal; and it is
tive signal and the verb signalize to worth notice that, out of seven Scott
make it easy for the uncharitable to quotations in the OED, four show sy-
suspect writer rather than printer; and and three si-. It is often too late to
therefore especial care is called for, as mend misspellings, but hardly so in
with deprecate and depreciate. this case ; recent dictionaries agree in
putting si- first.
signif(y)(icant). The dictionaries simian. Pronounce si-; the Latin
give important as one of the definitions noun is si, but see FALSE QUANTITY.
of significant, but to use it merely as
a synonym for that word is to waste it. similar is apt to bring disaster to
The primary sense of s. is conveying certain writers—those to whom it
a meaning or suggesting an inference. is a FORMAL WORD to be substituted
A division in the House of Commons in writing for the like or the same with
may be important without being signi- which they have constructed a sen-
ficant; the failure of some members to tence in thought. It is claimed that the
simile 558 simile and metaphor
machine can be made to turn on its own for the illustrative story designed to
centres, similar to the motor-boats which answer a single question or suggest a
the inventor demonstrated at Richmond.} single principle, and offering a definite
Nevertheless, although adjoining New moral, while allegory is to be preferred
York all along its northern border and when the application is less restricted,
in its farming, manufacturing, and the purpose less exclusively didactic,
general industrial development swayed and the story of greater length. The
by similar business considerations that Faerie Queen and The Pilgrim's Pro-
govern the Empire State, its people went gress are allegories. The object of a
as strongly for Roosevelt as their neigh- parable is to persuade or convince;
bours in New York went against him. In that of an allegory is often rather to
the first quotation, like would stand, please. But the difference is not in-
being both adjective and adverb, but herent in the words themselves; it is
similar, being adjective only, must be a result of their history, the most im-
changed to similarly. In the second, portant factor being the use of parable
the same considerations that would have to denote the allegorical stories told by
been English, but similar considerations Christ.
that must be corrected to s. c. to those It is of allegory that the OED gives as
that. one of the definitions 'an extended or
simile. To let this specialized and continued metaphor'. But the com-
literary word thrust itself, as in the ment may be hazarded that there is
following quotation, into the place of some analogy between the relation of
the comparison or parallel that we all allegory to parable and that of simile
expect and understand is to come to metaphor, and that the OED defini-
under suspicion of blindly using a tion would, if that is true, have been
synonym dictionary: The advent of still better suited to parable than to
Kossovo Day cannot but suggest a s. allegory. For between simile and
between the conflict then raging and metaphor the differences are (1) that
that in which we are engaged today. a simile is a comparison proclaimed as
A s. is always a comparison; but a such, whereas a metaphor is a tacit
comparison is by no means always a comparison made by the substitution
simile, and still less often deserves to of the compared notion for the one to
be called one. be illustrated (the ungodly flourishing
'like' a green bay-tree is a confessed
simile and metaphor, allegory and comparison or simile ; if ye had not
parable, apologue and fable. Allegory plowed with my heifer, meaning dealt
(uttering things otherwise) and parable with my wife, is a tacit comparison
(putting side by side) are almost ex- or metaphor); (2) that the simile is
changeable terms. The object of each usually worked out at some length and
is, at least ostensibly, to enlighten the often includes many points of resem-
hearer by submitting to him a case in blance, whereas a metaphor is as often
which he has apparently no direct con- as not expressed in a single word ; and
cern, and upon which therefore a dis- (3) that in nine out of ten metaphors
interested judgement may be elicited the purpose is the practical one of
from him, as Nathan submitted to presenting the notion in the most
David the story of the poor man's ewe intelligible or convincing or arresting
lamb. Such judgement given, the ques- way, but nine out of ten similes are to
tion will remain for the hearer whether be classed not as a means of explana-
Thou art the man: whether the con- tion or persuasion, but as ends in
clusion to which the dry light of dis- themselves, things of real or supposed
interestedness has helped him holds beauty for which a suitable place is to
also for his own concerns. Every be found.
parable is an allegory, and every alle- It cannot be said (as it was of allegory
gory a parable. Usage, however, has and parable) that every simile is a
decided that parable is the fitter name metaphor, and vice versa; it is rather
simony 559 singular -s
that every metaphor presupposes a sinned against than sinning' (King
simile, and every simile is compressible Lear HI. ii. 60) has become a HACK-
or convertible into a metaphor. There NEYED PHRASE; descent from the height
is a formal line of demarcation, implied of Lear to the latest triviality of
in (i) above; the simile is known by its 'tempted and fell' lands us, naturally,
as or like or other announcement of in bathos, and STOCK PATHOS.
conscious comparison. There is no
such line between allegory and parable, since. For the very common mistake
but in view of distinctions (2) and (3) of using s. after ago, see AGO. For
it may fairly be said that parable is 'P.S. Since writing this your issue of
extended metaphor and allegory ex- today has come to hand', see UN-
tended simile. To which may be added ATTACHED PARTICIPLE.
the following contrast. Having read sincerely. For 'yours s «' etc
- see
a tale, and concluded that under its LETTER FORMS.
surface meaning another is discernible
as the true intent, we say This is an sine-. For sinecure (= Lat. sine cura)
allegory. Having a lesson to teach, and the OED gives the pronunciation
finding direct exposition ineffective, sînëkûr, adding that 'in Scotland and
we say Let us try a parable. To reverse America the first vowel is freq. pro-
the terms is possible, but not idiomatic. nounced short'. It is now often pro-
See also METAPHOR. nounced short in England too, but
The only difference between apologue the dictionaries still incline to sïn-,
and fable is that the second word is in and this conforms to the standard
common use and the first is not. Their pronunciation of phrases such as sine
distinctive feature is that, in the stories die and sine qua non. The trigono-
they tell, the participants are animals metrical term is sin.
or even inanimate things. 'A fable or
apologue seems to be, in its genuine sing. For the past tense sang has pre-
state, a narrative in which beings ir- vailed over sung, formerly usual.
rational, and sometimes inanimate, are, Singalese. See SINHALESE.
for the purpose of moral instruction,
feigned to act and speak with human sing(e)ing. See MUTE E, and use the
interests and passions' (Johnson). -e- in the participle of singe.
singular - s (or sibilant ending). The
simony. The pronunciation si'mony is feeling that the 2 sound at the end of
probably commoner than sim- and con- a noun proves it plural has played
forms to the ordinary pronunciation of many tricks in the past; pea, caper (the
the name (Simon Magus) of the sor- herb), and jocularly Chinee, have been
cerer who seems to have been the first docked under its influence of their
to attempt this malpractice (Acts viii. endings, riches is now always treated
18). as a plural, and many other examples
might be collected. The process con-
simpiiciter, secundum quid. These tinues today. 'Kudos', wrote Edmund
convey, the first that the statement etc. Wilson of American usage in 1963,
referred to need not, the second that it 'seems now to be well established as
must, be restricted to certain cases or the plural of a word meaning honour-
conditions. able mention or prize or something of
simulacrum. PI. -era. the sort. A correspondent has sent me
a clipping of a headline KUDOS
sin. 1. 'To sin one's mercies', which ARE IN ORDER from a newspaper
puzzles everyone to whom it has not article on "Business Trends".' On the
been familiar from childhood, is para- other hand it may be worth while to
phrased by the OED, but without ex- notice that the glasses of spectacles are
planation, as 'to be ungrateful for one's lenses and not lens, that the plural of
blessings or good fortune'. 2 . 'More a forceps should certainly be what it
Sinhalese 560 ski
unfortunately is not at present, for- analogy of the vulgar pronunciation of
cepses. Cf. GALLOWS and INNINGS. IRENE, was often heard during the
second world war, and indeed is
Sinhalese, Sing(h)alese, Cingalese. etymologically correct, for in the
The first and the last are recognized Greek word the e is long. But on this
as the standard forms in the OED and See FALSE QUANTITY.
the first has since made the greater
progress. Sirius. Pronounce si-, not si; for
neglect of classical quantities see FALSE
sinister in heraldry means left (and QUANTITY.
dexter right), but with the contrary
sense to what would naturally suggest sirloin. The knighting of the loin
itself, the left (and right) being that of attributed to various kings seems to
the person bearing the shield, not of have been suggested by, and not to
an observer facing it. For bar, baton, have suggested, the compound word;
bend, s., see BAR. it has, however, so far affected the
spelling (which should have shown
sink, v. 1 . Past tense $a«& or SM«&, the French sur = upper) that sir- may
former now prevailing, especially in now be taken as fixed.
intransitive senses. 2 . Sunk(eri). The
longer form is no longer used as part sister, in hospital use, is applied
of a compound passive verb : the ship properly to one in charge of a ward
would have been, will be, zvas, sunk, not or in authority over other nurses—
sunken. But sunken has not a corre- matron, sisters, staff nurses, nurses,
sponding monopoly of the adjectival and probationers, being the hierarchy.
uses: sunken cheeks or eyes; a sunken But s. is often substituted, especially
(or sunk) rock; a sunk (or sunken) by soldiers in hospital, as a courtesy
ship; a sunk (or sunken) fence or title for nurse.
road; sunk carving; a sunk panel,
shelf, storey. Roughly, sunken is sisterly. For the adv., see -LILY.
used of what has sunk or is (with- situate(d). The short form is still
out reference to the agency) in common in house-agents' advertise-
the position that results from sinking, ments and legal documents, but else-
i.e. it is an INTRANSITIVE P.P.; and sunk where out of favour.
is used of what has been sunk especially
by human agency. situation. For excessive use of s. and
position see -TION.
sinus. PI. -uses, see LATIN PLURALS.
sizable is the recommended spelling.
Sioux. Pronounce sod. Plural spelt See MUTE E.
Sioux and pronounced like singular,
or with final z sound. skeptic(al), skepsis, etc. See SCEP-
TICAL) etc.
siphon, not sy-. See Y AND I.
skew, adj., though still current techni-
sir (as prefix). To say Sir Jones is cally, chiefly in architecture, mathe-
a mistake peculiar to foreigners. matics, and mechanics, and in a few
But writers often forget, as with compounds such as s. bald and, collo-
HON., that a double-barrelled surname quially, s.-eyed and s.-whiff, has so far
will not do instead of Christian name gone out of general use as to seem, in
and surname: Sir Douglas-Home other applications, either archaic or
cannot be written for Sir Alec provincial. The current word (adv.
Douglas-Home. The same is true of and pred. adj.) is askew.
the corresponding feminine prefix
dame. skewbald. See PIEBALD.
siren, not sy-. See Y AND I. Pro- ski. The anglicized pronunciation skê
nounce sï'rën. Siren', perhaps on the is now more usual than she, which is
skiagraphy 561 slaver
how it is pronounced in Norway, its the tides breeze, pace, demand, rope,
place of origin. Plural ski or skis. For one's energy, slackens; we slacken our
the verb ski'd is preferable to skied; efforts, grip, speed, opposition, the girth,
see -ED AND 'D. the regulations. 2 . To slack, if it is to
skiagraphy etc. See SCIAGRAPHY. have such senses, is reinforced by off,
out, up, etc.: the train slacked up; had
skier, skyer. The user of ski is a skier better slack off; slack out the rope.
obviously. The skied cricket-ball is 3. Slack, not slacken, trespasses on the
spelt sometimes with.y and sometimes territory of slake: slack one's thirst,
with i; the OED prefers skyer, which lime, the fire (see next article). 4 . Slack,
has also the advantage of saving con- not slacken, means to be slack or idle :
fusion; and, as it is more reasonable to accused me of slacking. 5 . Slack
derive it from sky n. than from sky v., (trans.), not slacken, means to come
there is no need to make it conform to short of or neglect (one's duty etc.),
crier and pliers; in any case there is now archaic.
little consistency in the spelling of
derivatives of monosyllables ending -y ; slake, slack, w . Both are derived
see DRY. from the adjective slack, and slake had
formerly such senses as loosen and
skilled. The skilled and the unskilled lessen, which have now passed to the
are sheep and goats, distinguished by newer verb slack owing to their more
having had or not having had the requi- obvious sense-connexion with it. Slake
site training or practice ; the two words tends more and more to be restricted
exist chiefly as each other's opposites, to the senses assuage, satisfy, moisten,
or terms of a dichotomy. The point (thirst, desire, vengeance, lips, lime).
of the limitation is best seen by com-
parison with skilful. Skilled classifies, slander. See LIBEL.
whereas skilful describes. You are slang. See JARGON and RHYMING
skilled or not in virtue of your past
history, you may be classed as semi- SLANG.
skilled, but will not (in idiomatic slaver, slobber, slubber, vv. The
speech at least) be, as an individual, three words, as well as slabber, which
very or most or fairly skilled. You are is virtually obsolete, may be assumed
skilful according to your present capa- to be of the same ultimate origin, and,
city, and in various degrees. though they may have reached us by
skin. With the s. of my teeth; see MIS- different routes and had more or less
separate histories, they have so far
QUOTATION.
acted and reacted upon one another
skull. See SCULL. that for people not deep in historical
slack(en), w . In the article -EN philology they are now variants of one
VERBS it is implied that the relation word, partly but not completely dif-
between the adjective and verb slack ferentiated. The basic meaning is (1) to
and the verb slacken is not simple run at the mouth, and its developments
enough to be there treated with the are (2) kissing, (3) licking, (4) fulsome
rest. One's first impression after a flattery, (5) emotional gush, and (6)
look through the OED articles superficial smoothing over or mere
on the two verbs is that whatever tinkering. All three have sometimes any
either means the other can mean of the first four senses, though slubber,
too—an experience familiar to the which is now chiefly in archaic literary
synonym-fancier. The following dis- use, tends to be confined to sense 6;
tinctions are therefore offered with and in that sense slobber is exceptional
the caution that quotations contra- and slaver not used. The difference
vening them may be found in the between slaver and slobber is partly of
OED and elsewhere. 1. Slacken is the status, the former being the more
ordinary word for to become slack, and literary and dignified and the latter
for to make (or let become) slacker: colloquial and vivid, and partly of
slay 562 slipshod extension
extent, slaver not going beyond sense but to the unlearned it is a mere token,
4 , while slobber covers sense 5 and of which he has to infer the value from
even 6. The now much commoner the contexts in which he hears it used,
word for to run at the mouth—dribble because such relatives as it has in
—has had somewhat similar expe- English—jfozf, feature, faction, fashion,
riences with drivel (a word of different malfeasance, beneficence, etc.-—either
origin but assimilated to it) and drool fail to show the obvious family likeness
(a contraction of drivel), which have to which he is accustomed among
retained their basic meaning besides families of indigenous words, or are
acquiring a new one—to talk nonsense. (like malfeasance) outside his range.
slay, though poetic or rhetorical in He arrives at its meaning by observing
Britain, is still in use in America, what is the word known to him with
for violent killing. It is a convenient which it seems to be exchangeable—
word for HEADLINE LANGUAGE; slayer
possible, and his next step is to show
takes less space than murderer. For off his new acquisition by using it
this reason it is likely to come back to instead of possible as often as he can,
journalistic use in Britain. It still without at all suspecting that the two
makes slew, slain, not slayed. are very imperfect synonyms; for
examples see FEASIBLE. He perhaps
sled(ge), sleigh. Though all three notices now and then that people look
are interchangeable, they tend to be at him quizzically as if he were not
distinguished in use as follows: sled, quite intelligible, but this does not
drag for transporting loads; sledge happen often enough to prevent him
English, sleigh U.S. and Canadian, for from putting it comfortably down to
carriage on runners. 'Chiefly U.S. and their ignorance of the best modern
Canada' is the OED label on sleigh', idiom.
but the use of sledges in Great Britain The case of dilemma as a word liable
is comparatively so rare that the Cana- to slipshod extension differs in some
dian idiom has naturally prevailed; points from that of feasible, though a
sleigh is always the word at winter dilemma is confused with a difficulty
sports. just as feasible is with possible. A person
sleep. For the s. of the just see HACK- who has taken a taxi and finds on
NEYED PHRASES.
alighting that he has left his money at
home is in a difficulty; he is not in a
sleight. Pronounce slît; it is related dilemma, but he will very likely say
to sly as height to high. afterwards that he found himself in
sling, slink. Past tenses and p.p. one. The differences are first that the
slung, slunk; the OED records but does mere Englishman has still less chance
not countenance the pasts slang, slank. than with feasible of inferring the true
meaning from related words, dilemma
slipshod extension. To this heading, being an almost isolated importation
which hardly requires explanation, from Greek; and second that the user
reference has been made in the articles need hardly be suspected of pretension,
on many individual words. Slipshod since dilemma is in too familiar use for
extension is especially likely to occur him to doubt that he knows what it
when some accident gives currency means. Nevertheless, he is injuring
among the uneducated to words of the language, however unconsciously,
learned origin, and the more so if those both by helping to break down a
words are isolated or have few relatives serviceable distinction, and by giving
in the vernacular; examples are alibi, currency to a mere token word in the
protagonist, recrudescence, optimism, place of one that is alive. He is in fact
meticulous, feasible, dilemma. participating in what has been called
The last two of these offer good typical the crime of verbicide.
illustrations. The original meaning of Slipshod extension, however, though
feasibleis simply doable (Lat./acere do); naturally more common with words of
sloe-worm 563 slumber
learned antecedents, is not confined to catchwords with which in the modern
them, and in the following selection world politicians, ideologists, and ad-
will be found several that would seem vertisers try to excite our emotions and
too thoroughly part of the vernacular atrophy our minds. For some syno-
to be in danger of misuse. In many of nyms, see SIGN.
the articles referred to, further illustra- slosh. See SLUSH.
tion of slipshod extension is given:
Alibi, anticipate, chronic, claim, com- slough. The noun meaning bog is
plex, crisis, crucial, îdead letter, deci- pronounced -ow; the meaning cast
mate, desiderate, dilemma, echelon, skin etc. and the verb meaning cast or
factor, feasible, identify, ilk, involve, drop off are pronounced -uf.
level, limited, liquidate, literally, slovenly. For the adv., see -LILY
meticulous, mutual, nostalgic, op-
timism, practically, proposition, pro- slow(ly), adw. In spite of the en-
tagonist, reaction, recrudescence, re- croachments of -ly (see UNIDIOMATIC
dundant, sabotage, scotch, shambles, -LY), slow maintains itself as at least an
shibboleth, significant, transpire, un- idiomatic possibility under some con-
thinkable, as well as many of the ditions even in the positive (how slow
words listed as POPULARIZED TECHNI- he climbs!, please read very slow),
CALITIES and as VOGUE WORDS. while in the comparative and super-
A stray example may be added of a lative slower and slowest are usually
word with which such abuse is excep- preferable to more and most slowly;
tional and apparently unaccountable. see -ER AND -EST 3. Of the 'con-
This will serve to illustrate the truth ditions', the chief is that the ad-
that slipshod extension is not the sort verb, and not the verb etc., should
of blunder against which one is safe if contain the real point; compare 'We
one attends to a limited list of danger- forged slowly ahead', where the slow-
ous words ; what is required is the habit ness is an unessential item, with 'Drive
of paying all words the compliment of as slow as you can', where the slowness
respecting their peculiarities. An excel- is all that matters. In the phrase go
lent arrangement, for there are thus none slow (e.g. of a clock or of workmen)
of those smells which so often disfigure slow alone is idiomatic.
the otherwise sweet atmosphere of an slow-worm, sloe-. Though the deri-
English home. What has no figure or vation of the first part is obscure (Skeat
shape cannot be disfigured. Not that attributes it to the supposed poisonous
the limitation need be closely pressed; properties of the creature—the 'worm
we need not confine the word to a face that slays'), it is certainly not connected
or a landscape ; an action, a person's dic- with either the noun sloe or the adj.
tion, or a man's career (to take things slow ; slow- is now the established form,
of which the OED quotes examples), and the OED calls sloe- obsolete.
can also be disfigured, because each of
them can be conceived, with the aid of slubber. See SLAVER.
metaphor, as a shapely whole. But a sludge. See SLUSH.
shapely atmosphere?
sloe-worm. See SLOW-WORM.
slumber. Apart from mere sub-
stitutions of 4. for sleep dictated by
slogan. Though the great vogue of desire for poetic diction or dislike of
the word as a substitute for the older the words that common mortals use,
motto, watchword, etc., is of the 20th c. slumber is equivalent to the noun
only, and we old fogies regard it with sleep with some adjective or the verb
patriotic dislike as a Gaelic interloper, sleep with some adverb. Slumber
it was occasionally so used earlier; the (often used in the plural without
OED has a quotation from Macaulay. difference of sense) is easy or light or
And we have turned it to good ac- half or broken or daylight sleep, or
count by appropriating it to those again mental or stolen or virtual or
slumb(e)rous 564 small
lazy sleep. The implied epithet or ad- start with three that are pretty clearly
verb, that is, may be almost anything; distinguishable in meaning. Contrasts
but the choice of slumber instead of of size or extent are given by large and
sleep, if not due to mere stylishness small; 'large and small rooms', 'of
(See WORKING AND STYLISH WORDS), i s large or small size', 'large or small
meant to prevent the reader from writing', 'large and small appetites',
passing lightly by without remem- 'large and small dealings, dealers'.
bering that there is sleep and sleep. Contrasts of quantity or amount are
For slumberwear see GENTEELISMS. given by much and little; 'much or
little butter, faith, exercise, damage,
slumb(e)rous. The shorter form is hesitation, study'. Contrasts of impor-
recommended; cf. DEXT(E)ROUS. But tance or quality are given by great and
analogies for either are plentiful : cum- small; 'the Great and the Small
brous, wondrous, monstrous, leprous, Powers', 'great and small occasions',
idolatrous', but thunderous, slanderous, 'a great or a small undertaking', 'great
murderous. and small authors'. Besides these, the
slush, sludge, slosh. The differ- main divisions, there are two minor
ences are not very clear. There is patent pairs sometimes substituted for
the natural one, resulting from the one or other of them—great and little
stickier sound, that sludge is usually and big and little. Great and little as a
applied to something less liquid than patent pair is preferred to large and
slush or slosh, e.g. to slimy deposits or small in distinctive names ('the Great
clinging mud, especially to precipitates and the Little Bear', 'Great and Little
in processes such as coal-washing and Malvern'; Great and Little Cumbrae;
sewage-disposal, whereas thawing it is also common (see below) as a
snow is typical slujh. Slush and latent pair in two senses Big and little
slosh are both used to describe is a patent pair often substituted for
what is metaphorically watery stuff— either large and small ('big and little
twaddle or sentimentality, and slosh farms, motor cars') or great and small
alone is the slang word for a violent ('big and little wars, ships') or great
blow or, as a verb, giving one. and little ('the big and the little toe').
sly makes slyer, slyest, slyly, slyness, soThe patent pairs are sets of opposites
far felt to correspond that one does
slyish; for comparison with other such not hesitate to put them together as
words, see DRY. in all the examples quoted. Or
small. Relations with little are com- again either member can be used when
plicated, and the task of disentangling the other is not expressed but only
them might excusably be shirked, if implied; e.g., 'the Great Powers' is
not as difficult, then as unprofitable. more often used alone, but 'the Great
But examination of the differences be- and the Small Powers' is also an
tween seeming equivalent ; does give ordinary expression; the 'Big Five'
an insight into the nature of idiom. depends for its meaning on the
Under BIG some attempt has been existence of an unspecified number of
made at delimiting the territories of smaller banks and the 'little-go' on
great, large, and big. Small and little that of an examination no longer called
have to divide between them the the 'great-go'.
opposition to those three as well as to By latent pairs are meant sets of
much, and the distribution is by no opposites in which one member has
means so simple and definite as the the meaning opposite to that of
pedantic analyst might desire. the other but could not be ex-
Of the possible pairs of opposites pressly contrasted with it without an
let some be called patent pairs, as evident violation of idiom. For in-
being openly and comfortably used stance, no one would put large and
with both members expressed, and little together; 'large and little lakes'
the rest latent pairs. The parent pairs sounds absurd; but one speaks of 'a
smear 565 snake
(or the) little lake' without hesitation, used except jocularly, especially with
though 'large lakes' (not 'great lakes', the addition hip and thigh in IRRELE-
which ranks with the distinctive names VANT ALLUSION to what Samson did to
above referred to) is the implied the Philistines, and in the p.p. smitten,
opposite. Another latent pair is much meaning épris.
and small; though 'much or small
hope' is impossible, and 'much or smog, though rarely allowed as yet
little hope' is felt to be required to do without probationary inverted
instead, yet 'small hope', 'small commas, is older than would be sup-
thanks', 'small credit', 'small wonder', posed by the many people who first
are all idiomatic when the irregular heard it at the time of the great Lon-
opposite much is not expressed. don fog of December 1952. The
Similarly with big and small; we OED Supp. quotes from The Globe
never contrast them openly, but in of 27 July 1905 'The other day at a
'the big battalions', 'big game', 'a meeting of the Public Health Con-
big investment or undertaking', the gress Dr. Des Voeux did a public ser-
opposite in reserve is small. Great vice in coining a new word for the
and little was said above to rank both London fog, which was referred to as
as a patent and as a latent pair. In the smog, a compound of smoke and fog.'
latter capacity it allows us to talk of It has now entered the field of meta-
'great damage', 'great doubt', 'great phor : For much of the way the author's
hesitation', and again of 'little damage' meaning is all but buried in a dense
etc., but forbids us to put the pair smog of sub-epigrams and superfluous
together; it is 'much or little (not images. / Talk of technical superiority
'great or little') doubt'. at this stage . . . is simply a smoke
screen which should be dispelled without
s m e a r . See LIBEL.
further ado—a rather bad case of
technical smog. See PORTMANTEAU.
smell, v. 1. For smelt and smelled
see -T AND -ED. 2 . The intransitive smouch. It may be by coincidence,
sense to emit an odour of a specified or it may be by the emergence of a
kind is idiomatically completed by dialect usage long latent, that this
an adjective, not an adverb; a thing obsolete word for kiss was adopted
smells sweet, sour, rank, foul, good, by young people in the middle of the
bad, etc., not sweetly, badly, etc. But twentieth century as the slang term
the tendency referred to in UNIDIO- for indulging in those amatory exer-
MATIC -LY sometimes misleads the cises that in less sophisticated times
unwary into using the adverbs. The were called kissing and cuddling, and
mistake is the easier because (a) when in contemporary U.S. slang necking.
the character of the smell is given by smudge, smutch. The earlier noun
'of so-and-so' instead of by a single is smutch, the earlier verb smudge; but
word, an adverb is often added; com- this has had no apparent effect on
pare smells strong or delicious (i.e. has usage; -dge now prevails in ordinary
a strong or delicious smell) with smells literal use, -tch being preferred in
strongly or suspiciously of whisky or metaphor; a painting is smudged but
deliciously of violets; and (b) when to
smell is used, as it may be, for to stink, a reputation smutched. Smutch, how-
an adverb is the right addition—this ever, is now less used than smirch or
water smells outrageously. Smells dis- besmirch.
gusting and smells disgustingly are both snake, serpent. Snake is the native
idiomatic, but are arrived at in slightly and serpent the alien word; it is also
different ways, the first meaning 'has true, though not a necessary conse-
a disgusting smell', and the second quence, that snake is the word ordi-
'stinks so as to disgust one'. narily used, and serpent the excep-
tional. The OED's remark on serpent
smite is an archaic word, now little is 'now, in ordinary use, applied
snapshot 566 so
chiefly to the larger and more veno- of their indulgences; it is wise to
mous species ; otherwise only rhetorical abstain from it altogether.
. . . or with reference to serpent- Do so. For absurdities such as the
worship'. We perhaps conceive ser- following, which are too common, see
pents as terrible and powerful and DO 3. It is a study of an elderly
beautiful things, snakes as insidious widower who, on approaching sixty,
and cold and contemptible; hence sea- finds that he knows hardly anything of
serpent, but water-snake. The serpent his three daughters, and sets out to do so.
shines in the night sky; the snake lurks 3 . The appealing so. The type is
in the grass. Cricket is so uncertain. The speaker
has a conviction borne in upon him,
snapshot, vb. The OED recognizes and, in stating it, appeals, with his so,
no verb to snapshoot, though it gives to general experience to confirm him;
snapshooter and snapshooting (chiefly it means as you, or as we all, know.
in the original sense, i.e. with gun, A natural use, but more suitable for
not camera); but snapshot is now conversation, where the responsive
established both as noun and as verb, nod of confirmation can be awaited,
usually abbreviated to snap. In short than for most kinds of writing. In
snapshoot has been divided and its two print, outside dialogue, it has a cer-
parts set to different tasks. The holiday- tain air of silliness, even when the
maker on the beach snaps ; the camera- context is favourable, i.e. when the
man in the film studio shoots. sentence is of the shortest and simplest
kind (for this use of so is really ex-
s c . i. Phrases treated elsewhere. clamatory), and the experience ap-
2. So long, and so to —, do so. 3. Ap- pealed to is really general. Readers
pealing so. 4 . Didactic so. 5. Re- will probably agree that in all the
peated so. 6. So with p.p. 7. Explana- following extracts the context is not
tory so. 8. So with superlatives and favourable.—In the case of Ophthal-
absolutes. 9. So introducing a clause mology in the tropics a work of authority
of purpose. is so sadly overdue. / But he does com-
1. For 50 far from, so far as, so far bine them ingeniously, though in in-
that, see FAR; for and so on, and so forth, stancing this very real power we feel
see FORTH; for quite (so) see QUITE; that it might have been so much more
for so to speak see SUPERIORITY; for satisfactorily expended. / He was always
ever, never, so see NEVER SO. kind, considerate, and courteous to his
2. So long, and so to —, do so. So witnesses, this being so contrary to what
long used colloquially for goodbye or we are led to expect from his successors. /
au revoir. It perhaps matters little Slade would seem to have some of the
for practical purposes, but the OED philosophy of his kind, as well as the
gives no countenance to the deriva- technique, which chiefly is the reason
tion from salaam, and treats the why one so hopes he will not be rushed
phrase as a mere special combination on too rapidly.
of 50 and long; those who are inclined 4 . The didactic so. This is a special
to avoid it as some sort of slang may form of the appealing 50, much
be mollified by its naturalness as a affected by Walter Pater: In the midst
short equivalent for Good luck till we of that aesthetically so brilliant world
meet again. of Greater Greece is an example. The
And so to a division, and so to 50 is deliberately inserted before a
dinner, etc. This formula for wind- descriptive adjective, and is a way of
ing up the account of a debate or saying, at once urbanely and con-
incident, borrowed directly or in- cisely, Has it ever occurred to you how
directly from Pepys, is apt to take brilliant etc. it was? That is to say
such a hold upon those who once it differs from the 50s in 3 in being not
begin upon it that, like confirmed careless and natural, but didactic and
cigarette-smokers, they lose all count highly artificial. Effective enough on
so 567 sobriquet
occasion, it is among the idioms that quial. What requires notice is that,
should never be allowed to remind the when it is used in formal writing, it
reader, by being repeated, that he has is spoilt if for, whose work is being
already met them in the last hundred done for it by so, is allowed to remain
pages or so. Here an Englishman has as a supernumerary. Two examples
set himself to follow in outline the very follow, the first right, the second
distinctive genius of Russia through the wrong: The dangers of the situation
centuries of its difficult but always so seem to us very real and menacing; both
attractive development. / And still no sides, in maintaining a firm attitude,
one came to open that huge, contemp- may so easily find themselves bluffing
tuous door with its so menacing, so over the edge into the precipice. / It
hostile air. would seem particularly fitting that an
5. So in repetition. A change from American professor of literature should
the artificial to the entirely artless. discuss the subject of Convention and
So is a much used word, but not Revolt, for in that country the two
indispensable enough to justify such tendencies are at present so curiously
repetitions of it as the following : The and incongruously mingled.
pity is that for so many men who can 8. So with superlatives and absolutes.
so hardly keep pace with rising prices So, when it qualifies adjectives and
it should become so difficult to follow adverbs, means to such a degree or
the sport. / For ironically enough the extent; it is therefore not to be applied
very complexity of modern political life, to a superlative, as in The difficult and
which today makes it so necessary for anxious negotiations in which he has
the Government to improve their lines taken so foremost a part in Paris, or to
of communication with the people, has an absolute, as in It is indeed a privilege
also done much to weaken the principal to be present on so unique an occasion.
bridge that previously helped so much See also SUCH 6.
towards this end—the House of Com- 9. So introducing a clause of purpose
mons. I The situation was well in or result. To introduce such a clause
hand, but it had so far developed with so that (or 50 a* to) is standard
so little that nothing useful can be said usage. But British idiom does not
about it, save that so far the Com- countenance the use of 50 alone, as in
mander-in- Chief was satisfied. The Nigerian authorities asked for him
6. So with p.p. The distinction to be returned under the Fugitive
usually recognized with VERY between Offenders Act so he could stand trial on
a truly verbal and an adjectival p.p. charges of treasonable felony. / K. gave
is not applicable to 50; but it is well up a staff job to become a freelance
worth while, before writing plain so» journalist so he could fit in training. See
to decide between it and so much, so a l s o IN ORDER THAT.
well, etc. The insertion of much in the
first and well in the second quotation sobriquet. 1. sob- is much longer
after so would certainly be an im- established in English than soub- be-
provement: Admiral Faravelli reports sides being the only modern French
that Tripoli batteries have been so form. Pronounce sô'brïkâ. 2. Under
damaged that Turkish soldiers have this heading, for want of a better, are
been forced to retire into town. \ here collected eighty or so out of the
Ireland being mainly an agricul- thousands of nicknames or secondary
tural country, and England industrial, names that have become so specially
the Bill is not so suited to Ireland as to attached" to particular persons, places,
this country. or things, as to be intelligible when
7. The explanatory so. Type: He used instead of the real or primary
could not move; he was so cold. The names, each of which is thus pro-
second member is equivalent to a sen- vided with a deputy or a private
tence beginning with for, and the pronoun. The deputy use is seen
idiom is mainly, but not solely, collo- in 'It was carried to the ears of
sobriquet 568 sobriquet
that famous hero and warrior, the to this, or to any, class of writers; the
Philosopher of Sans Souci', where Philosopher of Sans Souci and the
't. P. 0. S. S.' acts for Frederick the Bard of Avon quoted above are from
Great ; and the private-pronoun use in Thackeray and Conan Doyle, though
'He employed his creative faculty for they are unfavourable specimens of
about twenty years, which is as much, those authors' styles. Moreover, the
I suppose, as Shakespeare did; the sobriquet deputy has its true uses.
Bard of Avon is another example . . .', Just as Bacon knows of 'things grace-
where 't. B. o. A.' means Shakespeare ful in a friend's mouth, which are
or the latter. Some names have a large blushing in a man's own', so the
retinue of sobriquets ; Rome, e.g., may sobriquet may often in a particular
be the Eternal City, the City of the context be more efficient than the
Seven Hills, the Papal City, the Em- proper name; though 'the Papal City'
press of the Ancient World, the means Rome, its substitution may be
Western Babylon and her list of a serviceable reminder, when that is
sobriquets is not half told; Napoleon appropriate, that Rome in one of its
may be Boney, the Little Corporal, or aspects only is intended. Again,
the Man of Destiny. some sobriquets have succeeded,
Now the sobriquet habit is not a like mayors of the palace, in usurp-
thing to be acquired, but a thing to ing their principals' functions; the
be avoided; and the selection that Young Pretender is actually more
follows is compiled for the purpose intelligible, and therefore rightly more
not of assisting but of discouraging it. used, than Charles Edward, and to
The writers most subject to temptation insist on 'came over with William I'
are sportsmen writing about the sports in preference to 'with the Conqueror*
in which they have excelled. Games would be absurd.
and contests are exciting to take part No universal condemnation of sobri-
in, interesting or even exciting also to quets is therefore possible; but even
watch, but essentially (i.e. as bare facts) the better sort of journalist, seldom
dull to read about. Such a writer, guilty of such excesses as the sporting
or the ghost he employs, conscious writer, is much tempted to use them
that his matter and his audience are without considering whether they tend
both dull enough to require enlivening, to illuminate or to obscure ; 'the philo-
thinks that the needful fillip may be sopher of Ferney', he feels, at once
given if he calls fishing the gentle craft, exhibits his own easy familiarity with
a ball the leather, a captain the skipper, Voltaire the man {Voltaire the word,
or a saddle the pigskin, and so makes by the way, is itself one of the mayor-
his description a series of momentary of-tbe-palace sobriquets) and gratifies
puzzles that shall pleasantly titillate such of his readers as know who is
inactive minds. Here is a Times re- meant. As for those who may not
viewer, who sighs over 'One sad fault, know, it will be good for them to
which runs through this, and, alas ! a realize that their newspaper is more
good many other excellent books—the cultured than they. The sobriquet
habit of seldom calling a spade a spade. style, developed on these lines, is very
Does it really help, or is it really distasteful to all readers of discretion.
humorous, to call the fox "Charles Those who may become aware, in
James", a hare "Madam", a nose a glancing through the following alpha-
"proboscis", and Wales "Taffyland"? betical selection of sobriquets other
Of course, a sporting book will tend to than those already mentioned, that
use sporting expressions; but a good these and similar substitutes are apt
deal of this irritating circumlocution to occur frequently in their own
is unnecessary, and might well be left writing should regard it as a very
for colloquial use'. serious symptom of perverted taste
It is by no means true, however, for cheap ornament. In most of the
that the use of sobriquets is confined expressions an initial the is to be
sobriquet 569 sociolegese
supplied: Alma Mater (university); Strawberry leaves (ducal rank); Tom-
Auld Reekie (Edinburgh); Beefeater mies (British soldiers); Uncle Sam
(Yeoman of the Guard) ; Black Coun- (U.S.A.); Virgin Queen (Elizabeth I ) ;
try (industrial west midlands); Black Union Jack (British flag); Warrior
Maria (prison van); Black Prince Queen (Boadicea); Great Wen (Lon-
(eldest son of Edward I I I ) ; Bluecoat don); Wizard of the North (Scott);
school (Christ's Hospital) ; Blue ribbon Young Chevalier (Charles Edward
of the turf (the Derby) ; Cœur de Lion Stuart).
(Richard I ) ; Cousin Jacky (Cornish-
man); Digger (Australian); Emerald soccer, -cker. Soccer did not de-
Isle (Ireland) ; Ettrick ShepherdQames serve its victory in the competition
Hogg); Farmer George (George I I I ) ; between these alternative spellings.
Father of History (Herodotus) ; Father Accept, success, eccentricity, accident,
of Lies (Satan); First Gentleman of flaccid, coccyx, show the almost in-
Europe (George IV) ; Garden of Eng- variable sound of -cc- before e, i, y ;
land (Kent) ; Gilded Chamber (House perhaps the only exceptions are baccy
of Lords); Gloriana (Elizabeth I ) ; and recce, which the hard c sound in
G.O.M. (Gladstone); Granite City the full words makes more excusable
(Aberdeen); Great Cham (Samuel then soccer.
Johnson) ; Great Commoner (the elder
Pitt); Herring pond (North Atlantic sociable, social. For confusion be-
Ocean); House (Chamber of the tween pairs of adjectives in -able and
House of Commons, Stock Exchange, -al, see EXCEPTIONABLE, PRACTICABLE.
Christ Church Oxford); Iron Chan- No such patent misuses occur with
cellor (Bismarck) ; Iron Duke (Welling- the present pair as with those; there
ton); Jack Tar (common sailor R.N.); is merely a tendency to use social not
John Bull (Englishman) ; Jollies (Royal where it is indefensible, but where the
Marines) ; Kingmaker (Warwick) ; other would be more appropriate.
King of beasts (lion) ; King of Terrors Roughly, social means of or in or for
(death); Knight of the Rueful Coun- or used to or shown in or affording
tenance (Don Quixote); Lion of the society; and sociable seeking or loving
North (Gustavus Adolphus) ; Maid of or marked by the pleasures of com-
Orleans (Joan of Arc) ; Merry Monarch pany. Social is rather a classifying,
(Charles I I ) ; Mother of Parliaments and sociable rather a descriptive adjec-
(British Parliament) ; Ocean greyhound tive: man is a social being; Jones is a
(liner); Old Contemptibles (British sociable person; people are invited to
Expeditionary Force 1914); Old Nick a social evening, and say afterwards
(devil); Old Lady of Threadneedle (or do not say) that they had a very
Street (Bank of England); Old Pre- sociable evening. Obviously, over-
tender (James, son of James I I ) ; lapping is likely. The OED, under a
Paddy (Irishman); Pommy (British definition of social that includes
immigrant to Australia or New Zea- 'sociable' as an equivalent, gives two
land); Porch (Stoic school of philo- quotations in which sociable should
sophy) ; Queen of the Adriatic (Venice) ; have been preferred {His own friendly
Rag (Army and Navy Club); Rupert and social disposition—Jane Austen /
of debate (14th Earl of Derby); Sage He was very happy and social—Miss
of Chelsea (Carlyle); Sailor King Braddon), as well as one that is just on
(William IV); St. Stephen's (Houses the right side of the border {Charles
of Parliament); Seagreen incorrup- came forth from that school with social
tible (Robespierre) ; Senior (or Silent) habits, with polite and engaging manners
service (navy); Soapy Sam (Bishop —Macaulay).
