ANCIENT HISTORY

HISTORICAL PERIODS: OPTION O

THE JULIO-CLAUDIANS AND THE

ROMAN EMPIRE AD 14 - 69
HISTORICAL BACKGROUND

AUGUSTUS

 Rome had been a republic for ~500 years

 This system couldn’t cope with expansion
 Julius Caesar (Augustus’ great uncle)
o Started the movement towards getting rid of the Republic
o Toyed with the idea of being a permanent dictator/king/autocrat
o Was assassinated in an attempt to save the Republic
 Marc Antony attempts to seize power after Caesar, but ends up being Augustus’ (named Octavian at this time)
rival in a power struggle.
 The Battle of Actium 31 BC was a fight for dominance over the Roman world. Augustus wins the war and the
right to control Rome.
 The Republic has failed and been ruined. Augustus’ alternative to this is to make the crucial decision to change the
political system to one of a one-man rule. This is established and named the ‘principate’
 Augustus means ‘the respected one’. His key achievement was setting up Rome with a new political system that
lasted another 500 years. He was careful and discreet as an emperor.
 Augustus was 76 when he died of natural causes.

THE ROMAN WORLD

THE SENATE

 The senate included 600 of Rome’s most influential men.

 500 years old at this time and was a central part of the republic.
 Augustus restored its dignity and functions by allowing cooperation in running the empire between him and the
senate. Through inclusion he gained the support of the senate. He also removed corrupt senators.
 The senate retained control of the treasury and looked after peaceful provinces, but the Augustan model was never
really one of ‘shared’ power – Augustus controlled the army and had control over most administration.

THE ROMAN ARMY

 Was made up of legions with ~6000 men in each.

 Under Augustus, the number of legions was reduced from 60 to 24.
 Augustus settled many retired veterans in colonies and some were given monetary assistance. He also introduced a
fixed term of service and added money to the military treasury to stop generals from exploiting troops or buying
their loyalty.
 Overall they had a respectful and stable relationship.

THE PRAETORIAN GUARD

 Was a unit of the Roman Army, made up of 9000 men. They had the objective of protecting the emperor.
  Augustus gave them better pay, but recognised that they were still too dangerous. To remedy this, he split them
into 9 units and spread them around Rome.

THE ROMAN PROVINCES

 Augustus treated the provinces well. They were taxed fairly, their needs were provided for, and they were
protected by the legions. Governors were chosen carefully. Peace and infrastructure.

PLEBS

 Were an extremely volatile group in Rome’s political and social systems. They had caused problems in the time of
the republic by making use of their large numbers to riot.
 They were provided with food and entertainment to pacify them. New building projects helped ease the issue of
unemployment.

THE PRINCIPATE

 Brought ‘pax romana’ – peace and stability for Rome.

 Augustus was discreet. He hid the fact that he was an autocratic ruler and that Rome now had an imperial system.

THE JULIO-CLAUDIAN FAMILY

 Augustus had one child, Julia, who was the daughter to his first wife. His dilemma was the issue of his male heir.
 Augustus’ plan for accession was to have grandsons through Julia. To achieve this he married Julia to Agrippa.
Julia had 5 children (3m 2f). His 2 eldest grandsons (Gaius and Lucius Caesar) died in their 20s.
 Augustus’ second wife, Livia, had two male children from a previous marriage. These stepsons were treated poorly
as Augustus regarded them as being second-best. He later reluctantly adopted the 45 year old Tiberius.

THE DEATH OF AUGUSTUS

 August died peacefully at 76 years old in AD 14, having ruled for over 40 years.
 In light of the new system (the principate), Tiberius becomes princeps as Augustus’ only potential heir. Tiberius is
forced to adopt his nephew, Germanicus.
 Augustus’ issue of succession is now a major problem for every future emperor in the Julio-Claudian period.

KEY SOURCES FOR THIS PERIOD

 Suetonius – The Twelve Caesars

o Biographer who was more interested in the personalities and behaviours of emperors than actual politics

 Tacitus – The Annals

o Born in the reign of Nero
o Wrote his history around a generation after the period
o Provides a largely negative view and is critical of the emperors. He is highly biased against the system

THE STRUCTURE AND PERSONALITIES OF THE JULIO-CLAUDIAN FAMILY

AUGUSTUS

 Paterfamilias
 Rebuilt and brought peace to the Roman world from the chaos of civil war
 Had good relationships with the senate, plebs, army and provinces
 Only called himself ‘princeps’, not emperor. Shows his discreetness in ensuring that no one felt threatened by the
changes he made to Rome’s political system
 Father of Julia
 Grandfather and father by law of Gaius and Lucius Caesar
 Stepfather of Tiberius and Drusus the elder (Tiberius was adopted later)

SCRIBONIA

 First wife of Augustus

 Mother of Julia

JULIA
  Daughter of Augustus and Scribonia
 Held hatred for Augustus
 Was forced by Augustus to marry Agrippa and have 5 children
 Agrippa died so she was then forced to marry Tiberius (her step-brother)
 Deliberately tried to embarrass Augustus by taking on the role of a prostitute. She was exiled

AGRIPPA

 Loyal supporter and friend of Augustus

 Husband of Julia

GAIUS AND LUCIUS CAESAR

 The two eldest sons of Agrippa and Julia

 Grandsons of Augustus, but became his sons by law
 Were given preparation to succeed Augustus
 Died in their twenties

AGRIPPINA THE ELDER

 Daughter of Agrippa and Julia

 Granddaughter of Augustus
 Forced to marry Germanicus

LIVIA

 Second wife of Augustus

 Mother of Tiberius and Drusus the Elder
 Loyal and supportive to Augustus

TIBERIUS

 Son of Livia
 Stepson, son-in-law and adopted son of Augustus
 Made to feel second-best as he was not the Augustan bloodline
 Husband of Vipsania - happy marriage
 Forced to divorce Vipsania and marry Julia – unhappy marriage
 Went into voluntary exile until all other heirs passed
 Adopted by Augustus as a 45 year old

DRUSUS THE YOUNGER

 Son of Tiberius and Vipsania

DRUSUS THE ELDER

 Younger brother of Tiberius

  Son of Livia
 Stepson of Augustus
 Grew up in Augustus’ familia, treated well
 Given military opportunities
 Had three children, including Germanicus and Claudius

GERMANICUS

 Son of Drusus the Elder

 Son by law of Tiberius (forced adoption by Augustus)
 The planned heir to Tiberius
 Ambitious, popular, talented
 Husband of Agrippina the Elder (daughter of Agrippa and Julia)
 Has 6 surviving children – two important ones are Caligula and Agrippina the Younger
THE PRINCIPATE OF TIBERIUS
AD 14 - 37

FAMILY BACKGROUND

 Tiberius was the son of Livia, and stepson of Augustus. He was the older brother of Drusus the Elder. Tiberius was
from the Claudian family.
 Livia married Augustus when Tiberius was 2 years old.
 “Nero (Tiberius’ father + husband of Livia) surrendered her to him” (Suetonius)
 Tiberius’ relationship to Augustus was tense. The fundamental problem was that he wasn’t biologically related to
Augustus. Augustus was distant and unaccepting of him. Even out of the stepsons, Augustus favoured Drusus the
Elder.
 Tiberius married Vipsania (daughter of Agrippa). Their marriage was happy and full of love. They had one child,
Drusus the Younger.
 Tiberius was forced to divorce Vipsania, and instead marry Augustus’ daughter Julia.
 “Tiberius took this very ill. He loved Vipsania and strongly disapproved of Julia.” (Suetonius)

MILITARY AND DIPLOMATIC CAREER

 His role, as seen by Augustus, until AD 4 was that of a steady, reliable figure whom Augustus could count on in
times of crisis. Not seen as a successor early on but was useful to Augustus.

POLITICAL ROLE

 Held several consulships

 took the place of Agrippa
 20BC negotiated the return of the ‘lost’ Parthian Eagles

MILITARY ROLE

 Successful Roman General

 Served for 40 years, starting at age 16
 “One place for the young prince was with the armies. Tiberius first saw service in Spain at the age of sixteen....
Tiberius showed himself to be an apt pupil.” (Massie)
 “In all these tasks he showed a welcome efficiency; he was a young man on whom Augustus could rely.” (Massie)

 “Tiberius and Drusus hailed publicly as victorious generals.” (Tacitus)

 In 6BC Tiberius retired to Rhodes in voluntary exile. He was bitter over Augustus’ treatment of him.

PERSONALITY
  Seen as sour, withdrawn and gloomy. He held personal bitterness due to being forced to divorce Vipsania and
being passed over constantly as a successor to be a ‘last resort’. He was not a good communicator, found it
difficult to express himself and struggled to show emotion.
 “…stern countenance… disagreeable and signs of arrogance” (Suetonius)

 “Augustus… often tried to excuse them to the senate and people by declaring that they were natural failings, and
not intentional…” (Suetonius)
 “He was a withdrawn, silent man, given to long periods of brooding… there is no single key which will unlock his
character.” (Massie)
 “…his character was not well adapted to his task. Silent and reserved by nature, often obscure and ambiguous in
expression he appeared severe and suspicious to many.” (Scullard)
 “His innate diffidence and his family pride were aggravated by his experience of having been set aside by
Augustus and adopted by him only as a last resort. Thus when he became princep, he was already disillusioned,
soured and embittered.” (Scullard)

ACCESSION TO THE ROLE OF PRINCEP

 The 45-year-old Tiberius was recalled from Rhodes and adopted by Augustus in AD 4. Despite this being an
obvious last resort, Tiberius still returned to Rome, showing his loyalty.
 “Then in the space of three years the world turned upside down and Augustus’ plans were shattered. First …
Lucius Caesar, died in Spain. Then in AD4 Gaius also died. Tiberius became again the necessary man.”
(Massie)
 “My belief is that Augustus weighed Tiberius’ good qualities against the bad and decided that the good tipped the
scale; he had … publicly sworn that his adoption of Tiberius was in the national interest and had often referred to
him as an outstanding general...” (Suetonius)
 For 10 years Tiberius is the clear successor. For these 10 years he is prepared and shares Tribunician Potestas
(political power) and Maius Imperium (military power) with Augustus. Tiberius is also forced to adopt his nephew
Germanicus.
 “… Tiberius was the only surviving stepson; and everything pointed in his direction. He was adopted as the
emperor’s son and as partner in his powers … and displayed to all the armies.” (Tacitus)
 In the last 3 days of Augustus’ life, he called on Tiberius and had those days privately spent together.

THE DEATH OF AUGUSTUS AND TIBERIUS’ ATTITUDE TO ACCESSION

 On Augustus’ passing, there is a funeral and widespread grief. After the funeral it was expected that Tiberius
immediately assume his power, but he hesitates for 3 days. The Roman people begin to panic, as the power
vacuum makes them concerned for anarchy and civil war.
 “No man ever showed less eagerness for empire.” (Massie)

REASONS FOR HIS HESITATION

 He would always be compared to, and fall short of, the now deified Augustus
 At 55 years of age, he may have been considering retirement
 He knows that his personality traits (withdrawn, sombre, poor communicator) do not suit the role of princeps
 A fear of assassination
  “The hesitation of Tiberius is attributed to hypocrisy, but it may well have been genuine. He was fifty-five years
old…” (Scullard)
 “His hesitation was caused by fear of the dangers that threatened him from many quarters, and often led him to
declare that he was holding a wolf by the ears.” (Suetonius)
 “From now on, he was Atlas.” (Massie)

REASONS HE ACCEPTED

 The need to avoid civil war

 His sense of duty
 Tacitus believes that Livia pushed him into it
 “The life work of Augustus might easily have been undone if his powers could not be transmitted smoothly to
another – there must be no long dispute that would open again the flood gates of civil war.” (Scullard)

THE FAMILY OF TIBERIUS

GERMANICUS

 Germanicus was Tiberius’ nephew by blood. Tiberius was forced to adopt him, thus making him his son by law.
 Germanicus’ wife was Agrippina the Elder, granddaughter of Augustus. They have 6 children, the youngest being
Caligula.
 In AD14, Germanicus was 29 years old, making it conceivable that he would be the accessor of Tiberius.
 Despite having Drusus the Younger, Augustus “… ordered him to adopt Germanicus. For Augustus wanted to
have another iron in the fire.” (Tacitus)

DRUSUS THE YOUNGER

 Drusus the Younger was Tiberius’ biological son, born to his happy marriage with Vipsania. He is very dear to
Tiberius.
 In AD14, Drusus was 26 years old. He was 3 years younger than Germanicus, making him a backup heir.
 He is later killed by his wife (and cousin), Livilla.

