ASSIGNMENT 01

SOCIAL, ETHICAL AND PROFESSIONAL ISSUES IN COMPUTING

CST 395 – 2

RAJAPAKSHA R. A. N. T.D
UWU/IIT/18/022
INDUSTRIAL INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY DEGREE PROGRAM
DEPARTMENT OF COMPUTER SCIENCE AND INFORMATICS
FACULTY OF APPLIED SCIENCES
1. Define and explain below ethical theories (must include cases for/ cases against
them)

• Subjective relativism

Relativism – There is no universal standards of what is right and wrong. For an

example, one individual may argue "X is correct," while another may argue "X is
incorrect," and both may be correct.
Subjective relativism - Each individual determines what is good and wrong for
himself/herself – "What is right for you may not be right for me".

Case for Subjective Relativism

o On moral matters, well-meaning and educated individuals differ.
§ E.g., Rational people on both sides of abortion issues
o Ethical debates are disagreeable and pointless.
§ E.g., Debates take up a lot of time (more than 30 years)

Case against Subjective Relativism

o The border between doing what you believe is right and doing what you
want is not well defined.
o There is no moral distinction between different people's activities.
§ E.g., Hitler vs Mother Theresa each thought doing right
o Tolerance and subjective relativism are not the same thing.
o Allows individuals to make judgments based on factors other than logic.
o Not a workable ethical theory.

2
• Cultural relativism

The concept that all beliefs, customers, and ethics are relative to the person within
his particular social context is known as cultural relativism. In other words, "right"
and "wrong" are culturally particular; what is considered moral in one society may
be judged immoral in another, and, because there is no universal standard of
morality, no one has the right to judge the consumers of another community.
A particular activity may be right in one society and wrong in another at the same
moment.
§ Right and wrong in the same society at different times.
§ Right and wrong in different societies at the same time.
A person who believes in cultural relativism understands that one culture is not
better than another

Case for cultural Relativism

o Different societal circumstances demand different moral norms.
o It is rude for one society to pass judgement on another.
§ E.g., Technology has not necessarily made us smarter than past
cultures.
§ E.g., The twenty-first century vs the fifteenth century.

Case against cultural Relativism

o Because two societies have opposing moral ideas, it does not follow that
they should.
§ E.g., Drought – canal vs. human sacrifices.
o What if no cultural norms exist?
§ E.g., Internet -> sharing copyright material -> ok/ not, ok?
o It gives no way out for cultures that are at conflict.
§ War of Sri Lanka no common ground to reconcile.
o The presence of several acceptable practices does not indicate that all
practices are acceptable (many/any fallacy).
§ There are too many methods for documenting programs; which are
good and which are bad?

3
• Divine command theory

This is a guiding moral principal which states something is right/wrong if God says
so and should be obeyed because God commands it. If God says you should do
something you should do it. God’s will be revealed in holy books. Those are moral
decision-making guides.

Case for divine command theory

o We owe our Creator obedience.
o God is all-good and all-knowing.
§ We should align ourselves with God's will because God understands
what we need to do to be happy better than we do.
o The ultimate authority is God.

Cases against divine command theory

o Different holy books disagree
§ E.g., Catholic vs. Protestant bible.
o Society is multicultural
o Some modern moral problems not addressed in scripture
§ Mentioning the Internet
o “The good” ≠ “God” (equivalence fallacy)
o E.g., good is outside of God.
o Based on obedience, not reason
§ E.g., Not based on facts, reasoning.
o Not a workable ethical theory

4
• Ethical Egoism

Claims that even though we can act in others’ interest because we are concerned for
others, we ought always to act in our own interest.
Morally right action: that which brings the most long-term advantage to oneself.

Cases for ethical egoism

o It is useful since we are already inclined to do what is best for ourselves.
o It is preferable to let others take care of themselves.
o When individuals prioritize their own well-being, the community benefits.
o The principle of self-interest underpins all other moral principles.