Wilberforce) ; Sport of kings (horse-
racing) ; staff of life (bread) ; Stagirite sociologese. We live in a scientific
(Aristotle); Stars and stripes (U.S. age, and like to show, by the words
flag); Swan of Avon (Shakespeare); we use, that we think in a scientific
way. In more than one article of this
sociologese 570 solder
dictionary, especially in POPULARIZED m s ) of preferring pretentious abs-
TECHNICALITIES, reference is made to tract words to simple concrete ones.
the harm that is being done to the It would be easy but tedious to
language by this well-meant ambition multiply examples ; two will be enough.
(see also GROUP, BRACKET). Sociolo- 1. (On the reason why the 'middle
gese, like COMMERCIALESE and OF- class* speak differently from the 'lower
FICIALESE, deserves an article to itself. working class'.) The typical, dominant
Sociology is a new science con- speech-mode of the middle class is one
cerning itself not with esoteric matters where speech becomes an object of per-
outside the comprehension of the lay- ceptual activity, and a 'theoretical
man, as the older sciences do, but attitude* is developed towards the struc-
with the ordinary affairs of ordinary tural possibilities of sentence organiza-
people. This seems to engender in tion. This speech-mode facilitates the
those who write about it a feeling that verbal elaboration of subjective intent,
the lack of any abstruseness in their sensitivity to the implications of separate-
subject demands a compensatory ab- ness and difference, and points to the
struseness in their language. Thus, in possibilities inherent in a complex con-
the field of industrial relations, what ceptual hierarchy for the organization
the ordinary man would call an in- of experience. [The lower working
formal talk may be described as a rela- class] are limited to a form of language
tively unstructured conversational in- use which, though allowing for a vast
teraction, and its purpose may be said range of possibilities, provides a speech
to be to build, so to speak, within the form which discourages the speaker from
mass of demand and need, a framework verbally elaborating subjective intent,
of limitation recognized by both worker and progressively orients the user to
and client. This seems to mean that the descriptive rather than abstract con-
client must be persuaded that, beyond a cepts.
certain point, he can only rely on what
used to be called self-help; but that 2 . (On family life.) The home then is
would not sound a bit scientific. Or the specific zone of functional potency
again, still in the field of industrial that grows about a live parenthood; a
relations, results may be summarized zone at the periphery of which is an
in language like this : The technique here active interfacial membrane or surface
reported resulted from the authors' con- furthering exchange—from within out-
tinuing interest in human variables wards and from without inwards—a
associated with organizational effective- mutualising membrane between the
ness. Specifically, this technique was family and the society in which it lives.
developed to identify and analyse several
types of interpersonal activities and soft. 1. For ' s . impeachment' see
relations, and to provide a method for IRRELEVANT ALLUSION. 2 . For play,
expressing the degree of congruence be- sleep, fall, etc., s.3 see UNIDIOMATIC -LY.
tween two or more of these activities and
relations in indices which might be soi-disant. See FRENCH WORDS. Eng-
associated with available criteria of lish, with self-styled, ostensible, would-
organizational effectiveness. be, professed, professing, supposed, and
other words, is well provided for all
There are of course writers on socio- needs.
logical subjects who express them-
selves clearly and simply; that makes sojourn. OED gives su-, so-, so-, in
it the more deplorable that such books that order. The battle is still un-
are often written in a jargon which one decided, but so- has gained on su and
is almost tempted to believe is delib- both on so-. See PRONUNCIATION 5.
erately employed for the purpose of
making what is simple appear com- solder. Sô'der was formerly the
plicated, exhibiting in an extreme established pronunciation but the
form the common vice (see ABSTRACT- speak-as-you-spell movement (see
soldierly 571 some
PRONUNCIATION i) has favoured solder from its proper region of quantity or
or solder; the sounding of the / is now number to that of quality; some faith
preferred by most dictionaries. is a wonderful amount of faith; but
some war is a wonderful kind or speci-
soldierly. For adv. see -LILY. men of war, and some pumpkins (more
solecism ('offence against grammar, than 100 years old, and said to be the
blunder in the manner of speaking or original American phrase) were not a
writing') is a Greek word (aoAot/aa/io's), great number of pumpkins, but pump-
said to come from the corruption of kins of so superior a quality as to be
the Attic dialect among the Athe- the only fitting description of the
nian colonists of Soloi in Cilicia. The speaker's girl friend (She was some
grammarians used to distinguish be- pumpkins). Phrases of this kind are
tween barbarism, incorrectness in the apt to perish when they become so
use of words, and solecism, incorrect- trite as no longer to sound humorous,
ness in the construction of sentences. but Sir Winston Churchill's Some
chicken! Some neck! should have
solemnness. See SPELLING POINTS given immortality to this one. Com-
2, s.f. pare with it our own equivalent, which
lacks the piquant irregularity, 'some-
soliloquy. See MONOLOGUE. thing like a war*.
solo. PI. -ost see -O(E)S 6, or more 2 . For someone, some one, see EVERY
formally in music soli (Je-). ONE.
3. Some time, sometime, etc., adw.
so long, = goodbye. See so 2 . Some time is often used elliptically
for at some time or other. There is
soluble, solvable, make insoluble, no essential objection to writing it
unsolvable; see IN- and -UN-. Sub- some-time or sometime, but it is con-
stances are soluble (or dissolvable), venient to keep it in two separate
not solvable; problems are soluble words for distinction from the some-
or solvable. See also DISSOLUBLE and time that appears in such descriptions
RESOLUBLE. as 'sometime Fellow of . . .', 'some-
time Rector of this Parish', meaning
solve. See RESOLVE.
formerly. Someplace for somewhere
some. 1. S. in meiosis. 2 . Some one, is U.S. only. See PREPOSITION DROP-
someone. 3. Sometime, some time, etc. PING.
4. Somewhat. 5. Somewhen. 4 . Somewhat has for the inferior
1. Meiosis. 'This is some war', journalist what he would be likely
with strong emphasis on some, is to describe as 'a somewhat amaz-
modern colloquial for 'This is a vast ing fascination'. Thus: The evi-
war', 'This is indeed a war, if ever dence furnished in the somewhat
there was one'. It is still felt as slang, extraordinary report of the Federation
and it comes to us from America; but as to its waste of huge sums of money
it results from that love of MEIOSIS on . . . / His election experiences were
which is shared with the Ameri- somewhat unique. / The flocks of wild
cans by us. We say a place is some geese, to which theflamingois somewhat
distance off, meaning a long way; we more or less closely allied. / The Labour
say 'It needs some faith to believe motion introduced the proviso, somewhat
that', meaning a hardly possible for the first time, that the process should
credulity. So far the effect is exactly be gradual. These are examples
parallel to the emphatic use of rather selected for their patent absurdity,
in answer to a question—'Do you like and their authors are doubtless so
it ?' 'Rather !', meaning not somewhat, addicted to the word that they are no
but exceedingly (see RATHER 5). The longer conscious of using it. What
irregular development comes in when first moves people to experiment in
some, meiosis and all, is transferred the somewhat style is partly timidity
-some 572 sorry
—they are frightened by the coming fined to the merely defining sense 'of
strong word and would fain take pre- the (Greek) Sophists', sophistical being
cautions against shock—and partly left to the quibbler and sophisticated to
the notion that an air of studious the worldly-wise and other modern
understatement is superior and im- meanings of that rather wayward
pressive; and so in our newspapers participle.
'the intemperate orgy of moderation
is renewed every morning'. Cf. the soprano. PI. -os, see -O(E)S 6, or
similar use of COMPARATIVELY and -ni (-ë).
relatively as shock-absorbers. sore. And the people ... lifted up their
5. Somewhen should be regarded as voices and wept s. The use of s. as an
the progeny of somewhere and some- adverb is WARDOUR STREET, if not
how, and allowed to appear in public archaic, and sorely cannot be classed
under the wing of either or both of its among the adverbs in -ly whose use
parents, but not by itself. is deprecated in UNIDIOMATIC -LY.
-some. This suffix has been so sorites (pronounce sorï'tëz), meaning
much used to make fanciful words, 'heap', is a term applied to two
now archaic or poetical (blithesome, entirely different things.
brightsome, gladsome, darksome, light- 1. A process by which a predicate is
some, lovesome, and the like), that we brought into the desired relation to
are disinclined to treat seriously the a subject by a series of propositions in
-some words that we do use (e.g. awe- which the predicate of one becomes
some, cuddlesome, fearsome, gamesome, the subject of the next, and the con-
winsome) unless they are so familiar clusion has the first subject and the
that their compound origin has been last predicate. Thus: Schoolmasters
forgotten, e.g. fulsome, gruesome, hand- are teachers ; Teachers are benefactors;
some, loathsome, noisome, quarrelsome, Benefactors are praiseworthy; There-
tiresome, wearisome. fore schoolmasters are praiseworthy.
A sorites may be a short way of ex-
somersault, summersault, somerset, hibiting truth, or, as in the above
summerset. The italicized alternatives example, may conceal fallacies at each
are obsolete, except perhaps somerset or any step.
in rustic talk.
2 . A logical trick named from the
son-in-law. See -IN-LAW. difficulty of defining a heap. If grains
of corn are accumulated one by one,
sonnet, once used loosely of any at what point will the addition of a
short poem, is now applied only to single grain convert into a heap what
those rhymed poems of fourteen deca- was not a heap before?
syllabic Unes of which there are in
English three recognized varieties, sorrow. For 'more in s. than in
the Petrarchian, the Shakespearian, anger', see HACKNEYED PHRASES.
and the Miltonic.
sonorous. 'Properly sono'rous, it will sorry, sorrow. The two words do
probably sooner or later become not belong to each other, as one might
so'nôrous' said Skeat in 1884. It has suppose; sorry is the adjective of the
not done so yet; the COD still puts noun sore. Sore and sorrow, however,
sono'rous first. Perhaps it is our are so near in sense (especially in
familiarity with Milton's Sonorous earlier and wider meanings of sore)
metal blowing martial sounds that has that the mistake has no ill effects.
made us resist the RECESSIVE ACCENT.
Still, the knowledge has its practical
value; connexion between sore and
sophistic(al). Sophistical is now the sorry helps to account for the use of
usual form. It would be well if, in sorry in the sense of paltry, shabby,
accordance with what is said in the wretched, worthless (e.g. s. business,
article -IC(AL), sophistic could be con- excuse, plight), or of nasty, as when
sort 573 spark off
Macbeth, looking at his hands, ex- no confirmation as yet from official ss.)
claims 'This is a sorry sight'. Cf. circles and quarters. But the PER-
SONIFICATION of source in the above
sort, in the irregular but idiomatic quotations, though perhaps a natural
uses touched upon under KIND, is result of the imprisonment of two
equally common, and subject to the journalists for refusing to reveal their
same limitations. Sort of and kind of 'sources', is both needless and absurd.
preceding a verb (/ s. o. expected it) Informant is the word.
differ from the others in being more
generally confined in practice to the south-. Compounds (s.-east etc.) are
colloquial, like the sort of thing with pronounced with th. Of the deriva-
which persons conscious of their tives, southerly, southern, southernwood,
limited powers of expression used to southron, have sùdh-; souther and
punctuate everything they said, until southing have sowth-; southward(s) is
it was replaced by the now inevitable sowthward(z) or (at sea) sudhard(z).
you know. It is worth mention that
the OED, always chary in condemna- southerly. For the special uses and
tion, records these idioms without meanings of this set of words, see
seriously questioning their legitimacy. EASTERLY.
The same is true of the common de-
preciatory use of of sorts ( Yet in prin- southpaw. Eagle-eyed viewers may
ciple the Government have a case of have noticed a left-handed violinist
sorts), a convenient idiom that should fiddling the opposite way to everyone
perhaps now be granted literary status ; else. .. . This fiddler was James Barton,
the quotation is from a leading article the only southpaw in the business at the
in The Times in 1962. For of any sort moment. This seems to be an example
or kind (We can only repeat that there of NOVELTY HUNTING for the purpose
is no inconsistency of any sort or kind of ELEGANT VARIATION. Southpaw is an
in our attitude) see PLEONASM and Americanism originally applied to a
SIAMESE TWINS. For those sort (or kind) left-handed pitcher at baseball, and
of things see KIND. later extended more widely (especially
in sport) to those who do with the left
sough. The pronunciation alterna- hand what is usually done with the
tives in the OED are suf, sow and soo, right, and vice versa, e.g. a boxer who
the last followed by the breathed gut- leads with the right arm and leg in-
tural. English people, uncertain how stead of the orthodox left.
to pronounce the word, are shy of Soviet. The OED Supp. puts Sôv-
using it; when they do they probably before Sov-, and this seems to be the
give it the first; a Scot, who has no usual pronunciation of English-speak-
such inhibitions, will certainly give it ing people who have visited the
the last. country, though Sov- is commoner.
sound, adv. For sleep sound(ly), see
UNIDIOMATIC - L Y . sow, vb. The p.p. sown is four times
as frequent, in the OED i9th-2Oth-c.
soupçon. See GALLICISMS. quotations, as sowed.
source. Mr. M. said that he had met spark off is a PHRASAL VERB of modern
by accident the original s. of the informa- coinage, ordinarily used of the imme-
tion. He had not asked whether the s. diate cause of some explosive event
was willing for his name to be disclosed. / (e.g. a strike, riot, or war) whose more
One of my ss. has given me the wording remote causes have been gradually
of a very important valentine. Sources accumulating. It is an apt metaphor.
(of information) is an established and These incidents revealed serious de-
unexceptionable phrase, especially for terioration in the security situation; the
indicating, without specifying, where view generally held in the Southern
a piece of news came from. ( There is Province was that any incident might
special 574 specific(ally)
spark off immediate violence. Trigger seem to cry out for DIFFERENTIATION,
off is similarly used. have made little progress in that direc-
special. 1. Special, especial. 2 . <S. tion. Anyone who thinks he knows
which of the chief senses belong to
pleading. which, and tests his notions by looking
1. For specially) as distinguished through the OED quotations, is likely
from especially), see ESPECIAL. The to have a surprise; he will perhaps
two following quotations show each conclude that writers use either form
adverb used where the other would for any of the senses according as they
have been better: Ample supplies of prefer its sound in general or find it
food and clothing for the prisoners are suits the rhythm of a sentence. Where
now available there, having been shipped usage is so undecided, it would be
from America especially for this pur- presumptuous to offer a profitable
pose. I The neighbourhood is not speci- differentiation, or to recommend either
ally well provided with places where of two fully established forms for ex-
soldiers can get amusement and refresh- tinction. The most that can be ven-
ments. tured is that speciality is in most senses
2 . 5 . pleading is a POPULARIZED the commoner, and that specialty pre-
TECHNICALITY. When we say that a vails in the sense of a special subject
person's argument is s.p., we mean of study or research and in the legal
that he has tried to convice us by sense of a contract under seal.
calling our attention to whatever
makes for the conclusion he desires, specie(s). Plural the same; see LATIN
and diverting it from whatever makes PLURALS. For pronunciation see -IES,
against it. But this is, not indeed the -EIN. See also next article.
highest, but at any rate the almost specifically). These words, like
universal, argumentative procedure. RESPECTIVE(LY), though their real value
That is, it is advocacy or (in the un- need not be questioned, are often
technical sense) pleading, and the word resorted to by those who have no clear
special adds nothing to the meaning; idea of their meaning but hold them
why then call it special? Pleadings, in to diffuse an air of educated precision.
law, are a series of formal written A short table of the senses of specific
statements by the parties to a suit follows, showing the relation of each
designed to establish clearly, before to the central notion of species; it is in
the case is tried, what is the issue or the last rather loose sense that it may
question to be decided. S. p. is be wise to avoid the word and choose
adaptation of the typical outline for- one of the more generally understood
mulae to the circumstances of a par- synonyms.
ticular case. As one consequence of 1. Characterizing a kind or species.
modern legal reforms, pleadings are •S. gravity is that belonging to some
now very commonly dispensed with; substance (e.g. gold or beer) as a kind
but formerly the s. p. had to be done or as such.
with extreme accuracy if cases were 2 . Constituting kind or species.
not to be lost on points of form that 5 . difference is that which entitles
were of no real importance. S. p. audacity, man, etc., to be called by
accordingly became identified with those names rather than by more
legal quibbling, and suffered the same general ones such as courage, mammal.
fate as casuistry, passing into a by- 3. Indicating species in classifica-
word for dishonest evasion of real tion, i.e. the class next below genus. In
issues. This vague and inaccurate Pinus sylvestris (Scotch fir) and Passer
sense the name has retained now that domesticus (house sparrow) Pinus and
the thing itself is no longer familiar passer are generic, sylvestris and do-
outside the legal profession. mesticus specific.
speciality, -alty. The two words, 4 . Applicable to a kind only. S.
like many pairs in -IC(AL), while they remedy (or specific, used as a noun) is
specious 575 spelling points
one used for a particular disease or creates an obligation to declare one's
organ. general attitude towards reform be-
5. Of a disease due to some identi- fore touching any details. The line
fiable micro-organism or lesion. here followed is, then: that the sub-
6. 5 . performance (of a contract) stitution for our present chaos of a
ordered by a Court in cases where phonetically consistent method that
damages for breach would not ade- did not sacrifice the many merits of the
quately compensate the other party. old spelling would be of incalculable
7. Not universal but limited, not value; that a phonetically consistent
general but particular, not vague but method is in English peculiarly hard
definite. S. directions, accusation, to reconcile with the keeping together
cause. of word-families, owing to the havoc
played on syllable sounds by varia-
specious is a WORSENED WORD. tions of stress; that attempts at so
Originally it meant fair or pleasing to radical a reform are likely to meet in-
the eye or sight; resplendent with beauty superable prejudice, and so perhaps to
(OED). But it has long been used delay less ambitious but desirable
only of people, things, or arguments, changes; that most reformers are so
whose attractiveness is deceptive. Cf. much more awake to the obvious ad-
PLAUSIBLE. vantages of change than to its less ob-
spectrum. PI. usually -tra; see -UM, vious evils that we cannot trust them
and LATIN PLURALS. with the disposal of so vastly important
a matter; and, finally, that English had
speculum. PI. usually -la; see -UM better be treated in the English way,
and LATIN PLURALS. and its spelling not be revolutionized
but amended in detail, here a little
speed. Past and p.p sped; but s. up, and there a little as absurdities become
= increase the s. of, makes speeded intolerable, till a result is attained that
{must be speeded up etc.), and that is shall neither overburden schoolboys
also the natural past of speed in the nor stultify intelligence nor outrage
sense of drive (a car) at an excessive the scholar. 'Those who reverence [the
speed. uncompromising tyranny of our spell-
spell, vb. 1. For spelt, spelled, see -T ing system] ', said Robert Bridges, 'have
and -ED. 2 . The sense amount to, to learn that it has no divine right, and
mean, involve as inevitable result, if they obstinately uphold its usurpa-
seen in Democracy spells corruption, tion they are playing into the hands
and esp. in So-and-so spells ruin of the revolutionists, who would cast
('common in recent use'—OED), had it off altogether and substitute the
its merit, no doubt, when new, but has worse tyranny of a questionable pho-
now a rather faded look. netic system.' In this book some mod-
est attempts are made at cleaning up the
spelling points. 1. Spelling reform. more obtrusive untidinesses; certain
2. Double and single letters for con- inconsistencies have been regarded as
sonantal sounds. 3. Cross references. no longer required of us in the present
4. Miscellaneous. diffusion of literacy. The well-known
1. Spelling reform. We can no type theoretic-radical cum practical-
longer do as Swift did, and airily conservative covers perhaps a majority
dismiss the subject as 'the foolish of our population, and its influence is
opinion advanced of late years that as sound and sane in the sphere of
we ought to spell exactly as we speak'. spelling as elsewhere.
In our age of compulsory education, 2 . Double and single letters for con-
growing impatience with the notorious sonantal sounds. If a list were made
difficulty of English spelling, recently of the many thousands of words whose
showing itself in more than one spelling cannot be safely inferred
attempt to effect reform by legislation, from their sound, the doubtful point in
spelling points 576 spelling points
perhaps nine-tenths of them would be that will usually be included are abbre-
whether some single consonantal sound viate, accommodate, appal, banister,
was given by a single letter, as m or battalion, bilious, Britannia, Brittany,
t or c, or a double letter, as mm or tt, bulrush, bunion, camellia, canonical,
or two or more, as sc or cq or sch. committee, desiccated, disappear, dis-
Acquiesce and aqueduct, bivouac and appoint, embarrass, exaggerate, harass,
bivouacking, Britain and Brittany, innocuous, inoculate, install, instil,
committee and comiry, crystal and moccasin, saddler, skilful, tonsillitis,
chrysalis, inoculate and innocuous, in- unparalleled. It is worth remark that
sta// and insti/, harass and embarrass, words presenting two opportunities
leveled and unparalle/ed, personify for mistake like disappoint (dissap-,
and personnel, schedule and shed, disapp-, dissapp-, disap-), or three
science and silence, tic and tic&, are like unpara//e/ed, are more than two
examples enough. The use of double or three times as dangerous as others,
letters (tt etc.) or two letters (ck etc.) temptations to assimilate or dissimilate
to give a single sound is due some- the two or more treatments being
times to the composition of a word, added to the doubled or trebled oppor-
as when in- not and nocens harmful tunity.
are combined to make innocent, some- Among the rules referred to above
times to the convention by which the are those that govern the doubling or
sound of a preceding vowel tends to not of a word's final consonant when
be of one kind (à ë î ô û) before a single suffixes are added in inflexion or word-
letter and of another (a ë ï ô ù) before formation. Directions are given for
two, and sometimes to factors in word- the various consonants under the
formation, perhaps philologically ex- articles - B - , -BB-, and so on, to be
plicable, but less obvious than in found in their alphabetical places ; but
compounds like innocent. Of these it may be useful to state the main prin-
causes the only one that has a meaning ciple here :—Words ending in a single-
for anyone who knows no language letter consonant preceded by a short
but English is the convention of vowel vowel sound, when they have added
sounds. He is aware that much more to them a suffix beginning with a vowel
often than not a distinction exists (e.g. -ed of the past, -er of the agent or
analogous to that between holy and of comparison, -able or -y of adjec-
holly, but the interference of the other tives), double the final letter if they
causes is so incalculable and so fre- either are monosyllables or bear
quent that he soon finds it hopeless to their accent on the last syllable;
rely upon the principle in doubtful they keep it single if they have
cases. Hence a large proportion of the their last syllable unaccented. But
tears shed over spelling. Little relief a final 1 is doubled irrespective of
can be given; the words in which accent, and with a final s usage varies.
sound is no guide to whether a con- Thus the addition of -ed to the verbs
sonantal sound is given by one letter pot, regret, limit, travel, and bias, gives
or two are not a score or so of which potted (monosyllable), regretted (ac-
a list could be made and learnt, but cented final), limite d (unaccented final),
thousands. Nothing short of a com- travelled (final 1), and biassed or pre-
plete spelling-book will serve the turn ferably biased (final s ) ; similarly the
of a really weak speller, though it is verbs tar, demur, simper, level, focus,
true that a short list can be made of give tarring, demurring, simpering,
words in which mistakes are especially levelling, and focussing or preferably
common, and that some classes of focusing; the adjectives thin, common,
mistake can be guarded against by cruel, give thinnest, commonest, and
rules. Such a list is best made by each cruellest; the nouns gas, syrup give
person who finds himself in need of gassy, syrupy.
it, out of his own experience and to
suit his own requirements ; a few words Two more questions of single and
double letters are of importance to
spelling points 577 spelling points
weak spellers. In forming adverbs in For inflexions of verbs in c like picnic
-ly from adjectives in -1 or -11, neither and bivouac see -c-, -CK-.
a single nor a tripJe 1 is ever right ; fully For alternatives like enquiry and in-
purposeful, especial, and dull, have ad- quiry, undiscriminating and indiscrimi-
verbs fully, purposefully, especially, and nating, see EM- AND IM-, and IN- AND
dully. And in forming nouns in -ness UN-.
from adjectives in -n both «s are re- For 'pet names' like doggie, nannie,
tained—commonness, rottenness, plain- see -EY, -IE, -Y.
ness, etc.; even solemn, with its mute For adjectives like hors(e)y, mat{e)y,
n, need hardly be excepted, but the clayey, hol(e)y, see -EY AND -Y.
OED gives the orthodox solemnness For for{e)bears, for(e)gather, for(e)go,
only as a variant of solemness. etc., see FOR- AND FORE-.
3. Cross references. Various points For cooperate co-op- coop-, pre-
are discussed in short special articles eminent etc., recover and re-cover,
throughout the book; and many words re-enforce and reinforce, etc., see CO-,
whose spelling is disputed will be and PRÉ-, and RE-.
found spelt with or without discus- For formulae -las, hippopotamuses
sion in their alphabetical places. The -mi, etc., see LATIN PLURALS.
following collection of references may For burnt -ned, leapt -ped, etc., see
serve as a conspectus of likely mistakes -T AND -ED.
and desirable minor reforms. For by and by, by the bye, by-election,
For such words as lik(e)able, mil(e)~ etc., see BY, BYE, BY-.
age, gaugeable, pal{e)ish, judg(e)ment, For derivatives of day and other
wholly, see MUTE E. monosyllabic words in -y, see DRY.
For plural of words in -o see -O(E)S; For no one no-one, someone, etc., see
many individual words are also given. EVERY ONE.
For plural of words in -y see PLURAL For countryfied, Frenchified, etc., see
ANOMALIES 4 . -FIED.
For tire tyre, tiro tyro, silvan sylvan, For glycerin(e), gelatin{e), etc., see
siphon, cipher, siren, sillabub, sibyl, -IN AND -INE.
ID>Psy> Pygmy» etc., see Y AND 1, and For into in to, onto on to, see INTO,
the words. and ONTO.
For Aeschylus JEschylus, Oedipus For prophecy -sy, device -se, etc., see
Œdipus, oecumenical cec- ec-, diarrhoea LICENCE.
-œa, Caesar Gees-, diaeresis -cer-, etc., For netit), mat(t), pot(t), etc., see
see R., Œ. SET(T).
For dyeing, flier, triable, paid, tying, For deserter, corrector, etc., see -OR.
etc., see VERBS IN -IE, - Y , -YE. For governo(u)r, labo(u)r, etc., see
For one-ideaed -ea'd, umbrellaed -a'd, -OUR AND -OR.
mustachioed -o'd, feeed feed, etc., see For humo(u)rous, colo(u)ration, etc.,
-ED AND 'D. see -OUR- AND -OR-.
For the question between -ize and For cwt. czut, Mlle. Mlle, Dr. Dr, etc.,
-ise as the normal verb ending, and See PERIOD IN ABBREVIATIONS.
for a list of verbs in which -ise only For Jones's Jones', Venus' Venus1s, see
is correct see -IZE, -ISE, IN VERBS. POSSESSIVE PUZZLES.
For plural of handful, spoonful, etc., For referable, inferrible, etc., see
see -FUL. Choice is not between hand- CONFER(R)ABLE.
fuls and handsful, but between hand- 4 . Miscellaneous. The rule 'i before
fuls and hands full, either of which is e except after c' is very useful; it
sometimes the right expression. applies only to syllables with the
For adjectives ending -ble see -ABLE, vowel sound ë; words in which that
-IBLE. sound is not invariable, as either,
For choice between hyphening, neither, heinous, inveigle, do not come
separation, and consolidation, see under it; seize is an important
HYPHENS. exception; and it is useless with proper
sphere 578 spiritism
names (Leigh, Reith, etc.). The c ex- use it. Sphinxes (like minxes) is the
ception covers the many derivatives of only tolerable form.
Latin capio, which are in such common spif(f)licate. OED spells -ifl-; see
use that a simple rule of thumb is FACETIOUS FORMATIONS. This is an old
useful {receive, deceit, inconceivable;
but relieve, belief, irretrievable). one, dating back to 1785, and is now
outmoded. In these grimmer days we
The writing of the very common LIQUIDATE instead.
and- against instead of the rarer ante-
before (e.g. antichamber, antidated) is spill. For spilt -lied, see -T AND -ED.
to be carefully avoided. spilth. See REVIVALS. There is a gap
Verbs in -cede, -ceed, are so many and of 200 years between Shakespeare
so much used, and the causes of the (who uses it once only) and the earliest
difference are so far from obvious, modern OED quotation. Its revival
that mistakes are frequent and a list has been feeble, and it may fairly be
will be helpful: cede, accede, antecede, classed as an archaism.
concede, intercede, precede, recede, rétro-
cède, secede, to which may be added spin. For the past tense the OED
supersede; but exceed, proceed, succeed. I9th-c. quotations give span and spun
The curious thing is that a division so in exactly equal numbers; spun has
little reasonable should be so reli- since made the greater progress, and is
giously observed; there is no disagree- likely to prevail.
ment among good spellers, and the spinach, -nage. The first is the
only mistake into which they occa- recognized spelling; the other, corre-
sionally slip is preceeding for preceding. sponding to the popular pronunciation,
Adjectives and nouns in -ble, -de, is obsolete.
-tie, etc., make their adverbs and ad-
jectives not by adding -ly or -y, but by spindleage, not spindlage, is the
changing -le to -ly: humbly, subtly, OED spelling of this little-used word,
singly, supply (not supplely), treacly, coined on the analogy of acreage to
tangly. mean the total number of cotton
Adjectives in -ale, -He, -ole, add -ly spindles in use at a given time in any
for their adverbs : stalely, vilely, docile- specified area. But see MUTE E.
ly, solely; but whole makes wholly. spindrift, spoon-. The first is the
For verbs ending in -bre, -tre, etc., usual modern word. The original
the forms sabring, accoutring, centring, spoondrift is from an obsolete nautical
mitring, manoeuvring, are recommended verb spoon or spoom meaning (of ship
in preference to sabreing, manœuvering, or foam) to scud ; there is no profit in
etc. Similarly ochrous and ogrish seem trying to restore the correct but now
better than ochreous or ocherous and puzzling form.
ogreish or ogerish; but impious hands
can hardly be laid upon acreage. spinet. The OED prefers the accent
on the first syllable; among its verse
Of adjectives in -(e)rous some never quotations is one in favour of each.
use the e, as cumbrous, disastrous, But -et', perhaps from the analogy of
idolatrous, leprous, lustrous, mon- duet, motet, etc., is now more usual.
strous, wondrous; some have it always,
as boisterous, murderous, obstreperous, spiritism, spiritualism. Spiritism
slanderous, thunderous; dextrous and and spiritistic mean the same as
slumbrous are better than dexterous and spiritualism in its most frequent
slumberous. and spiritualistic in its only accepta-
tion. 'Preferred by those specially
sphere. For synonyms in the sense interested in the subject, as being
province, see FIELD. more distinctive than spiritualism* is
the OED comment on spiritism. To
sphinx. Although the OED gives the ordinary people the old noun with
plural sphinges it would be pedantry to a new meaning comes much more
spiritual 579 split infinitive
natural than the recent invention. feminine and suitable only to what,
What first occurs to the mind of for the English, is alone feminine, viz.
anyone who nowadays hears the woman; so that we find ourselves de-
word spiritualism is not the general barred from describing qualities, faces,
sense, i.e. 'tendency towards a spiri- talk, and above all men, as spirituelle,
tual view or estimate of things' ; it is and cannot give the word its proper
the special sense of 'belief that the extension.
spirits of the dead can hold com- The lesser evil is to spell always
munication with the living'. So true spirituel i the objection to it is not, like
is this that the addition of 'modern', that to -elle, one that will endure for
at first thought necessary to distin- ever, but one that, when the form is
guish the special from the general settled, will no longer be felt.
sense, is no longer made. And in fact
the OED's comment is now out of spirt, spurt. The spelling is now
date. Spiritualists no longer prefer very much a matter of personal fancy,
tbe word spiritism ; on the contrary they and whether more than one word is
resent the idea underlying it that the concerned is doubtful. There are,
two meanings of spiritualism can pro- however, two distinguishable main
perly be divorced. senses—that of gush, jet, or flow (v.
and n.), and that of sprint, burst,
spiritual, -ous. The DIFFERENTIATION hustle (v. and n.); and for the second
(-al of soul, -ous of liquor) is now sense the form spurt is far the com-
complete, and neglect of it is more moner. It would plainly be convenient
likely to be due to inadvertence than if the differentiation thus indicated
to ignorance. were made absolute; a spirt of blood;
spirituel(le). The word's meaning works by spurts; oil spirts up; Jones
is not quite clear to everyone, and spurted past. See also SPRINT.
is therefore here given in the OED spiv. In inventing this word the Eng-
terms : 'Of a highly refined character lish have emulated the American
or nature, esp. in conjunction with genius for coining monosyllabic words
liveliness or quickness of mind.' (cf. stunt, blurb) whose sound is
And on the spelling the OED re- curiously suited to their meaning. The
marks: 'The distinction between the origin of spiv is obscure, but it is pre-
masc. and fern, forms has not been sumably connected with the slang
always observed in English.' That is word s/rcjÇ'Xdandyishness) once familiar
undoubtedly so, and the spelling prob- in the juvenile slang spiffing.
lem presented is an awkward one. On
the one hand, the notion of m. and f. splendiferous. See FACETIOUS FOR-
forms for adjectives is entirely alien to MATIONS.
English, and if a French adjective is to
make itself at home with us it must split infinitive. The English-speak-
choose first whether it will go in male ing world may be divided into (i) those
or female attire and discard its other who neither know nor care what a
garments; on this point cf. NAIF and split infinitive is; (2) those who do not
naive. On the other hand, the choice know, but care very much; (3) those
with this particular word is a dilemma; who know and condemn; (4) those
if we decide for -el we are sacrificing who know and approve ; and (5) those
the much more familiar of the two who know and distinguish.
forms—more familiar because the 1. Those who neither know nor care
word has been chiefly applied to are the vast majority, and are a happy
women and in this application pur- folk, to be envied by most of the
posely made feminine by those who minority classes. 'To really under-
recognize both genders. But, if we stand' comes readier to their lips and
decide for -elle, few of us can rid our- pens than 'really to understand'; they
selves of the feeling that the word is see no reason why they should not say
split infinitive 580 split infinitive
it (small blame to them, seeing that paign comes dispassionately to be writ-
reasons are not their critics' strong ten, and in just perspective, it will be
point), and they do say it, to the dis- found that . . . / New principles will
comfort of some among us, but not have boldly to be adopted if the Scot-
to their own. tish case is to be met. / This is a very
2. To the second class, those who do serious matter, which clearly ought
not know but do care, who would as further to be inquired into. / The Head-
soon be caught putting their knives in master of a public school possesses
their mouths as splitting an infinitive very great powers, which ought most
but have only hazy notions of what carefully and considerately to be exer-
constitutes that deplorable breach of cised. / The time to get this revaluation
etiquette, this article is chiefly ad- put through is when the amount paid
dressed. These people betray by their by the State to the localities is very
practice that their aversion to the split largely to be increased.
infinitive springs not from instinctive 3. The above writers are bogy-
good taste, but from tame acceptance haunted creatures who for fear of
of the misinterpreted opinion of others ; splitting an infinitive abstain from
for they will subject their sentences to doing something quite different, i.e.
the queerest distortions, all to escape dividing be from its complement by
imaginary split infinitives. 'To really an adverb ; see further under POSITION
understand' is a s. i.; 'to really be OF ADVERBS. Those who presumably
understood' is a s. i.; 'to be really do know what split infinitives are, and
understood' is not one ; the havoc that condemn them, are not so easily
is played with much well-intentioned identified, since they include all who
writing by failure to grasp that distinc- neither commit the sin nor flounder
tion is incredible. Those upon whom about in saving themselves from it—all
the fear of infinitive-splitting sits who combine a reasonable dexterity
heavy should remember that to give with acceptance of conventional rules.
conclusive evidence, by distortions, of But when the dexterity is lacking,
misconceiving the nature of the s. i. disaster follows. It does not add to a
is far more damaging to their literary writer's readableness if readers are
prétentions than an actual lapse could pulled up now and again to wonder—
be ; for it exhibits them as deaf to the Why this distortion? Ah, to be sure,
normal rhythm of English sentences. a non-split die-hard ! That is the men-
No sensitive ear can fail to be shocked, tal dialogue occasioned by each of the
if the following examples are read adverbs in the examples below. It is
aloud, by the strangeness of the in- of no avail merely to fling oneself
dicated adverbs. Why on earth, the desperately out of temptation; one
reader wonders, is that word out of must so do it that no traces of the
its place? He will find, on looking struggle remain. Sentences must if
through again, that each has been necessary be thoroughly remodelled
turned out of a similar position, viz. instead of having a word lifted from its
between the word be and a passive original place and dumped elsewhere:
participle. Reflection will assure him What alternative can be found which
that the cause of dislocation is always the Pope has not condemned, and
the same—all these writers have sacri- which will make it possible to organize
ficed the run of their sentences to the legally public worship ? / It will, when
delusion that 'to be really understood' better understood, tend firmly to estab-
is a split infinitive. It is not; and the lish relations between Capital and
straitest non-splitter of us all can with Labour. / Both Germany and England
a clear conscience restore each of the have done ill in not combining to for-
adverbs to its rightful place: He was bid flatly hostilities. / Every effort must
proposed at the last moment as a be made to increase adequately profes-
candidate likely generally to be ac- sional knowledge and attainments. /
cepted. / When the record of this cam- We have had to shorten somewhat Lord
split infinitive 581 split infinitive
D- 's letter. / The kind of sin- ously say either 'to mortally wound'
cerity which enables an author to move or 'to mortally be wounded'; but
powerfully the heart would . . . / Safe- we are not foolish enough to con-
guards should be provided to prevent fuse the latter with 'to be mortally
effectually cosmopolitan financiers wounded', which is blameless English,
from manipulating these reserves. nor 'to just have heard' with 'to have
4. Just as those who know and con- just heard', which is also blameless.
demn the s. i. include many who are We maintain, however, that a real s. i.,
not recognizable, since only the clum- though not desirable in itself, is prefer-
sier performers give positive proof of able to either of two things, to real
resistance to temptation, so too those ambiguity, and to patent artificiality.
who know and approve are not distin- For the first, we will rather write 'Our
guishable with certainty. When a man object is to further cement trade rela-
splits an infinitive, he may be doing tions' than, by correcting into 'Our
it unconsciously as a member of our object is further to cement . . .', leave
class 1, or he may be deliberately it doubtful whether an additional ob-
rejecting the trammels of convention ject or additional cementing is the
and announcing that he means to do as point. And for the second, we take it
he will with his own infinitives. But, that such reminders of a tyrannous
as the following examples are from convention as 'in not combining to
newspapers of high repute, and high forbid flatly hostilities' are far more
newspaper tradition is strong against abnormal than the abnormality they
splitting, it is perhaps fair to assume evade. We will split infinitives sooner
that each specimen is a manifesto of in- than be ambiguous or artificial; more
dependence : It will be found possible than that, we will freely admit that
to considerably improve the present sufficient recasting will get rid of any
wages of the miners without jeopardiz- s. i. without involving either of those
ing the interests of capital. / Always faults, and yet reserve to ourselves the
providing that the Imperialists do not right of deciding in each case whether
feel strong enough to decisively assert recasting is worth while. Let us take
their power in the revolted provinces. / an example: 'In these circumstances,
But even so, he seems to still be allowed the Commission, judging from the
to speak at Unionist demonstrations. / evidence taken in London, has been
It is the intention of the Minister of feeling its way to modifications in-
Transport to substantially increase all tended to better equip successful can-
present rates by means of a general didates for careers in India and at the
percentage. / The men in many of the same time to meet reasonable Indian
largest districts are declared to strongly demands.' To better equip? We
favour a strike if the minimum wage is refuse 'better to equip' as a shouted
not conceded. reminder of the tyranny; we refuse
'to equip better' as ambiguous {better
It should be noticed that in these the an adjective?); we regard 'to equip
separating adverb could have been successful candidates better' as lacking
placed outside the infinitive with little compactness, as possibly tolerable
or in most cases no damage to the from an anti-splitter, but not good
sentence-rhythm {considerably after enough for us. What then of recast-
miners, decisively after power, still with ing? 'intended to make successful
clear gain after be, substantially after candidates fitter for' is the best we can
rates, and strongly at some loss after do if the exact sense is to be kept ; it
strike), so that protest seems a safe takes some thought to arrive at the
diagnosis. correction; was the game worth the
5. The attitude of those who know candle?
and distinguish is something like
this: We admit that separation of After this inconclusive discussion, in
to from its infinitive is not in itself which, however, the author's opinion
desirable, and we shall not gratuit- has perhaps been allowed to appear
splodge 582 spry
with indecent plainness, readers may much as out-, and that what is re-
like to settle the following question for markable is not the adverbial use of
themselves. 'The greatest difficulty the adjective, but the active use of the
about assessing the economic achieve- participle.
ments of the Soviet Union is that its
spokesmen try absurdly to exaggerate sponge. 1. 5 . makes spongeable; but
them; in consequence the visitor may sponging and spongy, see MUTE E.
tend badly to underrate them.' Has 2 . Jones on the wing and Meredith
dread of the s. i. led the writer to attach in the pack showed no inclination to
his adverbs to the wrong verbs, and throw in the sponge. The idiom is to
would he not have done better to throw up the sponge or throw in the
boldly split both infinitives, since he towel, alternative ways by which a
cannot put the adverbs after them second may indicate that his man gives
without spoiling his rhythm? Or are up.
we to give him the benefit of the doubt, spontaneity, -ousness. See -TY AND
and suppose that he really meant ab- NESS. Pronounce -eity to rhyme with
surdly to qualify try and badly to deity, not laity.
qualify tend}
It is perhaps hardly fair that this spoondrift. See SPINDRIFT.
article should have quoted no split spouse. For the use in ordinary writ-
infinitives except such as, being reason- ing in preference to wife, see FORMAL
ably supposed (as in 4) to be deliberate, WORDS; but s. is serviceable as short
are likely to be favourable specimens. for husband-or-wife in some styles,
Let it therefore conclude with one e.g. in dictionaries or legal documents.
borrowed from a reviewer, to whose
description of it no exception need be sprain, strain. It is natural to wish
taken: 'A book . . . of which the pur- for a clear Une of distinction between
pose is thus—with a deafening split two words that, as applied to bodily
infinitive—stated by its author: "Its injuries, are so near in sense and both
main idea is to historically, even while so well established ; but they are often
events are maturing, and divinely— treated as equivalent. Sprain, per-
from the Divine point of view—im- haps, describes the result rather of a
peach the European system of Church momentary wrench or twist, especially
and States".' of an ankle or wrist, and strain that of
an exertion of muscle too strong or too
splodge, splotch. The second is two long for its capacity.
centuries older; the first perhaps now
more usual and felt to be more descrip- spring. The past sprang is now estab-
tive; cf. SLUSH, and SMUDGE. lished, both in trans, and intrans.
splutter, sputter. Without any clear senses; sprung remains for the p.p.
or constant difference of meaning, it sprint, spurt. The words are to a
may be said that in sputter the notion considerable extent interchangeable;
of spitting is more insistent, and that sprint is, at least apart from dialect
it tends on that account to be avoided use, a I9th-c. word only, spurt going
when that notion is not essential. further back, but the newer word is
spoil. For spoiled, -It, see -T AND ED. displacing the older. A short race, or
For confusion between it and despoil a run at high speed, is now a sprint,
see DESPOIL. while for a quickening of pace, or a
spasmodic effort bodily or mental,
-spoken. For the curious use in fair, spurt is still the more usual term; the
free, soft, out, etc., -s (where fair- differentiation is useful. See also
speeched etc. might have been ex- SPIRT.
pected), see INTRANSITIVE P.P. It
should be remembered that in these spry makes spryer, spryest, sprylyt
compounds fair- etc. are adverbial as spryness, spryish.
spurt 583 stand
spurt. For s. and spirt, see SPIRT; bonuses, incubuses, atlases, etc. (c) Non-
for 5. and sprint) see SPRINT. plus makes nonplussed.