RELATIONSHIP WITH THE ROMAN ARMY

THE MUTINIES ON THE NORTHERN FRONTIER AD 14

 Within weeks of his accession, Tiberius encountered his first crisis. Eight legions of the Roman Army mutinied
along the Rhine and Danube over promised bonuses from Augustus that were never paid + changed recruitment
laws.
 The Army actually respected Tiberius and held him in high regard, as he had served with and commanded them
previously. They wanted to take advantage of his vulnerability to gain money.
 “The succession was the occasion rather than the cause of the mutinies; nevertheless, they were dangerous and
shameful to the Emperor.” (Massie)
 “…the change of emperors offered hope of rioting with impunity and collecting the profits afforded by civil
wars....” (Tacitus)
TIBERIUS’ RESPONSE

 Tiberius, despite being shocked, handles the situation well. He delegates Drusus to the Danube and Germanicus to
the Rhine. This action demonstrates Tiberius’ preparations/plans for succession.

ROLE OF DRUSUS AT THE DENUBE

 Drusus took advantage of a lunar eclipse that appeared on the night of his arrival. The superstitious soldiers were
frightened and interpreted this as a sign of the gods’ anger. Drusus round up the instigators/ringleaders and
executed them that night, effectively ending the mutiny.
 “The night looked like ending in a disastrous criminal outbreak. But this was averted by a stroke of luck.
Suddenly, in a clear sky, the light of the moon was seen to decline.” (Tacitus)

ROLE OF GERMANICUS AT THE RHINE

 As the eclipse had already subsided on his arrival, Germanicus attempted to use his popularity to quell the mutiny.
This wasn’t as effective as Drusus’ method.
 At one point, he gave in to the financial demands of the legions and led them into Germanic territory on an
unauthorised raid, claiming that any loot they found would count as their bonus. He also made the men feel guilty
by threatening to move his family away from the soldiers because they were unsafe.
 These ‘theatrical efforts’ eventually succeeded, the ring leaders were executed and from them on the Army
remained loyal.
 “The Rhine frontier was the responsibility of Germanicus.... He remained, however, loyal to Tiberius and after
some rather theatrical efforts he succeeded in quelling the mutiny.” (Scullard)

FOREIGN POLICY

 Tiberius firmly believed in the Augustan policy of consilium. This was characterised by static borders, defence
rather than aggression and diplomacy rather than war. The empire was large enough and any expansion would
upset the delicate balance he had created.

GERMANICUS’ INVASIONS OF GERMANY AD 14 - 16

 Germanicus launched three invasions of Germany without the permission of Tiberius. Each of these (AD 14, 15,
16) failed.
 In AD 16 Germanicus was recalled. The German campaign was unnecessary for several reasons.
o Was simply a reaction to the mutinies
o Had no strategic value
o Exposed Roman troops to needless danger
o Went against Tiberius’ commands and the policy of consilium.
 Its only value was in a personal gain in popularity for Germanicus.
 Germanicus was allowed a triumph (military parade for victors) on his return, despite the campaign not amounting
to anything significant.
 Archaeological evidence of Tiberius’ attempts to placate Germanicus – a brooch depicting Germanicus and the
goddess of victory
  “Germanicus knew…that jealousy was the reason why Tiberius denied him a victory that was already won.”
(Tacitus)
 “…Tiberius recalled him, not unreasonably.” (Scullard)

GERMANICUS, PISO AND THE EAST

 Tiberius instructed that Germanicus be granted Maius Imperium over the eastern half of the empire. This parallels
the powers given prior to Tiberius by Augustus, showing that Germanicus was being prepared to be successor
instead of Drusus. This was another chance for him to prove his diplomatic aptitude.
 “The eastern troubles could only be put right by the wisdom of Germanicus.... so the senate entrusted the overseas
provinces to Germanicus.” Tacitus
 Tiberius is cautious and doesn’t want to risk Germanicus being rash and starting a war. He wanted Germanicus to
adhere to his policy of consilium, especially regarding Parthia.

PISO

 Tiberius sent the trusted senator Piso to supervise Germanicus, intending to ensure that Germanicus did not start
unnecessary war.
 Piso and Germanicus greatly clashed. While Germanicus had seniority in power, Piso had age and experience.
 “Tiberius did not want ambition for military glory to lead Germanicus to start another war with Parthia.”
(Scullard)
 “However wise and necessary the conception, Tiberius had blundered. He chose the wrong man in Piso, and so
prepared the catastrophe which would work itself out to be the ruin of his reign.” (Massie)

THE DEATH OF GERMANICUS

 In AD 19, Germanicus died. Piso was accused of murdering him on Tiberius’ orders. Before the trial took place,
Piso committed suicide.
 “Now, however, Germanicus fell ill, of a wasting fever. He began to believe that he had been poisoned; obviously
his enemy Piso was the villain.” (Massie)

THE IMPACT OF GERMANICUS’ DEATH

 Agrippina the Elder (his wife) carried Germanicus’ ashes back to Rome, gaining sympathy and public support.
 Tiberius stayed out of the public eye. He lost an opportunity to gain support by fault of his personality. This
greatly damaged his public image and led some to believe that he was guilty of taking part in Germanicus’ death.
 Germanicus’ death split the family into two factions:
o Agrippina the Elder, supported by her family and the general public
o Tiberius, supported by Livia and Sejanus

 “When news of his death finally broke, neither edicts nor official expressions of sympathy could console the
populace.” (Suetonius)
 “Though no serious evidence of foul play was brought forward, his widow Agrippina, convinced herself that
Tiberius had poisoned him, and henceforth she waged a relentless vendetta against the emperor.” (Massie)

THE PRAETORIAN GUARD AND THE ROLE OF SEJANUS

BACKGROUND TO THE PRAETORIAN GUARD

 The Guard was formed in 27 BC, by Augustus, as an elite military unit and imperial bodyguards.
 They managed the day-to-day care of Rome, including general security and civil administration. They were made
up of 9 cohorts (1 less than a regular legion) scattered across the city, commanded by 2 prefects.
 They were a constant reminder that the foundation of imperial power lay with the military.

THE AMBITIONS OF SEJANUS AS GUARD COMMANDER AD 20 – 30

 Sejanus worked his way into Tiberius’ trust. He suggested that Tiberius let him concentrate all of the Guard in one
barracks within Rome, along with adding 3000 more men. Tiberius is convinced to go through with this.
 The joint leadership of the Guard is abandoned, leaving Sejanus as the sole leader of 12,000 elite soldiers just
outside the gates of Rome. Sejanus is also in charge of appointing tribunes and centurions. Sejanus’ allies are
given positions in the Senate, earning the animosity of the senatorial elite.
 Tiberius abandoned the Augustan illusion of shared power, through open displays of the Guard’s strength at
parades. The Guard have now become politicised / a ‘political weapon’
 Tiberius failed to see the ambitions of Sejanus, instead praising him and even calling him ‘the partner of my
labours’.
 “The emperor himself became tyrannical – or gave tyrannical men power. The cause and beginning of that
change lay with Lucius Aelius Sejanus, commander of the Guard… and his criminal attempt on the throne.”
(Tacitus)
 “To Sejanus alone the otherwise cryptic emperor spoke freely and unguardedly...” (Tacitus)

 “…audacious character and untiring physique, secretive about himself and ever ready to incriminate others a
blend of arrogance and servility, he concealed behind a carefully modest exterior an unbounded lust for power.”
(Tacitus)

THE MURDER OF DRUSUS THE YOUNGER AND ITS CONSEQUENCES

 Drusus the Younger is now Tiberius’ heir. Furthermore, he is the only person to currently see Sejanus’ duplicitous
character.
 Drusus confronted Sejanus once and struck him. He attempted to inform Tiberius about Sejanus’ manipulation, but
the emperor did not take is seriously.
 “Soon however the bright hopes of Drusus were overcast by the sinister shadow of Sejanus.” (Scullard)

 “Sejanus’ ambitions were impeded by a well-stocked imperial house… Subtlety required that the crimes should be
spaced out.... So subtle methods prevailed. Sejanus decided to begin with Drusus...” (Tacitus)
 Sejanus begins his plan in AD 23. The plan is efficient and sinister, making use of Drusus’ wife Livilla.
 “Sejanus professed devotion, and seduced her.” (Tacitus)

 “…he incited her to hope for marriage, partnership in the empire and the death of her husband.” (Tacitus)
 Because Livilla has access to the kitchen and slaves, they chose to poison Drusus. The poison they chose had long-
term effects, making it seem as though he was sick.
 “He chose a poison with gradual effects resembling ordinary ill-health.” (Tacitus)
 Drusus passes in AD 23. No one knew the truth of this (except Livilla + Sejanus). They assumed he died of a
natural illness.
 The effects of this are devastating on a dynastic level – Who will be the successor?
  This has further effects on Tiberius, as his hopes for retirement are ruined and he has now lost his son.
 Tiberius’ reaction to this was to show no emotion or grief to the Senate. He gave no time for grief and made them
continue working. Privately, he turned to Sejanus for comfort.

TIBERIUS’ RELATIONSHIP WITH THE SENATE

 Tiberius tried to work with the Senate by following the Augustan model of cooperation. This worked reasonably
well for ~9 years.

THE TREASON TRIALS

 Sejanus cleverly used the Roman Maiestas law to accuse senators of treason. If found guilty, the accused would be
executed and have their property confiscated. If they committed suicide before the trial, they family could keep
their property.
 He targeted potential threats in a campaign to eliminate his key opponents. By employing delatores, Sejanus
gathered information on senators.
 Tiberius allowing this to occur is another weakness of his reign.
 “He (Sejanus) made skilful use of the treason law to strike down a number of potential enemies.” (Scullard)

SEJANUS’ ATTACK ON THE FAMILY OF GERMANICUS

 Sejanus knows of the tension within the Julio-Claudian family, and uses this to eliminate Agrippina the Elder and
those associated with her.
 Agrippina is exiled in AD 29, leaving her sons vulnerable. Her eldest son is charged and exiled. Her second son is
charged, put in a Roman prison, and ‘accidentally choked.’ All die in exile.
 “Agrippina… also hated and despised the upstart Sejanus…” (Massie)

 “The influence of Sejanus grew steadily and he began to plot to secure the succession for himself… he made
skilful use of the treason law” (Scullard)
 “Sejanus now moved to bolder action.... he was clearly to be the successor.” (Scullard)

TIBERIUS’ INCREASING RELIANCE ON SEJANUS

RETIREMENT TO CAPRI

 Sejanus encourages Tiberius to retire, which he had always wanted to do. Sejanus is at the height of his influence,
the only move left is for him to be adopted by Tiberius. This is another mistake by Tiberius.
 Archaeological evidence of Sejanus depicted on a coin

 “Sejanus’ path was further cleared when he persuaded Tiberius to leave Rome and retire to Capri in 27AD.”
(Scullard)
 “No doubt Sejanus encouraged Tiberius in his decision, but he had no need to implant the idea....” (Massie)

 “He became the necessary link between Tiberius and Rome.... By withdrawing to Capri, Tiberius had delivered
himself to Sejanus.” (Massie)

RUMOURS OF TIBERIUS’ ACIVITIES

  Ancient historians speculate the worst on his behaviour at Capri. Tiberius was widely disliked; these were likely
meant to discredit him.
 “he spent the time in secret orgies or malevolent thoughts.” (Tacitus)
 “the old goat’s garden” (Suetonius) further stories (43-77) include descriptions of orgies, minnows, babies
sucking, assaulting musicians then breaking their legs when they complained, maiestas trials against women who
didn’t sleep with him
 Modern historians don’t accept these doubtful accusations. Instead it is generally accepted that he kept working,
surrounding himself with well-educated friends and participating in decision-making and correspondences.
 “He had nothing more to give, nothing to hope for but the release of death […] there was only one solace –
work.” (Massie)