Cases against for ethical egoism

o An easy moral philosophy is not always the best moral philosophy.
§ E.g., Easier-to-live by philosophy ≠ Good philosophy.
o We do, in fact, know a lot about what is best for others.
§ E.g., Charity usually doesn’t lead to dependence; opportunity to
become more independent.
o When individuals prioritize their own interests, social inequities occur.
§ E.g., Slavery
o Other moral principles are superior to the self-interest principle.
§ E.g., preserving life vs. self-interest.
o It is not a workable ethical theory.

5
• Kantianism

Kantianism is the label given to Immanuel Kant's ethical philosophy. Kant felt that
moral principles should govern people's conduct and that these moral laws should
be universal. Kantianism is founded on the idea that rational humans may use
reasoning to explain why they solve ethical problems.
Kant presents the Categorical Imperative:
(1) Act solely from moral standards that you wish to be universal moral laws;
(2) Act in such a manner that you always see yourself and others as ends in
themselves, rather than as means to a goal.
Illustration of 1st Formulation
Question: Can a desperate person make a commitment with the intention of
breaching it later?
Proposed rule: “I may make promises with the intention of later breaking them.”
o The person in difficulty wants his promise to be trusted so that he might obtain
what he requires.
o Universalize rule: Everyone may make & break promises.
o Everyone breaking promises makes promises seem unbelievable, which
contradicts the goal to have promises trusted.
o The rule is flawed. The answer is “No.”

Categorical Imperative (2nd Formulation)

Act in such a way that you see yourself and others as ends in themselves, rather
than as a means to an end. People should not be "used." "Respect" for them.
This is typically a simpler formulation to deal with than the previous Categorical
Imperative formulation.

6
Cases for Kantianism
o It is rational
§ The Categorical Imperative is consistent with the common moral
concern, "What if everyone acted like that?" It is wrong for you to
act in a certain manner if you cannot desire for everyone in a
comparable situation to act in the same way.
o Produces universal moral guidelines
§ “Sacrificing living human beings to appease the gods is wrong.”
o All persons are treated as moral equals.
§ Kantianism provides an ethical framework for dealing with
discrimination.

Cases against Kantianism

o Sometimes no rule adequately characterizes an action.

§ E.g., Am I stealing? Am I caring for my children?
o There are situations when there is no solution to resolve a rule conflict.

7
• Act utilitarianism

Focus on each individual action we decide to perform. Says that we should choose
to the one action that will produce the greatest amount of happiness for the greatest
number at a given time.
Bentham tends to favor this view, as opposed to Mill who is more of a rule
utilitarian.
Principle of Utility
o Jeremy Bentham and John Stuart Mill
o An action is good if it benefits someone
o An action is bad if it harms someone
o Utility: tendency of an object to produce happiness or prevent unhappiness
for an individual or a community
o Happiness = advantage = benefit = good = pleasure
o Unhappiness = disadvantage = cost = evil = pain

Principle of Utility – (Greatest Happiness Principle)

Moral actions are those that follow the norms that lead to the greatest good.

Case for Act Utilitarianism

o Focuses on happiness
o Straightforward
o Down-to-earth (practical)
o Comprehensive
o Workable ethical theory

Cases against Act Utilitarianism

o Unclear whom to include in calculations and how far out into the future to
consider.
o Too much work.
o Ignores our innate sense of duty.
o We cannot predict consequences with certainty.
o Susceptible to the problem of moral luck.
o Overall, a workable ethical theory.

8
• Rule utilitarianism

Because of the shortcomings of act utilitarianism, some philosophers have

developed alternative ethical theory based on the utility principle. This is known as
rule utilitarianism. Some philosophers believe that John Stuart Mill was a rule
utilitarian, whereas others disagree.

Cases for Rule utilitarianism

o The utilitarian calculation is not required for every moral decision.
o Exceptional circumstances do not overthrow moral rules.
o The problem of moral luck is solved by rule utilitarianism.
o Bias is reduced through rule utilitarianism.
o It appeals to a diverse range of people.