2 . For the question whether such
sputter. See SPLUTTER. words as mis-shapen and mis-spelt
squandermania(c). A FACETIOUS should be hyphened see MIS-, where
FORMATION.
it is recommended that they should
be written as one word. But three s's
square. Of persons, says the SOED, are felt to be too many to sort them-
'honourable, upright'. That is not how selves out without help; mistress-ship
the word is used in the teenagers' and Inverness-shire are always so
slang of the mid-20th c ; and it is not written.
clear why they should have given it a St. For the question between St Peter
meaning ('old-fashioned'—COD) not and St. Peter etc., see PERIOD IN
very different from that of straitlaced, ABBREVIATIONS.
which suggests a shape far from
square. Perhaps this usage has its stadium. Plural -dia, but populariza-
origin in footwear rather than figure : tion into -diums is likely to follow
squaretoed is an epithet for the prim the popularization of the word.
and old-fashioned that goes back to staff, stave. 1. In all modern senses
the 18th c. Stuffy was square's im- the plural of staff is staffs; but from
mediate predecessor; those who used the archaic plural staves has come the
to call their parents stuffy are now back-formation stave, which has taken
squares to their own children. the place of staff in music and cooper-
squib. For synonymy see LAMPOON. age. 2 . For s. of life see SOBRIQUETS.
s q u i r e a r c h y . Though 'the spelling stag. See HART.
with e has been by far the more usual' Stagirite. The S.; see SOBRIQUETS.
(OED), the spelling without it is pre- Pronounce Stâg'ïrït although Aris-
ferable (see MUTE E), and Sydney totle's birthplace was Stâgï'ra. See
Smith and FitzGerald appear among FALSE QUANTITY.
its patrons in the OED quotations. stalactite, stalagmite. Stress on the
-s-, - s s - , - s s s - . i . The general rules first, not the second, syllables is
for the doubling or not doubling of recommended; see RECESSIVE ACCENT.
final consonants before suffixes are stall in the sense of coming to an
summarized in SPELLING POINTS 2 . involuntary stop, though now mainly
So few monosyllables or words ac- used of machines, is not a product of
cented on the last syllable end in a the machine age; it was inherited from
single -s that rules need not be here horse transport. OED Supp. quotes
stated; it will suffice to say that: The last time he passed his horses stalled,
(a) The plural of bus is buses; this that is they were for some time unable
irregularity is explained by the fact to drag the wagon through the worst
that buses is an abbreviation of the places (1807).
regular omnibuses and the spelling has
become too firmly fixed to be changed stamen. Plural - 5 ; the Latin plural
to busses, even though we now write stamina has been put to other work.
bus and not 'bus. (b) Biases and stamp, n. For synonymy, see SIGN.
focuses, nn. or vv., biased and focusing,
are said by the OED to be 'more stanch, staunch. The adjective is
regular' than the -ss- forms that are staunch, the verb stanch, and the usual
nevertheless sometimes still used in pronunciations -aw- and -ah- respec-
England for the verb inflexions; tively.
similarly canvas (the fabric) gives stand. For stands to reason, see
-ases (pi. n.)3 -ased, and so too orchises, REASON 2 . For standpoint, point of
nimbuses, portcullised, trellised, boluses, view, and point, see POINT.
standard 584 status
standard. The phrase by any stan- state, n. It is a convenient distinction
dards has been described by Edmund to write State for the political unit,
Wilson as 'one of the sloppiest of at any rate when the full noun
current clichés'. Like many phrases use is required (not the attributive,
that have become clichés, it is beyond as in state trading)) and state in
reproach when judiciously used: one other senses. (See CAPITALS.) The
might say, for instance, that suffer a following compound forms are recom-
sea change was a cliché by any stan- mended (see HYPHENS): statecraft,
dards, meaning that, although opinions stateroom, State socialism, State
differ about what phrases can properly prisoner, State trial, State paper.
be called clichés, everyone would
agree that this was one. It is not state, v. / may state 'Irish Nationality1
judiciously used by a writer who can was recommended to me by . . . 'State*
hardly be supposed to mean literally is one of the verbs that insist on
any standards, but does not tell us proper ceremony and resent the omis-
(perhaps does not even know himself) sion of THAT, conj.
what standards he does mean; as for stately. For the adv., see -LILY.
instance (to quote Wilson) 'when a
new novel is described as "of major static(al). See -IC(AL); there is no
significance" or "a superb achieve- marked differentiation, but the -ic
ment" "by any standards", without form has prevailed in the adjective and
one's knowing whether the standards -ically in the adverb.
invoked are supposed to include Tol- stationary, -ery. The adj. (not
stoy and Flaubert or whether it merely moving), -ary; the noun (paper etc.),
means that the reviewer does not -ery. The second is from stationer,
happen at the moment to remember one who has a station in a market for
that he has ever read anything that the sale of books, as distinguished
seemed to excite him more'. from an itinerant vendor.
statist, statistician, etc. The pro-
s t a r , v. See FEATURE. nunciation of the first (stâ'tïst) is very
much against it, inevitably suggesting
starlight, -lit, -litten, adjj. The first state, and not statistics ; and in fact its
(in adj. use, e.g. a starlight night) may old sense was statesman, though now,
or may not be historically the noun used as if it were a back-formation from
attributively, but is certainly now to statistics, it means only statistician.
be so regarded. Attributive uses of Either it should be abandoned and
nouns, like adverbial uses of apparent statistician always used, or it should be
adjectives (see UNIDIOMATIC -LY), cut off from state by being pronounced
sometimes strike people whose zeal stâ'tïst. Both these seem to be coming
for grammar is greater than their about ; the word is becoming obsolete,
knowledge of it as incorrect; and per- preserved only in the journal of that
haps starlit is often substituted for name, which is now ordinarily pro-
starlight owing to this notion. No nounced stat-. Thus statistician is
harm is done, starlit being a blameless left in sole possession. Of the
word, and indeed better in some con- alternative adjectives -ic and -ical the
texts ; if 'a starlight night' and 'a star- short form is now virtually obsolete;
lit sea' have their epithets exchanged, the word is used only as a noun.
both suffer to the extent at least of
sounding unnatural. The further step status. 1 . Pronounce status, in spite
to starlitten is not so innocent, litten of the FALSE QUANTITY. The plural
being not archaic but pseudoarchaic; (status) is not used; if a plural is
the writer who uses starlitten is on a unavoidable there is no escape from
level with the tradesman who relies statuses.
on such attractions as Ye Olde 2 . 'The status quo' is the position in
Curyosytie Shoppe. which things (1) are now or (2) have
statutable 585 stile
been till now or (3) were then or is VID, but the stem, giving wit, woty
(4) had been till then; in senses 2 and wist, wottest, etc., is wit. Different
4 ante (t. s. q. ante) is sometimes, but parts of a 'word' may be formed from
need not be, added. With in the phrase different stems ; there are for instance
becomes in statu quo (ante), without several stems in what is called the
the, and with ante similarly optional. verb be.
3. Status is a word now much used
in the jargon of sociology (perhaps step. For s. this way, s. in, etc., see
FORMAL WORDS.
because it has become indelicate to
speak of class), especially in the phrase sterile. The older spellings (usually
status-symbol, which has become so -il, -ill) suggest that the pronunciation
important in the Affluent Society. -ïl is modern, but it is now usual in
Britain though not in U.S. (See -ILE.)
statutable, -tory. The two words
are hardly distinguishable in meaning; sternum. PI. -na or -nums; see LATIN
-table is considerably older but now PLURALS.
rare; -tory has captured the field. If
-table were ever revived it might be to stevedore. Three syllables (stê'vi-
provide an adjective meaning capable dôr).
of being dealt with by legislation. sticking-place, -point. In the Mac-
beth passage, -place is the word; see
stave, v. The past and p.p. stove MISQUOTATION.
(instead of staved) is comparatively
modern and (OED) 'chiefly Naut.' stickleback, tittlebat. The first is
For the noun see STAFF. the orthodox and etymological form,
the other being (OED) 'a variant, of
stead, n. The atmosphere of the home childish origin'.
life was favourable to the growth of
qualities which were presently to stand stigma. In the ecclesiastical, botani-
him in inestimable stead. The ob- cal, medical, etc. senses the plural is
solescent phrase to stand in stead, stig'màta ;stigmâ' ta, occasionally heard,
meaning to advantage, has been so is a solecism and stigmas is used only
narrowed by usage that to stand in in the figurative sense of imputation
good or better stead is the limit within or disgrace, in which a plural is rare.
which it can now be used without See LATIN PLURALS.
affectation; words like inestimable stigmatize. The mistake fully dealt
should not be substituted; see CAST- with under REGARD 3 occurs sometimes
IRON IDIOM. with 5.: . . . bravely suffering forfeiture
steer, n. See CATTLE. and imprisonment rather than accept
what in this same connexion Lord Mor-
stem, v. The recent popularity in ley stigmatized the 'bar sinister' ; things
Britain of the Americanism stem from are not stigmatized monstrous, but
is presumably due to NOVELTY HUNT- stigmatized as monstrous.
ING, for it has no advantage, either
in convenience or in suitability of stile, style. Stile is the spelling for
metaphor, over our spring from. the means of passage, and for the
carpentry term (stiles and rails); style
stem, n. In grammar a word's stem for all other senses. This division is
is the part from which its inflexions not historically correct, being due to
may be supposed to have been formed the confusing of Latin stilus (writing-
by the addition of affixes; in the in- tool) with Greek orûAo? (column) ; but
flexions it may be found unchanged, it is so generally accepted, and attempts
or may have been affected by phonetic to improve upon it are so conflicting,
tendencies; thus the stem of man is that it is better to refrain, and leave the
man, giving man's, men, and men's. Cf. y in all the classically derived senses;
ROOT; of the English verb wit the root see also Y AND I.
stiletto 586 stop
stiletto. PI. preferably -os; see serves the original sense more defi-
-O(E)S 6. nitely, while stoical forgets it. When
we say stoic indifference, we mean such
s t i m u l u s . PI. -li; LATIN PLURALS. indifference as the Stoics taught or
stink. Past stank or less commonly practised; when we say stoical indiffer-
stunk. ence we think of it merely as resolute
or composed. The stoic virtues are
stock pathos. Some words and those actually taught by the Stoics,
phrases have become so associated the stoical virtues simply those of the
with melancholy occasions that it sterner kind. Lastly, while either
seems hardly decent to let such an epithet is applicable to abstracts,
occasion pass unattended by any of stoical is the word for persons: with
them. It is true that such trappings stoic or stoical composure', stoic or
and suits of woe save much trouble; stoical life or tone or temper or views',
it is true that to mock at them lays one he is a stoical fellow, these stoical ex-
open to suspicion of hardheartedness ; plorers', a stoical sufferer', my stoical
it is also true that the use of them sug- young friend.
gests, if not quite insincerity, yet a
factitious sort of emotion, and those stokehold, -hole. The earliest OED
are well advised who abstain from quotation for the first is dated 1887;
them. A small selection, which might the -hole form goes back to 1660. That
be greatly enlarged, is: In her great is no doubt because it was only when
sorrow; The land he loved so well; steampower was used at sea that a
The supreme sacrifice; The pity of word was needed for that part of the
it!; The mortal remains of; All that hold of a ship in which stoking was
was mortal of; The departed; One done. But the subsequent encroach-
more unfortunate ; More sinned against ment of hold on hole for stoking-places
than sinning; A lump in one's throat; on land suggests that hole, though the
Tug at one's heartstrings; Stricken; true form, is now thought undignified.
Loved and lost; But it was not to be. Though the OED defines the two
differently, the impression produced
stockpile (n. and v.)j an importation by its quotations is not that there are
from America, deserves the welcome two names for two different things,
we have given it; for its formation is but rather that stokehole has had in its
unexceptionable, and the sense it con- time, and perhaps still has, more than
veys of accumulating reserve stocks, one meaning. To maintain a distinc-
especially of raw materials, against a tion between words at once so similar
possible scarcity cannot be as readily in form and, to the general public, so
conveyed in any other way. But to vague in sense, is clearly impossible.
let it usurp the place of the traditional The form stokehole is recommended,
woodpile as a lurking-place for niggers at least for all such places ashore.
is to overdo our welcome. Empirical
philosophy, anthropocentric humanism, stomacher, article of dress. The old
pseudo-scientific dogma and a wholesale pronunciation was with -cher, not -ker,
rejection of absolute values—these are and it should be kept to as long as the
rapidly becoming, as it might be, the word is historical only.
niggers in the stockpile.
stop, v. Those who use stop when
stoic(al). See -IC(AL). Both forms others would use stay (Where are you
are used as adjectives, -ic being indeed stopping? etc.) are many, and are fre-
the commoner; but points of differ- quently rebuked. The OED deals
ence are discernible. In the predica- very gently with them : 'Cf. stay, which
tive use stoic is rare: his acceptance of is often preferred as more correct';
the news was stoical, he was stoical in and it is not a case for denunciation,
temper, rather than stoic. In the but rather for waiting to see which
attributive use, stoic naturally pre- word will win. Meanwhile, careful
stops 587 stops
speakers do prefer stay; and it is in parts the object (moral . . . principles)
its favour that its noun, and not stop, from its verb combines. / A literature
is certainly the right one in the corre- of Scotch Gaelic poetry and prose exists,
sponding sense {during our stay, not though too little notice has been taken of
our stop) and that the verb itself is in it, even within the Scotch borders, for
undisputed possession of the collo- the Scot, who ignores such literature,
quialism stay put. It may also be sug- does not deserve his name, which proves
gested that, if stop is a solecism, there him to be a Gael (read Scot who
are degrees of enormity in the offence : ignores such literature does). The who
/ shall stop for the night somewhere on starts a defining relative clause; see
my way, Won't you stop to dinner?, I THAT (REL.) I , WHICH J, WHICH, THAT,
shall stop in town till I hear, We have WHO 9, and WHO AND WHOM 3 . / . . .
been stopping at the Deanery, of which whether some disease other than tuber-
the last is the worst, point to a limita- culosis may not account for the symptoms
tion—that stop is suitable only when and signs observed. Only, if we do not
interruption of a journey or postpone- succeed in our investigations, are we
ment of departure rather than place entitled to admit the diagnosis of
of sojourn is in question; in the former tuberculosis (read Only if we do not
case the Americanism stop off or over succeed in our investigations are). With-
is now as likely to be used as the plain out the clause from which the comma
verb. See PHRASAL VERBS. parts it, only is mere nonsense. /
Situated, as we are, with our vast
stops, etc. (comma, semicolon, colon, and varied overseas possessions, our
full stop, exclamation, question, in- gigantic foreign trade, and our un-
verted commas, apostrophe, hyphen, approachable mercantile marine, we
italics, brackets, dashes). There is not at any rate can gain nothing by war
room in this book for a treatise on (read Situated as). We should write
punctuation, nor for discussion of not 'How, are we situated?', but 'How
principles even where the question is are we situated?'; the as clause is
one between opposed views of correct- exactly parallel to, and as essential as,
ness, and not between acknowledged how. I We are assured that the Prime
correctness and careless or ignorant Minister will, in no circumstances and
error. But, if it is assumed (1) that the on no consideration whatever, consent
reader need be warned only against to .. . (read will in no circumstances . ..
mistakes that experience shows to be whatever consent). The words that
prevalent, and (2) that the views here negative will must not be cut off from
taken on disputed points are sound, it. See NO 4 .
an article consisting mostly of ill
stopped sentences with corrections In the foregoing examples the com-
may be of use. mas are manifestly wrong. A more
difficult question is whether it is
COMMA legitimate to break the rule about not
A. Separating inseparables, e.g. a separating inseparables in order to
verb from its subject or object or com- indicate the end of a long or compli-
plement, a denning relative from its cated subject. In enumerations, for
antecedent, or an essential modifica- instance, should there be a comma
tion from what cannot stand without it. after Spanish in French, German,
The charm in Nelson's history, is, the Italian, and Spanish, are taught? (The
unselfish greatness (read history is the). question whether there should be one
One comma parts verb from subject, after Italian is discussed in B below.)
the other complement from verb. / The answer here suggested is no; not
He has been called the Portuguese even when the intrusion of an ad-
Froissart, but he combines with Frois- verbial phrase between subject and
sart's picturesqueness, moral philosophy, verb tempts a writer to use a comma
enthusiasm, and high principles (read to prevent ambiguity, as he might write
picturesqueness moral). The comma French, German, Italian, and Spanish,
stops 588 stops
in particular are taught, to show that in and Wolff. Without the comma after
particular relates to all four languages Vickers we do not know whether the
and not to Spanish only. The sen- tendering firms were four or five, or,
tence should be recast, and this can if they were four, whether Harland
easily be done by moving in par- partners Vickers or Wolff. / The smooth
ticular from the tail of the pro- grey of the beech stem, the silky texture
cession to the lead of it. (Similarly of the birch, and the rugged pine. If
if the writer wanted to make it there is no comma after birch, the pine
quite clear that in particular quali- is given a silky texture. The use of a
fied Spanish only this could be done comma before the and is here recom-
by inserting those words immediately mended.
before Spanish.) Nothing had been C. In the absolute construction. For
allowed to be published except books, the cause, and effect, of this common
pamphlets, and papers, which had secured mistake, see ABSOLUTE CONSTRUCTION.
the approval of the Communist party. But these objections were overruled,
Here the comma after papers removes and the accused, having pleaded not
any possibility that that word alone guilty, the hearing of evidence com-
may be taken as the antecedent of menced (read and, the accused having).
which, but only at the cost of separat- D. In confluences, i.e. when alterna-
ing inseparables—the denning relative tives etc. finish their course together,
from its antecedent. Here again re- the necessary comma after the second
construction is easy, e.g. No books, is apt to be forgotten.
pamphlets, or papers had been allowed As regards the form of the festival,
to be published except those that had etc. many, if not most of the customs popu-
It is not only enumerations that larly associated with it may, perhaps,
tempt a writer to put a comma be- be traced to . . . (read most, of). / His
tween subject and verb. Any long and craftsmanship, again, was superb—more
involved subject will do so. He may refined, more intellectual than that of
for instance feel the need of a comma Frith (read intellectual, than).
after subject in The question whether it E. In compound appendages to
is ever legitimate to use a comma to names. Mr F. Haverfield has collected
mark the end of a long and complicated and edited a volume of 'Esays by Henry
subject is an arguable one. Even good Francis Pelham, Late President of
writers sometimes do this. But it is Trinity College, Oxford and Camden
surely better to recast an ungainly sen- Professor of History' (read Oxford, and).
tence than to try to mend it by the F . In ambiguous appositions. Inser-
crude device of an intrusive comma. tion or omission of commas is seldom
B. Within enumerations. The more a sufficient remedy, and indeed is
usual way of punctuating such an usually impossible. The thing is to
enumeration as was used as an remember that arrangments in which
example in the preceding section is apposition commas and enumeration
French, German, Italian and Spanish: commas are mixed up are dangerous
the commas between French and Ger- and should be avoided.
man and German and Italian take the To the expanded 'Life of Shakespeare9,
place of ands; there is no comma after first published in 1915, and to be issued
Italian because, with and, it would be shortly in a third edition by Mr. Mur-
otiose. There are, however, some who ray, the author, Sir Sidney Lee, besides
favour putting one there, arguing that, bringing the text up to date, has con-
since it may sometimes be needed to tributed a new preface. Which is the
avoid ambiguity, it may as well be author? / Some high officials of the
used always for the sake of uniformity. Headquarter Staff, including the officer
Examples of sentences calling for a who is primus inter pares, the Director
comma before the and are: Tenders of Military Operations, and the Direc-
were submitted by John Brown, Cam- tor of Staff duties. . . . How many
mel Laird, Vickers, and Harland were there going to St Ives? / Lord
stops 589 stops
Curzon, Sir Edmond Elles, the present able to restore himself after each blow,
Military Member, and the Civilian or to recover what he has lost; with his
Members of Council traverse the most territory blockaded; his youngest boys
material of Lord Kitchener's statements. drawn into the struggle, that your vic-
Was Sir Edmond the Military Mem- tory is impossible; if you say . . . (read
ber? Such ambiguities can often be lost, with his territory blockaded, his). /
avoided by the use of a pair of brackets //, as Mr. Gibson Bowles contends, the
instead of a pair of commas : Sir Ed- Law of Nations is all plain sailing; if it
mond Elles {the present military mem- is a thing of certainties and plain defini-
ber) tions, it would be strange that a con-
G. Omitted between connected but ference of jurists should have . . . (read
independent sentences, or used in- sailing, if).
stead of semicolon between uncon-
nected sentences. COLON
When the Motor Cars Act was before As long as the Prayer-Book version
the House it was suggested that these of the Psalms continues to be read,
authorities should be given the right to the colon is not likely to pass quite
make representations to the central out of use as a stop, chiefly as one
authorities and that right was conceded preferred to the semicolon by indivi-
(read authorities, and). / The winter duals, or in impressive contexts, or in
was exceptionally cold, once again gnomic contrasts (Man proposes : God
misery and unemployment were created disposes); but the time when it was
(read cold; once). / 'Will the mighty second member of the hierarchy, full
Times aid us in this historic struggle?' stop, colon, semicolon, comma, is past.
Dear to the heart of an editor must Some contemporary writers deliber-
be such an appeal, we wish someone ately—almost ostentatiously—so em-
would seek for our aid in so flattering ploy it, but in general usage it is not
a formula (read appeal; we). now a stop of a certain power avail-
H. On the use of commas before able in any situation demanding
and after for (conj.) see FOR; on the such a power, but has acquired
effect of commas round adverbial con- a special function: that of deliver-
junctions such as however and there- ing the goods that have been in-
fore see THEREFORE, and round ad- voiced in the preceding words. In
verbial phrases see NO 4 . this capacity it is a substitute for such
verbal harbingers as viz., scil., that is
SEMICOLON to say, i.e., etc.
The use of semicolons to separate
parallel expressions that would nor- F U L L STOP
mally be separated by commas is not In abbreviations. For the use as a
in itself illegitimate; but it must not symbol of abbreviation, as in i.e. for
be done when the expressions so id est, Capt. for Captain, and less
separated form a group that is itself reasonably in Mr. for Mister, cwt.
separated by nothing more than a for hundredweight, see PERIOD IN
comma, if that, from another part of ABBREVIATIONS.
the sentence. To do this is to make the In the spot plague. The essence of
less include the greater, which is the style that has been so labelled is
absurd. that the matter should be divided
And therein lies a guarantee of peace into as short lengths as possible sepa-
and ultimate security, such, perhaps, as rated by full stops, with few commas
none of the States of South America; and no semicolons or conjunctions.
such as not even Mexico herself can This is tiring to the reader, on
boast (read America, such as not even whom it imposes the task of supplying
Mexico herself, can), j If you say with the connexion, and corrupting to the
the enemy pinned upon the West, suffer- writer, whose craving for brevity per-
ing passively blow upon blow, and never suades him that anything will pass for
stops 590 stops
a sentence : It was now clear. The light another word!, If only I could!, That it
was that of late evening. The air hardly should have come to this!, Much care
more than cool. / The letter may be long you!, Pop goes the weasel!, Afinefriend
and garbled. Some of it may have little you have been!; (6) apostrophes, as
to do with the Government. Other de- You miserable coward!, You little dear!.
partments may be concerned. Local It is true that the exclamation mark
authorities may be involved. For even should be given to all expressions
more plaguy examples see VERBLESS answering to the above types, and also
SENTENCES. that it should not be given to ordinary
fully expressed statements, questions,
EXCLAMATION or commands; but the matter is not
Not to use a mark of exclamation is quite so simple as that. Though a
sometimes wrong: How they laughed., sentence is not to be exclamation-
instead of How they laughed!, is not marked to show that it has the excited
English. Excessive use of exclamation tone that its contents imply, it may
marks is, like that of ITALICS, one of and sometimes must be so marked to
the things that betray the uneducated convey that the tone is not merely
or unpractised writer : You surprise me, what would be natural to the words
How dare you?, Don't tell such lies, are themselves, but is that suitable to
mere statement, question, and com- scornful quotation, to the unexpected,
mand, not converted into exclamations the amusing, the disgusting, or other-
by the fact that those who say them are wise to imply that the words, if spoken,
excited, nor to be decorated into You would have a special intonation. So:
surprise me!, How dare you!, Don't tell You thought it didn't matter!, He
such lies!. It is, indeed, stated in a learnt at last that the enemy was—him-
well-known grammar that 'A note of self!, Each is as bad as the other, only
exclamation is used after words or more so!, He puts his knife in his mouth!.
sentences which express emotion', But not: That is a lie!, My heart was
with, as example, How are the mighty in my mouth!, Who cares!, I wish you
fallen in the midst of the battle! I am would be quiet!, Beggars must not be
distressedfor thee, my brother Jonathan!. choosers!; in all these the words them-
The second half of this quotation selves suffice to show the tone, and
clearly violates the rule laid down the exclamation mark shows only that
above, being, however full of emotion, the writer does not know his business.
a simple statement, and yet having an
exclamation mark. But anyone who
will refer to 2 Sam. i. 26 will find that QUESTION MARK
mark to be not the Bible's, but the The chief danger is that of forgetting
grammarian's; the earlier one of verse that whether a set of words is a ques-
25 is right. So far, the inference seems tion or not, and consequently requires
obvious and simple—to confine the or repudiates the question mark, is
exclamation to what grammar recog- decided not by its practical effect or
nizes as exclamations, and refuse it to sense, but by its grammatical form and
statements, questions, and commands. relations. Those who scorn grammar
Exclamations in grammar are (1) inter- are apt to take Ask him who said so for
jections, as oh!; (2) words or phrases a question, and Will you please stajîd
used as interjections, as Heavens!, back for a request, and to wrongly give
hell!, by Jove!, my God!, Golly!; the first the question mark that they
(3) sentences containing the exclama- wrongly fail to give the second. But the
tory what or how, as What a difference first is in fact a command containing
it makes!, What I suffered!, How I love an INDIRECT QUESTION, and the ques-
you!, How pretty she is!; (4) wishes tion mark belongs to direct questions
proper, as Confound you!, May we live only, while the second is in fact a direct
to see it!, God forbid! ; (5) Ellipses and question, though it happens to be
inversions due to emotion, as Not equivalent in sense to a request. Even
stops 591 stops
practised writers may fall into the mon than the simple kind, and con-
error of putting a question mark after spicuousness is desired, the heavy
an indirect question; The question that double mark is the favourite. We can
comes to mind most forcefully in reading only hope that The man who says ' I
this autobiography is why Mr. Harding shall write to "The Times" tonight' will
should enjoy such immense renown? Or, ultimately prevail over The man who
from Trollope, But let me ask of her says "I shall write to 'The Times'
enemies whether it is not as good a tonight".
method as any other known to be extant?. Questions of order between inverted
Conversely the question mark is often commas and stops are much debated
wrongly omitted, especially when the and a writer's personal preference
natural confusion caused by the con- often conflicts with the style rules of
veying, for instance, of what is in sense editors and publishers. There are two
a statement in the grammatical form of schools of thought, which might be
a question is aggravated by the sen- called the conventional and the logical.
tence's being of considerable length— The conventional prefers to put stops
e.g. when Will it be believed that is within the inverted commas, if it can
followed by several lines setting forth be done without ambiguity, on the
the incredible fact. Still more fatal is ground that this has a more pleasing
a type of sentence that may be put appearance. The logical punctuates
either as an exclamation or as a ques- according to sense, and puts them
tion, but must have its stop adapted outside except when they actually form
to the exclamatory or interrogative part of the quotation. Thus :
nature of the what or how whose Conventional : Oxford has been called
double possibilities cause the difficulty. a 'Home of lost causes/ Logical: . . .
Hozo seldom does it happen can only be 'Home of lost causes'.
an exclamation, and must have hap- Conventional: 'That Home of lost
pen!', but Hozo often does it happen may causes,' as Oxford has been called.
be either a question (answer, Once a Logical: 'Home of lost causes', as . . .
month etc.) requiring happen?;, or an Conventional : Oxford has been called
exclamation (meaning, Its frequency a 'Home of lost causes ;' that cannot be
is surprising) requiring happen!. In said of it now. Logical: 'Home of lost
that interval what had I not lost! causes'; that cannot . . .
(either lost ! should be changed to lost?, Conventional and logical: 'Oxford,'
or not should be omitted). said Arnold 'Home of lost causes and
The archness of the question mark impossible beliefs'. Here the logical
interpolated in brackets infallibly be- puts the comma in the same place as the
trays the amateur writer: Sir,—The conventional, since it forms part of the
following instance of the doubtful advan- quotation. (But it should be noted that
tages (?) of the Labour Exchanges as commas are not needed merely to mark
media . . . seems to deserve some an interruption in a quotation such as
recognition. said so-and-so; the closing and opening
of the inverted commas do that. For
INVERTED COMMAS instance there should not be commas
There is no universally accepted after Oxford and Arnold in 'Oxford'
distinction between the single form said Arnold 'is the Home of lost
'. . .') and the double (". . . " ) . The causes.' They are often so used, but
more sensible practice is to regard the are clearly otiose.)
single as the normal, and to resort to In the treatment of question and
the double only when, as fairly often exclamation marks the systems tend
happens, an interior quotation is neces- to merge, perhaps because those sym-
sary in the middle of a passage that is bols show up so glaringly the illogi-
itself quoted. To reverse this is clearly cality of the conventional one. In
less reasonable; but, as quotation the following examples the punctua-
within quotation is much less com- tion is standard under either system :
stops 592 straight(ly)
Did you say ' I am not my brother's dash any stop that would have
keeper' ? been used if the brackets or dashes
I said 'Am I my brother's keeper?' and their contents had not been
Did you say 'Am I my brother's there should still be used. After the
keeper' ? second bracket this is sometimes for-
They cried out 'We are lost!' gotten; after the second dash it is
How heartrending was their cry 'We seldom remembered, or rather, per-
are lost'! haps, is deliberately neglected as fussy.
Where, as in the third and fifth But, if it is fussy to put a stop after a
examples, strict logic would require dash, it is messy to pile two jobs at
two symbols, one each side of the once upon the dash, and those to whom
inverted comma, logic must respect fussiness is repugnant should eschew
appearances and be content with one, the double-dash form of parenthesis
as it has to with full stops when a except where no stop can be needed.
quotation and the sentence containing So far as it is true—and how far it is
it end together. true does not count for much—it is an
The conventional system is more unexpected bit of truth (read much—,
favoured by editors' and publishers' it). I If he abandons a pursuit it is not
rules. But there are important excep- because he is conscious of having shot
tions, and it is to be hoped that these his last bolt—that is never shot—it is
will make their influence felt. The because . . . (read never shot—; it is).
conventional system flouts common
sense, and it is not easy for the plain storey, story. 1. Whether these names
man to see what merit it is supposed for the floor and the tale are etymo-
to have to outweigh that defect; even logically the same word or not—on
the more pleasing appearance claimed which the doctors differ—, there is
for it is not likely to go unquestioned. an obvious convenience in the two
spellings. It is, for instance, well
APOSTROPHE to know the difference between
For difficulties with this as sign of storied windows (illustrating biblical or
the possessive case and other uses and other stories) and storeyed window
abuses of -'s, see POSSESSIVE PUZZLES. (divided by transoms into storeys).
For its use in avoiding certain bizarre The DIFFERENTIATION, however, is still
word-forms, see -ED AND 'D. a probationer, and indeed lacks the
support of the OED. That is sadly
against it, especially when the I9th-c.
HYPHENS, ITALICS quotations are found to show -ry and
See those articles. -ries four times as often as -rey and
-rey si clerestory refuses to conform
PARENTHESIS SYMBOLS and -ry is standard in U.S. On the
On the uses and misuses of paren- other hand it is encouraging to find
thesis see PARENTHESIS. Here only two that recent British dictionaries (in-
things remain to be said. cluding the COD) put -rey first.
1. Parentheses may be indicated in 2. For the curious difference in sense
any one of four ways: by square between storey and floor see FLOOR.
brackets, by round brackets, by dashes,
and by commas. Square brackets are stouten. See -EN VERBS.
the most disconnective ; their main use stove, = staved. See STAVE.
is for an explanatory interpolation in a
quotation. Of the other three, commas straightaway, straightway. The
are suitable for the parenthesis that first has proved more to modern taste;
least interrupts the run of the sen- straightway is now WARDOUR STREET,
tence, and dashes and round brackets if not archaic.
for those that do so progressively more.
2 . After the second bracket or straight(ly). Certain members of the
straight plays 593 stress
Labour Party have spoken very honestly campaign. Usually distinguished from
and straightly about the growth of this tactics, which is the art of handling
idea. \ For once, he did not mince his forces in battle or in the immediate
words on a labour question; would that presence of the enemy.' [This differ-
he had spoken as straightly on previous ence has been preserved in the Air
occasions! These two examples, of Arm, where there is a distinction be-
which the first shows a perhaps defen- tween strategic and tactical bombing.]
sible straightly, and the second a cer- (Quotations) Strategy differs materially
tainly indefensible one, throw some from tactic; the latter belonging only to
light on the regrettable but progres- the mechanical movement of bodies set
sive extinction of our old monosyllabic in motion by the former. / Before hostile
adverbs ; it is the company of honestly armies or fleets are brought into contact
that partly excuses the first straightly;, (a word which perhaps better than any
See UNIDIOMATIC -LY. other indicates the dividing line between
straight plays. See LEGITIMATE tactics and strategy). / The study of
DRAMA. strategy, which is the art of bringing
forces into contact with the enemy, and
strain, sprain. For the distinction, of tactics, which is the art of using those
see SPRAIN. forces when they are in contact with the
strait(en). The chief phrases in enemy. A third branch of the military
which these, and not straight(en), must art—that of the transport, quartering
be used are : the strait gate, the straitest and supply of troops—has in com-
sect, strait jacket, strait waistcoat, paratively modern times been given
straitlaced, straitened circumstances. the name of logistics.
strategic(al), pronunciation. In the Readers of these quotations, in which
penult of adjectives and nouns contact and tactics are juxtaposed,
in -ic (and the antepenult of -teal should perhaps be warned against
words), if -ic is preceded by a supposing that the tact in the two
single consonant, there is an over- words is etymologically the same. The
whelming preponderance for the likeness is accidental : contact (Latin)
short sound of the previous vowel is touch, tactics (Greek) is array.
(except u) ; so erratic, barbaric, mecha- stratum, stratus. Stratum (layer
nic, tragic, poetic, academic, ethic, an- etc.) pi. -ta; see -UM. Stratus (cloud)
gelic, arthritic, prolific, chronic, exotic, pi. -ti. In the strati- compounds
microscopic, historic, spasmodic, lyric, (stratify, stratiform, etc.) the a is
paralytic, and hundreds more; but shortened, but it remains long in the
with u we have scorbutic, music, cubic. strato- compounds (s. cirrhus, s. cumu-
Nevertheless, strategic has prevailed lus, etc.) Stratosphere however, being
over strategic, the most notable of in more general use than the other -o
other exceptions are scenic and basic, compounds, is now usually given a
in which the long vowels are the natural short a on the analogy of other well-
result of familiarity with scene and base. known strat- words such as strategy.
strayed, adj. See INTRANSITIVE P . P .
strategy, tactics. Etymologically, street. See ROAD.
strategy is generalship, and tactics is
array, and the modern antithesis re- stress, strain. To most of us stresses
tains as closely as could fairly be ex- and strains are a pair of SIAMESE TWINS
pected the original difference. The suitably describing our worries and
OED definition of strategy and note the effect they have on us. Those
on the distinction follow, with three figurative uses of the words are no
quotations, of which the first two are great extension of their literal mean-
from the OED. 'Strategy. The art of ings as terms of mechanics. Here too
a commander-in-chief ; the art of pro- strain is the result of stress; stress
jecting and directing the larger mili- being mutual action exerted by con-
tary movements and operations of a tiguous bodies or parts and strain the
strew 594 sturdy indefensibles
alteration of form or dimensions pro- numerous, take little notice and go on
duced by it. committing it. Then the fastidious
people, if they are foolish, get excited
strew. P.p. indifferently -n and -ed. and talk of ignorance and solecisms,
stricken. This archaic p.p. of strike and are laughed at as pedants; or, if
survives chiefly in particular phrases, they are wise, say no more about it and
and especially in senses divorced from wait. The indefensibles, however
those now usual with the verb— sturdy, may prove to be not immortal,
stricken in years, the stricken deer, and anyway there are much more
poverty-stricken, panic-stricken. The profitable ways of spending time than
use of the word by itself as an adjec- baiting them. It is well, however, to
tive = afflicted, in distress, is some- realize that there are such things as
times justified (e.g. the stricken popula- foolish idioms ; an abundance of them
tion after an earthquake), but more in a language can be no credit to it
often comes under the description of or its users, and drawing attention
STOCK PATHOS. to them may help to keep down their
stride. Past -ode, p.p. (rare) -idden. numbers. In the article ILLITERACIES
some examples are given of indefen-
stringed, strung. The first is sible usages that are common but not
formed from the noun and the second yet so sturdy as to have qualified as
from the verb. Strictly therefore, a acceptable idiom. In the present article
bow is stringed or unstringed according some examples are given of indefen-
as it is provided with a string or not, sibles that may fairly claim admission
and strung or unstrung according as it to that status, colloquially at least. The
is bent to the string or not; a tennis Une is not easy to draw, and most
racket is stringed when the gut is in- readers will probably be disposed to
serted in the frame but strung only move some examples from one list to
when the strings are made taut. But the other. See also ILLOGICALITIES.
in practice this distinction has virtually I t ' s ME. That 's him (HE).
disappeared and strung holds the field, Don't be longer than you can HELP.
stringed remaining only in occasional So far from hating him, I like him
adjectival use. A piano is a stringed (FAR 2 ) .
instrument, but if the strings need The man of all others for the job
renewing it will be restrung. See HAM- (OTHER 3).