THE DEATH OF SEJANUS AD 31

 On Capri, Tiberius received a letter from his sister-in-law Antonia. She told him of the relationship between Livilla
(her daughter) and Sejanus. She knew enough from her daughter to infer that Sejanus is an untrustworthy
character.
 “But Tiberius’ suspicions were at long last aroused.... that made him doubt Sejanus’ loyalty.” (Scullard)
 Tiberius believed her, and finally took action against Sejanus.
 Tiberius wrote two letters:
o To the Senate – informing them that Sejanus is a traitor and is to be arrested
o To Sejanus – informing him that he needs to attend the Senate for an important announcement, under the
guise of being granted tribunician power
 Sejanus arrived without the Guard. The letter to the Senate was read, denouncing him and ordering his arrest.
Sejanus was strangled and his body thrown down the Gemonian steps as a sign of him being a traitor.
 Livilla was clearly implicated in the murder of Drusus and Sejanus’ conspiracy. She either committed suicide or
was forcibly starved by her mother Antonia.
 “The letter ended abruptly with a request that the Senate arrest Sejanus....The news of his fall sent the mob wild....
Sejanus was strangled and his body dragged to the Gemonian steps where for three days it was exposed to the
insults of the populace.” (Massie)

THE EFFECT OF SEJANUS’ TREACHERY

 Less than a year later, Tiberius received a letter from the widow of Sejanus. She revealed that he and Livilla had
murdered Drusus.
 “… he suffered a severe nervous breakdown and spent most of the rest of his life at Capri.” (Scullard)
 The effects of Sejanus
o Tiberius is now unable to trust advisors
o Tiberius’ Reign of Terror
o Senatorial ranks decimated, especially those with political ties to the Julians
o Arrests and executions are now supervised by Macro
o Damaged Tiberius’ reputation, made him even less eager to rule
o The principate was now run more by the bureaucracy left by Augustus, than by the direct intervention of
the princeps
o Tiberius’ relationship with the Senate forever damaged
 o Power of the Praetorian Guard made clear

THE REIGN OF TERROR

 “To the supporters of Sejanus he proved implacable and ruthless: but he did not strike down his victims without
enquiry...” (Scullard)
 “Frenzied with bloodshed the emperor now ordered the execution of all those arrested for complicity with
Sejanus. It was a massacre. Without discrimination of sex or age, eminence or obscurity, there they lay, strewn
about – or in heaps.” (Tacitus)

THE PROBLEM OF SUCCESSION

THE POSITION OF GAIUS (CALIGULA)

 Tiberius Gemellus was too young and Claudius was passed over as he was disabled. Gaius was the best of ‘bad’
options.
 Gaius, as the remaining son of Germanicus and Agrippina, was now considered the heir. He was taken to live on
Capri in AD 31.
 On Capri, he was already exhibiting disturbing traits, but was considered to be their only choice.
 “...Gaius (Caligula)... had accompanied his grandfather to Capri. A deceitful discretion concealed Gaius’
horrible character.” (Tacitus)
 “I am nursing a viper for the Roman people”
 Macro courted Gaius’ favouritism. He used his own wife to gain his trust and form an alliance.
 “Macro had become excessively powerful... Macro cultivated him more strenuously every day... Macro induced
his own wife Ennia to pretend she loved the prince and enticed him into a promise of marriage. Gaius had no
objection if it helped him towards the throne.” (Tacitus)

THE DEATH OF TIBERIUS AD 37

 In AD 37 Tiberius was 78 years old and had been emperor for 23 years.
 “Tiberius’ strength and health were now failing...” (Tacitus)
 Tiberius was moved to Misenum’s naval base on his deathbed.
 “...the emperor ceased to breathe and was believed to be dead. Gaius, surrounded by a congratulatory crowd,
issued forth to begin his reign... suddenly... Tiberius had recovered his speech and sight...” (Tacitus)
 “Macro, unperturbed, ordered the old man to be smothered with a heap of bed-clothes and left alone.” (Tacitus)
 Gaius is now declared emperor.

EVALUATION OF THE REIGN OF TIBERIUS

THE SENATE

 Tiberius attempted to work with Augustus’ diarchy, but gave Sejanus too much power
 Their relationship was seriously damaged/compromised/soured
THE PRAETORIAN GUARD

 Tiberius allowed the Guard to become a powerful political force

 Under his watch, they were allowed to have major growth to 12,000 and to be concentred
 They are now a political private army who have major influence over the principate – mercenaries who choose the
emperor
 Guard commanders, from now on, are dangerous and have a desire for greater power

THE PROVINCES

 A positive of his reign. They benefitted from him and saw him positively
 Tiberius had good/efficient financial management, and therefore could tax fairly
 Maintained the infrastructure built by Augustus
 Lacked vision/innovation. He didn’t do anything new, but kept things running
 Corrupt governors were not tolerated
 “A good shepherd shears his flock. He does not flay them” (Suetonius)

BUILDING PROGRAMS AND INFRASTRUCTURE

 Didn’t initiate any new projects/building programs/major developments

 Adhered to the Augustan plan – finished off what Augustus started and maintained existing infrastructure
 Tiberius is like a caretaker in this aspect, just keeping things running efficiently

PLEBS

 Tiberius gave them food. He maintained the Augustan grain dole policy without issue
 Did not pay for games and entertainment. This was to keep taxes low, and also because he did not want to attend
due to his disdain for public appearances
 He did not ban entertainment outright – local magistrates could still provide them for the people
 They became disaffected with him
 When the news arrived that he died, the plebs celebrated by dragging his statues to the river - “To the Tiber with
Tiberius”

THE ARMY

 The only issue was the initial problem of the 2 mutinies (first 2 weeks of Tiberius’ reign) – these weren’t even a
fault of Tiberius, and were dealt with effectively
 For 23 years after the mutinies, the army remained steadfastly loyal to Tiberius
 Under Tiberius, Rome is spared from Civil war. He continues to bestow peace to Rome, maintaining Augustus’
Pax Romana. Combining Augustus and Tiberius’ reigns, this stability and prosperity was maintained for 65 years
 The Army respected him because he served in the army previously. Well respected/regarded, had great credibility

FOREIGN AFFAIRS

 The empire borders rested on the Rhine, Danube, Atlantic Ocean, and Sahara Desert – to expand this, he would
have needed expensive military campaigns. These were good places to stop
  Tiberius was a great adherent to consilium
 The only exception to Tiberius’ adherence to consilium was Germanicus’ sole military operation in Germany in
the early years
 It is evident that Tiberius wanted to avoid war – shown when he sent Piso to watch over Germanicus to ensure he
did not start a conflict

THE ECONOMY, FINANCES AND ADMINISTRATION

 One of Tiberius’ great strengths was as a financial manager. He was careful and frugal, but not a visionary
 Not wasteful - at the end of his reign there was 27 million gold pieces in the Roman treasury
 When Tiberius was at Capri there was an earthquake in Asia Minor. He instructed that the Provinces hit by the
earthquake were to be exempt from tax for 5 years to allow them to rebuild

RETIREMENT TO CAPRI

 10 years, from AD 27 - 37
 Tiberius disliked the pressure and demands of being emperor
 This was a great mistake - becomes isolated from Rome’s affairs. Sejanus held major power and control
 However, even whilst on Capri, he still kept in touch with things, e.g. made decisions about the Asia Minor
earthquake
 Not a total disaster – acted effectively and regained control eventually

IMPERIAL FAMILY

 He allows the family to fracture into two factions. His responsibility as princeps and paterfamilias
 The ‘fault line’ is the Julian vs Claudian blood (Agrippina I vs Livia)
 Germanicus’ death was the catalyst. Tiberius did not handle this effectively – he did no support Agrippina I on
Germanicus’ death, and didn’t attend his funeral
 Sejanus drove a further wedge between the family by getting Agrippina I and 2 of her sons exiled

SUCCESSION

 Sejanus ruins Tiberius’ plans for succession. While this was the fault of Sejanus, Tiberius did not handle it well
 Heir #1 Germanicus died early, heir #2 Drusus murdered, Caligula’s older brothers exiled
 Claudius was overlooked and Gaius was now seen as the heir
 Tiberius could have tried to make the best of the situation, but instead failed to give Gaius any preparation
(military, administrative, or financial experience)

HISTORIOGRAPHY OF TIBERIUS

 Uniformly hostile ancient tradition in Tacitus, Cassius Dio and Suetonius

 Tacitus’ representation of Tiberius: “a composite of layers … the Tiberius of history … the Tiberius of the hostile
senatorial tradition.” (Dudley)
 “Compelled to honour the precedents set by Augustus everywhere, Tiberius was hampered in thought and deed by
his own past, and by the oppressive memory of Augustus … Tiberius was the victim of Augustus.” (Syme)
  He did do some things well – it is now seen that he succeeded in keeping Pax Romana and ensuring that the
empire was maintained effectively

THEMATIC ASSESSMENT

ADMINISTRATION
(FINANCES, BUILDING  Saved money – did not spend on unnecessary things (building programs, games)
PROGRAMS REFORMS,
 Saved 2.7 million sesterces
ETC.)
 Continued Augustus’ building programs, no new initiatives (e.g. Pompey Theatre)
 Reformed imperial religion - restricted Judaism
 Genuinely attempted to work with the Senate
 New settlements in certain Provinces helped the process of Romanisation
FOREIGN AND
PROVINCIAL POLICY  Provinces were well looked after
 Maintained the borders as established by Augustus
 Maintained strict order & discipline in the army and provinces
RELATIONSHIP WITH
THE MILITARY (ARMY,  Army maintained as Augustus had left it
PRAETORIAN GUARD)
 Experienced military leader - considerate & never took unnecessary risks
 Frontiers maintained - not extended
 Sejanus became exceptionally influential. This event consolidated & concentred the PG in Rome. Also
increased their numbers

RELATIONSHIP WITH
THE SENATE  Deliberately showed great respect to the Senators
 Accused of hypocrisy in his relationship with the Senate - seen as insincere
 Tried to reduce sycophancy & maintain traditional respect
 Can’t stand hypocrisy and sycophancy - Senate doesn’t know how to deal with him
 Allowed the Senate a deal of freedom with their decisions
 Reign of Terror greatly damages relationship with Senate
RELATIONSHIP WITH
THE PEOPLE (PLEBS,  Unpopular with the people - seen as uncharismatic
EQUESTRIANS,
 Maistas trials very unpopular
FREEDMEN)
 Didn’t cater to the needs of the people (entertainment)
RELATIONSHIP WITH
THE IMPERIAL FAMILY  Infighting and factionalism during his reign
 Distrust within the family
 Last choice by Augustus - led to resentment over the role
CHANGING ROLE AND
IMAGE OF THE  Kept to the Augustan model of government
PRINCEP
 Maintained the illusion of the Republican system
 Reign of Terror stripped away the illusion of cooperation with the Senate / the Augustan diarchy
 Public image moved from reliance on the Senate - to the PG
POSITIVE AND NEGATIVE FEATURES

NEGATIVE

 Personality unsuitable to rule - hypocritical, deceitful, secretive, vindictive, gloomy

 Reluctance for empire allowed Sejanus to gain control
 Suspicious nature allowed Sejanus to manipulate and destroy the imperial family (death of Germanicus, treatment
of Agrippina and her sons)
 Unable to accept servility of the senators - little co-rule, dependence on Tiberius, retirement to Capri alienated the
Senate
 Maiestas trials and increase in delatores - vengeance on Sejanus’ followers
 Fall of Senatorial power corresponded with the rise of the PG - major repercussions for future emperors
 Caligula left untrained for rule which contributes to future problems with his reign
 Supposed perversions

POSITIVE

 Respected tradition
 Courteous towards the Senate - took no exceptional honours, upheld their traditional rights, extended their legal
and administrative functions
 Effective administrator
o alleviated food shortages
o substantial relief given to victims of amphitheatre collapse and fire
o careful financial management
o cut public expenses by reducing games
o reduced sales taxes
o careful appointment of officials
 Careful rule over the provinces
o maintained peace
o extensive tax relief after earthquake
o finished Augustan building programs & maintained existing infrastructure
o maintained boundaries established by Augustus
 Successful military commander
THE PRINCIPATE OF GAIUS
AD 37 - 54
EXPLAIN THE RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN GAIUS (CALIGULA) 37-41 AD, AND OTHER KEY GROUPS WITHIN THE
ROMAN WORLD DURING HIS REIGN.