Cases against Rule utilitarianism

o Utilitarianism requires us to utilize a same scale or metric to assess very
different types of effects.
o Utilitarianism ignores the issue of an unjust distribution of good outcomes.

9
• Social contract theory

Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679): argues in favor of absolute monarchy.

Hobbes argues that everybody living in a civilized society has implicitly agreed to
two things:
o We implicitly accept a social contract
§ Establishment of moral rules to govern relations among citizens
§ Government capable of enforcing these rules

Cases for Social contract theory

o It is framed in the language of rights.
o It explains why rational individuals behave in their own self-interest when
there is no common agreement.
o It explains why the government may deprive some individuals of their rights
in certain circumstances.
o It shows why, in some cases, civil disobedience is the morally right decision.

Cases against contract theory

o Nobody signed the contract.
o Some actions have multiple characterizations
E.g., Do not steal
o When the analysis reveals conflicting rights, social contract theory does not
explain how to solve a moral problem.
E.g., Abortion - the privacy right of mother, against the fetus’s right to
live.
o The social contract theory may be unfair to those who are unable to keep
their end of the agreement.
E.g., Drug addicts – some countries put in prisons other countries put in
hospitals

10
• Virtue Ethics

Virtue ethics does not question how we act, but instead studies how we are as
people, it is therefore agent-centered morality (“Is X a good person” rather than “Is
X right or Wrong?”). Aristotle believed the goal of eudaimonia was our life long
pursuit that everyone wanted.
A right action is one that a virtuous person, acting in character, would take in the
same situation. A virtuous person is someone who possesses and practices virtues.
The virtues are the character attributes that humans require in order to be successful
and be really happy.

Cases for Virtue Ethics

o In many cases, focusing on virtues rather than obligations, rights, or
consequences makes more sense.
o Personal relationships can have moral implications for decision making.
o Virtue ethics recognizes that our moral decision-making abilities evolve
through time.
o Emotions play a crucial part in leading a virtuous life, according to virtue
ethics.

Cases against Virtue Ethics

o Diverse people may have quite different ideas on what constitutes human
flourishing.
o Government policy cannot be guided by virtue ethics.
o Attempts to hold people accountable for their poor behavior are undermined
by virtue ethics.

11
 2. Compare 5 workable ethical theories with a diagram.
It results in the maximum net
increase in the total good of the
affected parties.
(ACT UTILITARIANISM)
An act utilitarianism considers
the consequences of the action,
computing the determine if an
action is right or wrong.
We can imagine everyone following
this rule all the time without
producing a logical contradiction
that undermines the rule.
(KANTIANISM).
Kantianism theory based on rule-
based.
A Kantianism relies upon the
categorical imperative for the
determining if a moral rule is
correct.
What makes an action morally
right?
It is in accord with a
correct moral rule.
What makes a moral rule
correct?
The effect of everyone following
this rule all the time would be the
greatest increase in the total good.
(RULE UTILITARIANISM)
Rule utilitarianism theory based on
rule-based.
Rule utilitarianism’s way of
determining if moral rule is correct
is, A rule utilitarian considers what
the l1on3g-term consequences of
every one following the rule would
be for the total good.
12
It is consistent with the actions
of a virtuous person (VIRTUE
THEORY)
Virtue ethics focuses on the
agent. (Unlike the other
theories, which focus on the
act itself or the consequence of
the action)
Rational people would collectively
accept it as binding because of the
resulting benefits to the community.
(SOCIAL CONTRACT THEORY)
Social contract theory based on rule-
based.An adherent of social contract
theory considers whether rational
people would agree to accept the
rule, for everyone’s mutual benefits,
provided that everyone else agreed
to follow the rules as well.
Theory Motivation Criteria Focus
Kantianism Dutifulness Rules Individual
Act Utilitarianism Consequence Actions Group
Rule Utilitarianism Consequence/Duty Rules Group
Social Contract Right Rules Individual

13