STRINGED for discussion of that word The worst liar of any man I know
and of bowstring, v. (OF 7).
strive. Past strove, p.p. striven. The A child of ten years old (OF 7).
OED adds that 'many examples of That long nose of his (OF 7).
strived' for both 'occur in writers of It is no USE complaining.
every period from the 14th to the Better known than popular (-ER AND
19th c.', but it is rarely used now and -EST 8).
not recognized by the COD. It is a day's work even to open, much
less to acknowledge, all the letters
s t r o m a . PI. -ata. (MUCH 2 ) .
strung. See STRINGED. All men do not speak German (NOT 1).
strychnia, -nine. See MORPHIA; but He ONLY died a week ago.
strychnia has not, like that word, main- It should not be taken TOO literally.
tained itself in popular use. I should not be surprised if it didn't
rain (NOT 4).
sturdy indefensibles. Many idioms Receipts are only a FRACTION of what
are seen, if they are tested by grammar they used to be.
or logic, not to say what they are Has he got a temperature ? (FEVERISH).
nevertheless well understood to mean. Our MUTUAL friend.
Fastidious people point out the sin, It is only a very APPROXIMATE esti-
and easy-going people, who are more mate.
sty 595 subjunctives
WHO is it for? ably never would have been possible
I wish I could play LIKE you do. to draw up a satisfactory table of the
He is insensitive to a DEGREE. English subjunctive uses; (3) that
His hitting was simply PHENOMENAL. assuredly no one will ever find it either
There was no play today DUE to rain. possible or worth while to do so now
The REASON is because . . . that the subjunctive is dying; and (4)
Those KIND of things. that subjunctives met with today, out-
side the few truly living uses, are either
sty, nn. PI. sties. The separate spell- deliberate revivals, especially by poets,
ing stye (pi. styes), sometimes used for for legitimate enough archaic effect, or
the abscess on the eyelid, has not the antiquated survivals giving a preten-
support of the OED, and the danger tious flavour to their context, or new
of confusion is too slight for artificial arrivals possible only in an age to
differentiation. which the grammar of the subjunctive
is not natural but artificial.
style, stile. See STILE. We may accordingly divide the uses
stymie is the established spelling. of the subjunctive into four classes,
Though abolished in golf, the word is which we will call Alives, Revivals,
likely to continue in figurative use, Survivals, and Arrivals, and no con-
especially the verb. cealment need be made of the purpose
in hand, which is to discourage the
suave. Pronounce -dv rather than last two classes.
-dhv.
ALIVES, i.e. uses that are still our
subject. For synonyms in sense theme natural form of speech.
etc., see FIELD. Those uses are alive which it occurs
to no one to suspect of pedantry or
subjective. See OBJECTIVE, SUBJEC- artificiality, and which come as natural
TIVE. in speech as other ways of saying the
thing, or more so. Specimens are:
subjective genitive. See OBJECTIVE Go away (and all 2nd-person impera-
GENITIVE for the principle. If from the tives).
sentence God created man two nouns Manners be hanged! (and such 3rd-
are taken, God's creation contains a person imprecations).
subjective genitive, and man's creation Come what may, Be that as it may,
(or usually the creation of man) an ob- Far be it from me to . . .,(and other such
jective genitive. stereotyped formulae).
/ shall be jo come Tuesday.
subjunctives. The word is very If he were here now (and all if. .. were
variously used in grammar; so it will clauses expressing a hypothesis that is
be well to explain at the outset that in not a fact).
this article it is taken to mean the use / wish it were over.
of a verb-form different from that of Though all care be exercised{the differ-
the indicative mood in order to 'de- ence is still a practical one between
note an action or a state as conceived Though . . . is, = In spite of the fact
(and not as a fact), and [expressing] a that, and Though . . . be, = Even on
wish, command, exhortation, or a con- the supposition that).
tingent, hypothetical, or prospective I move that Mr. Smith be appointed
event'—OED. About the subjunctive, Chairman. This use of the subjunctive
so delimited, the important general in a formal motion is established
facts are : (i) that it is moribund except idiom, and its scope has been widened
in a few easily specified uses ; (2) that, under American influence; it is now
owing to the capricious influence of used after any words of command or
the much analysed classical moods desire. Public opinion demands that an
upon the less studied native, it prob- inquiry be held / He insists that steps be
subjunctives 596 subjunctives
taken to meet this danger / It is suggested deprive it of its real meaning. / Do not
that a ring road be built to relieve the ring unless an answer be [is] required. /
congestion / He asks that the patent That will depend a good deal on whether
rights be given back to him / He is he be [is] shocked by the cynicism. /
anxious that the truth be known. British Whether these tales be [are] true or
idiom used to require should be', but exaggerated it is certain that few of his
this use of the subjunctive seems now successors could perform any such re-
to have become so well established markable feats.
with us that we can read in a leading
article in 'The Times', No one would ARRIVALS, i.e. incorrect uses due
suggest that a unique, and in the main to growing unfamiliarity with the idio-
supremely valuable, work be halted, and matic uses of the mood.
in a recent work by an English his- The best proof that the subjunctive is,
torian of high repute She had used her except in isolated uses, no longer alive,
stay in Holland to insist that the Dutch and one good reason for abstaining
release a ship carrying arms for the King. from it even where, as in the Survival
examples, it is permissible, are pro-
REVIVALS, i.e. antiquated uses re- vided by a collection, such as anyone
vived for poetic effect or some other can gather for himself from any news-
special purpose. paper, of subjunctives that are wrong.
What care I how fair she be? A collection follows, roughly grouped.
Lose who may, I still can say . . . MIXED MOODS : That two verbs whose
If ladies be but young and fair. relation to their surroundings is pre-
But illustration is superfluous; there cisely the same should be one sub-
are no uses of the subjunctive to which junctive and one indicative is an ab-
poets, and poetic writers, may not re- surdity that was unlikely to happen
sort if it suits them. The point to be until the distinction had lost its reality;
made is merely that it is no defence for but now it happens every day : / / that
the ordinary writer who uses an anti- appeal be made and results in the return
quated subjunctive to plead that he of the Government to power, then . . . /
can parallel it in a good poet. There are those who, if there be common
SURVIVALS, i.e. uses formerly security and they are all right, not only
natural but now falling into disuse. care nothing for, but would even oppose,
In the examples that will be given the . . . I If the verdict goes against him
there is nothing incorrect. The objec- his home may be sold up, or if an injunc-
tion to the subjunctives in them is that tion be obtained against him and he
they are used in constructions where defies it he may be imprisoned. / These
the indicative is now so much more bes are not themselves wrong; they
usual that they diffuse an atmosphere are Survival subjunctives; but the fact
of formalism over the writing in that the verbs associated with them,
which they occur; the motive under- which have subjunctives ready for use
lying them, and the effect they pro- just as much as to be, are allowed to
duce, are the same that attend the remain indicative shows that the use
choosing of FORMAL WORDS, a refer- of be is mechanical and meaningless.
ence to which article may save some WERE IN CONDITIONALS: The correct
repetition. type, a common enough 'Survival', is
If it have [has] a flaw, that flaw takes Were that true there were no more to
the shape of a slight incoherence. / It is say. The first were, of the protasis, is
quite obvious to what grave results such right only in combination with the
instances as the above may lead, be they other were, of the apodosis, or with
[if they are] only sufficiently numerous. / its modern equivalent, would be.
/ / Mr. Hobhouse's analysis of the vices Neither of them is applicable to past
of popular government be [is] correct, time any more than would be itself;
much more would seem to be needed. / their reference is to present or to un-
It were [would be] futile to attempt to defined time, or more truly not to
subjunctives 597 subjunctives
time at all (and especially not to a fitting that on such an occasion a
particular past time) but to Utopia, the Prince of the Royal House and Heir-
realm of non-fact. If it is a hard saying apparent to the Throne should him-
that were (singular) in conditionals self have plied the fires of the record
does not refer to past time, consider warship with coal. The newspaper is
some other verb of past form in like patting the Prince on the back for
case. Such a verb may belong to past what he actually did, viz. stoke; it
time, or it may belong to Utopia : If he means not that it would be right on an
heard, he gave no sign (heard and gave, imaginary occasion, but that it was on
past time) ; / / he heard, how angry he that past occasion right for him to
would be! (heard and would be, not past stoke ; read was. / The dull winter pros-
time, but Utopia, the realm of non- pect appeared so quiet and peaceful, it
fact or the imaginary) ; the first heard is were difficult to imagine the Boches
indicative, the second is subjunctive, over there—on sentry, in their dugouts,
though the form happens to be the eating, drinking, sleeping, just like the
same. In the verb be, conveniently men about me. Paraphrasing so as to
enough, there happens to be still a get rid of the glamour of the word
distinguishable form for the subjunc- were, we get not ' I should find it
tive, and if that verb were used in difficult', but ' I found it difficult';
sentences similar in form to the two read it was difficult.
sentences containing heard they would SEQUENCE: TO those who have had
be / / it was (never were) so it did not ap- to do with Latin and Greek Grammar,
pear, If it were (or nowadays alterna- there will be a familiar sound in Se-
tively was) so how angry we should be! quence of tenses and Sequence of moods ;
Were (sing.) is, then, a recognizable what is implied in the terms is that it
subjunctive, and applicable not to past may be necessary to use a tense or a
facts, but to present or future non- mood not to convey the meaning pecu-
facts ; it is entirely out of place in an liar to it as such, but for the sake of
i/-clause concerned with past actuali- harmony with the tense or mood of
ties and not answered by a were or
would be in the apodosis. another verb on which it depends.
It has been necessary to labour The principle has its place, though
this explanation because for the little is heard of it, in English grammar
many readers who are not at home also (see SEQUENCE OF TENSES); it is
with grammatical technicalities the mentioned here because the most likely
matter is puzzling. Examples: It is explanation of the subjunctives now
stated that, during the early part of the to be quoted, some clearly wrong,
War of Independence (1821), the Greeks some at the best uncalled-for, seems
massacred Mussulmans; if this were 50, to be a hazy memory of sequence of
it was only in self-defence. / If rent moods. After each example the pos-
were cheap, clothes were dearer than sible false reasoning is suggested : But
today. I If the attitude of the French if, during the intercourse occasioned by
Government were known to our own trade, he finds that a neighbour in pos-
Government last week it explains the session of desirable property be weaker
appeal. / We must not look for any than himself (if he finds is a conditional;
particulars as to that lost work (if it therefore the clause dependent on it
were ever written), "The Life and must be in the subjunctive). / By all
Adventures of Joseph Sell". These four means let us follow after those things
contain if . . . were (sing.) in the which make for peace, so far as be pos-
protasis—an 'Alive' form if the apo- sible (let us follow is an exhortation;
dosis is would be or were, i.e. if the therefore the clause dependent on it
conditional is of the Utopian kind, but must etc.). / We should be glad to know
wrong if were refers to a particular that every chairman of a Local Education
past time. Read was in each. Exam- Authority or Education Committee were
ples in apodosis: It were just and likely to read this short biography (should
is subjunctive, therefore etc.; or,
subjunctives 598 subsist
perhaps more probably, should be glad 'should succeed', not 'was to have a
to know is in one word wish, and wish . . . chance of succeeding'.
were is beyond cavil). / And if excep- The conclusion is that writers who
tional action were needed to prove love, deal in Survival subjunctives run the
what would after all be proved, except risks, first, of making their matter
that love were not the rule? (would is a needlessly formal, second, of being
subjunctive, therefore etc.). / If I made tempted into blunders themselves,
a political pronouncement I should feel third, of injuring the language by
that I were outraging the hospitality of encouraging others more ignorant
the Brotherhood movement (should is a than themselves to blunder habitually,
subjunctive, therefore etc.). It may be and lastly, of having the proper dignity
admitted that some of these are less of style at which they aim mistaken by
bad than others, and that, wliile the captious readers for pretentiousness.
group is characteristic of a time that
is not at ease with its subjunctives, submerge. Though the verb has
anyone who wished to parallel its superseded submerse, the adjective re-
details in earlier writers who used the mains submersible.
mood far more frequently than we, as submissible, -ittable. The second
well as more naturally, could doubtless form is unexceptionable; but on the
do so; nevertheless they are best principle explained in -ABLE 2 , sub-
classed with Arrivals. missive would have been expected to
INDIRECT QUESTION : Latin grammar is establish itself on the analogy of ad, 0,
perhaps also responsible for the notion and per, -missible. It is in fact, to judge
that indirect question requires the sub- from the OED, hardly existent, but
junctive. There is no such require- may nevertheless be recommended as
ment in English; Ask him who he be is preferable if an adjective should be
enough to show that. Sir A. N. asked needed.
Sir R. R. if he were aware that one of subpoena. Best so written, see M, CE;
the miners' secretaries in Scotland had p.p. subpoenaed, see -ED AND 'D. Plural
been . . . Read was; but again such -as.
subjunctives may be found in older
writers. subsidence. In view of the frequent
MISCELLANEOUS: He therefore came discussions of this topic in Parliament
round to the view that simple Bible and elsewhere, it is surprising that we
teaching were better abolished altogether are not yet of one mind whether to
and that the open door for all religions call it subsidence or subsidence. The
were established in its place. Were better OED gives preference to the long i.
abolished is a correct Survival; but On the other hand residence, confidence,
indulging in a phraseology that is providence, and coincidence, all asso-
now unnatural has tempted the ciated with verbs in -Vde, and all dis-
writer into an impossible continua- regarding that fact and conforming to
tion. / Be the ventilation of a gaseous the RECESSIVE ACCENT tendency, are
mine as efficient as it can be made, a very strong argument on the other
nothing will prevent . . . An un- side, and the COD puts subsidence
idiomatic extension of the 'Alive' Be first. But if ever a final choice is made
that as it may, made absurd by its it is popular opinion that will make it,
length. / He replied gently, but firmly, and popular opinion seems on balance
that if his department were to be success- to be on the side of the OED, perhaps
ful, he must accommodate himself to the because of a subconscious inclination
people who employed him. His words to make clear that the word the speaker
were not 'If my department be to suc- is using is connected with subside and
ceed', but 'is to'. The sequence change not with subsidy.
of is should be to was, and to use subsist, exist. The essential differ-
were instead ruins the sense; 'were to ence is that subsist imports the idea of
be successful' means 'succeeded' or continuing to exist, as in the OED
substantial 599 substitute
example Which charter subsists to this C. [Aliens are replacing English-
day, and is called Magna Car ta. But in men.]
present-day usage subsist commonly D. The substitution of margarine
implies (as in the phrase subsistence (for butter) is having bad effects.
level) existence on the bare necessities E. Let there be no more substitution
of life. of aliens (for Englishmen).
F . Its substitution (for butter) is
substantial, substantive. Both lamentable.
words mean 'of substance', but they
have become differentiated to the ex- INCORRECT
tent that -ial is now the word in general A. We had to substitute butter (by
use for real, important, sizable, solid, margarine).
well-to-do, virtual, etc., and -ive, apart B. Englishmen are being substituted
from its meaning in grammar, is chief- (by aliens).
ly used in special senses: in parlia- C. Aliens are substituting English-
mentary procedure a substantive motion men.
is one that deals expressly with a sub- D. The substitution of butter (by
ject in due form; in law substantive law margarine) is having bad effects.
(that which is to be enforced) is so E. Let there be no more substitution
called to distinguish it from adjective of Englishmen (by aliens).
law (the procedure for enforcing it); F . Its substitution (by margarine) is
in the Services substantive is used to lamentable.
distinguish rank or office that is per- One can hardly read those parallels,
manent from one that is acting or with the risks of ambiguity that they
temporary. suggest, without realizing that either
the old or the new must go. We surely
substitute, v., substitution. A very cannot keep such a treacherously
rapid change—according to the view double-edged knife as substitute has
here taken, a corruption—has been become; either its original edge or the
taking place in the meaning and use one into which its back has been con-
of these words; so rapid, indeed, verted must be ground off; which is
that what the OED stigmatized in it to be? Another reflection, which
1915 as 'Now regarded as incorrect' may not occur unsuggested to all, is
may, if nothing can be done to that in the incorrect set the words re-
stop it, become normal usage and oust place or replacement would have done,
what is here held to be the words' only whereas in the correct set to use them
true sense. The definition to which instead of the sub- words would
the OED adds the above note is still either have been impossible or have
recorded by the 1964 COD, with the changed the meaning. And here, prob-
comment 'vulg.' It is (for the verb) 'To ably, is what accounts for the whole
take the place of, replace'. The true perversion of our words; substitute
meaning is something entirely differ- and substitution have been seized upon
ent, viz. to put (a person or thing) in by people who failed to apprehend
the place of another, and the use of the with precision the true meaning and
noun follows it. We can set down for fancied they had found equivalents in
comparison a sentence or two that are sense for the words replacement),
right and one or two that are wrong, which they had been ignorantly taught
choosing as nouns that will make the to regard as solecisms in the required
points clear butter and margarine, senses (see REPLACE); SO they deter-
Englishman and alien. mined (in their lingo) to substitute
CORRECT replace by substitute, whereas they
A. We had to substitute margarine ought to have refused (in English) to
(for butter). substitute substitute for replace or to
B. Aliens are being substituted (for replace replace by substitute.
Englishmen). To sum up : The new popular use is
substitute 600 subtopia
wrong and confusing, and is based The Jordan army formed an impres-
upon a superstition; but it shows sively smart guard of honour, more
disturbing signs of growing unchecked, British in appearance than ever, as a
and therefore it will be necessary to result of an order substituting the tradi-
give a convincing array of quota- tional red and white kafiyehs with peaked
tions, to satisfy readers that this article khaki caps for officers and berets for
is not an attack on the negligible. It other ranks. / The key to the whole issue
is indeed high time that replace was is a Stalinist appreciation of the econo-
reinstated and substitute reduced to its mic consequences of the Second World
proper function. In going through the War, which brought about the disintegra-
sentences, those who are new to the tion of a simple all-embracing world mar-
question may observe that nearly all ket and its substitution by two world
can be mended in two ways, shown for markets... j If potatoes substitute bread,
the verb in the first example and for what is going to substitute potatoes? is
the noun in the second. One is the a question every German will have to
change to replacement), and the other ask himself (In the comparatively rare
the turning of the sentence upside active use, the upside-down method is
down and changing of by to for. One not quite applicable. Either read re-
or two exceptional types are placed at place, or If we substitute potatoes for
the end with special corrections. bread, what are we going to substitute
The ecclesiastical principle was sub- for potatoes?), j Money and talent, often
stituted by the national, the Empire and substituted by their counterfeits, specula-
the Papacy by the Communes (Either tion and trickery, have here broken down
was replaced; or The national principle all barriers {often substituted by means
was substituted for the ecclesiastical, the simply or often).
Communes for the Empire and the
Papacy). / Chief among these innova- subtle, subtil(e), etc. The modern
tions is the substitution of the large and forms are subtle, subtlety, subtler,
unwieldy geographical unit by a small subtlest, subtly, but subtilize; b is silent
and compact local administrative unit in all. Spellings with the i retained are
(Either is the replacement of; or is the (except in subtilize) usually left to
substitution of a compact local unit for archaists of various kinds ; and, as Mil-
the unwieldy geographical unit). I Al- ton was content with suttle, there
though only a temporary, and liable to seems little reason for going back be-
be substituted by an ex-serviceman at any yond subtle to subtil.
time, because I was physically unfit for subtopia is a puzzling word. Clearly
the army, I am glad to . . . j If it proves it is a HYBRID, compounded of Latin
successful it will be extended all along and Greek elements, but it does not
the border; if it fails it will be substituted bear its meaning on its face, even for
by an arbitrary line along the lakes and those who know those languages. At
rivers. / / / a good raw hide gear is sub- first sight it seems to be a compound
stituted by a set of laminated gears, they of sub (under) with TWO? (place), and
will be found quite as silent, j Even the so should mean somewhere under-
suppression of the provinces, and their ground. But the contexts it is used in
substitution by larger spheres of Govern- show that that cannot be right. May
ment, is being considered, j The sub- it then be a compound of sub with an
stitution of a voluntary censorship by a aphetic form of Utopia, meaning a
compulsory Government one would result
in a more onerous authority, j The Chan- place that just falls short of being
cellor of the Exchequer looked forward ideal? That cannot be right either;
to the abolition of the excess profits duty the word is certainly not a term of
and its substitution by a tax on war for- praise. Only by tracing the word to
tunes, j And the very slow diminution is its source can the truth be found. It
due to the substitution of these barbaric is a PORTMANTEAU word, a telescoping
methods by others rational and decent. / of suburb and Utopia, invented by The
Architectural Review (June 1955) as a
subtract(ion) 601 such
name for an imaginary country—the idiom rejects all these, and confines
Britain of the year 2000 if 'develop- itself to as; the OED's remark on the
ment' is allowed to continue at its use of such . . . which etc. is 'Now rare
present rate, a Britain consisting of and regarded as incorrect'. It is not
'isolated oases of preserved monu- in fact so very rare ; but most modern
ments in a desert of wire and concrete examples of it are due either to a
roads, cosy plots and bungalows' a writer's entire ignorance of idiom or to
Britain in which 'there will be no real his finding himself in a difficulty and
distinction between town and country not seeing how to get out of it. In the
[but] both will consist of a limbo of following extracts, when a mere change
shacks, bogus rusticities, wire, and of which etc. to as is not possible,
aerodromes set in some fir-poled fields. a way out is suggested: The third
. . .' The inventor of the word ex- year should be reserved for such
pressed the hope that it would stick. additional or special subjects (elocu-
It has. tion, for instance) which need not be
regarded as essential. / It was proposed
subtract(ion), substr-. The for- to grant to such casual employees of
bidden -s- is recognized by the OED, the Council who had been continu-
though called 'now illiterate'; and in ously employed for three months, and
the long array of writers who have whose employment was likely to extend
used it are Bentham, the Duke of over twelve months, the privilege of addi-
Wellington, and Carlyle. tional leave (read those, or any, for
succedaneum. PI. -ea. An examina- such). I It is subject, of course, to such
tion of quotations is so far from sug- possible changes of plan that any un-
gesting any difference of meaning expected turn of events may bring about
between this pedantic term and its (read the or those for such). / / noticed
synonym substitute that it may surely two cars approaching in such a manner
be relegated to the SUPERFLUOUS WORDS, that seemed to indicate they would both
especially as it seems no longer to have arrive at the junction together (omit
its former currency in medicine for an such) I There was an item 'Hit Euro-
inferior drug substituted for another. peans or cut throat' but there was also
an item that if a person is arrested be-
succeed. All the traditions in which cause of Congress the case must be taken
she has been brought up have not suc- to 'senior Europeans', zvhich presumably
ceeded to keep her back. Read in keep- means the High Court or such of them
ing, and see GERUND 3. whose throats had not been cut (read
as had not had their throats cut).
success. For s. of esteem, see GALLI-
CISMS 5. 2 . Such that rel. and such that conj.
Now and then a s. that for s. as is
succuba, -bus. PL -ae, -F; the words perhaps due to the writer's hesitating
mean the same, and are not respec- between two ways of putting a thing,
tively feminine and masculine, the one with the relative as and the other
masculine counterpart is incubus. with the conjunction that, and finally
such. 1. S. which, s. who, s. that, s. achieving neither, but stumbling in-
where, etc. 2 . 5\ that rel. and s. that to the relative that. They will never
conj. 3. 5 . exclamatory. 4 . Illiterate learn the truth from this system of mili-
s. = it etc. 5. Defining 5. 6. S — so. tary inquiries, because they will only see
7. 5. as for as. 8. Suchlike. 9. As s. the results if those are such that the
I . S. which, s. who, s. that (rel. Government would like them to see (such
pron.), s. where (rel. adv.). Such is a as the Government would like them
demonstrative adjective and demon- to see? or such that the Government
strative pronoun, to which it was would like them to be seen?). / / cannot
formerly common to make other rela- think that there is such a different level
tives besides as correspond, especially of intelligence among Englishmen and
which, who, that, and where. Modern Germans that would prevent similar
such 602 such
papers from being a profitable property ordinary writer, but more often his
in Great Britain (such . . . as would such is merely a starchy substitute for
prevent? or such . . . that it would that or for using a pronoun instead of
prevent?). repeating the word that such qualifies,
3 . Such exclamatory or appealing. as it is in the following examples : That
The Earl of Derby was the titular King there is a void in a millionaire's life is
of Man—a piece of constitutional anti- not disproved by anyone showing that a
quarianism of which Scott made such number of millionaires do not recognize
splendid use in 'Peveril of the Peak'. such void (recognize it, or the or that
Such is liable to the same over-use of void.) I If I am refused the Sacrament
this kind as so; reference to so 3 will I do not believe that I shall have less
make further illustration unnecessary chance of entering the Kingdom of God
here. Use and over-use of an idiom than if I received such Sacrament (re-
are different things, and there is no ceived it).
need to avoid this such altogether. In 6. Such — so. Most people have no
the above quotation it may be noticed hesitation in saying such a small matter,
that if the writer had said the piece of such big apples, with such little justice,
antiquarianism instead of a piece the such conflicting evidence; others object
such would have passed well enough. and say that it should be so small a
4 . The illiterate such (used instead of matter, apples so big, with so littlejustice,
those, it, them or other pronoun). The evidence so conflicting. It must first be
significance of the epithet will be found admitted that (with allowances for
explained in ILLITERACIES, and a few phrases of special meaning) the objec-
examples with corrections will suffice : tors are entitled to claim the support of
His seven propositions for non-partisan grammar. In 'such a small matter* it is
legislation must appeal to the common- usually small, not matter or small mat-
sense of every man and woman in the ter, that is to be modified by such or
realm; is it too much to hope that such so, and, small being an adjective, the
will combine to render them realities? adverb so is obviously the grammatical
(that all will). / We have seen during the word to do the job. (At the same time,
war how those persons in humble circum- such a small matter, though it usually
stances who came suddenly into posses- means so small a matter, may also
sion of moneys spent such—i.e., in . . . mean a small matter of the kind that
(spent them). / But when it comes to us has been described; but, speaking
following his life and example, in all its generally, the objectors have grammar
intricate details, all will, I think, agree on their side.) Shall we then be meek
that such is impossible (that that is). / and mend our ways at their bidding?
An appeal to philanthropy is hardly Why no, not wholesale. We will try
necessary, the grounds for such being to say 50 wherever idiom does not pro-
S3 self-evident (for it being). test or stiffness ensue. For instance,
5 . The defining such. A useful device we will give up 'with such little jus-
in drafting legal documents, where tice' without a murmur; but they can-
precision is all-important, is to use not expect of us 'I never saw apples
such in the sense of as defined above, so so big' instead of 'such big apples'.
as to avoid ambiguity without having And they must please to remark that
to repeat the defining words, as in The the such idiom has so established itself
particulars required by this section may that the other is often impossible with-
be furnished by or on behalf of any per- out a change of order that suggests
son who is a party to the agreement. . . formality or rhetoric; so big apples} so
and where such particulars are duly conflicting evidence? No; the adjective
furnished by or on behalf of any such has to be deferred (apples so big) in a
person the provisions of this section shall clearly artificial way; but we grant that
be deemed to be duly complied with on 'so small a matter' does strictly deserve
the part of all such persons. Sometimes preference over 'such a small matter',
this device may be legitimate for the and, if so partial a concession is worth
sufficient(ly) 603 suit
their acceptance, let it be made. But Government is that sufficient has not
there is no excuse for mixing the two been done to get materials organized, j
idioms, as in / think it may be quite a And there should be sufficient of a his-
number of years before such obscure a toric conscience left in the Midland
musical is presented again. capital to evoke a large subscription.
7. Such as for as. Even the effects of See also GENTEELISMS.
unfavourable weather can be partially suffragette. A FACETIOUS FORMATION,
counteracted by artificial treatment such now of only historical interest; per-
as by tfie use of phosphates. The repeti- haps the reason why it won immédiate
tion of by results in a such as not intro- acceptance was that it seemed to be
ducing a noun (use), as it should, but a a happy fusion of the notions of
preposition (by)—a plain but not un- female suffrage and female advocates
common blunder. Omit either such or of it. But the essential significance of
by. I Some are able to help in one way, the French suffixes et and ette is
such as for instance in speaking; some diminutive (clarionet = a little clarion,
in another, such as organization. The cigarette = a little cigar); and many of
second part is right; the first should the militant suffragettes were by no
be either in one way such as for instance means diminutive. We use the suffix
speaking, or in one way as for instance in its proper sense in such words as
in speaking; such as requires a noun leaderette, and, by a not unreasonable
(speaking) to complete it, not an ad- extension, to imply not a diminutive
verbial phrase (in speaking). See AS 5. but a synthetic quality, e.g. flannelette,
8. Suchlike. That the word is a sort leatherette. The belief engendered by
of pleonasm in itself, being ultimately suffragette that ette is a feminine ter-
= solike-like, is nothing to its discredit,
mination is true only to the extent that
such pleonasms being numerous (cf. -ette, and not -et, is the natural diminu-
poulterer = pulletH—er-\—er) and such- tive of French words of the feminine
like can be found in the A.V., Shake- gender. Midinette cannot be quoted
speare, and Lamb. But now, although in support of it if Larousse is right in
perhaps admissible colloquially as an saying that midinettes 'sont celles qui
adjective (barley, oats, and suchlike se contentent d'une dînette à midi'.
cereals), its use as a pronoun (school-
masters, plumbers, and suchlike) is S e e FEMININE DESIGNATIONS S.f.
better left to the uneducated, the like suggestio falsi. Pronounce -tïôfâ'lsï
being used instead. (see LATIN PHRASES), 'suggestion of
9. As such is liable to be used in the untrue'. The making of a state-
curious ways, so curious sometimes ment from which, though it is
that the writer's meaning can only be not actually false, the natural and
guessed. The statistics as such add little intended inference is a false one. For
to our information. / There is no objec- instance, if A, asked whether B is
tion to the sale of houses as such. In the honest, replies, though he in fact
first example as such probably means knows no harm of B, that his principle
by themselves, per se. In the second is to live and let live and he is not
the context suggests that the writer going to give away his old friend, the
meant there was no objection in prin- questioner infers that A knows B to be
ciple to the sale of houses; if so he dishonest. Cf. SUPPRESSIO VERI.
chose an absurd way of saying it. suit, suite, nn. Suite is pronounced
swët; for the pronunciation of suit see
sufficiently ) and enough. The PRONUNCIATION 6. The two words
words are discussed under ENOUGH; are the same, and the differences of
for sufficient wrongly preferred in the usage accidental and variable. But
following extracts, see the first where, the sense being a set, either
paragraph of that article: So far form would seem admissible, we do
as the building trade is concerned say at present a suit of clothes, a suit of
the complaint we have made to the armour, a suit of sails, the four suits at
sulphureous 604 super
cards, follow suit ; and on the other hand (shortened to -ry) to describe 'that
a suite (of attendants etc.), o. suite of which is characteristic of, all that is
rooms or apartments, a suite of furniture connected with [the word it is attached
or chairs, a musical suite. to], in most cases with contemptuous
sulphureous, sulphuric, sulphur- implication' (OED). Other modern
ous. The last has differentiated pro- coinages of the same kind are rocketry
—an activity that summitry aims at
nunciations sù'lfùrùs and sùlfûr'ûs, so keeping within bounds—and gim-
that there are four adjectives to divide mickry.
the work. Sulphuric and sulphurous
(-ûr'ùs) can for general purposes be summon(s). 1. For summon and send
ignored as technical terms in Chemistry for, see FORMAL WORDS. 2 . Summons,
like other -ic and -ous pairs. Sulphur- n., has pi. summonses. 3. Summon is
eous and sulphurous (sù'l-), which re- the verb in ordinary use; summons
main, have never been effectively should not be used as a verb except in
differentiated, and the OED refers the the special sense to serve with a legal
reader for most senses of one to defini- summons or issue a summons against,
tions given under the other. Differ- and even in that sense summon is
entiation may be expected to come, equally good.
and perhaps the likeliest course for it
to take and therefore the best to fall in sunk(en). For idiomatic use of the
with is that sulphurous, now the more two forms, see SINK.
popular word, should take to itself super. This prefix has been put to
the secondary or extended senses, and many varied uses. By itself, as a CUR-
sulphureous be restricted to the primary TAILED WORD, it may stand for super-
material ones meaning 'of or contain- fine, superficial measure, or super-
ing sulphur' without the specific limita- numerary, in the last capacity distin-
tions of sulphuric and sulphurous (-Ur'Us). guishing the actor who has not a speak-
This would give—though naturally the ing part from those who have ; in most
borderline is not quite sharp—sul- detective stories it serves as the friendly
phureous gases, springs, smells, drugs, designation (cf. sarge) of the super-
substances, but sulphurous yellow, light, intendent of police working on the
torments, language, preachers. case, and it has for a time shared with
sumach, - a c . The OED gives pre- wizard and smashing the duty of ex-
cedence to the first spelling, and pro- pressing the acme of juvenile approval
nounces sti'mak or shôô'mâk. Su- is (see FABULOUS). Its use as a prefix not
now more usual. in its primary sense of 'above',
'transcending' (superhuman, supersonic,
summer. 1. St. Luke's, St. Martin's, superstructure, etc.) but meaning 'of a
S. Each of these is often used when superior kind', as in superman, super-
the other would be the right one; St. market, superministry, super-priority,
Luke's day is in October (18th), St. and scores or hundreds of other
Martin's in November (nth). Each words, is so evidently convenient that
of them, or any fine warm spell after it is vain to protest when others
the end of September, may be called indulge in it, and so evidently cata-
by the generic term Indian summer. chrestic that it is worth while to
2 . Summer time, summer-time, sum- circumvent it oneself when one can
mertime. The first is the daylight- do so without becoming unintelligible.
saving term; in other senses either Super-cinema, meaning merely a
of the others should be used; see cinema of exceptional size or
HYPHENS. splendour, and not something that
transcends and thereby ceases to be a
s u m m i t r y . This new word for the cinema, and the super-DiFFERENT by
pursuit of world peace through meet- which the advertiser tries to make us
ings of the Heads of States is an believe that what he is offering is of
example of the use of the suffix -ery
superficies 605 superiority
unparalleled excellence, may serve as one calls s. is nevertheless one's
specimens of the worse applications. inferior, it resembles the correspond-
superficies. Five syllables (-fï'shïëz); ing use of worthy and well-meaning in
pi. the same. producing on the hearer an unfavour-
able impression of the speaker. 2 .
superfluous words. That there are Used of things it is often merely an
such things in the language is likely to affected way of saying 'of good quality'.
be admitted, and perhaps it might be It is so used mainly by those who make
safe even to hazard the generality that or sell the things they so describe, and
they ought to be put in a black list and should be left to them. The reviewer
cast out ; but woe to the miscreant who who concludes 'This is altogether a
dare post up the first list of proscrip- superior book' is unlikely to give us
tions ! Brevity and timidity will there- confidence in his judgement. 3. S. to,
fore be the marks of our specification ; not s. than, is required by idiom; but
the victims will be mainly such as have such is the power of ANALOGY that
no friends, with just one or two of even people who obviously cannot be
other kinds slipped in to redeem the
experiment from utterly negligible in- described as uneducated are some-
significance. Indeed, it is more neces- times capable of treating s. as we all
sary to account for the tameness of treat better or greater (cf. PREFER, with
the list than to defend its boldness; which the same mistake is much more
but then it must be remembered that frequent). The quotations are pur-
most of the words naturally thought posely given at sufficient length to
of as conspicuously suitable for expul- show that the writers are not mere
sion are those SLIPSHOD EXTENSIONS blunderers: Mr. Ernie, on the other
and VOGUE WORDS which, abomin- hand, as we gather from his preface,
able as they are in some of their desired first to translate Homer, and in
modern senses, are not superfluous, looking about for a metre decided on the
because each of them has some- hexameter as the most appropriate and
where in the background a sense or superior for this style of the heroic than
senses at least worth preserving, and the blank or rhymed verse of the great
often of importance. The use of them English masters (read better ... than, or
needs to be mended, but not ended, s. . . . to). I Whatever the conditions in
and they are dealt with elsewhere. The the provinces—the present inquiry has
list follows ; reasons for the condemna- dealt only with the Metropolis—able
tion should be looked for under the and public-spirited men have refused to
word concerned, unless a special article accept the dictation of the B.M.A., and
is indicated: dampen (-EN VERBS); are giving far superior attention to the
escalate', escapee; instinctual; faience; insured persons than was possible under
filtrate; gentlemanlike; habitude; the cheap conditions of the old club prac-
legitimatize and legitimize; lithesome; tice (read greater . . . than, or s. . . . to
minify; olden, v. (-EN VERBS); preventa- what).
tiye; quieten (-EN VERBS); réfutai;
tighten (-EN VERBS); rotatory; smoothen superiority. Much misplaced in-
(-EN VERBS); succedaneum; tactual; genuity in finding forms of apology is
un-come-at-able; vice-regent; viceroyal. shown by writers with a sense of their
It is, however, quite likely that some of own superiority who wish to safeguard
these words will prevail over their their dignity and yet be vivacious, to
rivals, and so transfer to them the combine comfort with elegance, to
stigma of superfluity, as for instance touch pitch and not be defiled. Among
escalate over escalade, and quieten over them are: To use an expressive collo-
quiet. quialism—in the vernacular phrase—if
the word may be permitted—so to speak
superior. 1. Used of people (a most —in homely phrase—not to put too fine
superior person) in a patronizing or a point upon it—if the word be not too
ironical way, implying that the person vulgar—as they say—to call a spade a
superiority 606 superstitions
spade—not to mince matters—in the not only have the boy, but do the
jargon of today—or the use of depreca- whipping.
tory inverted commas. Such writers
should make up their minds whether superlatives. For some misuses of
their reputation or their style is such as superlatives see -ER and -EST, 5, 6, 7,
to allow of their dismounting from the and 9.
high horse now and again without com- superstitions. 'It is wrong to start
promising themselves. If they can do a sentence with "But". I know
that at all, they can dispense with Macaulay does it, but it is bad Eng-
apologies; if the apology is needed, lish. The word should either be
the thing apologized for would be dropped entirely or the sentence
better away. A grievance once re- altered to contain the word "how-
dressed ceases to be an electoral asset (if ever".' That ungrammatical piece of
we may use a piece of terminology which nonsense was written by the editor of
we confess we dislike). / Turgenev had so a scientific periodical to a contributor
quick an eye; he is the master of the who had found his English polished
vignette—a tiresome word, but it still up for him in proof, and protested.
has to serve. / About one thing there is Both parties being men of determina-
complete unanimity; 'Coalition' must tion, the article got no further than
go; it is riot a Party name, and in any proof. It is wrong to start a sentence
case it will not do at the next election'; with 'but' ! It is wrong to start a sen-
to put it vulgarly, that cock won't tence with 'and' ! It is wrong to end
fight. I When the madness motif a sentence with a preposition! It is
was being treated on the stage, Shake- wrong to split an infinitive! See the
speare (as was the custom of his article FETISHES for these and other
theatre) treated it 'for all it was worth'. such rules of thumb and for references
I With its primary postulate, 'steep' as to articles in which it is shown how
it is, we will not quarrel. / It is a play misleading their sweet simplicity is;
that hits you, as the children say, 'bang see also the article SUBSTITUTE for an
in the eye'. / The annual conflict be- illustration of the havoc that is wrought
tween the income-tax demand note and by unintelligent applications of an un-
the January sales has ended, it seems, intelligent dogma. The best known
in the more or less complete triumph of of such prohibitions is that of the
what the Upper Fifth would call the SPLIT INFINITIVE, and the hold of that
former. / He seized my hand in what the upon the journalistic mind is well
lover of a cliché would call an 'iron shown in the following, which may be
grip', j To make use of an overworked matched almost daily. The writer is
phrase, the wall painting requires a more reporting a theatre decree for hat-
severe application of'fundamental brain- removal: ' . . . the Management relies
work'. I England had been compelled, in on the cooperation of the public to
homely phrase, to 'knuckle down' to strictly enforce this rule'. Even a split
America, j Its work was, if we may use infinitive (he comments) may be for-
a somewhat homely expression, 'done to given in so well-intentioned a notice.
time'. I Palmerston is to all appearance Theatre-managers are not stylists; the
what would be vulgarly called, 'out of split this manager has perpetrated, is
the swim'. it not a little one? and to put him,
For another form of superiority, that irrelevantly, in the pillory for it betrays
of the famous 'of course', as often the journalist's obsession.
exposed and as irrepressible as the Well, beginners may sometimes find
three-card trick, see COURSE. that it is as much as their jobs are
In short, some writers use a slang worth to resist their editors' edicts, as
phrase because it suits them, and box the champion of 'But' did. On the
the ears of people in general because other hand, to let oneself be so far
it is slang; a refinement on the institu- possessed by blindly accepted con-
tion of whipping-boys, by which they ventions as to take a hand in enforcing
supine 607 surcease
them on other people is to lose the than an ignorant and wrong variant of
independence of judgement that would the other. Ignorant it often is, no
enable one to solve the numerous doubt, the user not knowing how to
problems for which there are no rules spell or pronounce supposititious; but
of thumb. there is no reason to call it wrong.