Gaius Julius Caesar (Caligula) was the 2 nd of the Julio-Claudian emperors, ruling over the Roman empire from 37 - 41
AD. Throughout his reign his relationships with key groups varied greatly, evident in his interactions with the Senate,
plebs, army and the Praetorian Guard. The immediate period following his accession to the throne saw great
enthusiasm, partly due to his Julian blood and initial conciliatory gestures. At only 24 years of age, he was perceived as
a welcome contrast to the grim and elderly Tiberius. However, following his illness in October AD 37 he allegedly
“emerged from his sickroom a monster” (Suetonius), and connections with all Roman groups quickly deteriorated.
Gaius abandoned the Augustan model and began to unveil his unprecedented concept of imperial autocracy. His ‘new
vision’ of the Principate drastically changed the dynamics in his key relationships and destabilised the whole system he
inherited. This ultimately culminated in his assassination in AD 41.

Gaius initial relationship with the Senate was ostensibly harmonious, however following his illness any pretence of
cooperation quickly evaporated. Suetonius states that upon his accession, the Senate “immediately and unanimously
conferred absolute power” to him, suggesting he was generally quite popular. In the early stages of his reign, Gaius
was cooperative and courteous to the Senate, abolishing the treason trials and allowing Senators exiled under Tiberius
to return home. These conciliations greatly pleased the body, and he further consolidated this initial positive
relationship by burning the treason depositions collected under Tiberius’ reign. However, after Gauis’ illness in October
AD 37 this balanced relationship was quickly undermined by his claim to absolute power. “Gaius was no longer
prepared to make even the pretence of respect for the Augustan compromise: he was headed for absolutism,” (Massie).
He ordered his own deification while still alive, which Grant believes was a “valuable corollary” of the openly
absolute monarch that he intended to establish. His rule increasingly resembled despotism, as he began to humiliate and
alienate individual senators and the body as a whole. Suetonius and Cassius Dio provide accounts of this demeaning
behavior, which included forcing Senators to run alongside his chariot for long distances dressed in togas, and
promising to appoint his horse, Incitatus, as a consul. Modern historians view these tales apocryphally, claiming the
emperor most likely “remarked that Incitatus would do the job as well as most of the recent incumbents” (Grant).
Nonetheless, his actions disenfranchised the Senators and greatly exacerbated their growing discontent. This was taken
further when Gaius reduced the Senate powers - moving the imperial mint from Lugdunum to Rome, placing the
Senatorial province of Africa under imperial control, and handing elections back to the plebs. By AD 39, Senators were
becoming increasingly averse to Gauis’ open displays of autocracy, and his relationship with them was marked by
rumours of disloyalty. Ultimately, despite any initial semblances of respect, the combination of Gaius’ actions
proceeding his illness revealed his intentions to the Senators of becoming an absolute autocrat. This demarcation from
the accepted Augustan model is largely responsible for the breakdown in his relationship with the Senate.

Gaius’ early relationship with the plebs was marked by approval and respect, however his ruthlessness and autocratic
behaviour after October AD37 caused the group to become alienated, and as a consequence he gradually lost their
support. “Gaius’ accession seemed to the Roman people - one might almost say, to the whole world - like a dream
come true” (Suetonius). Gaius’ initial reforms were extremely popular, and included the removal of the sales tax,
publishing previously banned books, and providing the people with lavish games and entertainment. Suetonius states
that he “strengthened his popularity by every possible means” - the plebs were a volatile group within the social and
political system and it was essential for the Princeps to retain their loyalty. Gaius was initially effective in this, evident
in the plebs great concern when he fell ill. “Anxious crowds besieged the Palace all night” (Suetonius). However, a
pivotal shift occurred in their relationship following Gaius’ recovery, as he became more determined to flaunt absolute
power and subvert the traditional Augustan model. Stories of his sadism are recounted by Suetonius, which included
closing the granaries, locking people inside the amphitheatres and feeding criminals to live animals for entertainment.
Gaius also reintroduced taxes, and “no class of goods or individuals now avoided duty of some kind” (Suetonius).
These actions were all to demonstrate his power and absolute authority over the group. By the time of his death in
AD41, the plebs had become extremely disenfranchised and disaffected within Gaius’ remodelled system. Grant makes
the point that none of Gaius’ supporters availed to help save him, and following his death many wanted “all memory of
the Caesars obliterated” (Suetonius). It is therefore evident that whilst Gaius was initially popular with the plebs, his
later, blatant displays of autocracy lost the majority of their support and caused their relationship to end on a
discontented note.

The relationship between Gaius and the army was originally positive, however it eventually deteriorated as Gaius
embarked on a program of blatantly abusing his autocratic power. Grant states that the army was initially pleased with
Gaius’ accession because they were supporters of Germanicus. However, when Gaius announced his plan to revive the
army’s expedition across the Rhine and possibly invade Britain, their relationship became strained. This tension was
further exacerbated when Gaius learnt of a plot to assassinate him once he arrived at the Rhine. He reacted by departing
prematurely with Praetorian Guardsmen, and arresting and executing the perpetrator - the commander of the army,
Gaetulicus. The expedition on the German frontier failed to materialise, insulting the pride of the army and causing
them to lose faith in the abilities of Gaius as a ruler. The British expedition was also aborted, and there are
“preposterous stories” (Grant) of Gaius ordering troops to pick up seashells on the Gallic shore. Whilst ancient sources
exploit these stories as evidence of Gaius’ ‘madness’, modern writers such as Massie view it as a deliberate move to
reassert his authority. Gaius would further humiliate and exert power over the army by discharging soldier’s months
before they were able to retire so they did not receive bonuses. He also scaled down retirement bonuses for those that
reached 25 years’ service. This all demonstrates how Gaius’ redefinition of the Principate through autocratic displays of
power adversely affected his key relationships.

Positive relations within the imperial family were generally well-maintained throughout Gaius’ reign, with some
exception. Gaius made many efforts to honour his family, including returning his mother’s ashes to Rome, renaming the
month of September after his father, & adopting his late uncle’s son. These actions were not purely out of goodwill,
mostly serving to build the image of the imperial domus, but nevertheless demonstrated his pietas. Gaius paid “special
honour” (Grant) to his 3 sisters, in particular including them in the annual vows of allegiance to the emperor. This is
further evidenced by coinages that depict them with the attributes of goddesses. It is widely accepted that Gaius took
part in “habitual incest” (Grant) with all 3, but his love for Drusilla was extreme. On her death she was officially
deified, being the first Roman woman to receive that honour. While clearly showing early devotion, when Livilla &
Agrippina were allegedly involved in plots to assassinate him they were exiled & their lovers executed. It is clear that
while relations were generally characterised by piety, any semblance of untrustworthiness was met with estrangement.
Whilst the relationship between Gaius and the Praetorian Guard was initially characterised by loyalty, the emperor’s
abuse and reaffirmation of his own power alienated the group and culminated in his assassination. The ease with which
Gaius assumed power can largely be attributed to the Praetorian Guard, in particular the Praetorian Prefect, Macro.
When the emperor Tiberius was on his deathbed Gaius prematurely announced the beginning of his reign, and when it
became evident that Tiberius would live, “Macro, unperturbed, ordered the old man to be smothered with a heap of
bed-clothes and left alone” (Tacitus). Gaius understood the debt he subsequently owed to Macro and the Praetorian
Guard, which is evident in that one of his first actions upon becoming emperor was to grant significant payments to
members of the body. However, Gaius’ relationship with Macro was not necessarily one of trust, and within months of
his accession he had ordered the Prefect to commit suicide. Gaius’ abuse of the Praetorian Guard can be further
identified in his humiliation of the Tribune of the Guard, Cassius Chaerea. Gaius accused Chaerea of homosexuality,
and would chose words like ‘Venus’ or ‘Priapus’ as the watchword when it was his turn to ask (Grant). These
allegations prompted Chaerea to play a prominent role in the emperor’s death. On the 24 th January AD 41, Gaius was
brutally murdered, having “sword thrusts through his genitals” (Suetonius), along with his wife and infant daughter.
This demonstrates how, despite loyal beginnings, Gaius’ humiliation of the Praetorian Guard and emergence as an
“out-an-out autocrat” (Massie) led to a breach in their relations which culminated in his assassination.

The interrelationships between Gaius and the key groups within Roman society “reveal the havoc an irresponsible
ruler might create” (Syme). His redefinition of the Augustan system of Princeps engendered great instability and
caused a significant rift in all relations. Whilst many relationships began positively, following his illness in October AD
37, Gaius’ blatant displays of autocracy succeeded in alienating all groups. His turbulent reign ultimately concluded
with his assassination in AD 41.
THE PRINCIPATE OF CLAUDIUS
AD 41 - 54

BACKGROUND

 Born 1 August 10BC in Lugdunum Gaul

 First Roman emperor born outside of Italy
 Born during reign of Augustus

FAMILY CONNECTIONS:

 From Claudian side of family

 Traces his connections back to Livia
 Son of Drusus (Tiberius’ brother) and Antonia (daughter of Antony and Octavia)
 Younger brother of Germanicus and Livilla
 Nephew of Tiberius
 Uncle of Caligula
 Great-nephew of Augustus
 Mother Antonia the Younger played a key role in his upbringing since his father died 9BC when he was an infant

PHYSICAL DISABILITIES

 “… he would foam at the mouth and trickle at the nose; he stammered besides and his head was very shaky at all
times.” (Suetonius)
 Modern speculations - cerebral palsy, polio, no clear diagnosis
 “Nearly the whole of his childhood and youth was so troubled by various diseases that he grew dull-witted and
had little physical strength” (Suetonius)

EARLY LIFE

REPUTATION

 “Claudius’ mother Antonia often called him ‘a monster; a man half finished by nature.” (Suetonius)

 “When his sister Livilla heard that he would one day be emperor, she openly and loudly prayed that the Roman
people might be spared so cruel and undeserved a fortune” (Suetonius)
 Reputation as an ‘idiot’ meant he was never considered worthy of public office, had limited opportunities, and was
never expected to have military/leadership experience
 Augustus never considered him worthy of public office, Tiberius ignored him and Caligula preserved him only for
practical jokes
 “I am sorry for the poor fellow, because in serious matters, when not wool-gathering, he shows a very decent
character.” (Augustus from Suetonius)
 “The question is whether he has – shall I say? – full command of his senses.” (Augustus from Suetonius)
HUMILIATION

 Fell asleep at dinner and pelted with stones by friends, slippers placed on his feet and his face tickled
 Caligula threw him in the Tiber fully clothed
 Caligula forced him to pay 8 million sesterces to enter a priesthood and went bankrupt
 Always consulted last in the senate
 AD8 – Arch of Pavia erected to honour the Imperial family - Claudius’ name on the edge past the deceased Gaius
and Lucius Caesar and Germanicus’ children - speculation he added it himself later
 Germanicus’ Coming of Age ceremony was a big public event, Claudius’ ceremony was conducted at midnight so
no one would see him

DRUNKEDNESS

 Claudius had to occupy himself (bc no responsibilities) - had a reputation for drunkenness, went to cheap, low
class taverns with plebs
 The plebs mocked him
 “He was pelted with the stones of olives and dates…they also used to put slippers on his hands as he lay snoring,
so that when he was suddenly aroused he might rub his face with them” (Suetonius)
 Claudius’ life is one of wasted opportunities