Suppositious and supposititious may as
supine. 1. The pronunciation of the well coexist, if there is work for two
term of Latin grammar has always words, as FACTIOUS and factitious; and,
been sù'pïn. The English adjective was if the support of analogy for the
formerly sûpï'n, but RECESSIVE ACCENT shorter form is demanded, there are
has been at work (as in CANINE etc.) ambitious, expeditious, seditious, nutri-
and the prevailing pronunciation is tious, cautious, and oblivious to supply
now also sù'pïn. 2. Supine means lying it. There are moreover two fairly
face upwards ; the words for lying face distinct senses to be shared, viz.
downwards are prostrate and prones but spurious, and hypothetical. Suppositi-
these are also used loosely for lying tious is directly from the Latin p.p.
flat in any position. suppositus = substituted or put in
supple. The fine mass of the heady another's place, and therefore has
solidly yet supplely modelled, is set in a properly the meanings foisted, counter-
particularly beautiful convention of the feit, spurious, pretended, ostensible.
hair. The adverb is supply, not sup- Suppositious is from the English sup-
plely; cf. SUBTLE. It is true that the position = hypothesis, and therefore
OED found more instances in print may properly mean supposed, hypo-
of -plely than of -ply, and there- thetical, assumed, postulated, imagin-
fore on its historical principles made ary. It does not follow that suppositious
supplely the standard form. But the is wanted; suppositional is now a less
pronunciation is undoubtedly sù'plï, unusual form, and probably the work
not sù'pùl-lt, and the long spelling has either might do is better done by the
been due to the wish to distinguish it more familiar synonyms above given.
to the eye from supply (suplV) n. and v. But it does follow that supposititious
Such devices are not legitimate except should not be given, as in the quota-
in the last necessity, as with singeing tion at the head, senses proper to the
and singing; and it is to be observed synonyms of suppositious; it should be
that, whereas the -e- in singeing selects confined to those implying intent to
the right of two possible pronuncia- deceive.
tions, the -le- in supplely suggests a
wrong one. It is unfortunate that ad- suppressio y e r i . Pronounce Vër'ï.
jectives in -bble, -ckle, -ddle, -ffle, Intentional withholding of a material
-ggle, -pple, -ttle are few and not pro- fact with a view to affecting a decision
vided with adverbs common enough e t c . ; Cf. SUGGESTIO FALSI.
to settle the question; subtly is in fact surcease, n. and v., is a good example
the best analogue, and its spelling, of the archaic words that dull writers
though subtlely has been occasionally at uneasily conscious moments will re-
used, is now established. The COD vive in totally unsuitable contexts; see
now gives supply only. INCONGRUOUS VOCABULARY. T h e f a c t
supplement. Noun sù'plëmënt; verb is that in ordinary English the word
usually sùplëme'nt; see NOUN AND is dead, though the pun in Macbeth
VERB ACCENT.
(and catch, with his surcease, success) is
a tomb-stone that keeps its memory
suppositious, supposititious. The alive; there are contexts and styles in
supposititious elector who imagined that which the ghosts of dead words may
the Parliament Bill was a weapon for be effectively evoked, but in news-
show and not for use is, we venture to paper articles and pedestrian writing
say, a mythical being. It is often as- ghosts are as little in their element as
sumed that the first form is no more in Fleet Street at midday. The follow-
surgeon 608 swapping horses
ing quotations are borrowed from the suspicion. 1. For s. — soupçon, see
OED, all from 19th- or 20th-c. writers : GALLICISMS. 2 . The OED gives ex-
It was carried on in all weathers . . . amples of suspicion as a verb, but it is
with no surcease of keenness. / Private charitable to regard its use in this way
schools for boys give four days' surcease today as facetious or slang or dialect.
from lessons. / There is no surcease in the
torrent of Princes . . . who continue to sustain. Mr. , Master of the
pour into the capital, j I . . . thereupon Hounds, has sustained a broken rib and
surceased from my labors, j They could other injuries through his horse falling.
never surcease to feel the liveliest inter- The very common idiom here illus-
est in those wonderful meteoric changes. J trated is described by the OED as 'in
Intrigues and practices . . . would of modern journalistic use'; but with
necessity surcease. such abstract objects as defeat, loss,
hardship, damage, etc., instead of
surgeon. See PHYSICIAN. broken rib it is as old as the 15th c,
and the extension is not a violent one.
surly. Adv. surlily ; see -LILY s.f. The Nevertheless, sustain as a synonym
adjective was originally sirly (sir-like for suffer or receive or get belongs to the
= arrogant); the change of spelling class of FORMAL WORDS, and is better
disguises the fact that -ly in surly is avoided both for that reason and for
the ordinary suffix, and perhaps ac- the stronger one that, if it is not made
counts for surlily on the analogy of to do the work of those more suitable
jollily, sillily, holily. words, it calls up more clearly the
other meaning in which it is valuable,
surprise. ' / should not be surprised if viz. to bear up against or stand or
the Chancellor of the Exchequer does endure without yielding or perishing,
not agree with me.' For this pleonastic as in 'capable of sustaining a siege'.
use of not see NOT 4. Cf. undergo an operation.
surveillance. Pronounce servd'lans.
swap, swop. The OED prefers -ap,
susceptible. See SENSIBLE. but -op is probably now commoner
suspenders. To use the word for and is preferred by the COD.
braces in England, as it is in U.S., swapping horses while crossing the
would be to throw away the advantage stream, a notoriously hazardous opera-
of having two names for two things ; in tion, is paralleled in speech by chang-
England suspenders keep in place not ing a word's sense in the middle of a
men's trousers but women's stockings, sentence, by vacillating between two
or, as sock-suspender's3 men's socks. constructions either of which might
suspense, suspension. In the verbal follow a word legitimately enough, by
sense, = suspending, the second is starting off with a subject that fits one
right. Suspense, though it still retains verb but must have something tacitly
that force in suspense of judgement, substituted for it to fit another, and by
suspense account, and some legal uses, other such performances. These lapses
has become so identified with a state are difficult to classify and to exemplify,
of mind that to revive its earlier use and any exposition of their nature
may be confusing. In the following naturally incurs the charge of PE-
quotation it is clear that suspense com- DANTRY. Nevertheless, the air of
pels one to read the sentence twice, slovenliness given by them is so fatal
whereas suspension or suspending would to effective writing that attention must
have been understood at first sight: be called to them whenever an oppor-
The state of war is inevitably the tunity can be made, as by this claptrap
suspense of Liberalism, and in all the heading.
nations at war there are some men who 1. Changing a word's sense. For
greatly hope that it may also be the this see LEGERDEMAIN WITH TWO
death of Liberalism. SENSES.
swat 609 syllabize
2 . Shifting from one construction swell. Swollen is now the usual form
to another. But supposing nothing of the p.p., but swelled is occasionally
changed and this Pope, who is made preferred, perhaps as a more colourless
incompetent by the weight at once of his word for augmented, without the sug-
virtues and his ignorances, enjoys a long gestion of augmented to excess con-
life, we should look for a great decline veyed by swollen. On the other hand
in. . . . Supposing is followed first by there can have been no such motive
an object (nothing) and adjectival com- to account for the choice of swelled in
plement (changed), and secondly by a what is perhaps its chief use today—
substantival clause (this Pope enjoys). the phrase swelled head.
Either is right by itself, but to swap
one for the other means disaster. swim. The past swam and p.p. swum
are now invariable, though the OED
3. Tacit modification of the subject has a Carlyle quotation for swam p.p.,
etc. This barbarism could be stopped in and a Tennyson for swum past.
a very short time, if it were made a
punishable offence to throw rubbish into swine. Sing, and pi. the same. Except
the street, and would have the added as a term of abuse the word is now
value of reducing the army of scavengers. used only as a COLLECTIVE, and even so
It is not the barbarism, but the stop- is a FORMAL WORD. The animals suscep-
page of it, that would have the added tible to swine fever are called pigs.
value. / Fifty per cent, of the weight
could be knocked off practically every swing. Past swung, though OED
new petrol vehicle produced and yet be quotes for swang Wordsworth, Tenny-
able to carry exactly the same load. son, Gosse, and Belloc.
What would carry the same load is swing(e)ing. At the bottom was tripe,
not the 50 per cent, knocked off, in a swinging tureen—Goldsmith. A
but the vehicle without it. / A. C. capacious one? Or one hung on
Benson recalls a pleasant fiction, sup- pivots? See MUTE E, and use the -e-
posed to have happened to Matthew in the participle of swinge.
Arnold. A fiction neither happens nor
is supposed to happen to anyone. A swoop. See HEADLINE LANGUAGE.
fiction can be recalled, but before it sybil. See SIBYL.
can be supposed to have happened it
must be tacitly developed into a ficti- syllabize etc. A verb and a noun are
tious experience; for it is itself a state- clearly sometimes needed for the
ment or narrative and not an event. notion of dividing words into syllables.
See HAZINESS and SIDE-SLIP for other The possible pairs seem to be the
specimens of similar confusion. following (the number after each word
means—1, that it is in fairly common
swat, swot. Swat, as used in Swat use; 2 , that it is on record; 3, that it is
that fly, is a variant of squat, the not given in OED) :
original meaning of which, as a transi- syllabate 3 syllabation 2
tive verb, was to hit with a smart blow.
Swot, the slang term for to work hard, syllabicate 2 syllabication 1
is a variant of sweat. syllabify 2 syllabification 1
syllabize 1 syllabization 3
swath(e). The OED gives both spell- One first-class verb, two first-class
ings for the agricultural noun, and the nouns, but neither of those nouns
pronunciations swawth or swôth or belonging to that verb. It is absurd
swâdh; see -TH AND -DH. The noun and enough, and any of several ways out
verb meaning wrap are both swathe would do ; that indeed is why none of
(swâdh). The possible differentiation is them is taken. The best thing would
easy to see and has made some progress; be to accept the most recognized verb
for the agricultural noun the COD now syllabize, give it the now non-existent
gives swath as the only spelling and noun syllabization, and relegate all the
swawth as the only pronunciation. rest to the SUPERFLUOUS WORDS; but
syllabub 610 sympathetic
there is no authority both willing and malignant Chinamen scramble after each
able to issue such decrees. other in hot haste, and three-line para-
graphs.
syllabub. See SILLABUB.
syllogism. Deduction, from two pro-
syllabus. The plural -buses is now positions containing three terms of
more used than -bi. which one appears in both, of a con-
syllepsis (taking together) and zeug- clusion that is necessarily true if they
ma (yoking) are two figures of speech are true; a s. of the simplest form is:
distinguished by scholars, but some- All men are mortal;
times confused in use, the second and All Germans are men;
more familiar word being applied to Therefore all Germans are mortal.
both. Examples of syllepsis are : Miss The predicate of the conclusion (here
Bolo went home in a flood of tears and mortal) is called the major term, and
a sedan chair. / He lost his hat and his the preliminary proposition containing
temper. / She was seen washing clothes it the major premise; the subject of the
with happiness and Pears' soap. Exam- conclusion (here Germans) is called the
ples of zeugma are : Kill the boys and minor term, and the preliminary pro-
the luggage! / With weeping eyes and position containing it the minor premise.
hearts. / See Pan with flocks, with fruits The term common to both premises
Pomona crowned. (here men) is called the middle term.
What is common to both figures is that sylvan. See SILVAN.
a single word (that in roman type in
each example) seems to be in the same symbol. For synonyms see SIGN.
relation to two others but in fact is symbolic(al). The short form is more
not. The distinction between the two usual; there is no difference in mean-
figures is that syllepsis is grammatically ing.
correct, but requires the single word
to be understood in a different sense sympathetic. The play, in spite of
with each of its pair (e.g., in the last sublime scenes and poetry, is an illustra-
with expresses first accompaniment, tion and a warning to artists who deny,
but secondly instrument), whereas in or forget, that no powers of execution
zeugma the single word actually fails and no subordinate achievement can com'
to give sense with one of its pair, and pensate for a central figure who is 'un-
from it the appropriate word has to be sympathetic', and that it is better for a
supplied—destroy or plunder the lug- 'hero' to provoke active fear or hate
gage, bleeding hearts, Pan surrounded. than indifference or half-contemptuous
Intentional use of these figures has pity. I Macbeth is not made great by the
been so much overdone as to be now mere loan of a poet's imagery, and he is
a peculiarly exasperating form of not made sympathetic, however ade-
WORN-OUT HUMOUR. A few specimens quately his crime may be explained and
follow, of which the first is perhaps palliated, by being the victim of a hallu-
not of the intentional kind meant to cination. / Let me first say that Elsie
amuse, and is, as an established for- Lindtner is by no means sympathetic to
mula, hardly realized to be a syllepsis. the writer of this paper; if she were, the
The newly elected member for Central tragedy of the book would be more than
Leeds took the oath and his seat. / one could bear. This use of 5. to describe
Mr. played the Duke quite ably; not a person who feels sympathy but
and the flood of flowers and enthusiasm one who excites it is comparatively
was terrific. / Half-dad stokers toiled in recent in English, though of longer
an atmosphere consisting of one part air standing in French and other lan-
to ten parts mixed perspiration, coal- guages. It was borrowed by our book
dust, and profanity. / Such frying, such reviewers and dramatic critics, pre-
barbecueing, and everyone dripping in a sumably because they felt that there
flood of sin and gravy. / Impassively was no English word that conveys the
sympathy 611 synonyms
same meaning; neither attractive nor nized with [There were at the same
engaging nor congenial nor appealing time] reports of an extensive movement
will quite do. That is a respectable of Turkish troops near the Persian
reason for introducing a GALLICISM, frontier. / The winter solstice, which
and s. in this sense is now fully north of the Equator synchronizes with
naturalized, at any rate when used of [determines] the first day of the winter
characters in books and plays. But we quarter, occurs at six minutes to eleven
overdo our welcome when we extend tonight.
it to the visual arts, and apply it to syncope, syncopation. Syncope as a
inanimate objects. It has no advantage grammatical term means the shorten-
over pleasing in The Venetian glass fre- ing of a word by omission of a syllable
quently had a slight brownish or greyish or other part in the middle. Sym-
tint, very sympathetic to the eye. It is bology and pacifist and idolatry for
true that we may find 'a sympathetic symbolology, pacificist, and idololatry,
twilight' in Wordsworth, but that is an are examples. Syncopation as a musical
example of the PATHETIC FALLACY.
term means the suspension or altera-
sympathy. The exception sometimes tion of rhythm by pushing the accent
taken to following s. with for instead to a part of the bar not usually ac-
of toith is groundless. With is the usual cented. It is not, as many people
preposition for s. in the sense of sharing think, an invention of the composers
an emotion, but under the sense of of modern dance music; what they
compassion the OED puts for before have done is to popularize a device
with as the normal construction. For freely used in classical music.
would have been better in The Queen syndrome (a medical word for a set of
Mother has long had a compassionate symptoms) is, like syncope, a trisyllabic
sympathy with sufferers from this disease. Greek word, and the dictionaries
symposium. Pron. -ô'zïum; pi. -ia. at first said that it should be so pro-
But Plato's Symposium is usually pro- nounced. But in practice the analogy
nounced with the short o of the word of aerodrome, palindrome, and hippo-
in its Greek form. drome has proved irresistible, and we
say sïn'drôm.
symptom. For synonyms see SIGN.
synchronize is not a word that we synecdoche. The mention of a part
need regret the existence of, since when the whole is to be understood,
there is useful work that it can do as in A fleet of fifty sail (i.e. ships), or
vice versa as in England (i.e. the Eng-
better than any other(e.g. synchronized lish cricket XI) won. The journalists
clocks, gears, television records) ; but who wrote the following extracts were
it is a word that we may fairly desire using s. : This newspaper—and probably
to see as seldom as we may, one of the the country—will wait its time and see
learned terms that make a passage in how the new faces perform before judging
which they are not the best possible them. I Her Royal Highness will shake
words stodgy and repellent ; it may be hands with many of the big names in
compared with the lists in POPULARIZED Variety.
TECHNICALITIES. It might well be re-
served for planned concurrences, and synonyms, in the narrowest sense,
not applied to those that are accidental. are separate words whose meaning,
The extracts below, for instance, both denotation and connotation, is
would surely have been better with- identical, so that one can always be
out it: The lock-out mania, there- substituted for the other without
fore, has synchronized [coincided ?] with change in the effect of the sentence in
an increased willingness for sacrifice on which it is done. Whether any such
the part of the men. / A movement perfect synonyms exist is doubtful,
of Russian troops to the Caucasus was except perhaps when more than one
ordered. . . . This movement synchro- name is given to the same physical
synonyms 612 synonyms
object or condition, e.g. gorse and of excuse; so with DECIMATE (and
furze, undernourishment and malnutri- ravagé), DIFFERENTIAL (and difference),
tion. But if it is a fact that one is much DILEMMA (and difficulty), FEASIBLE (and
more often used than the other, or possible), LOCATE (and find), OPTIMISTIC
prevails in a different geographical or (and hopeful), PERCENTAGE (and part),
social region, then exchange between PRACTICABLE (and practical), PROPOR-
them does alter the effect on competent TION (and portion), PROTAGONIST (and
hearers, and the synonymity is not champion), SABOTAGE (and destroy),
perfect. At any rate, perfect synonyms SHAMBLES (and disorder), SUBSTITUTE
are extremely rare. (and replace), as well as numberless
Synonyms in the widest sense are others. To appreciate the differences
words of which either, in one or other between partial synonyms is therefore
of its acceptations, can sometimes of the utmost importance. There are
be substituted for the other without unluckily two obstacles to setting them
affecting the meaning of a sentence. out in this book. One is that nearly all
Thus it does not matter (to take the words are partial synonyms of some
nearest possible example) whether I other words, and the treatment of
say a word has 'two senses' or 'two them all from this point of view
meanings', and sense and meaning are alone would fill not one but many
therefore loose synonyms; but if 'He volumes. The other is that syno-
is a man of sense' is rewritten as 'He nym books in which differences are
is a man of meaning', it becomes plain analysed, engrossing as they may
that sense and meaning are far from have been to the active party, the
perfect synonyms; see FIELD, and analyst, offer to the passive party, the
SIGN, for sets of this kind. reader, nothing but boredom. Every-
It is perhaps worth while to record as one must, for the most part, be his
curiosities a few apparent antonyms own analyst; and no one is likely to
that are sometimes used as near- write well who does not expend,
synonyms. Such are best and worst whether expressly and systematically
(as transitive verbs), flammable and or as a subconscious accompaniment
inflammable, loose and unloose, passive of his reading and writing, a good deal
and impassive, ravel and unravel, valu- of care upon points of synonymy.
able and invaluable. In some of their A writer's concern with synonyms is
senses bend and unbend and certain and twofold. He requires first the power
uncertain almost qualify for admission of calling up the various names under
to the list. which the idea he has to express
can go. Everyone has this in some
Synonyms, or words alike in sense degree; everyone can develop his gift
but unlike in look or sound, have as by exercise. But copiousness in this
their converse HOMONYMS and HOMO- direction varies, and to those who are
PHONES, or words alike in look or sound deficient in it ready-made lists of
but unlike in sense. The pole of a tent synonyms are a blessed refuge, even
or coach or punt, and the pole of the if the ease they bring may have as
earth or the sky or a magnet, are in doubtful an effect on their style as the
spite of their identical spelling separate old Gradus adParnassum on the school-
words and are therefore homonyms. boy's elegiacs. Such lists, to be of much
Gauge and gage, not spelt alike, but use, must be voluminous, and those
so sounded, are homophones. who need them should try Roget's
Misapprehension of the extent to Thesaurus or some other work devoted
which words are synonymous is re- to that side of synonymy. Secondly,
sponsible for much bad writing of the he requires the power of choosing
less educated kind. From the notion rightly out of the group at his com-
that ALIBI is a synonym of defence, as mand, which depends on his realizing
it is when the defence is of a particular the differences between its items. As
kind, come the absurdities, illustrated has already been said, such differ-
under the word, of its use for any sort
synonymity 613 tactile
ences cannot be expounded for a lan- usefulness in distinguishing a sense
guage in anything less than a vast required in physiology etc. 'of the
dictionary devoted to them alone, and system or body as a whole'; other
no attempt at it has been made in this wrong formations, systemist, systemize,
book except in cases where experience etc., have no such excuse, and systemat-
shows warnings to be necessary. Still, ist etc. should be invariable.
a book concerned like the present with
English idiom in general cannot but systole. Pronounce si'stole.
come into frequent touch with syno-
nymy, and those who wish to pursue
that particular branch of idiom will
find the following list of articles (in T
addition to those previously referred tableau. For plural see -x.
to) useful as a guide: FORMAL WORDS,
GENTEELISMS, INCONGRUOUS VOCABU-
taboo. Accent on last syllable. Though
LARY, LITERARY CRITICS' WORDS,
this accent is English only, it is estab-
LITERARY WORDS, LONG VARIANTS,
lished English, and to correct it is
NEEDLESS VARIANTS, POPULARIZED
PEDANTRY; to spell tabu (except in
TECHNICALITIES, SLIPSHOD EXTENSION,
ethnological dissertations) is no better.
VOGUE WORDS, WORKING AND STYLISH
Past and p.p. usually tabooed, some-
WORDS.
times (see -ED AND 'D) taboo'd.
synonymity, synonymy. There is tabula(rasa). PI. lae (-sae). This term
work for both words, the first mean- is now applied by psychologists to the
ing synonymousness, and the second human mind at birth, viewed as having
the subject and supply of synonyms. no innate ideas; clean slate serves well
enough for ordinary use.
synopsis. PL -psës.
tactile, tactual. Why two words?
syntax. See GRAMMAR.
And, there being two, is any useful
synthesis. PI. -theses. The scientific differentiation either established or
sound of the word, aided no doubt by possible? The existence of tactile is
the common use of synthetic in the sufficiently explained by the desire for
sense of artificial, often tempts the a form corresponding to a large class of
pretentious to use it instead of more adjectives that mean having the power
appropriate words such as combina- or quality of doing or suffering some
tion, alliance, or union, as in : A flicker- action—contractile, ductile, erectile,
ing gleam on the subject may be found in fictile, fissile, flexile, pensile, prehen-
a pamphlet called 'The Case against sile, protrusile, retractile, sessile, and
Home Rule', by Mr. Amery, which also tensile, not to mention more familiar
propounds the new idea of a synthesis words such as agile, docile, fragile,
between the tariff and the opposition to textile and volatile. And the exis-
Home Rule. Cf. the similar abuse of tence of tactual is sufficiently ex-
INTEGRATE. plained by a natural preference
synthetize, not synthesize, is etymo- for tactually over tactilely. The
logically the right formation, but -size -ual words belong to Latin abstract
is more used. nouns in -us, and the -He words to
Latin verbs, and on the whole their
Syriac, Syrian. There is the same meanings are true to that difference,
difference in application as between however little we may know or remem-
Arabic and ARAB(IAN). ber it. But, tactile and tactual (unlike
syringe (n. and vb.). Pron. sï'rïnj, not other pairs such as agile and actual,
sïrï'nj. textile and textual) are used almost in-
discriminately, with a tendency for
systemic, as compared with the -He to prevail for all purposes, especi-
regular systematic, is excused by its ally now that tactile values is estab-
talent 614 target
lished in the vocabulary of art criticism. number of times they occur in all
Differentiation is no longer possible, OED quotations of the 19th and 20th
and tactual might be allowed to die. cc. The first figure after each word is
the number for -ed, the second for -L
talent, genius. Henry Bradley, in 1. Preferring -ed.
the OED, sums up the familiar con-
trast thus: 'It was by the German dream—5, 3. (See also DREAM.)
writers of the 18th c. that the distinc- kneel—3, 2 .
tion between "genius" and "talent", lean—12, 2 .
which had some foundation in French leap—7, 5.
usage, was sharpened into the strong learn—5, o. (See also LEARN.)
antithesis which is now universally spoil (mar)—9, 5.
current, so that the one term is hardly 2 . Equal.
ever denned without reference to the bereave—3, 3. (See also BE-
other. The difference between genius REAVED.)
and talent has been formulated very spell—4, 4 .
variously by different writers, but there 3. Preferring -t.
is general agreement in regarding burn—7, 16. (See also BURNT.)
the former as the higher of the two, smell—2, 8.
as "creative" and "original", and as spill—8, 17.
achieving its results by instinctive
perception and spontaneous activity, So far as we can accept these figures
rather than by processes which admit as a guide, it would seem that the -ed
forms then still prevailed in print; if
of being distinctly analysed.' Carlyle's the past tense were distinguished from
definition of genius as meaning 'trans- the past participle, the preponderance
cendent capacity of taking trouble, first of -ed for it would have been slightly
of all' provoked from Samuel Butler greater. But there has since been a
the comment that 'it might be more movement (advocated in the original
fitly described as a supreme capacity edition) towards -t. Lean is the only
for getting its possessors into trouble word in the first group for which the
of all kinds and keeping them therein COD still puts -ed before -t; for kned
so long as the genius remains*. it admits no alternative to knelt. See
talus. PI. of the word meaning ankle also BLESSED.
etc., tall', pi. of the word meaning tapis. See CARPET.
slope etc., taluses. The first comes to
us direct from Latin, the second target. After the second world war
through French. this word was much used to express
the quantitative result hoped for from
-t and -ed. Some verbs that once had some enterprise such as the output of
an alternative -t form for past tense a manufacturing concern or the amount
and participle have now lost it, either subscribed for some public or charit-
wholly or to an extent that makes it able purpose. To an exceptional de-
archaic, e.g. curst, dropt, husht, kist, gree it has shared the experience of
stopt, tost, and whipt. For many most popular metaphors of being
others -t is now the only formation, 'spoilt' (see METAPHOR 2 C) by use in
e.g. crept, dealt, felt, kept, left, meant, a way flagrantly incongruous with its
slept, swept. Typical of the words literal meaning. Targets, it is said,
that have preserved both alternatives must be 'pursued vigorously'; to be
are bereave, burn, dream, kneel, 'within sight' of one and to 'keep fully
lean, leap, learn, smell, spell, spill, and abreast' of it are, it seems, positions that
spoil. practically guarantee success, and when
In the first edition of this dictionary a target is 'doubled' the implication
an attempt was made to assess the com- that it will be twice as difficult to hit
parative popularity of the two endings goes unquestioned. But then, as Lord
when used in print by counting the Conesford has remarked, 'those who
tart 615 tautology
thus describe their ambitions never fully discussed in the articles JINGLES,
seem to entertain the faintest hope REPETITION a n d ELEGANT VARIATION;
of actually hitting their targets, even it is of great importance as an element
when these are overall or even global in style, but need not here be treated
ones; in their most optimistic moods again. Another form of t. is that dealt
they speak of "reaching" or "attain- with in PLEONASM 2 , in which syno-
ing" the target, an achievement which, nyms, either capable of serving the
since the bow and arrow went out of purpose by itself, are conjoined, as in
use, has never been rated very high'. save and except. Again, the word is
tart, pie. The current distinction is sometimes applied to identical proposi-
roughly that a tart always contains tions such as ' I don't like my tea too
fruit or sweet stuff, and a pie usually hot', or 'There is no need for undue
meat or savoury stuff; but the earlier alarm'; for such statements see the
distinction was that a pie was closed truism section of COMMONPLACE.
in with pastry above and a tart was 2 . Another form is the addition of what
not; and as relics of the old use we have been called 'abstract appendages'
retain mince pie as the only possible to words that have no need of them,
form, and apple pie as an attribute of such as weather conditions for weather,
order or bed, and cherry pie as the name temperature values for temperatures,
of a flower. There is a similar dis- height levels for heights. Sometimes
tinction between pasty, which is en- these appendages are merely otiose;
closed and usually contains meat, and sometimes they are misused by
flan, which is open and usually con- people who do not know that when
tains fruit. properly used they give the com-
pound a meaning different from
tartan. See PLAID. that of the single word, as when
tasty has been displaced, except in un- an amateur psychologist, wanting to
educated or facetious use, largely in its show off, refers to someone's behaviour
primary sense by savoury and wholly pattern when he means no more than
in its secondary by tasteful. behaviour. A curious recent example
is the use of time-scale for time. An
tattler. Now so spelt; formerly, and example of the right use of time-scale
especially in the name of the i8th-c. is Most of these discoveries have thrown
periodical, tatler, a spelling preserved light on the background of the Old Testa-
in the modern periodical of that name. ment. With the New Testament arch-
aeology has been less helpful. The time-
tattoo. See -ED AND 'D. scale is so much shorter—a century com-
tautology (lit. 'saying the same thing', pared with two millennia or more. An
i.e. as one has already said) is a term example of its wrong use is Within the
used in various senses. time-scale of the next eight to ten years
1. To repeat the words or the sub- the weapons system that will be carried
stance of a preceding sentence or by British aircraft will remain valid.
passage may be impressive and a This seems to be no more than a cum-
stroke of rhetoric, or wearisome brous way of saying that the type of
and a sign of incompetence, mainly weapons carried in British aircraft is
according as it is done deliberately or not likely to change much in the next
unconsciously. In either case it may be ten years. Within the time-scale of is a
called tautology (though the word striking example of a COMPOUND PRE-
is in fact seldom used except in re- POSITION; the word needed was in. In
proach), but it is with neither of these He did not think it possible to build such
kinds that we are here concerned. an aeroplane in the same time-scale, t.-s.
Another sense is the allowing of a seems to mean no more than time.
word or phrase to recur without point 3. What remains to be illustrated here
while its previous occurrence is still un- is the way in which writers who are
forgotten. This kind of t. will be found careless of form and desirous of
tax 616 tax
emphasis often fail to notice that they longer any clear distinction between
are wasting words by expressing twice the two in Britain. Few taxes are so
over in a sentence some part of it that called specifically; the most notable
is indeed essential but needs only to be are income rax (including surtax), profits
expressed once. It is true that words are tax Sindpurchase tax. The rest are most-
cheap, and, if the cost of them as such ly duties, e.g. customs, excise, estate,
to the writer were the end of the mat- stamp and the various licence duties.
ter, it would not be worth considering. Some, though their statutory designa-
The intelligent reader, however, is tion may be duty (e.g. entertainments,
wont to reason, perhaps unjustly, that petrol), are often popularly referred to
if his author writes loosely he prob- as tax. What • vere virtually the same
ably thinks loosely also, and is there- taxes were officially called Excess
fore not worth attention. A few ex- Profits Duty in the first world war and
amples follow, and under BOTH 2 and Excess Profits Tax in the second, and
EQUALLY AS 2 will be found collections later Excess Profits Levy. As a generic
of the same kind of t. : The motion term tax is the widest, embracing
on constitutional reforms aims at not only the imposts specifically
placing women on the same equality called duties, but also, in the phrase
with men in the exercise of the franchise local taxation, the rates imposed by
(As no other equality has been in ques- local authorities. At the same time
tion, same and equality are tautological ; duties as a generic term is sometimes
in the same position as, or on an equality used to include those specifically called
with). I May I be permitted to state that taxes : the statutory expression Inland
the activities of the Club are not limited Revenue Duties includes income tax
only to aeronautics? (Limited and only as well as stamp duty and estate duty.
are tautological; limited to, or directed The tangle is past unravelling.
only to). I It is sheer pretence to suppose Cess, another word for local taxation,
that speed and speed alone is the only obsolete in England but still current in
thing which counts (Omit either and Scotland and Ireland.
speed alone, or only). He said that only Contribution was the word originally
one additional train had been added used for the Profits Tax (first called
from Cannon Street during the rush National Defence Contribution) im-
hour to the restricted war-time service posed during the second world war,
(Omit additional). and for the single-year tax on capital
(Special Contribution) exacted after it.
tax, duty and some synonyms—cess, The word was no doubt chosen as a
contribution, customs, due, excise, impost, euphemism (cf. the old benevolence) in
levy, rate, toll, tribute. With such sets the hope that payment of it might be
of words it is often convenient to have thought of as a privilege rather than an
a conspectus of the distinctions and obligation; even when the National
be saved the labour of turning them Defence Contribution was rechristened
up for comparison in separate dic- Profits Tax by statute after the war,
tionary articles. Such convenience is Parliament considerately added a pro-
all that is here aimed at, a rough viso that it would not be unlawful to
definition of each word being given continue to refer to the tax by its old
after some general remarks on the name.
words tax and duty. Customs, payment levied upon im-
Historically a tax was a direct charge ports from foreign countries.
on a taxpayer which bore some rela- Due, any obligatory payment, the
tion to his ability to pay and was im- nature being usually specified by an
posed for revenue only; a duty was attributive noun, as harbour, market,
an indirect charge, levied on transac- dues.
tions or commodities and sometimes Excise, duty charged on certain home
imposed primarily for political or products, especially alcoholic liquors,
economic reasons. But there is no before they can be sold.
teasel 617 temporal
Impost, a generic term for any com- class are rarely in the news except
pulsory payment exacted under statu- when they misbehave. So it is pleasant
tory authority. to be occasionally reminded that they
Levy, exaction from every person have their virtues too. Teenagers tend
concerned of an equal amount or an to be more generous in giving presents
amount proportional to his property. than their parents, and are spending as
Generally of a single non-recurrent much on gifts as on their own clothing,
impost but now used more loosely; says an interim report of the Trustee
see note on tax and duty above. Savings Banks Association.
Rate, amount of assessment on pro-
perty for local purposes; see also the teetotaller, but teetotalism; see -LL-,
note on tax and duty above. -L-.
Toll, fixed charge for passage over
bridge, ferry, etc., or for permission to tele-. Inevitably, in these days of
sell in a market. annihilation of distance, this Greek
Tribute, periodical payment made by prefix has been used with a freedom
one State to another in token of sub- that makes it a prolific source of what
mission (now called, less bluntly, are called in this book BARBARISMS. It
reparations) or as price of protection. began respectably enough with tele-
scope, telegraph, telegram (though some
teasel, teazle. The first is the stan- purists would have had us say tele-
dard form. grapheme), telepathy and telephone, but
is now promiscuous in its attachments,
techy. See TETCHY. e.g. television, teleprinter, telecommuni-
cations, telecontrol, and others con-
teem. The word meaning to be pro- stantly multiplying. Indeed, it is time
lific and that meaning to pour out are to recognize that tele- (like anti, post,
of different origins. There is some and pre) has gatecrashed into our
natural confusion between them, but vocabulary, and, being now natural-
it may be presumed that when we say ized, is free to associate without
the river is simply teeming with fish we offence with any other member. Tele-
are using the first word, and the second vise (a BACK-FORMATION from television)
when we say it is simply teeming with has s not z. See -IZE, -ISE.
rain.
temerarious. 'Now only literary'—
teenage(r). We have given a warm OED ; see LITERARY WORDS.
welcome to these Americanisms, no
temperature. See FEVERISH.
doubt because we felt the need for a
suitable and colourless word for what templet, -plate. The -ate form, due
the pseudo-scientific jargon fashion- to false association with plate, as in
able today calls members of the 13-19 wall-plate etc., has won an undeserved
age-bracket. Juvenile is tainted by its victory over the better form -et.
association with delinquent and court.
Adolescent is a starchy word, also temporal, temporary. The mean-
faintly tendentious. Youths are of one ing of temporal was originally the
sex only. Young persons, the statutory same as that of temporary but was later
expression, is prim, and unsuitable restricted to the sense 'of or pertain-
now that we are in no danger of feeling, ing to time as the sphere of human life,
as Mr. Podsnap did, that the question terrestrial as opposed to heavenly'.
about everything was whether it would —OED. Hence the distinction be-
bring a blush to the cheek of the young tween the temporal (civil) and the
person. Teenageir) seemed to fill a spiritual (ecclesiastical) authorities,
gap. Unfortunately it also seems to be and the division of the House of Lords
acquiring an overtone of disparage- into Lords Temporal (lay peers) and
ment; the fact is that teenagers as a Lords Spiritual (bishops).
ten- 618 tertium quid
ten-. That the value given to an Eng- has long been used; the S OED gave
lish vowel is etymologically a FALSE no other. The COD, however, now
QUANTITY is not necessarily anything puts -uses first. See LATIN PLURALS.
against it. But since most of the words In air travel terminal is now the usual
derived from Lat. teneo (tenant, tenon, word.
etc.) preserve the short e of that verb
there seems no good reason for the terrain. The justification of the word
long one we sometimes hear in tenable is that it expresses a complex notion
and tenet. briefly. When it is used as a substitute
for ground, tract, region, or district—
tend ( = attend). Dr. Hutton has writ- good ordinary words—, it lacks the
ten an interesting account of the Eskimos justification that an out-of-the-way
of Labrador, among whom he has lived word requires, and becomes preten-
for some years past tending to their tious. It means a piece of ground with
needs in his hospital. Since this verb all the peculiarities that fit or unfit it
tend (unlike the one connected with for military or other purposes; and to
tendency) is said to be merely an aphetic speak of 'the peculiarities of the t.', 'the
form of attend, it is remarkable that its nature of the t.', etc., instead of simply
construction and that of attend should 'the t.', is a pleonasm, though the
differ. But they certainly do ; tend one's readers' assumed ignorance may ex-
needs, but attend to one's needs; see cuse it.
CAST-IRON IDIOM. See also TREND.
terribly. The other day (said I) I read
tendentious, a new and useful word a love scene in a story that went like this:
(OED dates it from 1900), hesitated 'Am I beautiful?' she asked him. ' Ter-
at first between -cious and -tious; the ribly' he said. And then he asked her
latter is now established. 'Do you love me?' 'Horribly' she said.
tenor. The form tenour is called Why (I was then asked) don't you go
obsolete by the OED for all senses, home and write something humorous.
though it appears in some of its I9th-c. Don't you want to? 'Frightfully' I
quotations, especially in the sense replied. (James Thurber).
course or procedure or purport; see It is strange that a people with such
-OUR AND -OR. 'They kept the even a fondness for understatement as the
tenor of their way' is a MISQUOTATION British should have felt the need to
(noiseless). keep changing the adverbs by which
they hope to convince listeners of the
tenses etc. Certain points requiring intensity of their feelings, until, by a
care will be found under SEQUENCE OF process of exhaustion, they have ar-
TENSES, SUBJUNCTIVE, PERFECT INFINI- rived at such absurdities as these, to
TIVE, AS 4 , HAD, LEST, SHALL AND WILL. which might be added dreadfully and
fearfully. The early ones of the series,
tercentenary. See CENTENARY. such as consumedly, excessively, might-
teredo, (tërë-) English pi., teredos, see ily, prodigiously, and vastly, however
-O(E)S 6; Latin pi. terê'dïnës, see hyperbolical, were reasonable enough
LATIN PLURALS. to use of pleasurable emotions. The
downward path began with awfully,
t e r m . For major, minor, middle, t. in a word now so worn with use as to
logic, see SYLLOGISM. be reduced to the level of very. The
Greeks, as the OED reminds us, used
t e r m i n a t e . See WORKING AND STYLISH
their word for it (Seivtùj) in the same
WORDS.
way.
terminological. For t. inexactitude
See INEXACTITUDE.
tertium quid. 'A third something.'
Originally something which results
terminus. Even in the commonest from the combination of two things
sense of railway t., the plural termini but is itself different from both, with
tessera 619 than
properties not so well ascertained as tether. For synonyms in the fig.
those of its elements. In this sense an sense see FIELD.
alloy, or a chemical compound, or a thalamus. PI. -ml.
chord ('not a fourth sound, but a star')
might be called t. q. It was later than. 1. T. after preffriable). 2 . T.
used in the changed sense (the notion and inversion. 3. Infinitive or gerund
of unknown qualities being lost) of after rather t. 4 . Hardly and scarcely t.
another alternative, a middle course; 5. T. after the more etc. 6. T. as strong
as the Liberal Party might be called conjunction, as weak conjunction, and
a t. q. between the Conservatives and as preposition. 7. Double standard of
the Socialists, or as Browning used it comparison. 8. T. after non-compara-
for the heading of Book IV of The tives. 9. T. and ellipsis. 10. Flounder-
Ring and the Book, in which views ings.
are set forth about the culpability of 1. For t. after prefer and preferable
the murderer Guido which are neither without rather, a common solecism,
those of the 'Half Rome' who have see PREFER(ABLE) 3.
defended him in Book II nor those of 2 . T. and inversion. The evidence
the 'Other Half Rome' who have con- could not now be given in the same sense,
demned him in Book I I I . A new twist any more than could Mr. Chamber-
was given to the expression when lain's speeches of 1903 be now delivered.
Kipling wrote a story beginning Once I The visit will be much more direct in its
upon a time there was a Man and his effect upon the war than could be any
Wife and a Tertium Qjrid; and the indiscriminate bombing of open towns.
meaning the third party in 'the eternal Such inversions are deprecated; see
triangle' is now likely to be suggested INVERSION (after relatives and com-
by it to the popular mind. paratives).
3. Infinitive, or gerund etc., after
tessera. PI. -roe. rather t. They were all in favour of
'dying in the last ditch* rather than
test. For synonyms see SIGN. sign their own death-warrant. The
testatrix For pi. see TRIX. justification of sign instead of signing
is discussed in -ING 5 (c).
test match. The expression is strictly 4 . Hardly t., scarcely t. But hardly
applicable only to cricket. It was had I landed at Liverpool than the
originally used of representative Mikado's death recalled me to Japan.
matches between England and Austra- Read no sooner for hardly, or when for
lia, but is now treated as including than; and see under HARDLY 2 ,
representative cricket matches be- SCARCELY 1.
tween any two countries played under 5. T. after the more, the less, etc.
the rules of the Imperial Cricket Con- If we simply take the attitude of accept-
ference. ing her theory of naval policy, we make
it so much the less probable that she will
te(t)chy, touchy. In the sense irri- change her law than if we enter into
table, over-sensitive, the OED suggests violent contention. See THE 6 for the
that touchy is perhaps an alteration of wrongness of this construction.
techy; techy (or teachy) is the oldest 6. T. as strong conjunction, weak
recorded form, but tetchy is the usual conjunction, and preposition. In You
modern spelling of those who do not treat her worse than I treat her, t. is
prefer touchy. As the origin of te(t)chy a strong or subordinating conjunc-
is uncertain, and the much com- tion, attaching an adverbial clause to
moner touchy gives the same mean- its owner worse. You treat her worse
ing without being a puzzle, any at- than I may also be so described with
tempt to keep te(t)chy alive seems due the explanation that there is an ellip-
to a liking for curiosities, especially as sis of treat her; or, alternatively, t.
testy is also available. may be called a weak or coordinating
than 620 than
conjunction linking the two similarly that follow had better have been him on
constructed nouns you and / . In You the weak-conjunction principle, espe-
treat her worse than me, the same two cially since the ellipsis required for the
names for t. are possible, but the ellip- strong-conjunction explanation is awk-
sis is of you treat, and, in the alterna- ward in the first two : / / ever Captain
tive, the linked nouns are her and me; O'Connor gives us a second volume, we
those are the possibilities if the sen- beg him to engage no other artist than
tence is said with the only sense that he who illustrated the first. / The Entente
an educated person gives it. But an had no better friend than he on the other
uneducated person may mean by it side of the Atlantic. / 'I've foiled better
You treat her worse than I treat her; men than he' the Count answered.
and, if it is to be so taken, t. is not a 7. Double standard of comparison;
conjunction of either kind, but a prepo- more and more t. A ludicrous example
sition governing me. Doubts whether of conflicting thans, which almost any
a word is a preposition or a conjunc- reader would detect, is: 'I have less
tion or both are not unknown; see, confidence than Mr. Orr in the valuers
for example, BUT I with regard to being obliged to adopt his method of
such phrases as all but he (conj.) valuation than that we all shall be com-
and all but him (prep.); usage, pelled to adopt theirs'. Less is clearly
moreover, changes in such matters unequal to its two jobs; it can put Mr.
with time. It is obvious, however, that Orr in his place with regard to me, or
recognition of t. as a preposition makes the valuers with regard to us, but not
some sentences ambiguous that could both. Such a freak sentence would not
otherwise have only one meaning (/ be worth quoting but for the light it
would rather you shot the poor dog than throws on a less flagrant but more fre-
me), and is to that extent undesirable. quent absurdity of the same kind, the
The OED statement on the preposi- following of more and more with than :
tion use is that, with the special excep- My eyes are more and more averse to
tion of t. whom, which is preferred to light than ever. / The order has gradually
t. who unless both can be avoided, 'it is found more and more room for educa-
now considered incorrect'. That so- tional and learned work than was
called incorrectness occurs in the fol- possible in the early centuries. Both
lowing examples, where, by the strict sentences would be right if and more
application of the OED ruling, us, him, were omitted; but the introduction of
and them should be we, he, and they. it implies the tacit introduction of other
But the prepositional use of than is now thans which conflict with those that are
so common colloquially {He is older expressed. More and more means more
than me; they travelled much faster than yesterday than the day before, and
us) that the bare subjective pronoun more today than yesterday; to com-
in such a position strikes the reader as bine that shifting date with the un-
pedantic, and it is better either to give shifting dates ever and in early centuries
it a more natural appearance by sup- is impossible. T. should never be
plying it with a verb or to dodge the used after more and more.
difficulty by riot using an inflective 8. T. after non-comparatives. Else,
pronoun at all. Examples: He could other, and their compounds, are the
do worse than consider why West Ger- only words outside true comparatives
many can put up 210,000 more houses whose right to be followed by t. is
a year than us (than we can). / The unquestioned; and 'true comparatives'
butcher of the last few months has been is to be taken as excluding such Latin
a good deal more obliging than him of words as superior and inferior, senior
the war period (than the one). / Do not and junior, all of which, as well as pre-
let us split up our energy by having more ferable), require not t., but to. The
than one society; the idea is more than use of t., on the analogy of other t.,
them all (than all of them). after different, diverse, opposite, etc., is
On the other hand, the subjective hes 'now mostly avoided' (OED). Some
than 621 thank you
examples follow of irregularities that any). For other examples and dis-
should not be allowed to appear in cussion see ELLIPSIS 5.
print : What then remains if this measure 10. Flounderings. There is often a
of disagreement still continues than to difficulty in getting the things to be
dispose of the Bill by fair discussion? compared into such grammatical con-
(For what . . . than read what . . . but formity as will enable them to stand on
or what else . . . than). / There is ob- either side of a than, but writers who
viously a vastly increased number of take so little trouble about it as the
people who can and do follow reasoned authors of the following sentences
arguments . . . than there zoas before must not be surprised if their readers
educational methods were so efficient. are indignant : In countries where a
(For increased read greater.) / It would Referendum is a recognized part of the
be doubly difficult to influence the South constitutional machinery, the House of
African Government if that country Representatives is much more ready
walks out of the Commonwealth than if to pass, provisionally, constitutional re-
it stays in even as a republic. (Read forms, and submit them to the electorate,
much more difficult. . . than or twice as than are Bills passed by the Houses
difficult . . . as.) IA mystery virus has of Parliament in a country like ours, j
filled children's hospitals in Birmingham. 'The Awkward Age', which was just
Four times as many babies than usual published, was being received with a little
have been affected. (For than read as.) / more intelligence and sympathetic com-
One would have been readier to con- prehension than had been the habit of
sider this if he had given chapter and greeting his productions.
verse for his astonishing claim that
Delius is performed twice as much now- -th and -dh. Monosyllabic nouns
adays than he was ten years ago. (For ending in -th after a vowel sound (in-
than read as.) But different than is cluding -or- etc.) differ in the pro-
sometimes preferred by good writers nunciation of the plural. Those only
to the cumbersome different from that need be considered whose plural is in
which etc., as it was by Richardson regular use, which excludes sloth, broth,
when he wrote A very different Pamela ruth, and many others. The common
than I used to leave all company and words lath, mouth, oath, path, sheath,
pleasure for. Modern examples are: truth, and youth, all sound the plural
He is using the word in quite a different as -dhz, not -ths; but the equally
sense than he did yesterday. / The changes common words, berth, birth, breath,
in the Commonwealth since the war death, fourth, girth, growth, smith, and
ended . . . have left Great Britain in a myth, have -ths in sound as well as in
very different position than she was in spelling. Others again are doubtful;
1938.1 The air of the suburb has a quite such are bath, cloth, and wreath (-dhz
different smell and feel at eleven o'clock recommended), and (with -ths usual)
in the morning than it has at the hours heath, hearth, moth, and wraith. Cf.
when the daily toiler is accustomed to the article -VE(D). It may be added
take a few hurried sniffs at it. that the verbs or verbal nouns con-
9. T. with ellipsis or brachylogy. nected with bath, breath, cloth, mouth,
Some kinds of ellipsis are so cus- sheath, teeth, and wreath, have the dh
tomary in the member of a sentence sound (bathe, breathe, clothe, mouthing,
beginning with t. that to write out sheathe, teething, wreathe); cf. also
the whole sense would be much more smithy, worthy, northern, and southern
noticeable than the ellipsis (cf. the use all with -dh-.
of different than illustrated in para. 8).
But hasty writers are encouraged by thank you, thanks, etc. I thank you
this to think that any slovenliness will is now reserved for formal occasions
pass muster: The power of this great or tongues ; thank you is the ordinary
combine is now greater than any of the phrase, but tends more and more to be
nationalized industries (than that of lengthened with or without occasion
into thank you so much, or thank you
that, adj. 622 that, adj.
very much, often with the addition of not all that wild. / Today the situation is
indeed for good measure. Thanks is a very different. It is American stubborn-
shade less cordial than thank you, ness that keeps China out of the U.N.
and many and best and a thousand But is it all that different? In the other
thanks and thanks awfully are fre- colloquial use, meaning etcetera, and
quent elaborations of it; much thanks generally implying a touch of contempt
is archaic, surviving through our (1066 and all that), that is not an ad-
familiarity with Francisco's For this verb but a pronoun. See also THIS 2 .
relief much thanks, and now only 2 . T. with a noun and a participle or
used jocularly. The colloquial variant other equivalent of a denning relative
Thanks a lot is becoming popular. If clause. The type meant is shown in that
an acknowledgement of thanks is felt part affected, that land lyingfallow, that
to be needed it will be Don't mention theory now in question, and the con-
it, or Not at all or, in U.S., You're tention is that it is a bad type. In the
welcome. OED there is a solitary example, and
that justifiable for special reasons;
that, adj. and adv. 1. That = such a, but in modern newspaper use it is
so great a, to such an extent. 2 . That very common. Four specimens are:
with noun and participle. 3. At that. It was essential that both these phases
1. The adjectival use (He has that of his art should be adequately repre-
confidence in his theory that he would sented in that branch of the National
act on it tomorrow) was formerly normal Gallery devoted to native talent. / That
English, and survives colloquially, but part relating to the freedom of the seas
in literary use such a, so great a, etc., was given fairly fully in the * Times'. /
are substituted. The adverbial use Aphorisms and maxims are treated with
('to that extent or degree, so much, so, that respect usually reserved for reli-
esp. with an adv. or adj. of quantity, gious dogma. I Shorter hours in all
that far, that much, that high') was said departments of labour prevent that expe-
by the SOED to be dialect and U.S. ditious handling of cargoes needed.
That would now be too round a state- The use of that (demonstrative ad-
ment. When qualifying another adverb jective) with the sole function of point-
(or adverbial phrase), the adverbial ing forward to a defining relative clause
that (or in negative and interrogative is established English, and 'that part
sentences all that) has become a com- which concerns us' is as common as
mon colloquialism now well on its way 'the part that concerns us' ; but when
to literary status. Whatever the Court a participle or phrase is substituted for
of Appeal or the House of Lords, assum- the relative clause it is an innovation
ing the case goes that far, may decide. / to keep the that; it may safely be said
A side effect of this practice is that the that most good writers take the trouble
parent flycatcher has to work that much to clear away the now needless that,
harder. / The figures show that even and write the instead. The full form
Lazards do not sell £2m. all that fre- should have been that branch which is
quently. I Sometimes the law is not devoted (or the branch that is devoted),
regarded with all that favour by those and the short form the branch devoted,
unaccustomed to it. When qualifying an and similarly for the rest.
adjective, the use of that merely as an It should be observed that sentences
intensive adverb (/ was that angry) is occur similar at first sight to those
still a vulgarism. But it is sometimes condemned, but with the difference
so used to indicate a comparison, that another purpose is served by that
though in an affirmative sentence so or instead of or as well as that of heralding
as is more idiomatic. Only half a dozen the participle etc. One such is the
close advisers, if that many, were privy OED quotation already referred to:
to his inmost thoughts, f But once a girl On that peninsulated rock called La
has chosen her career, is it that easy for Spilla', here that is justified as meaning
her to pursue it? / Even the wildfowl are 'the well-known'. Compare also: The
that, conj. 623 that, con;.
world needs peace. You will always One way of avoiding it is to rearrange
find us at your side to preserve that the sentence so that there is unsub-
peace bought by so much blood. Here ordinated quotation of the question
the justification of that is its referring etc., and the other is, before subordi-
back to the peace of the previous nating, to convert the question etc.
sentence. So too we might say of the into a statement giving the same mean-
similar use of that in conveyancing ing. Two examples will be enough,
(all that land situated etc.) that it not the first of an impossible adverbial
only heralds the participle but also clause and the second of an equally
refers back to the preceding negotia- impossible substantival. Crises,
tions. international or national, arise so
The misuse here objected to is still rapidly in these days that who can
commoner in the plural; see THOSE 2 . say what a few years may bring forth ?
3. At that. The only seals available I One can only comment that if such a
were at the back, and very uncomfort- refuge was open to the Romans, how
able at that. The convenience of this much more available is it to our own
idiom, said by the OED to have been people. Such sentences can be reme-
originally U.S. colloquial or slang, died in either of the ways mentioned
may be judged by the elaborate defini- above. Either Crises ... arise so rapidly
tion there given of its significance: in these days; who can say etc., or
'even when that has been taken into Crises . . . arise so rapidly in these days
consideration; estimated at that rate, that no one can say etc. Either One can
at that standard, even in that capacity, only comment: if such a refuge was open
in respect of that, too; "into the bar- . . . how much more available is it etc.,
gain" '. or One can only comment that if such
a refuge was open . . . it is much more
that, conj. 1. Kinds of clause attached available etc.
by t. conj. 2 . Substantival clauses 2 . Substantival clauses without that
without that. 3. T. and whether with (already touched on in ELLIPSIS 4). /
doubt(ful). 4. Interim t. 5. T. and as know that my Redeemer liveth : I know
after (in) so far. 6. Non-parallel t.- I can trust you. These are equally good
clauses in combination. English; if that were shifted from
1. Kinds of clause attached by f. the first to the second, both would
conj. In adjectival or relative clauses still be grammatically correct, but
that begin with t. it is a relative pro- each less idiomatic than as it is: the
noun, not a conjunction; see for these use or omission of the t. of a sub-
the next article. T. conj. attaches a stantival clause depends partly on
substantival clause to the verb, noun, whether the tone is elevated or collo-
etc., to which it is object (/ hear that he quial. But a glance at the following
is dead), subject (T. pain exists is cer- examples of obviously wrong omission
tain), in apposition ( The fact t. pain will show that there is not free choice
exists), etc. ; or else an adverbial clause after all verbs or in all constructions:
to the word etc. modified ( The heat is The Italian Olympic Committee an-
such that it will boil water). The only nounced all officials, regardless of
point needing to be insisted on is that nationality, will wear the same uniform, j
in either case, whether the t.-clause is Looking back, I observe the pattern of
substantival or adverbial, the sentence the track left behind wanders sometimes
out of which it is made by prefixing uncertainly. / That the suggestion has
t. must be in statement form, not been made by two resident undergradu-
a question, command, or exclamation. ates indicates little opposition may be
Sentences of those other kinds can be expected. / We learn he used his cousin as
subordinated or turned into clauses, a bait. / He urged an international con-
but not by prefixing t. The mistake ference be held, j The enormous rents
is not made by good writers, but oc- which would be asked for new houses
curs often enough to need mention. would naturally render owners of existing
that, conj. 624 that, conj.
properties restless and envious, with the than he reckoned, and to feel that the
result they would continually strive to reader and he will be lost in a chartless
raise their own rents to a similar level. / sea unless they can get back to port
He said a major reason was the Western and make a fresh start. His way of
peoples brought with them a laxity in effecting this is to repeat his initial t.
moral standards. It at once occurs to This relieves his own feeling of being
the reader that announce, observe, in- lost. Whether it helps the inattentive
dicate, learn, urge are words that stand reader is doubtful; but it certainly
on their dignity and will not dispense exasperates the attentive reader, who
with the attendance of t. The lesson of from the moment he saw t. has been
the last two examples is that omission on the watch for the verb it tells him
is unadvisable when the substantival to expect, and realizes suddenly, when
clause is in apposition to a noun, as another t. appears, that his chart is
here to result, and reason. incorrect. These interim thats are
It may be useful to give tentative definite grammatical blunders, which
lists, to which everyone can make can often be mended by leaving out
additions for his own use, of verbs that the offending t. with or without other
(1) prefer t. expressed, (2) prefer t. superfluous words; in the examples
omitted, and (3) vary according to the below the omittenda are bracketed.
tone of the context. (1) T. is usual The first two show the most venial
with agree, announce, argue, assume, form of the mistake, the resumptive t.
aver, calculate, conceive, contend, hold, being inserted at the point from which
indicate, learn, maintain, observe, reck- progress to the expected verb is not
on, remark, state, suggest; (2) T. is to be again interrupted by subordinate
unusual with believe, dare say, pre- clauses ; the others are worse : Sir F. S.
sume, suppose, think; (3) T. is used described the resolution as disastrous for
or omitted with be told, confess, con- the party, and suggested that, as it had
sider, declare, grant, hear, know, per- been already made known publicly, [that]
ceive, propose, say, see, understand. The it should not be proceeded with. / It would
verbs with which the question may be unwise to assume that, merely because
arise are many more than these fews Mr. Khrushchev has announced his in-
which may however be enough to assist tention of doing so, [that] Mr. Mac-
observation. It should be added that millan will follow suit. / We can only
the tendency is to omit that, and some say that if the business men who read the
of the words in the first list may be Times are really of opinion that this is a
thought to have become eligible for sensible procedure, and [that,] if they
transfer to the third. Perhaps this is find any satisfaction whatever in the
due to U.S. influence, where that writing down of a huge sum which
is omitted much more freely than it is everybody knows can never be re-
here. It seems clear, from some of the covered, they will have only themselves
examples given above, that this is to thank if the politicians continue to
having an effect on British journalism. make game of them. / It should be
3. T. and whether with doubt(ful). borne in mind that, whilst many things
It gave him cause for wonder that no have increased in cost, and [that] there-
serviceable [petroleum] 'pool' had been fore the value of the £1 has decreased,
revealed in England; that any existed, there are many items of expenditure
however, seemed doubtful, for clearly which have not increased in anything
. . . The choice allowed by idiom is like the same proportion. / It has been
between Whether any existed seemed shown that if that inheritance be widen-
doubtful, and That any existed seemed ing, as it is, and [that if] the means of
unlikely, according to the shade of increasing it exist, as they do, then
meaning required. See DOUBT(FUL). growth of numbers must add to the power.
4 . Interim t. A writer often em- Another sentence is appended as
barks on a substantival r.-clause only showing not indeed an interim t., but
to find that it is carrying him further mistakes curable by the same method
that, rel. 625 that, rel.
of excision. The Minister added that plainly show that the language has not
there zvas no need to say that the Govern- been neatly constructed by a master
ment knew nothing about these state- builder who could create each part to
ments, still less [that it] had authorized do the exact work required of it, neither
them, or [that it] knew what amount of overlapped nor overlapping; far from
truth there might be in them. If the that, its parts have had to grow as they
writer wishes to keep his thats, he must could. It might seem orderly that, as
correct had authorized into had not who is appropriated to persons, so that
authorized, and knew into did not know; should have been appropriated to
the repetition of t. has lulled him into things, or again that, as the relative
the state in which yes and no mean the that is substantival only, so the relative
same thing. which should have been adjectival only.
See OVERZEAL for other examples of But we find in fact that the antecedent
needless 'signpost' words. of that is often personal, and which
5. That and as after (in) so far. For more often represents than agrees
the rather elusive distinction, and its with a noun. We find again that
importance, see FAR 4 , 5, and IN SO while who has two possessives (whose
FAR. and of whom), and which one (of
6. Non-parallel t. -clauses in com- which), that has none of its own,
bination. Parallel r.-clauses can be though it often needs it, and has to
strung together ad libitum, and may be borrow of which or whose. Such
rhetorically effective. It is otherwise peculiarities are explicable, but not
with interdependent or dissimilar r.- now curable; they are inherent in the
clauses; for the principle see REPETI- relative apparatus that we have
TION. The unpleasantness of the received and are bound to work with.
construction deprecated is sufficiently It does not follow that the use we are
shown in : It is thoroughly in accordance now making of it is the best it is
with this recognition that the people capable of; and perhaps the line of
have rights superior to those of any in- improvement lies in clearer differen-
dividual that Mr. Roosevelt is seeking tiation between that and which, and
legislation that will perpetuate the restoration of that to the place from
Government's title to the coal and oil which, in print, it tends to be ousted.
lands in the public domain. A supposed, and misleading, distinc-
tion is that that is the colloquial and
that, rel. pron. 1. Relation between which the literary relative. That is a
that and which. 2 . That-ism. 3. That false inference from an actual but mis-
as a relative adverb. 4 . Ellipsis of that. interpreted fact. It is a fact that the
5. 77zar-clause not close up. 6. One proportion of thats to whichs is far
that in two cases. 7. Double govern- higher in speech than in writing; but
ment. the reason is not that the spoken thats
1. Relation between that and which. are properly converted into written
What grammarians say should be has whichs. It is that the kind of clause
perhaps less influence on what shall be properly begun with which is rare in
than even the more modest of them speech with its short detached sen-
realize; usage evolves itself little dis- tences, but very common in the more
turbed by their likes and dislikes. And complex and continuous structure of
yet the temptation to show how better writing, while the kind properly begun
use might have been made of the with that is equally necessary in both.
material to hand is sometimes irresist- This false inference, however, tends to
ible. The English relatives, particu- verify itself by persuading the writers
larly as used by English rather than who follow rules of thumb actually to
American writers, offer such a tempta- change the original that of their
tion. The relations between that, who, thoughts into a which for presentation
and which have come to us from our in print.
forefathers as an odd jumble, and The two kinds of relative clause, to
that, rel. 626 that, rel.
one of which that and to the other of the other must be taken, and the fact
which which is appropriate, are the accepted that the preposition-gov-
defining and the non-defining; and if erned case of that is borrowed from
writers would agree to regard that as which, and its possessive from who.
the defining relative pronoun, and Another peculiarity of that is that in
which as the non-defining, there would the defining clauses to which it is
be much gain both in lucidity and in proper it may, if it is not the subject,
ease. Some there are who follow this be omitted and yet operative—see 4
principle now; but it would be idle to below. Another important point is
pretend that it is the practice either of that non-defining clauses need com-
most or of the best writers. mas and defining clauses do not:
A defining relative clause is one that Jones, whom I saw yesterday, told me,
identifies the person or thing meant by but Theman that Isaw yesterdaytold me.
limiting the denotation of the ante- The following roman type sen-
cedent : Each made a list of books that tences (or parts of sentences) are re-
had influenced him ; not books generally, writings, in conformity with the
but books as defined by the that-clause. account already given of the difference
Contrast with this: / always buy his between that and which, of verbatim
books, which have influenced me greatly; extracts from newspapers; the original
the clause does not limit his books, is inserted in italics below each, and
which needs no limitation; it gives the reader is invited to compare the
a reason (= for they have), or adds two versions and to say whether, even
a new fact (= and they have). There apart from the grammatical theory
is no great difficulty, though often here maintained, the re-writings do
more than in this chosen pair, about not offer him a more natural and easy
deciding whether a relative clause is English than the originals. Where the
defining or not; and the practice of reason for the change is not at once
using that if it is, and which if it is not, obvious, a note is added. But it will
would also be easy but for certain save repetition to state shortly here
peculiarities of that. The most im- what is explained more fully under
portant of these is its insistence on WHICH WITH AND OR BUT, namely that
being the first word of its clause; it a denning and a non-defining clause,
cannot, like whom and which, endure whether that is used in both or
that a preposition governing it should, which in both, or that in one and which
by coming before it, part it from the in the other, ought not to be coupled
antecedent or the main sentence; such by and or but as if they were parallel
a preposition has to go, instead, at the things.
end of the clause. (The book about a. The Bishop of Salisbury is the
which I spoke to you must become The third bishop that his family has given
book that I spoke to you about if that is to the world.
used). That is quite in harmony with The Bishop of Salisbury is the third
the closer connexion between a bishop which his family has given to the
defining (or that-) clause and the world.
antecedent than between a non- b. Visualize the wonderful things
defining (or which-) clause and the the airman sees and all the feelings he
antecedent; but it forces the writer has.
to choose between ending his sentence Visualize the wonderful things the
or clause with a preposition, and giving airman sees and all the feelings which
up that for which. In the article he has. Two thats, one that, or no
PREPOSITION AT END it is explained expressed relative (= a suppressed
that to shrink with horror from end- that) will do equally well.
ing with a preposition is no more than c. It seems that the Derna, which
foolish SUPERSTITION; nevertheless arrived safely, was sent in the ordinary
there are often particular reasons for way.
not choosing that alternative, and then It seems that the Derna that arrived
that, rel. 627 that, rel.
safely was sent in the ordinary way. The innumerable materials for, but never
defining that-clause would be right wrote, was a History of Liberty.
only if there were several Dernas, of The life-work for which Acton col-
which only one arrived safely. lected innumerable materials but never
d. Among the distinguished visitors wrote was a History of Liberty. Restora-
the Crawfords had at Rome was Long- tion of the defining that often solves
fellow. the difficulty seen here and in the next
Among other distinguished visitors piece, that of a relative under double
which the Crawfords had at Rome was government, first by a preposition and
Longfellow. Sien by a verb ; the postponing of the
e. Even in the cathedral organ-loft preposition, abnormal though possible
there are grievances that flourish and with which, is with that not only normal
reforms that call for attention. but necessary.
Even in the cathedral organ-loft j . You give currency to a subtle
there are grievances which flourish and fallacy that one often comes across,
reforms that call for attention. The but does not like to see in one's
change from which to that is mere favourite paper.
ELEGANT VARIATION; even two whichs You give currency to a subtle fallacy
would be preferable. across which one often comes, but does
f. A hatred of the rule that not only not like to see in one's favourite paper.
is unable to give them protection, but k. After a search for several days, he
strikes at them blindly and without found a firm that had a large quantity
discrimination. of them for which they had no use.
A hatred of the rule that is not only After a search for several days he
unable to give them protection, but found a firm which had a large quantity
which strikes at them blindly and with- of them and which they had no use for.
out discrimination. What has caused Both clauses are defining, and that is
the change from that to which here is required; but the relatives have not
the writer's realizing that but that is the same antecedent, and the and is
somehow undesirable. It is so, because therefore wrong (see WHICH WITH AND
of the repugnance of that, mentioned OR BUT). But there is a legitimate
above, to being parted from its ante- choice between that . . . for and for
cedent; but the way out is to let the which, and the latter gives an escape
previous that carry on for both clauses, from one that-clause depending on
a task it is quite equal to. another.
g. She cannot easily regain control of 1. There will be a split in the
the threads of culture that she has let Lutheran Church comparable to the
drop, which now lie in muddled tangles quarrel that has broken out in the
at her feet. Catholic Church on the question of
She cannot easily regain control of modernism, but seems to have run
the threads of culture which she has let its course.
drop, and now lie in muddled tangles at There will be a split in the Lutheran
her feet. The first clause is defining, and Church comparable to the quarrel that
should have that ; the second may be de- has broken out in the Catholic Church
fining or non-defining, being unessen- on the question of modernism, but which
tial to the identification and yet capable seems to have run its course. The second
of being regarded as helping it. Against clause may be either defining or non-
allowing the that to carry on, as in f, defining; if defining, that (or prefer-
there is the objection, disregarded in- ably nothing, cf. f) is required instead
deed by the writer, that the two rela- of which', if non-defining, but must
tives are in different cases ; it is there- be omitted, and which kept,
fore best to make the second clause m. The class that I belong to, which
non-defining, and use which, without has made great sacrifices, will not be
and. sufferers under the new plan.
h. The life-work that Acton collected The class to which / belong and
that, rel. 628 that, rel.
which has made great sacrifices will not whether the eventual historian will
be sufferers under the new plan. Defin- regard it as a period of Rationalism in
ing and non-defining wrongly coupled; the sense that we have apparently
omit and, and prefer (that) I belong to agreed to regard the eighteenth century
to the equally legitimate to which I as a period of Rationalism (— in
belong as better both in clearness and which). / She found herself after
in sound. Trafalgar in the same position that
n. All honour to these men for the Rome found herself after the destruction
courage and wisdom they have shown, of the Carthaginianfleet( = in which). /
which are of infinitely greater value to He took him for his model for the very
the country than . . . . reason that he ought to have shunned his
All honour to these men for the cour- example ( = for which). / Others, watch-
age and wisdom they have shown, and ing the fluctuating rates of exchange with
which are of infinitely greater value all the anxiety that a mariner consults
to the country than. . . . The second his barometer in a storm-menaced sea,
clause is clearly non-defining; the and are buying securities that can . . .
should go. (= with which).
2 . That-ism. As has been explained, This is a freedom that should no
the tendency in modern writing is for more be allowed to lapse than the
which to supersede that even in the right of putting a preposition last or
functions for which t. is better fitted. of omitting an objective that (see 4
On the other hand some writers seem below). But idiom requires that which
deliberately to choose that, where should not be so treated; it has been
most other people would use which, tried, with obviously bad results, in:
under the impression that its archaic It touched them in a way which no
sound adds the grace of unusualness book in the world could touch them. /
to their style. A few examples will The man who cleaned the slate in the
show that in non-defining clauses to be way which Sir E. Satow has done both
certainly noticeable, and the reader in Morocco and Japan. And further,
will perhaps conclude that its notice- that itself should not be so treated un-
ability is not a grace: But her fate, less the preposition to be supplied in
that has lately been halting in its the clause has been actually expressed
pursuit of her, overtakes her at last. / with the antecedent; in the following,
This is clearly recognized by Mr. at which must be substituted for that:
Macfall in his eloquent and well One of the greatest dangers in London is
illustrated monograph, that is more than the pace that the corners in the main
a mere record of the fortunes of its streets are turned.
titular subject. / Neither . . ., nor 4 . Ellipsis of that. Both the relative
. . ., nor . . ., will save the country if the adverb that and the relative pronoun
town, that has all the power in its hands, are sometimes omitted, at least in
is content to let it die. / His arguments on speech. As to the adverb, At the speed
these points were heard by the great he was going he could not stop and It
audience of business men in almost un- happened on the day we first met are
broken silence, that gave place to an good colloquial English. As to the
outburst of applause when he . . . pronoun, this is very frequently
3. That as relative adverb. The omitted when it is the object of a
familiar yet remarkable fact that a pre- defining clause. 'In the spoken
position governing that does not pre- language' (says Onions) 'the tendency
cede it but follows it at a distance has is to omit the relative as much as
already been mentioned. The idiom possible, and to prefer (e.g.) The book
now to be noticed may be traceable to I am reading to The book that I am
that fact. In the four following ex- reading.' 'In the written language', he
amples that serves as a sort of relative adds, 'its omission is often felt to
adverb, equivalent to which with a be undignified'; but this feeling is
preposition: We very much question probably not so strong now as it may
that, rel. 629 that, rel.
once have been. On the other hand have taken over, are not good enough. /
which, in the non-defining clauses to When Mr. Raleigh writes, as he does,
which it is proper, must be expressed. as if America was a country of bounding
This fact, which you admit, condemns megalomaniacs, that measured every-
you cannot be changed to This fact, thing by size and wealth, he is talking
you admit, condemns you without nonsense.
altering the sense. The omission of 6. One that in two cases. It is quite
the relative pronoun where it is the in order to let a relative which or that
subject of a clause was formerly a not carry on and serve a second clause as
uncommon poeticism, e.g. Shakes- well, but only if three conditions are
speare's / have a brother is condemned satisfied: the antecedent of the two
to die and Tennyson's What words are must be the same; both must be
these have fallen from me, and may still defining, or both non-defining; and
be found in dialogue written in Irish the case of the relative must be the
vernacular, e.g. Herself will be safe same. This last condition is violated
this night with a man killed his father with that in the examples now to be
holding danger from the door. Other- given. If there is a change of case, that
wise the omission occurs only (as a or which must be repeated; or, more
colloquialism) after there is, he is etc. often, the repetition should be saved
(There's a man wants to speak to you; It by some change of structure, as sug-
isn't everyone could do it; He is not the gested in the brackets : The whole thing
man he was), or before there is, e.g. is a piece of hypocrisy of a kind thztfew
/ know the difference there is between associations would care to avow even
you. in committee, but is here exhibited un-
5. 77zaf-clause not close up. The blushingly in the light of day (com-
clinging of the defining that to its mittee; but here it is exhibited). / The
antecedent has been noticed in 1. It art of war includes a technique that it is
is the gap between it and the ante- indispensable to acquire and can only be
cedent that occasions a certain dis- acquired by prolonged effort (that must
comfort in reading the correct sen- be acquired, but can). See CASES 3D.
tences below. Each r/zar-clause is, or 7. Double government. A book that
may be meant as, defining; but be- I heard of and bought is a familiar and
tween each and the actual noun of the satisfactory form of speech; that is
antecedent (thoroughfare, fight, formu- governed first by of and again by
lae, country) intervenes a clause or bought; but it is not good enough for
phrase that would suffice by itself for those who consider that spoken that
identification. In such circumstances should become written which, and that
a that-clause, though correct, is often a preposition should not end a clause ;
felt to be queer, and it is usually pos- they change it to A book of which I
sible to regard it as non-defining and heard and bought, forgetting that if
change that to which. The reader will they do not repeat 'which I ' this com-
probably agree that the change would mits them to CA book of which I
be desirable in some of the four, and bought'. Examples have already been
in others for special reasons un- given in h and j of the first section;
desirable : 'Petty France' was the name but the efficacy of that in making the
anciently borne by the thoroughfare now mistake impossible is so little appre-
known as York-street, that runs from ciated as to deserve special treatment.
the Broadway, Westminster, to Buck- First an example that shows the right
ingham Gate. I Dingwall, which has form for such needs, with that : 'Com-
taken a very active part in the electoral mand', by William McFee, is one of
fight for the Wick Burghs, that has those fine roomy books that one lives in
resulted in so striking a Liberal triumph, with pleasure for a considerable time and
has other claims upon . . . / The foolish leaves at the last page with regret. Next
formulae for which the Coalition was some examples that illustrate the
responsible, and that the Conservatives frequency of the mistake, which is
the 630 the
naturally not made by those who recog- the that which belonged to Hague, or
nize that in writing as well as in speech that which belonged to Conference,
that is the true defining relative, and that which belonged to Times or that
the place for a preposition governing it which belonged to correspondent}
is later in the clause : A great interna- and is it consequently to be The, or
tional conference to which America is to the} Though compositors or writers
be invited, or is to be asked to convene often choose the wrong alternative and
at Washington, j We must not be faced print The, a moment's thought shows
by a peace of which we may disapprove that it is Conference or correspondent
and yet must accept. / An ammunition that must have its the, while Hague
dump on which he dropped his remain- and Times can do without it. We say ca
ing bombs and left blazing merrily. / It is Times correspondent', and 'the last
incarcerated in prison-like places, to Hague Conference', stripping Hague
which it objects, and does all in its power and Times of their The without
to avoid. scruple; it follows that the indis-
pensable the belongs to the other
the. 1. The with titles. 2 . The Times word, and should not be The unless
correspondent etc. 3. By the hundred after a full stop.
etc. 4. The good and (the?) bad. 5. The 3. By the hundred etc. The mild
with two nouns and singular verb. revelations of a gentle domestic existence
6. Single adverbial the with compara- which some royal personages have given
tives. 7. Double adverbial the with us command readers by the hundreds
comparatives. of thousands. The idiomatic English is
1. The with titles. It is curious that by the hundred thousand; by hundreds of
we use the when speaking of ancient thousands will also pass, but with the
writings but not of the more recent. plural the is not used. So also with
We say The Agammemnon, The Iliad, dozen, score, etc.
but not The Hamlet, The Paradise Lost. 4 . The good and (the}) bad. Primi-
We of course use the if it is part of a tively splendid dresses, which appealed
title ( The Winter's Tale, The Doctors' after the manner of barbaric magni-
Dilemma) and we usually do so also ficence to the most complex and ele-
when referring to a work of which a is mentary aesthetic instincts. Is the
part of the title; we should probably omission of another the most or
say That is a quotationfrom The (not A) another the between and and elemen-
Midsummer Night's Dream, Tale of tary tolerable? The purist will con-
Two Cities, Shropshire Lad, etc. ; Look demn it on principle, and probably
it up in The (not A) New Oxford Dic- most of us will, for this particular case,
tionary; no doubt the reason why we endorse his condemnation. But he will
substitute the definite article for the add that neither must we say 'The
indefinite is that one or the other is French, German, and Russian figures
clearly needed and the indefinite does are not yet to hand', unless we are
not seem to indicate the work with talking of their combined total; the
enough precision. Germans and the Russians, he will
2 . The Times correspondent etc. It is say, must have their separating the;
agreed that The Hague Conference is and in these rigours sensible people
to be a meeting of technical experts. will not follow him. What may fairly
The capital T of The raises a question be expected of us is to realize that
that, however trivial, is for ever pre- among expressions of several ad-
senting itself: in 'the Conference at jectives or nouns introduced by the
The Hague', or 'the correspondent of some obviously cannot have the re-
The Times', we know where to use a peated with each item without
capital and where a small letter ; but changing the sense (the black and
when one the is cut out by using ( The) white penguins)3 and some can logically
Hague and (The) Times attributively claim the repetition (the red and the
instead of as nouns, is the remaining yellow tomatoes). A careful writer will
the 631 the
have the distinction in mind, but he the following extracts for instance the
will not necessarily be a slave to logic; the form should be got rid of in the
'the red and yellow tomatoes' may first two by the omission of the with-
be preferred for better reasons than out any consequential changes and in
ignorance or indolence. For other the last two by changing none the to
attempts to impose a needless rigidity no. I do not believe that the New Royalty
see ONLY, and NOT I . productions would have pleased people
5. The with two nouns and singular any the more than at present by having
verb. It is the single-handed courage money lavished upon scenery (any the
and intrepidity of these men which more = any more than if money had
appeal to the imagination, and are even not been lavished). / A sentence in the
more marvellous than their adventures. courts of summary jurisdiction has not
Two nouns of closely allied meaning any the less effect upon the status and
are often felt to make no more than prospects of a prisoner than a sentence in
a single notion; courage and intrepidity the superior courts (any the less effect =
is almost a HENDIADYS for intrepid any less effect than if it were not in
courage. That feeling is here strength- courts of summary jurisdiction). / But
ened by the writer's choosing to use does that make Sophocles more Greek
only one the instead of two; and to than Aeschylus or Euripides? Each of
change appeal and are to appeals and is the latter may be more akin to other
would be not only legitimate, but an poets; but he is none the less Greek
idiomatic improvement. See NUMBER 2 . than Sophocles (none the less Greek =
6. Single adverbial the with com- no less Greek than if he were not more
paratives. In 'the more the merrier' akin to other poets)./Meanwhile the in-
we have double the, in 'They are none tellectual release had been none the less
the better' we have single the, and that marked than the physical.
is the type to be first discussed. In As to the more general question of
both types the is not the ordinary ad- when a single adverbial the is ap-
jective or 'article', as in 'the table' etc., propriate and when it is out of place
but an adverb (or, in the double type, before a comparative, without the
two adverbs); the original meanings complication of a following than, a
were in the double type by what (i.e. fashion seems to have grown up of in-
by how much) and by that (i.e. by so serting an indefensible the in the false
much), and in the single type by that belief that it is impressive or literary.