POSITIVE QUALITIES

 “He did not even keep quiet about his own stupidity, but in certain brief speeches he declared that he had
purposefully feigned it under Gaius, because otherwise he could not have escaped alive and attained his present
station” (Suetonius)
 Deliberately played to his disabilities - succeeded, he doesn’t get assassinated, Sejanus doesn’t see him as a threat
 Scholar - highly educated, very inclined to academic pursuits
 Academic and historian - wrote works on the Punic Wars, Etruscans and Augustus (42 volumes!!)
 Interested in linguistics- learnt Etruscan language off last person who spoke it
 Conservative, but not bound to tradition like Tiberius - innovative
 Older, more experienced and balanced than Caligula
 Despite these, Claudius had a reputation as a drunken gambler who was easily manipulated e.g. by wives and
freedmen

ACCESSION

CALIGULA’S ASSASSINATION

 Alienates all the groups in Roman society, and there are rumours of an assassination
 Senator’s watched the assassination of Caligula - coincidence? - this was not a secret
 Likely that Claudius knew what was about to happen to his nephew
 “The murder of Gaius caused panic and confusion; for a few hours nobody knew what was happenin..” - (Massie,
The Caesars)

ANCIENT VERSION
  A fluke

 “An extraordinary accident… …A guardsman, wandering vaguely through the palace, noticed a pair of feet
beneath the curtain, pulled their owner out for identification and recognised him. Claudius dropped on the floor
and clasped the soldier’s knees, but found himself proclaimed emperor” (Suetonius)
 “So he allowed the Guards to proclaim him Emperor and to swear allegiance. He also promised every man 150
gold pieces, which made him the first of the Caesars to purchase the loyalty of his troops.” (Suetonius Ch 10)

MODERN VERSION

 Cleverly planned

 Deal between the PG guard and Claudius - aware of the assassination plans
 Found hiding behind the curtains by a Praetorian Guard, taken to PG barracks and proclaimed emperor

THE PRAETORIAN GUARD

 “Claudius was Princeps because the Praetorians, having removed one emperor, had chosen him” (Massie)
 PG are the dominant force in Roman politics - the dynamics have changed
 Archaeological evidence - first coins minted during his reign had the Praetorian camp
 The PG were paid for their loyalty - 150 gold pieces
 Only the handful of ringleaders are executed (token punishment), the rest of the guard are pardoned

THE SENATE

 The Senate called an extraordinary meeting - “discussed the feasibility of a Republican restoration” (Salmon)
 Senators offered themselves as the next emperor - went around in circles for hours, endless debate
 A delegation of Praetorians then come in and declare Claudius emperor
 This reveals that the PG have more power than the Senate - the Senate are outdated
 “The Senate thereupon tamely conferred the imperial powers on Claudius” (Salmon)
 Cannot argue with 12,000 men supporting Claudius
 The perception of Claudius in the Senate - dull-witted, a fool
 The Senate never accept Claudius and don’t take him seriously because of his disabilities

INITIAL ACTIONS

FIRST ACTIONS AS EMPEROR

 Pardoned those who contemplated return to Republic

 Punished the key players in the conspiracy to murder Caligula - murder by PG set a dangerous precedent, couldn’t
pass unpunished
 Divine honours for Livia
 Games for birthday of Drusus (father)
 Divine honours voted for Antonia
 Shows in honour of Germanicus
 Completed marble arch to Tiberius near Pompey’s Theatre in Rome
  Annulled acts of Caligula

ATTEMPTS TO GAIN SUPPORT

 Nobility
o Paid them respect
o Stopped maiestas trials
o Didn’t prosecute senators involved in Caligula’s murder
o Recalled exiles
o Promised immunity for those who wanted return to Republic
 People
o “bread and circuses” pleased the populace
o Celebrated the Secular Games (only 47 years after Augustus)
o Triumph of the British campaign increased his popularity
o Continued close relationship with the Equestrians
 Military
o 15,000 sesterces donative, repeated annually
o Aggressive military policy in Mauretania and Britannia
o Chose capable generals to lead a well-disciplined army, increased morale

RELATIONSHIP WITH THE SENATE

 Senate is Claudius’ main source of opposition

 Senatorial bias present in sources
 Lack of consultation and role of PG in Claudius’ accession increased tension
 Claudius initially wanted to work with the senate as Augustus had done
 “He began by trying to cooperate with the senate of Augustan lines.” (Massie)

INITIAL ACTIONS

 Claudius only punishes a handful of people involved in the murder of Caligula (Charrea) - no Senator was
implicated in punishment
 Clauidus recalls all exiles sent out of Rome during Caligula’s reign
 One of these exiles was Agrippina the Younger
 Allows the Senate the right to mint some of its own coins - gives the Senate a degree of power and independence
 Senate’s coins - no emperor’s head, instead had 2 letters SC (Senatus Consultum - the wisdom of the senate)
 Attended Senate meetings, stood when the Senators came in (similar to Augustus)
 “He began by trying to cooperate with the Senate on Augustan lines, showing respect for its functions and
attempting to persuade its members to do likewise. On one occasion he urged the Senate, ‘if you disapprove, say
so now and offer another proposal’” (Massie)

FAILED RELATIONSHIP

 Even though Claudius appeals to them, the Senate is too damaged by the Maistas Trials etc.
  The Senate cannot see past his disabilities
 35 Senators during his reign were executed for treason (plotting to kill Claudius)

RELATIONSHIP WITH THE ROMAN ARMY

 “And he also knew where ultimate power rested: with the armies. They had to be appeased, rendered content.
Gaius had irritated them...Claudius must satisfy them. He showed skill and judgment in his choice of
commanders.”
 If elements of the military turn against Claudius and support somebody else, Rome will face Civil War again
 The Roman Army look at Claudius similarly to the way the Senate did - judge him based on his disabilities
 Claudius has 0 military experience - no credibility

EARLY OPPOSTIION BY SCRIBONIANUS AD 41

 Governor of Dalmatia, Scribonianus – one of the men considered for Princeps in the deliberations after Caligula’s
assassination
 Revolted against Claudius with 2 legions
 Rebellion failed when Scribonianus announced his intention to restore the Republic, troops turned against him
 Scribonianus fled, committed suicide

EFFORTS TO PLEASE THE ARMY

 Warning sign to Claudius that the army are not supportive of him
 “Thereafter Claudius always carefully cultivated the troops. The Praetorians received an annual donative, and
various honours were showered on different army units. This explains, perhaps, why he survived, at least six plots
during his reign.” (Salmon)
 Marriage laws relaxed to grant legionaries the right to give/receive bequests like a married father could
 Auxiliaries could gain citizenship
 Certificates of honourable discharge given to auxiliaries and praetorians who served well, not just legionaries
 Eagerness to set aside Augustus’ limits to empire gave the army plenty of opportunity to gain glory and earn
rewards
 However, until he has a victory the soldiers are not going to be convinced

CENTRALISED IMPERIAL BUREAUCRACY

 “Neither Augustus nor Tiberius had been able to persuade the Senate to act with vigour and honesty and there
was no chance that Claudius’ words could succeed where theirs had failed.” (Massie)
 Identified issues within the Senate and came up with a revolutionary, completely innovative solution
 “Claudius first developed a centralized bureaucracy by creating specialized departments, each under a freedman,
which were miniature ministries and formed the basis of an imperial civil service, which was independent…of the
Senate…it was filled by men who owed loyalty to the Princep alone” (Scullard)
 After his attempts to work with the senate failed, Claudius turned to the (mainly Greek) freedmen for the running
of the Empire
  “Claudius fell so deeply under the influence of these freedmen and wives that he seemed to be their servant rather
than their emperor.” (Suetonius)
 He created a centralised administration, with departments to run aspects of the empire and increase efficiency
 Roots of this system under Tiberius and Caligula, fully developed by Claudius
 Freedmen - Greek ex-slaves, ambitious, talented and loyal
o Narcissus - Chief Secretary, all official correspondence went through him, the link between Claudius and
the empire - becomes very powerful and rich, resented by the Senate
o Pallas - controlled finances
o Callistus - legal secretary, dealt with petitions sent to the emperor, accused of manipulating the system
for personal gain
o Polybius - librarian, worked on speeches and edicts
 AD 44 control of public treasury taken from Senators and given to quaestors nominated by Cl
 AD 53 imperial procurators given right to intervene in financial matters in Senatorial provinces
 This centralized bureaucracy was highly efficient, better than Augustus’ system, and shows Claudius’ innovation,
motivation and intelligence
 “This reorganization of the government machine was undoubtedly a more efficient administration” (Massie)
 Lasted over 300 years

REACTION OF THE SENATE

 React badly, feel as though they are no longer valued

 Deeply resentful of Claudius and now set against anything he does
 “The gulf deepened between the Princeps and the old political class of the Roman aristocracy…at least 35
Senators were put to death on charges of treason” (Massie)

RELATIONSHIP WITH THE PLEBS

 Formula to win over the plebs - “bread and circuses”

 “Claudius… gave numerous magnificent public shows; not only the traditional ones in the customary places, but
others, including novelties and ancient revivals, where nobody had ever seen them staged before.” (Suetonius)
 Had elephants and giraffes brought to perform
 The grain dole was provided daily for the plebs
 “Once, after a series of droughts had caused a scarcity of grain, a mob stopped Claudius in the Forum and pelted
him so hard with curses and stale crusts … as a result he took all possible steps to import grain, even during the
winter months.” (Suetonius)
 The plebs are won over and support Claudius

PUBLIC WORKS AND BUILDING PROGRAMS

 Claudius is able to delegate the freedmen roles and responsibilities

 Probably the greatest builder of the Julio-Claudians - thinks big
 Building program stimulated economy, significant infrastructure benefits to Rome and the provinces

ROMAN ROADS
  Built in Italy and in the Provinces
 Roads boost trade
 Allows the army to move around quickly
 Via Claudia - road from Italy north to the Danube (100s of kms)
 Uses these building programs as propaganda

AQUEDUCTS

 The Aqua Claudia - in Italy, brings water into Rome

 Doubles the existing water supply (carries as much water as the other 8 aqueducts)
 Improves health and sanitation, lessens the risk of disease
 The plebs benefit largely from this - Claudius wins the plebs over with fresh water

THE LIGHTHOUSE AT OSTIA

 Ostia is Rome’s harbor

 Put a huge polished bronze disk on the top (catches the light so boats can see it during the day), lit a fire during
stormy / dark weather
 Turns Ostia into a 24-hour port
 Ships carrying food - Claudius guarantees Rome’s food supply, wins support of plebs
 Archaeological evidence - coins (propaganda)
 Deepened the harbor at Ostia - increased the capacity for bigger ships
 Built huge warehouses - able to stockpile food, guarantees Rome will never go hungry

DRAINED FUCINE LAKE

 Dug a tunnel underground the soggy marsh to the coast, which drained all the excess water
 30,000 men 11 years, reclaimed agricultural land in central Italy

DOMESTIC POLICIES

LEGAL REFORMS

 Took a great interest in legal matters, personally judged cases intra cubiculum principis (in the princep’s bedroom)
 Rome had a 3-year backlog of cases - introduces night courts to increase the speed of judicial proceedings
 Concerned about the way laws favour certain classes in society
 Very committed to fairness / equity and supporting the underdog
 Had laws passed to protect the interests of slaves
 Forbid people from throwing their slaves on the street when they got old
 Introduced minor laws
 Against unruly behaviour in theatre
 Against loans being made to a son in the expectation of a father’s death
 Deeply resented by the senate

PROVINCES
  Very conscious of his responsibilities to the provinces - 1/3 of the world’s population is under his control
 Conducts projects building roads, aqueducts, harbours etc.
 “In the East especially Asia Minor road-building and other development proceeded apace.” (Scullard)
 Pax Romana - The empire is enjoying a sustained period of peace, everything is prospering
 Claudius is very committed to Romanisation
o everyone encouraged to speak Latin
o expected to use Roman coins
o expected to follow Roman laws
o most towns have baths
o access to theatres and amphitheatres
 Extends Roman citizenship
o introduction of provincial senator
o gave benefits in terms of taxation
o rights under the law
o ability to travel more easily throughout the empire
 “Under Claudius, the provincials began to play their full part in the empire.” (Salmon)
 Claudius’ provincial policy more in line with Julius Caesar than with Augustus
 “Thus in general Claudius developed an imaginative provincial policy in line with Rome’s better traditions.”
(Scullard)
 Extremely boosted Claudius’ popularity in the provinces
 “Care for the provinces and the conviction that they must experience to the full the blessings of Empire were
Claudius’ constant concern.” (Massie)

FOREIGN POLICIES

 To solve his fundamental problem with the army and win them over he must conquer and be a victor
 Claudius breaks the non-expansionary policy of Consillium
 “decided to abandon Augustus’ precept that the limit of the Empire should be regarded as fixed”
 Claudius’ foreign policy more in line with Julius Caesar than with Augustus
 Two-pronged approach – expansion and assimilation
o Before he invades Br he tidies up the borders
o Absorbed Thrace, Lycia and Mauretania (client kingdoms) into the empire - total of 5 new provinces
 Adhered to Augustus’ policy on Rhine and Danube

WHY INVADE?