(i.e. thereby or on that account, or some- Such fashions are deplorable; it is
times by so much or by that amount). wisdom either to abstain altogether
These facts are familiar to all students from the adverbial the or to clear one's
of grammar, and are simple enough; ideas about what one means by it. The
but the modern idiom based on them function of this the is to remind or
is less easy to be sure of. It will appear acquaint the reader that by looking
from the extracts presently to be about he may find indicated the cause
quoted that the usage here ascribed to (or sometimes the amount, if the
the best writers is not universal; it is means by so much rather than thereby)
indeed often violated. What is here of the excess stated by the compara-
maintained is that good writers do not, tive. If no such indication is to be
and bad writers do, prefix the to com- found earlier or later in the passage,
paratives when it conveys nothing at the has no justification, and merely
all; and again that good writers do not, sets readers searching for what they
and bad writers do, allow themselves will not find. Correct examples are:
a than after a comparative that has / am the more interested in his exploit
the before it. The second and more because he is my cousin, where the
limited question may be taken first, anticipates because etc.; Thoitgh he
and disposed of by saying roundly that is my cousin I am not the more likely to
the the should never be used with agree with him, where the refers back
a comparative if than follows. In to though etc.; As the hour approached
the 632 the
/ grew the more nervous, where the Bible; and it is not the less gratifying
means by so much and refers back to as that many recent books deal with the
e:c. In the examples that follow it will subject from a special point of view. The
be found impossible to point to such that clause looks like the explanation of
a cause or measure of excess anti- the, but is in fact the subject of 'is not
cipated or recalled by the, and more- less gratifying'. In these examples the
over it will probably be admitted at use of the goes beyond mere ineptitude,
once that removal of the does not and amounts to the serious offence of
weaken the sense, but improves it. laying FALSE SCENT.
First will come some quotations It may even be thought that in the
each meant to convey something of vogue of this the more etc., where the
this sort: 'Asays so-and-so;(thatreally is an adverb, is to be found the ex-
does not much concern us ;) what con- planation of the wrong adjectival the
cerns us more is so-and-so else' ; but in in: It is curiously entertaining to see
each a the has been gratuitously inserted, how, in all essential things, the actor-
with nothing for it to anticipate or playwright is invariably the better
recall; the bracketed sentence above craftsman than the literary man who
is not usually expressed, but it or an commences dramatist. Read a better
equivalent is a necessary part of the craftsman. Choice in such sentences
sense : But whilst the origin of words is lies between A is a better man than B
a very fascinating study, we are at the and Of the two A is the better man ; the
moment the more interested in some of wrong form A is the better man than B
the language used at yesterday's demon- either confuses those two or apes the
strations. I That was the principle asserted adverbial use.
in the resolution, but what the more in- 7. Double adverbial the with com-
terests us is the reasons given for this paratives. It has been stated in 6 that
advertised resistance. / It would not be in this construction one the means by
difficult to preach a very effective how much and the other by so much, like
sermon out of the fact that Professor the Latin quo . . . eo and quanto . . .
Dicey uses the word 'England' when he tanto. The most familiar example,
clearly means, so far as we can see, the 'the more the merrier', is the short for
United Kingdom, but we are the more 'by how much we are more, by so
concerned to examine the Professor's much we shall be merrier'. Here
thesis. again it is confusing that a the may be
These are simple affairs ; the reader is either adverbial or (as the definite
mystified for a moment by the, but article) adjectival. Writers may be thus
soon sees that all he has to do is to tempted to try to make one the serve
neglect it. The next examples are not two masters. This is what has hap-
quite so simple, because each con- pened in The better education a girl can
tains some expression, of a kind com- have and the more time zvhich can
monly associated with this the, that be spent on her training, the better.
nevertheless is not to be associated The reader takes the first two thes as
with it here and, if it is so taken, will adjectival—articles attached to edu-
spoil the sense : It is socially inexpedient cation and time—and nonsense re-
that the diseased should languish un- sults. The sentence must be corrected
attended because of inability to provide by giving those nouns an adjectival
skilled assistance, and it is not the less the apiece—The better the education
inexpedient that the prisoner should . . . the more the time etc.—and so
stand unaided before justice because his leaving no doubt that the others are
means cannot secure legal representation. adverbial.
The because clause does not explain the, The idiom may be described as a
as one might guess, but belongs to sliding scale stating that one process of
stand unaided. / It is gratifying to receive increase or decrease varies with the
such clear testimony to a widespread variation in another, and the two parts
interest in an intelligent study of the are the measure and the thing
their 633 thereby
measured. Even when constructed them. For misuses common to them
correctly, with an unmistakable ad- and they, see NUMBER I I and THEY.
verbial the in each part, it is suitable The reflexive use of them = themselves
chiefly for short, emphatic, pointed is archaic, and as such usually to be
sentences, elliptical in their simplest avoided; but the following quotation is
form {The more the merrier; The enough to show that with an archaic
sooner the better), without relative verb the archaic reflexive may be
clauses or parentheses that upset the more appropriate: Together the two—
balance, and with inversion permis- employee and director—hied them-
sible only in the second part. Ex- selves to the loco, superintendent's
amples of its suitable use are Dr. H. office. Read hied them to.
falls into the error of believing that the
more Bennett knezv of psychology, the there. In the well-known special use
more he knew of people, and, with a of there before be, exist, and such verbs,
legitimate though unnecessary in- two things call for notice. First, the
version in the second part, The older use is anticipatory, i.e. there accom-
I grow, the more inclined am I to ask of a panies and announces inversion of
book no more than that it should be verb and subject, standing in the place
readable. The unnatural effect of an usually occupied before the verb by
inversion in the first part is illustrated the subject; consequently, when there
in The less distinct was the message he is no inversion, this there is out of
felt impelled to deliver, the more place, and should be struck out, e.g.,
beautiful is often the speech in which he in : Bombay is without a doubt the head-
proclaims if, if was the message were quarters of whatever cricket there exists
changed to the message was this would in India today. An exception must
be a suitable use of the idiom in spite of however be made for the verb be itself;
its length, because of the detailed cor- 'whatever cricket there is' is English,
respondence between the two parts. though 'whatever cricket there exists'
But the idiom is unequal to so elab- is not. The reason is easy to see. In
orate a task as has been set it in The inversions, there has become so regu-
economic welfare of a community lar an attendant on is, are, was etc.
is likely to be greater (1) the larger is the when used as a substantive verb (i.e.=
average volume of the national dividend, exist) that even when there is no in-
(2) the larger is the average share of the version the need is felt of inserting it
national dividend that accrues to the as a sign that the verb must be taken
poor, and (3) the less variable are the in its substantive sense, not as aux-
annual volume of the national dividend iliary or copulative. But with other
and the annual share that accrues to the verbs, about which there is no such
poor. doubt, no such sign is wanted, and
there is used only with inversion.
The second thing that calls for
their, as the possessive of they, is notice is that, since in the there idiom
liable, like they, to misuse as a com- verb precedes subject, there is a danger
mon-sex singular, for discussion of of the verb's being hastily put into
which see NUMBER I I and THEY. TWO the wrong number; for examples see
specimens will here suffice without NUMBER 7.
further comment: But each knew the
situation of their own bosom, and could thereafter, thereat, therein, there-
not but guess at that of the other. / No one of, thereto, therewith, etc. The re-
can be easy in their minds about the pre- mark at the end of the article THERE-
sent conditions of examination. FORE applies also to these compounds.
thereby. 1. The use of t. after a num-
theirs. See ABSOLUTE POSSESSIVES. ber etc. (half a dozen or t.) is Scottish,
the English idiom being or thereabouts
theism. See DEISM for the difference. or or so. 2. A special tribunal will be
therefor 634 therefore
constituted to try the accused, thereby bial conjunctions shall or shall not be
assuring him the guarantees essential to comma'd off from the rest of the sen-
the right of defence. For this use of f. tence in which they stand. Light punc-
with an UNATTACHED PARTICIPLE (as- tuators usually omit the commas (or
suring'S noun is not tribunal, but an comma, if t. stands first), heavy punc-
inferred constitution), see that article tuators usually give them, and both are
and THUS, which is more frequently within their rights. But it must be re-
resorted to in similar difficulties. In membered that the putting of a comma
the following example it is clear that before t. inevitably has the effect of
thereby means by the salary etc.; but throwing a strong accent on the pre-
whether affording agrees with salary ceding word, and that some preceding
etc., so that the salary affords encour- words are equal to that burden, and
agement by the salary, or whether it some are not. From the three follow-
agrees with 'firm' looming in the ing examples it will be at once apparent
distance, the writer probably knows that the although can bear the commas,
as little as we : The latter is usually the and the ands cannot: Although, there-
recipient of a liberal salary and expenses, fore, the element of surprise could not
with periodical increments, holidays, and come into play on this occasion, the
security, thereby affording every en- Germans were forced to withdraw. \ It
couragement to promote the interests of would be impossible for the State to pay
his firm. such prices, and, therefore, we must con-
tent ourselves with . . . / Malaria was the
therefor, therefore. The two are cause of a very large proportion of the
now distinct in accent and meaning sickness, and, therefore, the disease de-
as well as in spelling. Therefor is serves especial study by . . . .
accented on the second syllable, there- Again, the word it is one that can
fore on the first; and therefor is to be seldom be emphasized and conse-
used only where for that, for it, for quently abhors a comma'd therefore
them, etc., could stand equally well. such as foDows it in: It, therefore,
In grammatical terms, therefore is an comes rather as a shock to find simul-
adverbial conjunction, and therefor an taneously in many papers this morning
adverbial or adjectival phrase (adver- articles declaring . . . / It, therefore,
bial in He was punished therefor, and behoves those who have made the pas-
adjectival in The penalty therefor is sage of the Bill possible to attend once
death). The essential function of there- more. But where emphasis can reason-
fore is to make clear the relation of its ably be laid on it, and it can mean 'it
sentence to what has gone before; that more than others' or the like, the
of therefor is the same as that of there- commas become at least tolerable ; so :
after, thereat, therein, thereof, thereto, It is a concrete and definite idea, the
therewith, etc., usual in legal documents embodiment of which in practicable
but elsewhere serving only to give a shape is by far the most urgent construc-
touch of formality or archaism to the tive problem of international statesman-
sentence in which it is substituted for ship; and it, therefore, calls for the
the for it etc. of natural speech. most careful examination.
therefore. Apart from the danger of Many words, however, are neither
meaning therefor and writing there- naturally emphatic like although nor
fore or vice versa, the only caution naturally unemphatic like and and it;
needed is that discretion is necessary and after them care should be taken
in the use of commas before and after not to use the commas with therefore
words of the class to which t. belongs. except when emphasis is intended.
Like then, accordingly, nevertheless, The personal pronouns are good ex-
consequently, and many others, it is an amples; in the following, we ought to
adverb often used (itself, indeed, al- be able to conclude from the commas
most always) as a conjunction; and it is that 'we' are being deliberately con-
a matter of taste whether such adver- trasted with others who believe other-
they 635 they
wise : We, therefore, find great comfort reluctance is less felt by the male is
in believing that Canadian loyalty de- doubtful; at any rate the OED quotes
pends not on ..., nor on . . . , but on .... examples from Fielding {Everyone in
Probably that is the case, and the com- the house were in their beds), Gold-
mas are justified; but if the light punc- smith, Sydney Smith, Thackeray {A
tuation were generally accepted as the person can't help their birth), Bagehot
rule with these adverbial conjunctions, {Nobody in their senses), and Bernard
and commas used only when emphasis Shaw. It also says nothing more severe
on the preceding word was desired, of the use than that it is 'Not favoured
one of the numberless small points that by grammarians'. In colloquial usage
make for lucidity would be gained. the inconvenience of having no com-
A curious specimen may be added: mon-sex personal pronoun in the
We therefore are brought again to the singular has proved stronger than re-
study of symptoms. Here it is obvious spect for the grammarians, and the one
that We is unemphatic ; but the writer, that is available in the plural is made to
though he has rightly abstained from serve for the singular too. But in prose
commas, has been perverse enough to their disfavour is not treated so lightly;
throw an accent on We by other means, few good modern writers would flout
viz. by putting therefore before instead them so conspicuously as Fielding and
of after are. Thackeray did in the sentences quoted,
or as Ruskin in / am never angry with
they, them, their. 1. One, anyone, anyone unless they deserve it. The
everybody, nobody, etc., followed by question is discussed in NUMBER I I :
their etc. 2 . Confusions with nouns examples of the wrong their, in addi-
of multitude and personifications. tion to those that follow, will be found
3. Unsatisfactory pronoun reference. under THEIR; and the article ONE 5 , 6 ,
4. Case. 7, may be useful. The lecturer said that
1. One etc. followed by their etc. everybody loved their ideals. / Nobody in
The grammar of the recently issued their senses would give sixpence on the
appeal to the Unionists of Ireland, strength of a promissory note of that
signed by Sir Edward Carson, the kind. I Elsie Lindtner belongs to the kind
Duke of Abercorn, Lord Londonderry, of person who suddenly discovers the
and others, is as shaky as its argwnents. beauty of the stars when they them-
The concluding sentence runs: 'And we selves are dull and have no one to talk
trust that everybody interested will send with. The last is amusing for the num-
a contribution, however small, to this ber of the emendations that hurry to
object, thereby demonstrating their {sic) the rescue: E. L . is one of the people
personal interest in the anti-Home Rule who discover . . . ; . . . kind of people
campaign*. Archbishop Whately used who discover . . . ; . . . when he himself
to say that women were more liable than is . . . ; . . . when she herself is . . . ; . . .
men to fall into this error, as they ob- the kind of woman who discovers . . .
jected to identifying 'everybody* with when she herself i s . . . . As to ' . . . when
'him*. But no such excuse is available she herself is . . .' without further
in this case. Undoubtedly grammar change, it is needless to remark that
rebels against their; and the reason for each, one, person, etc., may be answered
using it is clearly reluctance to recog- by her instead of him and his when the
nize that, though the reference may be reference, though formally to both
to both sexes, the right shortening of sexes, is especially, as here, to the
the cumbersome he or she, his or her, female.
etc., is he or him or his, as his and him 2. Confusions with nouns of multi-
are used with a boldness surprising in tude and personifications. What is
a government department in There meant appears from the following
must be opportunity for the individual quotation, in which a noun of multi-
boy or girl to go as far as his keenness and tude (section) is treated in the same
ability will take him. Whether that sentence first as singular {acknowledges)
thine 636 -th nouns
and then as plural (they). The British 4 . No thinking man. One of the
Section of the International Council for bluffing formulae, like It stands to
Bird Preservation gratefully acknow- reason (see REASON 2 ) , that put the
ledges the assistance they have received reader's back up and incline him to
from readers of 'The Times'. Discus- reject the view that is being forced on
sion and other examples will be found him. For incline to think see INCLINE.
in NUMBER 6, PERSONIFICATION 2 , and
WHICH, THAT, WHO 8. thinkable is a word of the same un-
3. Unsatisfactory reference. For the fortunate ambiguity as its much more
many possibilities in this kind, see popular opposite UNTHINKABLE. Pro-
PRONOUNS. One flagrant example will tection is only a thinkable expedient on
here suffice: The Germans will argue the assumption that competition in the
that, whatever they may undertake to home market is to be made unprofitable.
keep the French at bay, they will still
have no guarantee that they zvill evacuate third person. For badges of anony-
their territory or even refrain from fur- mity such as the present writer and
ther occupations when they prove unable your reviewer see WE 3.
to meet the enormous demands still hang-
ing over them. this. 1 . This three weeks, this five
years, etc., are as good English as these
4 . Case. Like him and HE (which see etc., the numeral and the plural noun
for comment as well as CASES 3 c.) them being taken as the singular name of a
and they occasionally go wrong, as in : period; but the modern grammatical
The whole foundation of our constitution conscience is sometimes needlessly un-
depends upon the King being faithfully easy about it. See also NUMBER I .
served by his advisers, and they taking
complete responsibility for every act 2 . Like that (see THAT adj. and adv. 1),
which he does. / A society in which poverty this is used in the sense 'to this extent',
marked half the population, whereas but only colloquially, except perhaps
now it does not now mark one-twentieth, when helped out by much. I didn't
and they mostly the old. Observe that expect to be this late. / It wasn't this hot
responsibility for the first of these two yesterday, j I didn't expect to meet this
blunders rests with the FUSED PARTI- much opposition.
CIPLE; read, upon the King's being . . . thither. See HITHER. An OED quota-
and their taking. tion shows how the word is still avail-
thine. See ABSOLUTE POSSESSIVES.
able, though rarely indeed, when real
ambiguity would result from there', it
thingumajig, thingumabob, thin- is from a guidebook : The road thither
g u m m y , are the chief survivors of a leaves the main road at right angles.
large number of variants. But to it is now the normal English.
think. 1 . After t., that is usually -th nouns. The remarks made in the
omitted; see THAT, conj.2. article -AL NOUNS apply also to the in-
2 . Think to is used idiomatically in the vention of new or revival of obsolete
sense expect (/ did not think to see you nouns in -th. There are large numbers
here), and also, at least colloquially, in of well established words such as truth,
the sense remember (Did you think to depth, growth; but the suffix is no
ask him for his address?). Think up, longer a living one, and the use of new
meaning invent or devise, usually a or revived -th nouns is chiefly a poe-
pretext or excuse, is a common col- tasters' trick. Some specimens are:
loquialism of U.S. origin. greenth, gloomth, and blueth, all made
3. The use of think as a noun, also a by Horace Walpole; blowth (blos-
common colloquialism today, (You'd som etc.)j more or less obsolete; spilth,
better have another think), is over a a revival ; and tilth, made by Ruskin as
hundred years old according to the antithesis to wealth in its older and
OED, which calls it 'dial or colloq.' wider sense.
thoroughbred 637 though
thoroughbred, pedigree. In Britain the right and of the wrong usage : It
the first is used of horses, the second depends upon the extent to which those
of cattle and other animals. in authority understand their responsi-
bility, and are able so to make their
those. 1 . For those kind of, those sort influence felt as to enlist the active sup-
of, see KIND. port of those boys with most influence
2 . Those (adj.)+noun + adjective. in the school. Those in authority is right,
(The winner will be selected from) those whereas those persons in authority
persons named', persons is the noun, and would have been wrong; and those
named the adjective. This arrange- boys with most influence is wrong, and
ment is now very common but is so should be the boys with etc.
little warranted by good literary usage The following use of those is quite
that the OED, which illustrates the another matter, and of no importance,
constructions of which this is a hybrid but worth giving as a curiosity: It
product, does not quote a single ex- is impossible for the Ambassador to issue
ample of it; cf. what is said of the same invitations to those other than Ameri-
construction under THAT, adj. 2 . The
word adjective in the formula above is
to be taken as including participles though. 1. Though, although. 2. As
active or passive, and adjectival phrases,
though. 3. (Although with participle
as well as simple adjectives—whatever, or adjective. 4 . Illogical use.
in fact, is equivalent to a defining rela- 1. Though, although. The definite
tive clause (those personsfollowing, those
differences between the two hardly
persons named, those persons in the list need stating. They are: first that
below, those persons present—all equiva- though can and although cannot be used
lent to the persons that etc.). Those as an adverb, placed last (He said he
named is a proper substitute for (the) would come; he didn't, though); and
persons named, the pronoun (not adjec- secondly that though is alone possible
tive) those taking the place of the noun in the as though idiom. In the use
persons with or without the, and (the) common to both forms, i.e. as a com-
persons named is itself a shortening of plete conjunction, no definite line can
the persons that are named. But those be drawn between them, and either
persons named is a mixture of the long is always admissible. But it is safe to
form (the) persons that are named and say, in the first place, that though is
the short form those named, in which much commoner, and, secondly, that
mixture what was gained by using the the conditions in which although is
pronoun those instead of the persons is likely to occur are (a) in the more
thrown away by reinserting the noun formal style of writing, (b) in a clause
and making those an adjective. It is that does not follow but precedes the
true that there is another legitimate main sentence, and perhaps (c) in
form in which those does appear as an stating an established fact rather than
adjective, viz. those persons who are a mere hypothesis: He wouldn't take
named; but that is a form in which what an umbrella though it should rain
is aimed at is not lightness and cats and dogs; Although he attained
brevity, but on the contrary formality the highest office, he zoas of mediocre
and precision; it is therefore not one ability.
that should be abbreviated.
2 . As though. It is not as though
All this is offered not as a proof that there has been cruelty and injustice. Had,
those persons named is impossible gram- in place of has, is the only right Eng-
mar, but as a reasonable explanation lish; see AS 4 for discussion and
of what is believed to be the fact, that examples.
good writers do not say it, but say 3. (Although with participle or ad-
either (the) persons named or those jective. Like other conjunctions (if,
named. The following quotation is when, while, etc.), (although is often
useful as containing samples both of used with the significant word of its
thrash 638 through
clause alone, the subject and the tiated. To separate grain is almost
auxiliary or copulative verb being always -esh; to flog is always -ash', and
readily supplied; so Though annoyed, that is the usual spelling in figurative
I consented. The convenience of this and transferred use, e.g. thrash out a
is obvious, but care is needed, as ap- problem.
pears from the two quotations that
follow: Though new to mastership her- Threadneedle Street, Old Lady of.
self, a lady master is not new to the pack, See SOBRIQUETS.
for she follows Mrs. Garvey in the posi-
tion. I Though sympathizing as I do with threaten. The Mass Vestments, now
Poland, I cannot resist the impression threatened to be authoritatively revived,
that it would be doing Poland an ill have to be decided upon. See DOUBLE
service to. . . . The point shown by PASSIVES.
the first is that the omission must not three-quarter(s). The noun ex-
be made when it leaves the participle pressing a fraction has the -s, and,
or adjective apparently attached to a though usually hyphened, is better
wrong noun. New in fact belongs to written as two separate words; see
she, but seems to belong to a lady HYPHENS. This noun is often used
master; if she is had not been omitted attributively with another noun, e.g.
after though, all would have been in with back at rugby football, or with
order. In the Poland sentence, the length ox face in portraiture; in those
correction really required is to omit conditions a hyphen is required to
though, 'sympathizing as I do' being show that the adjective+noun has
self-sufficient. But, even if we suppose become one word. But further, it is
as I do omitted, there is a wrong sound usual, when a plural noun is used
about though sympathizing itself that attributively or compounded, to take
suggests a limitation on this idiom. its singular for the purpose, even if
Though, and other conjunctions, must that singular does not otherwise exist
not be constructed with a participle (billiard room, not billiards room ; scissor-
unless that participle would have been shaped, not scissors-shaped; racket-court,
used in the unabridged clause; and not rackets-court). Accordingly, three-
that would not have been though I am quarter back and three-quarter face are
sympathizing, but though I sympathize. the normal forms. But the nouns back,
Contrast with this the perfectly satis- length, etc., are often dropped when
factory Though living he is no longer context allows, and the attributive
conscious, where the full form would compound is allowed to represent
be not Though he lives, but Though he them as well as itself; a three-quarter
is living. See also IF. is now the usual football term.
4 . Illogical use. The danger of using
adversative conjunctions where two threnody. See ELEGY.
propositions are not strictly opposed,
but in harmony, is explained and illus- thrive. The OED gives throve,
trated in BUT 3. In the following thriven, as the past and p.p., but
example, though would be right if the allows thrived for either.
words 'is the only country in Europe
that' were not there; as it stands, the through. The Americanism be through
sentence is nonsense : Though it is only with in the sense of be finished with is
in recent times that in England, the Jewish recognized by the OED. Only Ameri-
civil disabilities were repealed, Turkey can examples are given but it is now
is the only country in Europe that has common in Britain also, though still
throughout been free of any anti-Jewish a colloquialism in both countries. The
propaganda. convenient American use of through in
such a phrase as from Monday through
thrash, thresh. One word, with two Friday, meaning from Monday to
pronunciations and spellings differen- Friday inclusive, is still strange to us.
thus 639 time
thus. There is a particular use of explore every avenue, leave no stone un-
thus that should be carefully avoided. turned and their successor lean over
In this use thus is placed before a backwards. Its aptness may seem ques-
present participle (thus enabling etc.)» tionable to doctors, but it certainly
and its function, when it is not purely suggests even more devoted effort than
otiose, seems to be that of apologizing the old phrases. One may strain
for the writer's not being quite sure nerves and sinews without doing one-
what noun the participle belongs to, self any permanent harm, and turn
or whether there is any noun to which stones and explore avenues without
it can properly be attached (cf. UNAT- any ill effects, and lean over backwards
TACHED PARTICIPLES); the exact con- without overbalancing. But t. d. (trige-
tent of thus itself is often as difficult to minal neuralgia) is agonizingly painful,
ascertain as the allegiance of the parti- and only the most dedicated enthusiasts
ciple. To each quotation is appended would risk 'developing' it, however
(1) a guess at the noun to which the good the cause. The best pronuncia-
participle belongs, and (2) a guess at tion (pace OED, which says 'often
the content of thus; the guesses are mispronounced') is tïk dôlôrôô'.
honestly aimed at making the best of tilde (tï'ldë). The mark put over n
a bad job, but readers may prefer other (n) in Spanish when it is to be followed
guesses of their own: Our object can by a y sound, as in senor (senyorO. Used
only be successfully attained by the sub- in the COD and OID as a symbol for
stantial contributions of wealthy sympa- the word being denned.
thizers, thus enabling us to inaugurate
an active policy (contributions? by tile(r), tyle(r). The words used in
being substantial?). I But now a fresh freemasonry are usually spelt with y,
anxiety has arisen owing to the rising of but are not of different origin. See
the Seine, thus making the river naviga- Y AND 1.
tion more difficult and slow (rising? by till, until. The first is the usual
occurring?)./ Production rose quickly form; for what difference of usage
from $m. tons in 1958 to over 13m. tons exists, see UNTIL.
last year, thus enabling Frondizi to
claim that the battle had been won tilth. A word not open to the remarks
(production? By rising quickly?). It made in -TH NOUNS, being very far in-
should be noticed that the resolution deed from a recent formation. It
of the participle into a relative clause, differs, however, from the really com-
and the omission of thus, gets rid of mon nouns in -th, such as truth and
the difficulty every time (which would wealth and filth: though still in use
enable; which makes; which enabled). for the depth of soil prepared by culti-
vation, it has become archaic in its
thyme. Pronounce tim; before the general meaning of tillage or tilled
17th c. the usual spelling was tyme or land; and, being therefore a favourite
time. But thymus and thymol are pro- with those who affect poetic diction,
nounced th-. it has unfortunately begotten a pro-
geny that has not its parent's claims to
tibia. Tib—in English, though ttb. respect.
in Latin; see FALSE QUANTITY. PI.
-ae; see LATIN PLURALS. t i m e . Under this, as the most general
term, may be collected some synonyms.
tic douloureux. The private founda- Of the six following words each is
tions develop tic douloureux trying to do given a single definition with a view
their manifold duty to creativeness. merely to suggesting the natural rela-
There are indications that the phrase tion between them. Though each is
develop t. d.y signifying conscientious often used in senses here assigned not
endeavour carried to extremes, may be to it but to another (or not mentioned
on its way to replacing the outmoded at all), the words aeon, date, epoch, era,
clichés strain every nerve and sinew, period, cycle, form a series when they
time-scale 640 -tion
are strictly interpreted, and to keep of any particular colour, tints pro-
that series in mind is helpful in choos- duced by its modification with various
ing the right word. amounts of white, and shades by various
A11 aeon is an infinitely long period admixtures of black. These distinc-
of time. tions, however, are no longer observed;
A date is the identifiable or intelligibly shade (less commonly tint) is now the
stated point of time at which some- usual word for the slightly different
thing occurs. varieties of what remains broadly the
An EPOCH is the date of an occurrence same colour produced by an admixture
that starts things going under new not merely of black or white but of any
conditions. other colour, e.g. a darker, or lighter,
An era is the time during which the or greener shade of blue. Hue and tint
conditions started at an epoch con- retain certain special associations, e.g.
tinue. sunset hues, autumn tints, and for hair-
A period is an era regarded as destined dressers and their customers tinting
to run its course and be succeeded by has become a euphemism for dyeing.
another.
A cycle is a succession of periods -tion and other -ion endings. Turgid
itself succeeded by a similar succession. flabby English is full of abstract nouns;
A time, and an age, are words often the commonest ending of abstract
exchangeable with all or most of the nouns is -tion, and to count the -ion
above, but less precise in meaning. words in what one has written, or,
Cf. also the words term, span, spell, better, to cultivate an ear that without
season, duration, JUNCTURE, moment, special orders challenges them as they
occasion. come, is one of the simplest and most
time-scale. See TAUTOLOGY. effective means of making oneself less
unreadable. It is as an unfailing sign
timous, timeous. It would be better of a nouny abstract style that a cluster
to omit the e; see MUTE E. Whereas its of -ion words is chiefly to be dreaded.
sole function is to indicate the î sound, But some nouny writers are so far from
the OED states that it actually results being awake to that aspect of it that
in the erroneous pronunciations tï'mîus they fall into a still more obvious dan-
and tï'mîus. But the Scots, now the ger, and so stud their sentences with
only users of the word, cling stub- -ions that the mere sound becomes an
bornly to the e. offence, as it does in Speculation on the
timpano, see TYMPANUM. subject of the constitution of the British
representation at the Washington in-
tinker, v. It was an undesirable thing auguration of the League of Nations
to be always tinkering with this particu- will, presumably, be satisfied when
lar trade. The idiomatic preposition Parliament meets. Position and situa-
is at, not with; the latter, now at least tion, often in combination, are special
as common, is probably due to con- offenders. The situation in the in-
fusion with tamper with, and illustrates dustry has reached a tragic position (The
what was said in CAST IRON IDIOM about industry is in a tragic state)./ They based
the battle between analogy and idiom : this opinion largely on the position of the
that analogy perpetually wins. company's financial situation (on the
tint, shade, hue. All are available as state of the company's finances). / The
substitutes for the dominant word Trades Union Congress should call a
colour. Different hues are, so far as halt to the situation (should stop this)./
meaning goes, simply different colours, We ought to be told the present position
so called because for good or bad on this matter (how this matter now
reasons the everyday word is held to stands)./ The position in regard to
be unworthy of the context. Different unemployment has deteriorated (more
tints and shades are properly speak- people are unemployed). / At the
ing not different colours but varieties moment the political situation in Malta
tipstaff 641 to
is in a strange position (is strange). from 1501 ; and this may be the reason
Writers given to overworking these for the OED's choice.
words would be wise to try doing
without them altogether; they would titbit, tid-. The older spelling is
seldom find any great difficulty in it, tid-; but it is now so much less usual
and they would have a salutiiry exer- in Britain (though not in U.S.) 3 and
cise in clear thinking. See also AB- the significance of tid is so doubtful,
STRACTITIS. that there is no case for reverting to it.
To make the two parts of such words
tipstaff. The OED prefers the plural rhyme or jingle is a natural impulse
-staffs to -staves, and there seems no that need not be resisted unless it
good reason for applying the archaic involves real loss of meaning.
plural of STAFF to officials who are
still very much alive. titillate (tickle the fancy) and titivate
(smarten up) are often confused. See
tiptoe, v., is, like hoe and shoe, an PAIRS AND SNARES.
exception to the MUTE E rule, and titles. A curious and regrettable
makes tiptoeing. change has come about in the present
tirade. The OED prefers tx- to tï-; century. Whereas we used, except on
so does the COD, but it is questionable formal occasions, to talk and write of
whether this reflects the prevailing Lord Salisbury, Lord Derby, Lord
practice. Palmerston, and to be very sparing of
the prefixes Marquess, Earl, and Vis-
tire, tyre. For other words in which count, the newspapers now prefer to
the same spelling question has arisen, tell us of the doings of Marquess this,
see Y AND 1. The OED regards the Earl that, Viscount the other, and
word as a shortening of attire—the similarly Marchioness this and Coun-
wheel's attire, clothing, or accoutre- tess that and Viscountess the other
ment; and it states the spelling facts that have replaced the Lady that used
thus: 'From 15th to 17th c. spelt tire to be good enough for ordinary wear.
and tyre indifferently. Before 1700 This change of fashion has not affected
tyre became generally obsolete, and the lowest rank of the peerage; they
tire remained as the regular form, as it are still in common parlance Lord, not
still does in America; but in Great Baron, though women of that rank
Britain tyre has been recently revived in their own right are often called
as the popular term for the rubber rim Baroness. This distinction between
of. . . .' From this it appears that the sexes is natural : the title Lord can
there is nothing to be said for tyre, be borne only by a peer or the son of a
which has no claim to be etymo- peer (or by a Scottish judge), but the
logically preferable and is needlessly title Lady is not necessarily indicative
divergent from our own older and the of the birth or merit of the lady her-
present American usage. Some die- self.
hards, including The Times, made a
long stand against it, but its victory tmesis. Separation of the parts of a
seems now assured. compound word by another word in-
serted between them, as when 'toward
tiro, ty-. Spell ti-, and see Y AND I ; us' is written to uszvard, or 'whatsoever
pi. -os, see -O(E)S 6. things' what things soever. The classic
example is Ennius's Saxo cere com-
tissue. The OED gives precedence minuit brum (for comminuit cerebrum).
to tï'shû over tï'sû; but the latter is Tmesis is a popular figure of modern
now regarded as the better pronuncia- slang, e.g. hoo-bloody-ray.
tion. It is clear, however, that the sh
sound prevailed in the 16th c , since h, to. 1. Substitution for other pre-
which can only be accounted for as positions. 2 . Unidiomatic infinitive.
marking sound, occurs in quotations 1. After three years' experience of
to and fro puzzles 642 too
the official machine I am of opinion today, tomorrow, tonight. The
that the causes are to be found in the lingering of the hyphen in these words
rottenness of the present systemy to (to-day etc.), still recognized by the
the absence of any system at all so far dictionaries as alternative spellings
as Cabinet control is concerned, and to and often appearing in print, even in
the system of bestowing honours on the some national newspapers, is a very
recommendations of Ministers. The fos singular piece of conservatism. It helps
result from indecision between are no one to pronounce; it distinguishes
to be found and some loosely equivalent between no words that without it
phrase such as may be traced, perhaps might be confused; and, as the to
assisted by the writer's glancing back retains no vestige of its original
to recover his construction and having meaning, a reminder that the words
his eye caught by to. This sort of mis- are compounds is useless. Moreover,
take occurs much more often with OF, it is probably true that few people in
under which it will be found fully writing ever dream of inserting the
illustrated. hyphen; when it appears it has
2 . Unidiomatic infinitive. The im- probably been inserted by those who
possibility to assert himself in any man- profess the mystery of printing,
ner galled his very soul. / The two factors though by doing so they flout the
are the obvious necessity to put an end precepts of the APD and OUP and
once and for all to the Turkish misrule probably most other style rules.
over alien races, and the . . . To assert
and to put should clearly be of asserting together. See ALTOGETHER.
and of putting. Discussion will be found toilet, -ette. The word has become
under GERUND 3 ; but it may be added completely anglicized in spelling and
here that it is not difficult to account sound (toi'let)—always for the popular
for this very common lapse, sequences EUPHEMISM for water-closet and
apparently similar being familiar en- ordinarily for the earlier sense of
ough. There is, for instance, nothing attire etc. But for the latter toilette
against saying It was an impossibility (twahlet') has not wholly disappeared
to assert himself, or It is an obvious and may perhaps revive for obvious
necessity to put an end', the difference reasons.
is that to assert etc. and to put etc. are
not there, as in the examples, adjectival token. For synonyms see SIGN.
appendages of impossibility and neces- By the same t., more by t., are archaic
sity, but the real subjects of the sen- phrases which, when current, came to
tences, which might have run To mean little more than that reminds me,
assert himself was an impossibility, or incidentally. Today they must be
and To put an end to so-and-so is a classed as WARDOUR STREET.
necessity.
toll. See TAX.
to and fro puzzles. It is not fair to a tomato. PI. -oes; see -O(E)S I . -ahto
reader to ask him to go backwards and in Britain; -dto in U.S.
forwards over the Une that divides the
positive from the negative so many tomorrow, t o - m - . See TODAY.
times that he is not sure which side tonight, to-n-. See TODAY.
he has ended on. The Opposition re-
fused leave for the withdrawal of a tonsil makes tonsillitis etc. ; -LL-, -L-.
motion to annul an Order revoking the tonsorial. A word used almost only
embargo on the importation of cut i n PEDANTIC HUMOUR.
glass. I (Heading of an official circular)
Suspension of Cancellation of Suspen- too. 1. With passive participle. 2.
sion of Withdrawal of Licences. May Illogical uses.
cut glass now be imported or not? Can 1. With passive participles t. is sub-
licences now be obtained or not? ject to the same limitations as VERY,
top 643 totalitarian
though the point has been less noticed. topping {They both have the honour of
The line, however, between the adjec- being footmen to very topping people,
tival and the verbal p.p. is often hard wrote Fanny Burney), a word that
to draw; in the following two quota- later enjoyed an ephemeral vogue as
tions the addition of with etc. and in juvenile slang. Unlike the other two,
etc. to the participles may be thought which are individual, top is usually
to turn the scale and make too much collective, though not always; the
preferable to too : Belfast is too occu- President of the Federal Bureau of
pied with its own affairs, too confident Investigation is known familiarly as
of itself, to be readily stirred to any America's Top Cop', the description
movement which would endanger its Top Pop Singer is applied to any
prosperity. / But he was too engrossed in notable exponent of a form of enter-
Northern Europe to realize his failure. tainment now much in demand, and
2 . Illogical uses. These are very He's the tops is an expression of high
common, so common as to deserve a commendation. Top appears mostly in
place among the STURDY INDEFENSIBLES journalism and advertising; it is con-
and to be almost idiomatic. They result venient for headlines and slogans.
from confusing two logical ways of Top names in international industry
making a statement, one with and the talk frankly to the 'Daily Mail', j Top
other without too. Praise which per- people take 'The Times' J Bandleader
haps was scarcely meant to be taken too aims to wed top Deb. / Khrushchev's bid
literally (a, which may easily be taken to stay Top Red. The second world war
too literally; b, which was not meant gave us also Top Secret and Top Level,
to be taken literally). / We need not but the latter no longer represents the
attach too much importance to the dif- highest level at which conferences may
ferences between Liberal and Labour (a, be held and decisions taken; it has
We may easily attach too much; b, We been downgraded by Summit Level.
See LEVEL.
need not attach much).//r is yet far
too early to generalize too widely as to
origins and influences (a, If we general- torso. PI. -os; see -O(E)S 6.
ize too early we may generalize too tortoise. Pronounce tor'tus. The
widely; b, It is too early to generalize pronunciation -oiz or -ois, given as an
widely). Another illogical use is the alternative in some modern dictionaries
common colloquial LITOTES such as is one of the less agreeable results of
He wasn't too pleased, meaning He was the speak-as-you-spell movement. See
very cross indeed. See also ONLY TOO. PRONUNCIATION1.
top, ace, crack (adj.) are used vari- total. The adjective makes -ally,
ously to denote human excellence. -alize(r), -alizator, -ality, and the
Crack, the oldest, is mainly in military verb -ailed, ailing. See - L L - , - L - . Both
usage: crack regiment, crack swords- adjective and adverb seem to have an
man, crack shot. Ace is primarily an attraction that makes for their indis-
Air Force term; it dates from the first criminate use. There is a latent sense
world war, and was originally applied in them of things being added up:
to an airman who had shot down at total is the right word in total war but
least three enemy machines. Both in the sense of absolutely, completely,
words, though showing some signs of entirely, quite, utterly, wholly (He was
obsolescence, are occasionally used totally at a loss) one of those near-
more widely, especially in sport, e.g. synonyms is generally better than t.
a crack batsman, an ace jockey or racing And in the phrase sum total t. is
driver', we have ace reporters too, and tautological.
writers of detective stories sometimes
give the title to their supremely suc- totalitarian dates from the nineteen-
cessful sleuth. Top is the most recent. twenties, and is defined by the OED
It is reminiscent of the i8th-c. use of Supp. as 'Of or pertaining to a polity
tote 644 tragic(al)
which permits no rival loyalties or older than towing-rope', towing-path,
parties'. however, is as much older than tow-
path. There is in fact no reason for
tote has been made to serve as a collo- avoiding either form. Cf. wash(ing)-
quial abbreviation of more than one basin.
word: first of total, next of total ab-
stainer, and lastly of totalizator. This toward, towards, towardly. The
last is the only sense in which it is now adjectives toward (including the pre-
used in Britain; in America there is dicative use as in a storm is toward,
also a verb tote, a colloquialism mean- i.e. coming) and towardly are pro-
ing to bear or carry. nounced tô'àrdQÎ). The prepositions
were formerly pronounced to7d(z),
tother, now only colloquial, was for- but in recent use the influence of
merly in good literary use, and was spelling is forcing toowor'd(z) into
then more often written tother than common use. The adjectives in all
t'other; it is a telescoping not of senses are obsolescent, or at any rate
t{he) other but of (tha)t other, and there archaic, but untoward (unto'ard) is
is therefore no need for the apostrophe. still current. Of the prepositions the
toto caelo. Literally, 'by the whole -s form is the prevailing one, and the
sky', i.e. by the greatest possible dis- other tends to become literary on the
tance, 'poles apart'. Properly used one hand and provincial on the other.
only with differ, different, and words of trace, n. For synonyms see SIGN.
similar meaning; the writer of the
following extract has guessed that it is trachea. The pronunciation trâ'kta
a high-class variant of entirely: . . . seems to be superseding the once or-
had the effect of habitually repealing its thodox trâkê'a, perhaps because of
own canon in part, during the life-time the influence of the compounds
of parties . . ., and of repealing it, toto {tracheotomy etc.) in which the stress
caelo, after the death of either of them. is usually on the first syllable and the
S e e FOREIGN DANGER. a usually long.
touchy. See TETCHY. trade union. Plural trade unions, but
Trades Union Congress.
toupee, toupet. The first is the form
common in England in the 18th c , tradition(al)ism, -ist. For the
written without an accent and pro- general question between such vari-
nounced tdôpè'i the second is the ants, see -1ST. In this case the longer
French word, pronounced too'pâ. But forms are usual, probably because the
modern English practice is to spell -ee words are often opposed to rationalism,
and pronounce -a. -ist, the form of which is fixed by
ration's not having the necessary mean-
tourniquet. The OED prefers -kët ing.
but -kd is probably now more
common, perhaps because of the tragédienne. See COMEDIAN.
present tendency to give foreign
values to the vowels of any word with tragic(al). See -IC(AL). It may al-
a foreign look. most be said that the longer form
is, in serious use, dead; though the
tow- and towing-. There is perhaps OED quotes it once or twice from
an impression that in the compounds modern writers in senses that it does
(e.g. -boat, -line, -net, -path, -post, not mark obsolete, in each of them
-rope) towing- is the correct form, and tragic would have been the natural
tow- a slovenly modern abbreviation. word. It survives, however, in playful
But it appears from the OED that tow- use, often with a memory of the 'very
boat and tow-line are the only forms tragicall mirth' of Pyramus and Thisbe
recorded for boat and line (the latter in Midsummer Night's Dream. For
1719)3 and tow-rope is about a century tragic (or dramatic) irony, see IRONY, 2 .
trailers 645 transcendent(al)
trailers. Under this name a few easy realization of fine old businesses
specimens are collected of the sort of under the seductive lines of Limited
sentence that tires the reader out by Liability, has resulted in the 'Super
again and again disappointing his hope man' being eliminated in favour of
of coming to an end. It is noticeable a joint control in which the divergence
that writers who produce trailers pro- of opinion among Directors with little
duce little else, and that where one fine personal interest has prevented a uni-
example occurs there are sure to be formity and continuity of policy abso-
more in the neighbourhood. The ex- lutely essential in the management of
planation probably is that these gentle- any business with widespread interests. /
men have on the one hand a copious Against this portrait of an ogress-devourer
pen, and on the other a dislike (most of talent one must set the unselfish devo-
natural, their readers must agree) to tion she gave to Mahler and Werf el and
reading over what it may have set her lifelong friendships with Hauptmann
down. Whatever its cause, the trailer and the Bergs {Madame Berg was an
style is perhaps of all styles the most illegitimate daughter of the Emperor
exasperating. Anyone who was con- Franz Joseph) : and so one must give her
scious of this weakness might do much the benefit of the doubt and assume that,
to cure himself by taking a pledge to despite her man-eating propensities, she
use no relative pronouns for a year; possessed that Austrian charm of the
but perhaps most of its victims are most rare kind which blends inherited
unconscious. This type of wicket is good breeding with habitual acceptance
always trappy, one ball coming first on of the moods of genius and makes a
to the bat, with another hanging fire, stimulating listener and comforting
which so frequently causes a catch to be friend out of the tweed-capped and finely
given by the batsman playing too quickly, booted hostess of Semmering or Venice
as Hallows appeared to do when caught or Vienna or even of Beverley Hills;
and bowled by Macaulay, when he pro- one of those warm stoves round whom
mised a good innings, in spite of being expatriates rally.
missed at fine leg from a ball which cer-
tainly should have been caught, since the traipse. See TRAPES.
ball was played and not hit off the legs. /
It is true that part of the traffic here is trait. The final t is sounded in
heavy, but at least the surface might be America, but still usually silent in
conditioned by modern methods, even if England. For synonyms, see SIGN.
the form of paving cannot well be altered, tranquil makes -illity, -illize, -illy,
though I think it ought to be—e.g., if see -LL-, -L-, 2 . Mis-spellings are very
Sydney Smith's suggestion as to the wood common, esp. tranquility.
pavement problem perplexing an old
vestry—'Gentlemen, put your heads to- transcendence, - c y . See -CE, -CY.
gether, and the thing"s done'—is im-
practicable, there are now improved transcendent(al). These words, with
means open to a modern City Council, their many specialized applications in
both in surface dressing, in hard woods, philosophy, are for the most part be-
and even in macadam, by the use of yond the scope of this book; but there
slag—locally called dross—from the iron are popular uses in which the right
furnaces in Yorkshire, which makes the form should be chosen. 1. The word
hardest and smoothest surface, j It may that means surpassing, of supreme ex-
be that the modification of our Free cellence or greatness, etc., is transcen-
Trade principles to a sufficient form of dent, and the following is wrong—The
Fair Trade will be all that is necessary matter is of transcendental importance,
to prevent the final decline, which prob- especially in the present disastrous state
ably the pinch of the last few years has of the world. See LONG VARIANTS for
prevented from setting in from a previous similar pairs. 2 . The word applied to
run of prosperity, which, by causing the God in contrast with IMMANENT is
transcendent. 3. The word that means
transfer 646 transpire
visionary, idealistic, outside of experi- rare in the OED; and indeed, in its
ence, etc., is transcendental. 4 . The only two -ence quotations that are
word applied to Emerson and his as late as 1800, euphony plainly
'religio-philosophical teaching' is.trans- accounts for the avoidance of -cy:
cendental. Motive may be detected through the
transfer .Noun tra'nsfer,verb transfer', transparence of tendency. / Adamantine
see NOUN AND VERB; transferred, -err-
solidity, transparence, and brilliancy.
ing, -errer, see -R-, -RR-; but transfer- But -ence seems to have been coming
able, see CONFER(R)ABLE; and transfer- back recently in order to distinguish
ence, transferee, and transferor. Of the quality of transparence from the
transferrer and transferor, the first is transparent picture (-ency).
the general agent-noun, a person or transparent, and the synonyms dia-
mechanism that passes something on, phanous, pellucid, translucent. Trans-
and the second a legal term for the per- parent is the general word for describ-
son who conveys his property to ing what is penetrable by sight (lit. or
another, the transferee. fig.) or by light, and it can be sub-
tranship, transship, trans-ship. stituted for any of the others unless
To all who do not happen to have been there is some point of precision or of
reconciled by familiarity to the short rhetoric to be gained. All three syno-
form it presents itself as an odd sort of nyms have the rhetorical value of being
monster, which they start by pro- less common than transparent, and
nouncing trâ'nshïp (cf. transom), and therefore appear more often in poetical
do not at once connect with shipping. writing. As regards precision, the
And they have at any rate the justifica- following definitions of the words'
tion, however little they may be aware narrower senses are offered, and to
of it, that there are no other live words each are appended some specially ap-
in which trans is curtailed to tran when propriate nouns, and the adjective or
it is prefixed to a word of English and participle that seems most directly
not Latin origin like ship. But the opposed.
OED accepts tranship, saying only That is diaphanous which does not
'less commonly trans-ship'. Genera- preclude sight of what is behind it;
tions of clerks have saved themselves material, film; opp. shrouding.
trouble and nearly made away with the That is transparent which does not
s and the hyphen; of 28 OED quota- even obscure sight of what is behind
tions, including those for tran(s-)ship- it and transmits light without diffu-
ment, nine only show s-s or ss and sion; glass, candour, pretence; opp.
nineteen s, and the progress of the last obscuring.
has since been uninterrupted. That is pellucid which does not dis-
tort images seen through it; water,
transient, transitory. The primary literary style; opp. turbid.
meanings (brief, fleeting) are the same, That is translucent which does not
but transient is used with special bar the passage of light but diffuses it;
senses in music and philosophy, and alabaster, tortoise-shell; opp. opaque.
transitory in law. The OED quotes from a news-
translucence, - c y . See -CE, -CY. paper: 'The windows of this class-
translucent. See TRANSPARENT. room were once transparent; they are
now translucent, and if not cleaned
transmit makes -itted, -itter, -itting, very soon will be opaque'.
see -T-, -TT-; and -issible or -ittable,
See -ABLE 2 . A FORMAL WORD. transpire. The notorious misuse of
this word consists in making it mean
transmogrify. See FACETIOUS FOR- happen or turn out or go on ; and the
MATIONS.
legitimate meaning that has been mis-
transparence, -ency. The second is interpreted into this is to emerge from
the usual form. The first is marked secrecy into knowledge, to leak out, to
trapes 647 trend
become known by degrees. It is need- on the first syllable, but may eventually
less to do more than give a single follow the tendency described in NOUN
example of the right use, followed by AND VERB ACCENT ; it is sometimes heard
several of the wrong : The conditions of with the accent on the second.
the contract were not allowed to t.
(right). / Byron and Claire Claremont travesty. See BURLESQUE; and, for
met that night at seven o'clock. Pre- verb inflexion, VERBS IN -IE etc., 6.
cisely what transpired we shall never treachery, treason. Although the
know. I British sources naturally decline second is sometimes used in the
to say what transpired at the dinner last wider sense proper to the first, the
night at which Mr. Gromyko was host distinction, which is worth observing,
to Mr. Selwyn Lloyd.I The secrecy that is that anyone who has trusted anyone
was preserved about the time and place else may be the victim of treachery
of Dr. Beeching's meeting with the union but only a sovereign State relying on
leaders suggests that we are unlikely to the allegiance of its citizens can be the
hear much about what transpired, j Both victim of treason.
men opened in a subdued mood in what
transpired to be the last game of this treasonable, treasonous. The mean-
grand fight. The last of these adds to ings are not distinguishable; trea-
the wrong meaning of t. an unidio- sonous is now comparatively rare, and
matic construction after it in the in- more likely to be met in verse.
finitive to be. That construction will treble. See TRIPLE.
not do even when t. has its true sense;
that sense is complete in itself, and trecento, -tist. Pronounce trâchê'ntô>
transpired to be. is as little English as -tïst. This and quattrocentoy -isty cin-
came to light to be: here is the right quecento, -ists are words constantly
sense followed by the wrong construc- used by writers on Italian art. Though
tion: They must have been aware of the their true meaning is 300, 400, 500,
possibility that the facts might be as they they are used as abbreviations for the
ultimately transpired to be. centuries 1300-1399 (1301-1400 is
with us the 14th c ) , 1400-1499 (our
trapes, traipse. The first seems to 15th c ) , and 1500-1599 (our 16th).
be regarded as the orthodox spelling; There is therefore a double puzzle,
but the word in this form has so Italian 300 for Italian 1300, and Italian
puzzling a look that it would surely 13th c. for English 14th c. The words
be better to use the second, which is in -ist mean painters etc. of the cen-
allowed by the OED as an alternative, tury.
is quoted from Swift and Pope, and
can be pronounced only one way. It trefoil. OED gives preference to trë-
is indeed more favoured in present over trë-,
usage except in the participle trapesing.
trek. He spent the whole day on the
trauma. Although this word is fast road trekking around from one client to
becoming a POPULARIZED TECHNICA- another. The verb go and its innumer-
LITY the plural—mata is still more able near-synonyms should be enough
usual than—mas. to satisfy any reasonable person that
there is no need for him to maltreat
travail, travel. Formerly only trek by using it in a way wholly in-
slightly distinguished in pronuncia- consistent with the associations it still
tion as trâ'vïl and trâ'vël, but it is now retains of mass migration slowly and
usual to differentiate more markedly painfully accomplished. This SLIP-
by pronouncing the first trâ'vâl. For SHOD EXTENSION, though still collo-
travelled adj. see INTRANSITIVE P . P . quial only, is increasingly common.
traverse. The verb is ordinarily pro- trend. A word that, whether as noun
nounced, like the noun, with the accent or as verb, should be used by no one
trepan 648 tripe
who is not sure of both its meaning and garded not with condemnation or
its idiomatic habits. There has unques- dislike or apprehension ( = dishonest,
tionably been a trend of German policy cunning, difficult, etc.) but with
to.... I His chapter on . . ., although it amusement or interest ( = playful,
has little to do with the rest of his volume, frolicsome, etc.). It had formerly,
and trends very closely upon the for- to judge from the OED record, all the
bidden theme of history, is interesting. meanings to itself, being more than
'There is a t. of German policy to do' two centuries older than tricky. At the
is not English, though 'The t. of Ger- same time the gap is being widened by
man policy is to do' would be. Trends the increasing use of tricky to describe
very closely upon is perhaps a con- a task needing adroitness.
fusion with trenches etc.; the essential
idea in t. is direction, not encroach- trilogy. In ancient Athens there
ment. As a verb trend is now not often were dramatic competitions at which
used; tend is supplanting it. But there each dramatist presented three plays,
is a difference, worth preserving, originally giving successive parts of
similar to that between the nouns the same legend; the extant Agamem-
trend and tendency: a trend is a ten- non, Choephoroe, and Eumenides, of
dency that is continuous and consis- Aeschylus formed a trilogy, and, with
tent. the addition of the lost Proteus, a
tetralogy. Later trilogies were con-
trepan, trephine, nn. and w. The nected not necessarily by a common
first, the older term for the instru- subject, but by being works of the
ment and for operating with it, is same author, presented on the same
probably still the prevailing one in occasion. In modern use the word is
lay use; but in surgical books etc. applied to a work such as Shakespeare's
trephine, which as a noun is properly Henry VI, comprising three separate
the name of an improvement on the plays, or to a novel etc. with two
trepan, is now the regular term. The sequels.
dictionaries prefer the pronunciation
-en to -in. tripe. 'Tripe is not a joke; it is a
tribunal. Pronounce trïbù'nâl or viluable foodstuff' was the protest
made by an ex-president of the National
trïbû'nâl; the i is short in Latin, but Association of Tripe Dressers against
OED puts tri- first, and see FALSE the contemptuous use of the word by
QUANTITY.
a royal speaker. (Tripe is in fact 'the
tribute. I . For meaning see TAX. first or second stomach of a ruminant,
2 . A SLIPSHOD EXTENSION of the less especially the ox, prepared as food'
excusable kind—since the meaning —OED). The indignation of the ex-
of t. is surely no mystery—is that president is understandable, but the
which nowadays sets 'a t. to' to do custom that provoked it will not be
the work of a proof (or illustration etc.) easily dislodged. The use of t. as an
of, as in : The debate on the whole was a opprobrious term for a person dates
tribute to the good taste and good form from the 16th c ; the OED quotes
of the House of Commons. /All these and Sayest thou me so thou Tripe, thou
many other prominent English works hated scorn, which suggests that even
have been fairly and critically analysed, then it must have been felt to be
and it is a tribute to the modesty of the pretty powerful invective. Its applica-
American editors that the European tion to literature, art, conversation etc.
works receive first place. of inferior quality came later; the
OED's earliest quotation is dated 1892 :
tricksy, tricky, DIFFERENTIATION is This book . . . very vulgar . . .it is a dish
proceeding, in the direction of restrict- of literary and artistic 'tripe and onions'.
ing tricksy, now much less used, to Later still is its now very common
contexts in which the quality is re- application to challenges of a kind
triphibious 649 -trix
that present so little difficulty that rower and more definite. Triumphal
they can be treated with contempt— means only of or in the celebration
examination papers, bowling at cricket, of a victory, and belongs to the original
service at tennis, etc. The Tripe Dres- 'triumph' or victorious general's pro-
sers may find some consolation in the cession; triumphant belongs to triumph
thought that the dictionaries still call in any of its senses, especially those of
these usages 'slang', and that slang, if brilliant success or exultation. In the
it does not succeed in winning a re- following quotations each word is used
spected place in the vocabulary, and so where the other was required. The
ceasing to be slang, always disappears 'progress' of the first was not almost,
when it has lost its freshness. but quite, triumphant; and the 'career'
of the second, if it lasted 66 years and
triphibious. See AMPHIBIOUS. was troubled, may have been trium-
phant, but hardly triumphal. . . .
triple, treble. If the musical sense through the streets of which he had
of treble is put aside, there are per- almost a triumphant progress, with
haps no senses in which one is women clinging about his car, manifesting
possible and the other impossible; in every possible way their delight at his
but they do tend to diverge. First, presence. / . . . the story he told us of the
though either can be adjective, verb, sixty-six previous years of his troubled,
or noun, treble is the more usual verb triumphal career. See also PAIRS AND
and noun, and triple the more usual SNARES.
adjective. Secondly, in the adjectival
use treble now refers rather to amount t r i u m v i r . PI. -rs or (less usual except
(three times as great etc.), and triple of the Roman prototypes) - n ; see
rather to plurality (of three kinds or LATIN PLURALS. But triumvirate (set of
parts). A few phrases, in each of triumvirs) is now more usual than
which the word used is clearly pre- either plural. The accent is on the
ferable to the other, will illustrate: second syllable.
Newspaper has trebled its circulation./
Treble the money would not buy it now.\ -trix. Any Latin agent-noun in
This is quite treble what I expected.I -tor could form a feminine in -trix,
Going at treble the pace.I He offered me and some of these when taken into
treble wages. / The fight was resumed with English continue to do so, especially
treble fury. / Treble difficulty (= three such as are, like testator and prosecutor,
times the difficulty); a triple difficulty in legal use. It is a serious incon-
(= a difficulty of three kinds). I Sur- venience that the Latin plural is -ices
rounded with a triple wall./Triple- (-ïsëz); if the Latin quantity is pre-
expansion engines. / The classification is, served, the accent has to be shifted in
triple. I Triple alliance, contest, birth. the plural, which makes the word
hardly recognizable. The result is that
tripod. OED pronounces trï'pôd, it is sometimes given up as a bad job;
with no alternative (but trï'podal, also OED gives e.g. prosecu'trices and radices
without alternative), and this is still (radix is like the -trix words, with
the usual pronunciation (cf. tripos) Latin pi. radl'ces), and allows matrix a
though the COD admits the alter- popular ma'trices (or even matrixes) by
native tripod. the side of a correct matrl'ces; but for
cicatrix it allows only -trï'ces, and
triptych. Pronounce -k. for directrix and executrix states
only that the pi. is -ices and leaves us to
triumphal, -phant. The meanings deal with quantity and accent as we
are quite distinct, but to use the first please.
for the second is usually a worse One way of curing this sort of con-
mistake than the converse, because fusion would be to sink the words'
the idea it ought to convey is nar- latinity and give them all the ordin-
troche 650 true and false etymology
ary English plural—testa'trixes etc. orthodox modern phrase; but in the
instead of testatrl'ces or testa'trices. older quotations in the OED it is
For some of them the further angliciz- colours. Troop is the same word as the
ing of -trix into -tress would also be French troupe, which we have angli-
possible. Another way of escape would cized for the military body but not for
be to use the masculine form and drop the theatrical.
the feminine. This has distinguished
advocacy. 'There is no such word as troublous. 'Now only literary or
executrixes' said a judge to counsel who archaic' says the OED; and one of
had found difficulty in articulating the its quotations shows well the bad
anglicized plural. 'The word is exécu- effect of diversifying commonplace
trices, and even that is bad enough. contexts with words of that sort; the
There is no feminine of executor. My ordinary troublesome was the word
father, if he found such a word in a wanted: Mr. Walpole took on himself
document, would strike it out in wrath the management of the Home Office,
and consign the document to the waste little knowing what a troublous business
paper basket. "Executors" he would he had brought upon his shoulders.
say "are always masculine in form
though often feminine in fact".' This trough. The COD gives pronuncia-
provoked a letter to The Times from tions trôf, trawf, and trûf in that order.
the Senior Registrar of Probate. 'It It might have added trd, usual in the
has long been the practice' he said 'of Irish countryside. To an Englishman
the devotees of the somewhat esoteric trôf is the established pronunciation.
cult of probate freely to employ the
word executrixes . . . and where a trousers. See PANTALOONS.
testator or testatrix, urged possibly by
humility or pride respectively, has trousseau. For plural, see -x.
appointed persons falling within the
category, signature and seal have for trout. PI. usually the same, see COL-
many years approved its use.' In view LECTIVES 2 . But old trouts for the
of the present tendency to dispense affectionately disrespectful slang term.
With FEMININE DESIGNATIONS, the
judge's dictum is here respectfully trow, when still in ordinary use, was
recommended, not indeed as a state- pronounced trô. Now WARDOUR ST.
ment of what the usage is but of what
it might well be. truculence, - c y . See -CE, -CY; and
The chief words concerned are : ad- for pronunciation, foil.
ministratrix, cicatrix, directrix, exe-
cutrix, matrix, prosecutrix, radix, truculent. OED gave preference to
testatrix. troo'kû- over trû'kû-; but the latter has
since won, chiefly, no doubt, owing to
troche (the medicinal lozenge). A the much greater ease given by the
word that it requires some ingenuity wider dissimilation of the two vowels;
to pronounce wrong, trash, troch, and cf. the substitution of loo for lu in the
trok, being all recognized. The OED still more difficult lugubrious and lucu-
draws the Une at trô'kï, which is, it bration (see PRONUNCIATION 6).
appears, 'commercial and vulgar', but
the COD is more tolerant, and admits true and false etymology. Eng-
a disyllabic pronunciation (trô'kë) as a lish being of all languages the one that
fourth alternative. But this would has gathered its material from the
make it indistinguishable from the most varied sources, the study of its
metrical foot {trochee), and we have too etymology is naturally of exceptional
many homophones in the language interest. It is a study, however, worth
already. undertaking for that interest, and as
troop. Trooping the colour is the an end in itself, rather than as a means
true and false etymology 651 true and false etymology
to acquiring either a sound style or few that happen to have been treated
even a correct vocabulary. What con- in their places in any way that at all
cerns a writer is much less a word's bears upon the present subject.
history than its present meaning and AMUCK, not E muck
idiomatic habits. The etymologist is andiron and GRIDIRON, not iron
aware, and the person who has paid no apparel, not L paro prepare
attention to the subject is probably un- arbour, not L arbor tree
aware, that a belfry is not named from barberry, not E berry
its bell; that a child's cot and a sheep- belfry, not E bell
cot come from different languages; blindfold, not B fold
that Welsh rabbit is amusing and right, bliss, not E bless
and Welsh rarebit stupid and wrong; boon, a prayer, not its granting
that isle and island have nothing in bound (homeward etc.), not E bind
common etymologically; and that bridal, not an adjective in -al
pygmy is a more significant spelling BRIER (pipe), not E brier
than pigmy. But to know when it is bum (buttocks), not a contraction of
well to call an island an isle and when bottom.
it is not is worth more than to know all buttonhole (vb.), not hole but hold
these etymological facts. Still, etymo- catgut, not made from the intestines
logy has its uses, even for those whose of a cat.
sole concern with it is as an aid to CHEVAUX DE FRISE, = Frisian cavalry
writing and a preventive of blunders ; cinders, not L cineres
some knowledge of it may save us from cockroach, not cock or roach
treating protagonist as the opposite COCOA, COCONUT, unconnected
of antagonist, or from supposing a COMITY, not L comes companion
watershed to be a river-basin, or from convey, not L veho carry
materializing the comity of nations into cookie (bun etc.), not E cook
either a committee or a company of COT(E), separate words
them, or from thinking that to demean court card, a corruption
oneself is necessarily to lower oneself CRAYFISH, not E fish
or do a mean thing or that an alibi curtail, not E tail
can be used for any sort of excuse. cutlet, not E cut
But the etymology providing such
stray scraps of useful knowledge re- DEMEAN (conduct oneself), not E mean
lates much more to the French and dispatch, not F dépêcher
Latin elements in our language than egg on, not egg but edge
to its native or Teutonic substratum. EQUERRY, not L equus horse
After this warning that etymological errand, not L erro wander
knowledge is of less importance to FAROUCHE, not L fer ox fierce
writers than might be supposed, a FORBEARS, = fore-beërs
selection of words is offered exempli- FORLORN HOPE not forlorn nor hope
fying the small surprises that reward or FUSE (explosive), from Lfusus spindle
disappoint the etymologist. They are GINGERLY, not E ginger
arranged alphabetically, and are a very GREYHOUND, not E grey
low percentage of what might have humble pie, a pie made from the
been collected; with each word the umbles (intestines of a deer),
barest indication only is given of the incentive, not L incendo to fire
point. To many readers it will be ingenuity, stolen by INGENIOUS from
already known, and by others it may ingenuous
be easily verified in any good diction- island, mis-spelt from confusion with isle
ary; the object of the list is not to give Jerusalem artichoke, not Jerusalem but
etymologies, but to provide anyone girasole (sunflower)
who is curious about the value of such LITANY, LITURGY, first syllables un-
knowledge with the means of assessing connected
it. The words in small capitals are the MOOD (gram.), = mode, not mood
(temper)
truffle 652 -t-, -tt-
old dutch, not Dutch but duchess right trusty and right well-beloved if
(NETHERLANDS) he is a privy councillor. (See also
pen, pencil, unconnected RELATION 2). Otherwise the word is no
PIDGIN, not pigeon. longer in use except as a deliberate
PROTAGONIST, Gk protos first, not pro archaism. That is a pity, for it is a good
for word, much better than its drab
recover, not E cover cousin trustworthy, which enjoyed
river, not L rivus river unmerited popularity in the days
run the gauntlet, not gauntlet (glove) when pedants could not bring them-
but gantlope (passage between two selves to use reliable (see -ABLE, 4).
files of men) The nouns particularly likely to attract
SANDBLIND, not from sand the adjective trusty were blades and
scarify, not E scare steeds and henchmen; it was a product
scissors, not L scindo sciss- cleave of the age of chivalry and they died
SLOW WORM, not slow. together.
SORRY, SORROW, unconnected
vile, villain, unconnected try. The idiom t. and do something
walnut unconnected with wall is described as colloquial for t. to do.
WATERSHED, neither a store of water Its use is probably commonest in ex-
nor a place that sheds water hortations and promises: Do t. and
Welsh rabbit, not rare bit. stop coughing', I will t. and have it
ready for you. And it is hardly ap-
truffle. Pronounce tru'fl, which is the plicable to past time or to negative
natural English; association with sentences, He tried and made the best of
French cookery leads many people to it is not English in the sense required,
partly assimilate the sound to that of nor is It is no use to t. and make the best
the differently spelt French word, of it; but He did t. and make the best of
and absurdly to say troo'fl. it will pass, especially if the did is
emphatic. It is, therefore, colloquial,
truism. The word's two meanings if that means specially appropriate to
have been compared both with each actual speech; but not if colloquial
other and with some synonyms under means below the proper standard of
COMMONPLACE. It is not permissible literary dignity. Though t. to do can
to be too sanguine of the outcome of always be substituted for t. and do, the
the Conference. / The present amount latter has a shade of meaning that
of fall-out does not warrant undue con- justifies its existence; in exhortations
cern. I There is no need to be unnecessarily it implies encouragement—the effort
anxious about the outbreak. These are will succeed—; in promises it implies
examples of the sort of t. that writers assurance—the effort shall succeed. It
should not allow themselves. As to is an idiom that should be not dis-
the use of the word itself, the tempta- countenanced, but used when it comes
tion to say that a thing is a truism natural.
when no more is meant than that it is
true, because it has a smarter sound, tryst. The OED (1926) gives the
should be resisted; so: It probably pronunciation trïst only; but the
owes much to the dialect in which it is SOED (1933) prefers trïst; the COD
played; but that is a truism of almost gives trïst only, and Thomas Hardy
every Irish or Scotch play. rhymed it with exist. But the pro-
nunciation matters little now that the
t r u l y . See LETTER FORMS. word has become archaic. The parties
to a tryst now call it a DATE.
trusty. It is still customary for the
Sovereign, when issuing a commission -t-, -tt-. Words ending in -t are
to one of her subjects, to address him very numerous, and there seems to be
as her trusty and well-beloved, her some hesitation about making them
tubercul(ar)(ous) 653 twelve-tone
conform to the rules that prevail for tureen. Strictly the right pronuncia-
most consonants: forms like rivetter, tion is tërë'n, in accordance with the
carrotty, docketted, are often seen, derivation {terra earth) and the older
though good usage is against them. English spelling {terrene etc.); but it is
Monosyllables ending in -t double now always tûrë'n.
it before suffixes beginning with vowels
if the vowel sound preceding the turf. PL; -fs and -ves appear an equal
suffix is short, but not if it is long, or number of times in the post-i8th-c.
followed by r: pettish, potted, cutter, quotations of the OED, which itself
but flouting, sooty, skirting. Words of uses -fs. But turf in its Irish sense of
more than one syllable follow the rule peat is cut into turves for burning. See
for monosyllables if their last syllable -VE(D).
is accented {coquettish, but repeater)',
but otherwise they do not double the t : turgid (swollen) is sometimes con-
discomfited, combatant, wainscoting, fused with turbid (muddy). Not only
snippety, pilotage, balloted. do the words look alike, but their
figurative meanings tend to coalesce:
tubercul(ar)(ous). These adjectives writing that is turgid in style is often
are often treated as synonymous, but turbid in sense. That may explain
should be differentiated. Tubercular the confusion but does not excuse it;
means of the nature of, or pertaining there is the more need for care in pre-
to, a tubercle; Tuberculous means serving the difference. See also -TY
affected with, or of the nature of, AND -NESS.
tuberculosis.
Turk. In spite of the spellings of
tumultuary, tumultuous. The dis- Turkey and Turkish, Turk makes
tinction between the two is not very Turco—in such compounds, as Tur-
definite, and sentences may easily be cophil and -phobe. The inhabitants of
made in which either might be used the area formerly known as Turkestan
and give the same sense. But it may are now usually spelt Turkoman (pi.
be said, first, that -tuous is now the -mans).
much commoner word, which should
be chosen unless there is good reason turn, v. In the age idiom two con-
to prefer the other; and, secondly, structions are recognized: / have
what is emphasized by -tuous is rather turned 20 and / am turned 20. The old
the violence and impetus and force, form / am turned of 20 is no longer
while -tuary emphasizes the irregu- idiomatic. The meaning is not 'over
larity and indiscipline of the thing 20' but 'past the 20th birthday'.
described: tumultuous applause, seas, turquoise. Pronunciation debatable.
attack, joy, crowd; tumultuary forces With Ben Jonson, Shakespeare, Milton,
(hastily levied), risings (unorganized). and Tennyson, all for ter'ktz (or some-
thing like it), it is a pity that we cannot
tumulus. PL -lï only. return to that; but the adoption of the
later French spelling has corrupted us,
turbidity, turbidness. See -TY AND and the OED labels ter'ktz archaic.
-NESS and TURGID. On the other hand it refuses to recog-
nize the kw sound for the -qu- and
turbine. OED recognizes only the complete the triumph of spelling. But
pronunciation with -in', but that with popular judgement has gone against it,
-in, now often heard, though due only and turkwoiz or turkwahz, or something
to misguided reverence for spelling, between the two, is now customary.
is likely to prevail; the COD gives no
other. tushery. See ARCHAISM.
Turc-. See TURK. twelve-tone. See ATONAL.
twilit 654 -ty and -ness
twilit. The earliest OED quotation unless total or partial differentiation
for the word is 1869, so that, whatever has been established, or is designed
its merits may be, it is not venerable. for the occasion. Total differentiation
Its formation implies a verb to twilight has taken place between ingenuity and
made from the noun; and that verb, ingenuousness, casualty and casualness,
though unknown to most of us, is re- sensibility and sensibleness, enormity and
corded as having been used. It also enormousness', the use of" either form
implies that to twilight has p.p. twilit instead of the other changes or des-
rather than twilighted, which is not im- troys the meaning. Partial differentia-
possible. But, though twilit can there- tion results from the more frequent use
fore not be absolutely ruled out, it is made of the -ty words. Both termina-
better to use twilight attributively tions have, to start with, the abstract
where that does the work as well, as it sense of the quality for which the ad-
usually does, and elsewhere to do with- jective stands; but while most of the
out. In the two following quotations, -ness words, being little used, remain
twilight would have served at least as abstract and still denote quality only,
well: He found himself free of a fanciful many of the -ty words acquire by
world zvhere things happened as he much use various concrete meanings
preferred—a twilit world in which sub- in addition; e.g., humanity, curiosity,
stance melted into shadow. I The years variety, beside the senses 'being human,
of the war were a clear and brilliantly curious, various', acquire those of 'all
lit passage between two periods of twilit human beings', 'a curious object', and
entanglement. 'a sub-species'. Or again they may be
habitually applied in a limited way so
-ty and -ness. Though any adjective that the full sense of the adjective is
may be formed into a noun on occa- no longer naturally suggested by them;
sion by the addition of -ness, the preciosity is limited to literary or artis-
nouns of that pattern actually current tic style, maturity suggests the moment
are much fewer than those made from of reaching rather than the state of
Latin adjectives with -ty, -ety, or -ity matureness, purity and frailty take a
as their ending. Thus from one and sexual tinge that pureness and frailness
loyal and various we can make for are without, poverty is more nearly
special purposes oneness, loyalness, and confined to lack of money than poor-
variousness; but ordinarily we prefer ness. It is when lucidity requires the
unity, loyalty, and variety. Of the -ty excluding of some such meaning or
words that exist, a very large majority implication attached only to the -ty
are for all purposes commoner and form that a -ness word may reason-
better than the corresponding -ness ably be substituted.
words, usage and not anti-latinism Articles under which special remarks
will be found are BARBARISM, BAR-
being the right arbiter. Scores of BARITY, ENORMOUS, INGENIOUS, OB-
words could be named, such as ability, LIQUENESS, OPACITY, POVERTY, PRE-
honesty, notoriety, prosperity, sanity, CIOSITY, SENSIBILITY. For similar
stupidity, for which it is hard to imag- distinctions between other nearly
ine any good reason for substituting equivalent terminations, see -CE, -CY,
ableness, notoriousness, etc. On the other -IC(AL), -ION and -NESS, -ION AND
hand words in -ness that are better
than existent forms in -ty are rare; -MENT, -ISM AND -ITY.
though acuteness and conspicuousness A few specimens may be added and
have the advantage of acuity and con- classified that have not been cited
spicuity, and if perspicuousness could above, but are notable in some way,
be established in place of perspicuity (A). Some words in -ty for which there
it might help to obviate the common is no companion in -ness; the Latin
confusion with perspicacity. But in
general a -ty word that exists is to adjective not having been taken into
be preferred to its rival in -ness, English: celerity, cupidity, debility,
fidelity, integrity, lenity, utility. (B).
tycoon 655 -type
Some more in which the -ty word has in the following extracts. People
a concrete or other limited sense not may wonder whether he always knows
shared by the other: ambiguity, capa- the meaning of the words he uses when
city, commodity, fatality, festivity, they find him calling a wooden copy of
monstrosity, nicety, novelty, speciality, the Queen Elizabeth put up to deceive
subtlety. (C). Some of the few in -ness the Germans her 'prototype' {antitype,
that are as much used as those in -ty, if any type, but better counterfeit).
or more, though the -ty words exist: I The fees of the most successful barristers
clearness (clarity), crudeness, false- in France do not amount to more than a
ness, jocoseness, morbidness, pon- fraction of those earned by their proto-
derousness, positiveness, tenseness, types in England (should be counter-
unctuousness. (D). Some -ness words parts, or, colloquially, opposite numbers.!
that have no corresponding form in -ty The type of mind which prompted
in common use, though the adjective that policy finds its modern prototype
is of Latin origin and might have been in Unionist Ulster (should be equi-
expected to produce one: crispuess, valent). I 'I presume you bring this
facetiousness, firmness, largeness, mas- war figure into dramatic contrast with
siveness, naturalness, obsequiousness, his anti-type.'—' Yes; and with the other
pensiveness, proneness, robustness, types of the . . .' (should be opposite).
rudeness, seriousness, tardiness, tedi- The true meanings of the words are
ousness, tenderness, vastness, vileness. as follows :
(E). If there is also a -tion word, ANTETYPE ('a preceding type,
derived from the verb, this naturally an earlier example'—OED) is a rare
signifies the process, and the -ty word, word that should hardly ever be used,
derived from the adjective, the result, first because its similarity in sound and
e.g. liberty and liberation, multiplicity opposition in sense to the established
and multiplication, profanity and antitype is inconvenient, secondly as
profanation, satiety and satiation, being liable to confusion with proto-
variety and variation. But sometimes type also from their closeness in mean-
these pairs develop by usage a sharper ing, and thirdly because forerunner is
differentiation, e.g. inanity and inani- ready to take its place when it really
tion, integrity and integration, sanity does not mean prototype.
and sanitation. ANTITYPE, unlike the others, is
not a type. Type and antitype are a
tycoon (Great prince) was the title complementary pair or correlatives:
applied by foreigners to the military the type is the symbol or emblem or
ruler (Shogun) of Japan in the times pattern or model, and the antitype
(before 1867) when the Mikado's ('lit. responding as an impression to
temporal power was usurped. Its the die'—OED) is the person or
adoption in U.S. as a colloquial term object or fact or event in the sphere of
for a business magnate dates from the reality that answers to its specifica-
early 20th. c , and it has now taken firm tion.
root in Britain also. PROTOTYPE, on the other hand,
serves, with limitations, as a synonym
tyle(r). SeeTiLE(R). for type. In particular it may be pre-
ferred (i) to emphasize (like archetype,
tympan(um)(o). Pronounce tïm'pâ-. see below) the priority in time of a
Tympanum, the eardrum, has plural certain type over its antitype, or (ii)
-a; tympano, or more usually timpano, when type, which has other senses,
the kettledrum, has plural -i, pro- might be ambiguous, or (iii) when
nounced ë. typification itself is of no great
consequence, and the sense wanted is
-type. There is much confusion and no more than 'the earliest form' of
other misuse of the words antetype, something. With this last meaning it
antitype, prototype, and archetype, as has come into general use for the first
typescript 656 u and non-u
of a new type of aircraft or other tyrannize us mil produce results which
machine constructed experimentally the Government will have good reason
before being put into production. to regret. / They were 'the strong, rugged,
ARCHETYPE is sometimes used as God-fearing people' who were to be
a dignified synonym of prototype : ' The tyrannized and oppressed by a wicked
House of Commons, the a. of all repre- Liberal Government. Most readers of
sentative assemblies (Macaulay). / Hou- good modern writing will have the
dini is the archetypal escapologist, as familiar slight shock incident to meet-
Sherlock Holmes is the archetypal de- ing a solecism and want to insert 'over'.
tective. Recently it has been given a But the OED's comment on the transi-
more specialized meaning as the name tive use is merely 'now rare', and it pro-
applied by Jung to what he first duces abundant examples from older
termed the 'primordial images' under- writers. Still, the present idiom is to
lying those unconscious mental pro- tyrannize over, not to tyrannize, one's
cesses common to all mankind that subjects.
he called 'the collective unconscious'.
In this sense, or something like it, tyrant. The original Greek sense of
archetype and archetypal have had the the word is so far alive still that readers
misfortune to be seized on as POPU- must be prepared for it. Neither cruel
LARIZED TECHNICALITIES, and have nor despotic conduct was essential to
suffered the usual consequences. 'A the Greek notion of a tyrant, who was
year ago,' writes a puzzled reviewer, merely an absolute ruler owing his
'Fr. Gerald Vann O.P. published office to usurpation. The word con-
his book on Trees of Life, with noted the manner in which power had
archetypal bearings on Eden and the been gained, not the manner in which
Crucifixion. . . . Just over a year ago it was exercised; despotic or 'tyran-
Mr. F. J. Stopp studied the arche- nical' use of the usurped position
typal structure of the novels of Mr. was natural and common, but inci-
Evelyn Waugh. Last March Mr. D. dental only. Dictator, originally the
Streatfeld equated the underworlds to name of a Roman official appointed in
which were abducted the Persephone time of grave emergency, has been
of Greek myth and the heroine of No similarly besmirched by the behaviour
Orchids for Miss Blandish, discovering of later dictators.
archetypal significance in barmaids
and cloakroom attendants, more es- tyre, tyro. See TIRE, TIRO.
pecially if they were blondes.' As Jung
himself sadly admitted, 'the concept
of the archetype has given rise to the
greatest misunderstandings . . . and
u
must be presumed to be very difficult u. For the pronunciatior of long u
to understand'. (yoo or o~o) see PRONUNCIATION 6.