 Consolidate his own position and popularity

 Restore Rome’s military prestige
 Access to Britain’s resources and wealth - metals
 Distrust of Druidism as an enemy of Romanisation
 British reluctance to hand over wanted rebels
 British raids on Roman territories in Gaul
  Internal rivalries between British leaders
 “Claudius...decided that Britain was the country where a real triumph could be most readily earned. Its conquest
had not been attempted since Julius Caesar’s day.” (Suetonius Ch 17)

INVASION OF BRITAIN 43 AD

 Narcissus helps him plan the invasion

 In AD43 4 legions successfully invaded Britain (25-30,000 men)
 Claudius joined the invasion part way through for 11 days - wants to highlight his role in this victory
 Leads the army into a battle against the Celts
 Rode an elephant on the day of battle - brilliant propaganda
 He proved he was capable of decisive military action, defending Rome’s prestige by leading the assault in person,
which later made good propaganda and won the army

IMPACT OF THE INVASION

 “His triumph was a splendid one.” (Suetonius Ch 17)

 Coins minted for the Triumph commemorating the conquest - threw them out of his Chariot to the plebs

 Statues - Claudius Subduing Britannica (Br personified as the woman, Cl is military attire)
 The public no longer views him as a pathetic, incapable emperor
 Names his son after the victory - Britannicus
 The Arch of Claudius AD51
 “… he received the surrender of eleven kings of the Britons defeated without any loss, and first brought barbarian
peoples across the Ocean into the dominion of the Roman people.”
 Converts his conquest into popularity, correcting his issue with public image
 “For Claudius himself his invasion of Britain was the greatest event of the reign, and one of his prime claims to
rule.” (Levick)

MARRIAGES

MESSALINA

 39 AD Claudius marries Valeria Messalina (16 yo)

 Little is known about her life before marriage to Claudius, from a prestigious family
 Ancient opinion – nymphomaniac, “the whore-empress” (Juvenal Satire VI)
 Pliny the Elder – won a competition with a prostitute to see who could have the most partners in one night
 Ruthlessly removed opposition to her – persecuted Agrippina II after her return from exile in AD41 and sent
assassins to strangle Nero, exiled Seneca
 “At the time he became Princeps he was married to his third wife Messalina.” (Massie)
 Messalina bares him 2 children
o Daughter Octavia
o Son Britannicus
 Messalina is very dissatisfied - has multiple affairs, which Claudius is aware of
 “Claudius, unfavoured by nature as he was, was yet passionate and sensuous.” (Massie)
  Claudius is conditioned to accept mistreatment

THE MESSLANIA AFFAIR

 Messalina embarks on an affair with the Senator Gaius Silius

 “She (Messalina) was infatuated with the best-looking young man in Rome, Gaius Silius” (Tacitus)

 Starts to behave differently - “Messalina, spurning secrecy, repeatedly visited his house...there were to be seen in
her lover’s home imperial slave and ex-slaves and furniture.’ (Tacitus)
 Messalina and Silius plan to get married
 Evolves from a crazy affair to a politically motivated conspiracy to get rid of Claudius
 “Fate seemed to have unhinged Gaius Silius.... ‘We do not have to wait until the emperor dies of old age’.”
(Tacitus)
 “Claudius, unaware of his matrimonial complications, was busy with the functions of censor.” (Tacitus) - only
Narcissus is concerned
 “They....could only be protected by the murder of Claudius but there is no sign that they attempted this.” (Massie)
 They wait for Claudius to leave Rome for the opening of his lighthouse at Ostia (15km away)
 The wedding takes place in the Gardens of Asiaticus
 Invited guests (many Senators) dressed as figures from Greek and Roman mythology
 Everybody who attended that wedding was committing treason
 “She was to be denounced without forewarning of charge or accuser. Narcissus watched for an opening.”
(Tacitus)

NARCISSUS’ RESPONSE

 Narcissus told Claudius about the marriage

 “Claudius summoned his closest friends.... They confirmed the story.... Claudius, it was said, was panic-stricken.
‘Am I still emperor?’ he kept asking.” (Tacitus)
 Claudius was taken to the Praetorian Guard camp
 “The former slave, Narcissus, took charge” (Tacitus)
 Narcissus sends the Praetorians to surround the Gardens of Asiaticus & they arrest everyone
 Narcissus ordered the death of Messalina
 “His (Claudius’) anger was clearly cooling, his love returning....so Narcissus hurried away.... he ordered a guard
colonel and some staff officers to kill Messalina.” (Tacitus)
 Messalina is given a sword to commit suicide but cannot do it, so the guardsmen stab her to death
 “The vengeance on Messalina was just. But its consequences were grim.” (Tacitus)
 The affair highlights the power of the PG and the growing influence of the freedmen

AGRIPPINA II

 Extremely strong family connections

 Very intelligent, very strong-willed
 A new age Julio-Claudian woman
 Understands politics brilliantly
 Driven by her motivation to make her son emperor
PALLAS AFFAIR

 “Claudius was impatient of celibacy and easily controlled by his wives and the ex-slaves quarreled about who
should choose the next one.” (Tacitus)
 Narcissus, Pallas and Calistus are all pushing for 3 women to marry Claudius
 There is now rivalry amongst the freedmen - they are competing to see who could get closest to Claudius
 “The emperor continually changed his mind according to whatever advice he had heard last.” (Tacitus)
 Agrippina begins an affair with Pallas - he becomes her advocate
 “Agrippina’s lover is Pallas. That is the final proof that there is nothing she will not sacrifice to imperial
ambition – neither decency, nor honour, nor chastity.” (Tacitus)
 “Pallas, proposing Agrippina, emphasised that the son whom she would bring with her was Germanicus’
grandson.” (Tacitus)
 Claudius is aware that succession has been a big issue for past emperors
 “Agrippina’s seductiveness was a help. Visiting her uncle frequently – ostensibly as a close relation – she
tempted him into giving her the preference and into treating her, in anticipation, as his wife.” (Tacitus)
 Agrippina uses sex for political purposes

MARRIAGE

 “In the end his niece Agrippina won the contest: she had made good use of her privileged position as niece,
rousing his passions (never a difficult task) by kisses and caresses.” (Massie)
 Married Claudius in AD 49
 It a marriage of politics and opportunity

 “From this moment the country was transformed. Complete obedience was accorded to a woman – and not a
woman like Messalina who toyed with national affairs to satisfy her appetites. This was a rigorous, almost
masculine despotism.” (Tacitus)
 Claudius benefitted from their marriage - it strengthened his own position, and brought parts of the family together

SUCCESSION

THE PROMOTION OF NERO

 The Sebastion Relief shows that Agrippina and Claudius were business partners
 Agrippina was determined to use her position to ruthlessly promote Nero
 There was a 3-year age difference between Nero and Britannicus (7)
 Seneca is appointed as Nero’s personal tutor
 “Agrippina had Seneca and other exiles recalled and placed in positions of power – Seneca became young Nero’s
tutor...Africanus Burrus was appointed Praetorian Prefect.” (Massie)
 Seneca was Rome’s greatest academic mind - Nero receives the best education
 Pallas suggests to Claudius that Nero needs to be married - Nero is betrothed to his step sister Octavia
 Becomes Claudius’ son in law
 Pallas also suggests to Claudius to adopt Nero at age 13
 Gets Nero’s coming of age ceremony brought forward to 12
THE CARATACUS AFFAIR

 AD 51 Caratacus (Celtic chief) was brought before Claudius and Agrippina II

 Claudius plans to pardon Caratacus to boost his own image
 The ‘Caratacus Affair’ was supposed to be Claudius’ great public relations moment
 Agrippina steals the day off him - sat next to him, Caratacus bows to her as well
 “She was asserting her partnership in the empire her ancestors had won.”- (Tacitus)
 She should not have even been there on the day but broke with convention
 She showed an astute understanding of propaganda and public image.
 Brilliant at using events like this - enormously enhanced her position, and by extension that of Nero

THE DEATH OF CLAUDIUS AD 54

 “Agrippina had long decided on murder. Now she saw her opportunity.... but she needed advice about
poisons....”
 She had always intended to kill Claudius - marriage was the vehicle through which she could achieve this
 Reasons why Agrippina killed Claudius
o Growing signs of affection between Claudius and Britannicus
o Claudius’ negative comments about Agrippina. He was starting to see through her
o The respective ages of both Nero and Britannicus – Nero at 16 was technically an adult and could
assume power. Young enough for her to control him as well
o Britannicus at 13 was still deliberately left as a child and unable to succeed his father, but this would not
stay this way for much longer

THE MURDER

 Agrippina employs a professional poisoner - a Celtic woman

 Matrona (in charge of kitchen)- put poison into Claudius’ favourite mushroom
 At a family banquet Claudius ate the meal and immediately collapsed
 Alcohol affected the poison and he survived - he vomited, had diarrhea and ejected the contents of his stomach, but
he was still alive
 They proceeded to call the emperor’s doctor
 “She had already secured the complicity of Xenophon, the emperor’s doctor.... He put a feather dipped in a quick
poison down his throat.” (Tacitus)
 The poisoned feather caused him to die
 Agrippina did not release news of Claudius’ death
 Messengers leave Rome straight away for the provinces and tell those in charge that Claudius is dead and Nero is
the new emperor

AGRIPPINA’S ACTIONS FOLLOWING CLAUDIUS’ DEATH

 Britannicus is locked in his room for 3 days, there were rumours that he was dead
 “The appropriate steps were taken to secure Nero’s accession. Nero was conducted to the Guard’s camp.... He
was hailed as emperor.... the provinces too, showed no hesitation.” (Tacitus)
  Smoothest succession out of all of them
 Gives them 150 gold bonus each
 The Senate call for a meeting
 Nero turns up with Seneca, who prepared a speech for him
 Delivers a speech, talks about Claudius’ brilliance
 Asks for their approval of him in honour of Claudius
 The ultimate hypocrisy - deifies his father as the Divine Claudius
 A couple of days later Nero delivers a funeral speech
 Agrippina got the guard to lock down Rome after the funeral to stop public outcry
 The succession was seamless - every key group was dealt with and there was not a single voice of opposition

AN ASSESSMENT OF THE REIGN OF CLAUDIUS

 Greatest achievement of Claudius’ reign was his centralised government, and his expansion into Britain
 Claudius is extremely innovative
 He came up with a new system of running the empire
 He secured his own position and changed his image
 The policy of Romanisation - sharing citizenship etc. - boosted the provinces
 Claudius’ infrastructural developments were huge and beneficially contributed to people’s lives
 His legal reforms were intended to protect the week

KEY RELATIONSHIPS

 Really good relationship with the military

 Wins over the plebs with fresh water and food supply
 Cuts himself free of the Senate
 He also gave Rome the ability to recover from Caligula and the capacity to survive Nero
 “The most serious evil of Claudius’ principate was the power that he unwittingly surrendered to his wives and
freedmen…” (Cambridge Ancient History)
 Messalina and Gaius show how he was weak
 He didn’t manage the family affair effectively
 Narcissus saved him
 Agrippina eliminates him first

 “The good that he did endured and developed into the heritage of the empire, the evil was soon forgotten with
Nero and civil wars following, the grotesque figure no longer seen.” (Cambridge Ancient History)

CHANGING ROLE AND IMAGE OF THE PRINCEPS

 This natural progression was inevitable

 The emperor is becoming the focal point of everything
 More and more power is centered on the emperor and those close to them
 The role of the freedmen is becoming more important
 The Princep is evolving
THE PRINCIPATE OF NERO
AD 54 - 68

BACKGROUND AND RISE TO PROMINENCE

FAMILY CONNECTIONS

 Born 15 December AD 37
 Mother is Agrippina the younger - exiled during the reign of Caligula and separated from Nero AD39
 Direct descendent of Augustus through Agrippina (great great grandson)
 Father is Ahenobarbus, an abusive alcoholic, “[Ahenobarbus was] a man hateful in every walk of life” (Suetonius)
o Murdered his freedman for refusing to finish a drink
o Purposely ran over and killed a boy
o Gauged the eye from an equestrian in the Forum for being outspoken
o Cheated bankers
o Defrauded chariot race victors of their prize money
 Nero’s father supposedly remarked “nothing good can come of a union between Agrippina and myself”
(Suetonius)
 Uncle Caligula
 Grandson of Germanicus
 He is a true Julio-Claudian

LIFE DURING THE REIGN OF CLAUDIUS

 “Messalina, wife of Claudius, had sent emissaries to strangle him as he was taking his noonday nap, regarding
him as a rival of Britannicus” (Suetonius)
 AD49 Agrippina married Claudius - promoted Nero over Britannicus as heir
 “Nero was quickly advanced.” (Scullard)
 “Ambitious and unscrupulous, Agrippina struck down a series of victims: no man or woman was safe is she
suspected rivalry or desired their wealth.” (Scullard)
 “She gained complete control over Claudius…very clever in making the most of opportunities…caused his son
Britannicus to be brought up as if he were a mere nobody… training her son for the throne and entrusting his
education to Seneca…amassing untold wealth for him… murdering many.” (Cassius Dio)

PROMOTION

 AD 50 Claudius adopts Nero

 Seneca the Younger returned from exile to tutor Nero
 AD 51 Burrus made Praetorian Prefect
 AD 51 Nero assumed the toga virilis (came of age) and received the title Princeps Iuventutis (prince of youths)
along with proconsular imperium outside Rome
 AD 53 made first speech in the senate and married Octavia
DEATH OF CLAUDIUS

 Difficulties had begun to arise in the relationship between Agrippina and Claudius - suspicious of Agrippina’s
actions
 AD 54 Claudius dies
 “It is not difficult to credit the belief that he had been poisoned by Agrippina. Even if she felt that the ultimate
succession of her son Nero was secure, she may have wished to see him on the throne while he was still young
enough to follow her advice and will.” (Scullard)

ACCESSION

 “Agrippina with unscrupulous skill had so prepared the way for her sixteen-year-old son that the transference of
power from Claudius to Nero was smooth.” (Scullard)
 Nero became emperor at age 17
 Accession is entirely his mothers work - he doesn’t understand the implications or value the position he is put in

 “Agrippina had won.” (Massie)

ROLE OF THE PRAETORIAN GUARD AND SENATE

 Burrus presents Nero to the Guard and then bribes the PG with a 150 gold piece donative to guarantee their
support
 The Senate had no choice and welcomed him and praised his connection to Augustus
 First speech written by Seneca
 Refused their offer of title Pater Patriae (“Father of the Fatherland”)
 Senate suppressed Claudius’ will due to its implied equality between Nero and Britannicus
 Nero’s accession reflects the importance of the Praetorian Guard over the Senate

CLAUDIUS’ FUNERAL

 Claudius’ death is kept quiet, but letters are sent to the Provinces
 Nero then delivers Claudius’ funeral address and presents himself as his true son
 Britannicus was kept isolated until the accession was secure. Tacitus says Agrippina “prevented him from leaving
his room.”

‘QUINQENNIUM NERONIS’

 The first five years of Nero

 “During these years the administration was good.” (Scullard)
 Nero was guided by Seneca, Burrus and Agrippina
 “Excelled the government of all other emperors.” (Massie)

ROLE OF AGRIPPINA

 “At first Agrippina managed for him all the business of the empire… She also received the various embassies and
sent letters to peoples and governors and kings.” (Cassius Dio)
  Agrippina listened to meetings of the Senate behind a curtain. She ordered the murder of Narcissus because he was
a threat
 “Whenever he rode in a litter with his mother, he had incestuous relations with her, which were betrayed by the
stains on his clothing.” (Suetonius)
 Agrippina was prominent on coinage from AD 54/55, reflecting her powerful status

 Coins minted a few weeks after Nero became emperor with Agrippina on the front (obverse) side - first time in
Roman history
o 1st coin - Agrippina is behind Nero, more subtle
o 2nd coin - Agrippina was at the height of her influence. She is equal with Nero, face to face, virtually as
joint emperors of Rome
 “Agrippina now meant to rule through her son” (Scullard).

 Honours were granted to her by Nero such as ‘Best of Mothers’, and she was given use of the carpentum (carriage)

 “Equally hurried was the death of Claudius’ ex-slave Narcissus…Other murders were meant to follow” (Tacitus)

 The Sebasteion Relief - commissioned when Agrippina was at the height of her power. Their positions send the
message that Agrippina made Nero emperor

ROLE OF SENECA AND BURUS

 “Agrippina’s violence encountered their united opposition.” (Tacitus)

 Seneca was Nero’s speech writer and composed his first speech to the Senate - “borrowed eloquence” (Tacitus)
 Burrus was famous for his “soldierly efficiency” (Tacitus) and advised Nero on issues concerning the military and
foreign affairs - the Parthian Crisis of AD 54
 “Together these two men were responsible for the administration…they aimed at promoting the well-being of the
empire, and not least its economic prosperity.” (Scullard)
 Nero transferred 40 million sesterces into the state treasury, corrupt governors were placed on trial, the food supply
in Rome was efficient, the harbour at Ostia was maintained, money was given out to the plebs and a cordial
relationship, largely due to Seneca, was maintained with the Senate

ARMENIAN DELEGATION

 Seneca and Burrus don’t like Agrippina’s influence over Nero - he appears weak because his mother is controlling
him
 Competition for influence soon arose between Agrippina vs. Seneca and Burrus
 AD 54 Agrippina tried to sit next to Nero as he met an Armenian envoy as she’d done during Claudius’ reign
 Seneca and Burrus prompt Nero to prevent her from ascending the podium
 She was humiliated in front of the crowds by her own son
 Seneca and Burrus betray their ally - they owed their positions to Agrippina

INITIAL SUCCESS

 Seneca and Burrus work really hard to make the first few years of Nero’s reign successful, even though he doesn’t
really care
 Sufficient grain supplied through appointment of Faenius Rufus as overseer
 Claudius’ aqueduct system expanded and harbor developments at Ostia completed
  Provisions made for greater order at Games
 Twice distributed 400 sesterces each to the people
 Law passed allowing slaves to bring complaints about their masters to the city prefect
 Replenished the bankrupt treasury with 40,000,000 sesterces from his own money and replaced the quaestors in
charge with imperial prefects
 Established numerous colonies throughout Italy
 Serious punishments implemented for governors charged with extortion
 Substantial aid given to cities affected by earthquake in AD62

NERO AS AN INDIVIDUAL

ACTE AFFAIR

 A year into his reign Seneca and Burrus encourage an affair with the freedwoman Acte
 “Agrippina was gradually losing control over Nero. He fell in love with a former slave Acte.” (Tacitus)
 First indication of Nero breaking free of his mother’s influence

 “Agrippina… raved with a woman's fury about having a freedwoman for a rival.” (Tacitus)
 Agrippina won’t allow Nero to see Acte, so Nero exiles Pallas AD 55
 “And so Nero, furious with those who encouraged such arrogance in a woman, removed Pallas from the charge of
the business with which he had been entrusted by Claudius.” (Tacitus)

MURDER OF BRITANNICUS

 The death of Britannicus was the end result of a rift between Nero and his mother
 “Agrippina displayed feminine rage” (Tacitus)
 After Nero exiles Pallas, Agrippina began pushing for 15-year-old Britannicus to become emperor - power play
 “Agrippina then began to show affection for Britannicus.” (Scullard)
 Nero responded by carrying out his first murder - “He decided to act secretly and ordered poison to be prepared.”
(Tacitus)
 “A cup as yet harmless, but extremely hot and already tasted, was handed to Britannicus; then, on his refusing it
because of its warmth, poison was poured in with some cold water, and this so penetrated his entire frame that he
lost alike voice and breath. Nero… said that this was a common occurrence, from a periodical epilepsy…As for
Agrippina, her terror and confusion, though she struggled to hide it, so visibly appeared, that she was clearly just
as ignorant as was Octavia” (Tacitus)
 “Thus did Nero show Agrippina how well he had learned the lesson of power.” (Massie)

NERO’S INCREASING POWER

 Nero ordered Agrippina out of the palace

 “The struggle for the regency was over: Seneca and Burrus had won.” (Scullard)
 Soon after, Seneca and Burrus lose control of Nero
 Burrus was accused of conspiring with Pallas to place a new emperor on the throne
 Seneca was accused of adultery with Agrippina and embezzlement
  Both were eventually cleared of the charges but their role was reduced from management of empire to mere
moderation of Nero’s behaviour (Cassius Dio)

DEATH OF AGRIPPINA AD 59

THE POPPAEA AFFAIR

 Nero had been steadily isolating his mother

 AD 58 Nero begins an affair with Poppaea Sabina
 “She had every asset except goodness.” (Tactius)
 Nero now fell under the influence of Poppaea - she is the catalyst for Agrippina’s death
 She saw Agrippina as an enemy in controlling Nero
 “While Agrippina lived, Poppaea saw no hope of Nero divorcing Octavia and marrying her. So she nagged and
mocked Nero incessantly.” (Tacitus)

MATRICIDE

 AD 59 Nero decides to commit Matricide

 “Finally, however, he concluded that wherever Agrippina was she was intolerable. He decided to kill her. His
only doubt was whether to employ poison, or the dagger, or violence of some other kind.” (Tacitus)
 Cannot use poison because Agrippina built up her immunity
 Plans to drown his mother by gifting her a boat that is rigged - has Agrippina over for dinner at the Bay of Naples,
plays the role of a loving son
 The collapsible boat failed - “Having gone so far, Nero must now go farther. He ordered the prefect of the fleet to
assassinate her.” (Scullard)
 When the ship sinks and Agrippina swam to shore, Nero panicked and sent a freedman Anicetus to stab her
 “Then as the lieutenant was drawing his sword to finish her off, she cried out, ‘Strike here!’ – pointing to her
womb. Blow after blow fell, and she died.” (Tacitus)
 Anicetus was a freedman not a Praetorian – suggests Nero couldn’t trust the Guards’ loyalty to him over Agrippina

EFFECT OF AGRIPPINA’S DEATH

 “Nero, when informed that she was dead, would not believe it…he laid bare her body, looked her all over and
inspected her wounds, finally uttering a remark far more abominable even than the murder” (Cassius Dio)
 “Hiis own conscience was so disturbed at night that he would leap suddenly from his bed……He therefore kept
changing his residence; and when he had the same experience in the new place also, he would move in utter fright
elsewhere” (Cassius Dio)

ERATIC BEHAVIOUR

NERO’S INTERESTS

 Now that Nero is free of his mother and the influence of his tutor’s isn’t as strong, he can indulge himself
 Nero’s passion for Greece and artistry given free reign
  “Nero had long desired to drive in four-horse chariot races. Another equally deplorable ambition was to sing to
the lyre. There was no stopping him, but Seneca and Burrus tried to prevent him from gaining both his wishes by
granting him one.” (Tacitus)
 Shameful for the emperor to engage in such ‘low class’ pursuits
 Nero performs publicly in the Roman theatre - his voice was at the best mediocre
 “No-one was allowed to leave the theatre during his recitals.” (Suetonius)
 AD67 Competed in Greek Olympic Games
o Fell from chariot during a race and almost died, dropped out of one race
o Competed in singing and acting competitions
o Despite failures, still won all crowns
 Rumours
o Heard a story that apples were bad for vocal chords, and banned all apples in the palace.
o Nero would also sleep with a slab of lead on his chest, apparently to increase his lung capacity
o Was often seen standing for hours in front of mirrors practicing different facial expressions, to enhance
his acting ability

LOSS OF BURRUS AND SENECA

 AD62 Seneca retired with renewed charges of embezzlement - Nero no longer has someone to guide him,
relationship deteriorated
 Return of Maiestas trials
 Two prominent senators, Plautus and Sulla, refused to pay Nero money and were forced to commit suicide
 Without Seneca’s guidance the princeps relationship with the Senate crumbles
 AD62 Burrus died naturally
 “The situation of the country was deteriorating every day; and a counteracting influence now vanished with the
death of Burrus.” (Tacitus)
 “Gradually Nero’s vices gained the upper hand … he openly broke into more serious crimes.” (Suetonius)

 “Disguised as a slave, he ranged the streets, brothels and taverns with his friends, pilfered goods from shops and
assaulted wayfarers.” (Tacitus)

TIGELLENUS

 After Burrus’ death, Nero appoints a new Praetorian commander - Tigellinus

 “Nero found his unending immoralities and evil reputation fascinating.” (Tacitus)

 “Tigellinus became more powerful every day. But he felt his criminal aptitudes, the only qualities he possessed,
would influence the emperor more if he could make them partners in crime.” (Tacitus)
 “Tigellinus’ position now resembled Sejanus’.” (Massie)

POPPAEA

 AD62 Nero divorced Octavia and married a pregnant Poppaea 12 days later
 Octavia exiled to a prison island - unpopular with the people, led to protests through the streets - the first signs of
Nero’s unpopularity
  Nero recalled her from exile under pressure from the people, but soon conspired to accuse her of adultery with
Ancietus
 Octavia is executed, and her head is brought to Poppaea on a plate
 AD 65 Nero kicked wife Poppaea to death for nagging him after he came home drunk and late from the games
 “Either accidentally or intentionally he had leaped upon her with his feet while she was pregnant.” (Cassius Dio)
 Nero missed Poppaea when he sobered up
 Initially took a woman who looked like Poppaea as a mistress
 AD67 Nero castrated and married Sporus, who also resembled Poppaea
 “Later he caused a boy of the freedmen, whom he used to call Sporus, to be castrated, since he, too, resembled
Poppaea, and he used him in every way like a wife. In due time, though already "married" to Pythagoras, a
freedman, he formally "married" Sporus (Cassius Dio)
 “And the witty jest that someone made is still current, that it would have been well for the world if Nero's father
Domitius had had that kind of wife.” (Suetonius)

PROBLEMS IN THE PROVINCES

 “Politically, his actions were simply intuitive, and rarely thought out or based on anything substantial.” (Massie)
 The bulk of Nero’s reign peaceful - due in part to Claudius’ reforms and the work of capable commanders like
Suetonius Paulinus and Corbulo
 Nero took very little interest in the provinces apart from Greece, which interested him due to its artistic heritage
 Never portrayed himself as a military figure, never visited troops
 His only involvement was the choice of governors (not always capable leaders)
 Nero’s attitude to the provinces is neglectful
 He allows corrupt governors stay in control of the provinces - plebs are unfairly taxed etc.

ARMENIAN WAR AGAINST PARTHIA AD 55

 AD55 Roman nominee for the Armenian throne was replaced with the Parthian king’s brother
 AD57 Corbulo attacked, unsuccessful annexation but compromise led to peace between Rome and Parthia

BOUDICCAN REVOLT AD 60

 AD61 Boudiccan revolt caused by provincial mismanagement, only subdued through actions of Suetonius
Paulinus who was removed from command after the revolt

JUDAEAN REVOLT AD 66

 Caused by mismanagement between 62-64, Roman focus on Armenia and Parthia, Greek and Jewish religious
tension
 AD67 dealt with by future emperor Vespasian, eventually subdued in AD70 after Nero’s death

THE GREAT FIRE AD 64

 AD 64 Fire broke out in July, burned for 7 days

 Destroyed 10 / 14 Roman districts
  It is a misconception that Nero started the fire - wasn’t even in Rome when the fire began
 Tacitus says the fire broke out in a suburb where they sold lamps and oil, which suggests it was an accident
 “Nero hurried back to Rome, helped to direct the firefighting and undertook energetic measures to relieve the
homeless.” (Scullard)
 Shows glimpses of ability - was concerned about the homeless, aided those who lost property and brought extra
food from Ostia

SACK OF TROY

 Suetonius and Cassius Dio - blame Nero as the arsonist, say he was struck by inspiration to compose an ode to the
‘Sack of Troy’ as Rome burned
 This singing was a rumour only since he was in southern Italy at the time - but it was a sign of his growing
unpopularity
 ‘Nero fiddled while Rome burnt’
 “In their loss and misery the city populace turned against Nero and accused him of having started the fire, while
rumour added that he had sung an aria …the “Sack of Troy” (Scullard)
 This moment was the catalyst for the plebs turning against Nero
 Crowds began to gather in the streets to protest and express their hatred of Nero

PERSECUTION OF THE CHRISTIANS

 Nero deflected blame onto Christian scapegoats, who were burnt alive and punished as criminals in the arena
 Christians were already viewed suspiciously in Rome - rumours that they drank blood and ate flesh
 “The cruelty showed the extent of Nero’s fear.” (Massie)

 Made their deaths into games to satisfy the plebs

 “Nero had self-acknowledged Christians arrested…their deaths were made farcical” (Tacitus)
 Crucified, burnt alive, thrown into the arena with wild beasts
 People saw through Nero’s attempts to deflect the attention away from himself

 “Despite their guilt as Christians, the victims were pitied … sacrificed to one man’s brutality” (Tacitus)

THE DOMUS AUREA (GOLDEN HOUSE)

 “Nero profited from his country’s ruin to build a new palace. Nero’s architects did not baulk at effects which
Nature herself had ruled out as impossible” (Tacitus)
 Damages his public image - looks completely insensitive and self-obsessed
 Luxurious, extravagant, wasteful opulence shows he was out of touch with the feelings of the populace
 “Nero’s paradise offered an escape from the world.” (Massie)
 Nero’s extravagant spending forced him to seek funds elsewhere
o “Meanwhile Italy was ransacked for funds, and the provinces were ruined. Temples at Rome were
robbed” (Tacitus)
o Forced provinces to pay higher taxes
o Sold of Greek works of art
o Maiestas trials used as a way to gain funds from wealthy people - Pallas
o Debasement of coinage
  “For himself Nero started to build his vast Golden Palace with its lakes, parks, colonnades and a colossal 120-
foot-high statue of himself.” (Scullard)
 Best description of the Golden House - Suetonius Ch. 31
o Over 50 bedrooms
o Multiple dining rooms
o Veranda went for 1km
o Marble floors, ivory fittings, everything plated with gold
o Circular ceilings with sliding panels - guests would have rose petals dropped on them or scented water
sprinkled on them if it was hot
o 40 m high statue of Nero out the front of the house - bronze, gold plated

 “At last I can begin to live like a normal human being!” (Suetonius)

REVOLTS

 “An inadequate emperor, without dignitas, inevitably turned men’s minds to thoughts of substitution.” (Massie)

 “Discontent seethed. Nero, lost in his dreams of artistic glory, ignored it.” (Massie)

PISONIAN CONSPIRACY AD 65

 The senator Gaius Calpurnius Piso organised the conspiracy with the help of a tribune and a praetorian centurion,
aimed to rescue the state and restore the Republic
 The plot grew, Senators and Praetorian Officers joined the conspiracy
 “A conspiracy was hatched … senators and knights, officers, even women competed to join … they hated Nero.”
(Tacitus)
 The plan was to kill Nero in the Forum at a religious event
 The night before it was to occur, it was discovered by one of the conspirator’s freedmen who reported it to Nero’s
secretary
 The senators were interrogated, they eventually brought in torturers
 Numerous executions, including Lucan the Poet, Faenius Rufus (the other Praetorian prefect)
 Seneca (Lucan’s uncle) forced to commit suicide after admitting knowledge of the plot
 Ruthless retribution by Tigellinus - “Often he [Nero] hinted broadly that it was not his intention to spare the
remaining senators, but would one day wipe out the entire Senatorial Order.” (Suetonius)
 The confession of Flavus - “Asked by Nero why he had forgotten his military oath, he replied: ‘Because I detested
you! I was as loyal as any of your soldiers as long as you deserved affection. I began detesting you when you
murdered your mother and your wife and became charioteer, actor and incendiary!’”

STOIC RESISTANCE AD 65-66

 Stoics were led by Thrasea Paetus

 Conduct passive resistance - refused to applaud at the end of Nero’s performances - “Paetus had failed to applaud
Nero’s ‘divine voice’” (Scullard)
 “These Stoics…objected to tyranny and they showed a bold and obstinate opposition to Nero’s rule” (Scullard)
 Forced to commit suicide - these men were prepared to die for their principles, rather than live in a Rome that’s so
debased
THE ARMY CONSPIRACY AD 66

 “Disloyalty among the army commanders, suspected or real, soon revealed itself……Nero’s position would be
vitally endangered if discontent spread to the armies, as well might happen since he had not shared any of their
campaigns or troubled to visit their camps.” (Scullard)
 Corbulo was Rome’s leading general - highly respected, commanded all of Rome’s armies in the Eastern side of
the Empire, fought the Parthians
 AD 66 Nero left Rome for his first Provincial tour to Greece, where he competed in the games and performed
 Plot formed headed by legionary commanders
 Corbulo and the Rhine commander ordered to Greece to commit suicide in front of Nero to prove his loyalty
 “When he had gone to Greece in AD66-67 Nero summoned Corbulo and the commanders of Upper and Lower
Germany to join him: on arrival they received his order to kill themselves, and obeyed.” (Scullard)
 Incensed the legions who withdrew their support for Nero

THE VINDEX REBELLION

 AD67 Nero returns from Greece on the prompting of his freedman, Helius.
 “Here he found the populace angry because of a corn shortage, the aristocracy hated him, and the armies were
becoming restless at his lack of interest and the murder of commanders like Corbulo.” (Scullard)
 “News reached him that Julius Vindex, governor of Gaul was in revolt…the objectives of Vindex are uncertain,
beyond that of getting rid of Nero; he probably had no intention of restoring republican authority… he probably
merely wanted a better emperor.” (Scullard)
 AD68 Vindex, Governor of Gaul, and Galba, governor of Spain, rebelled
 “After the world had put up with such a ruler for nearly fourteen years, it at last cast him off, and the Gauls took
the first step under the lead of Julius Vindex, who at that time governed their province as propraetor.” (Suetonius)
 The revolt quickly spread
o Galba and Otho, governors in Spain and future emperors, both declared their support for Vindex
o Macer, governor in Africa, also declared support
 Vindex soon defeated, but Galba’s rebellion continued

FINAL OVERTHROW

 “Resolution in this crisis might have yet saved Nero: The Praetorians were loyal and he still had troops on whom
he could rely… but he hesitated and did little. Tigellinus fled and the Guard proclaimed Galba emperor”
(Scullard)
 “When news reached him of Galba’s revolt he fainted dead away.” (Suetonius)
 Praetorian Prefect soon abandoned Nero and supported Galba
 Senate joined and declared Nero a public enemy - plebs could murder him in the street
 Nero fled in disguise - a fugis (fugitive)
 Hoping to go from Ostia to one of the remaining loyal eastern provinces
 “Now that he had been abandoned by everybody alike, he began forming plans to kill the senators, burn down the
city, and sail to Alexandria.” (Cassius Dio)

SUICIDE
  Eventually went to a loyal freedman’s suburban villa, 4km out of the city
 Heard Praetorian troops approaching
 Prepared for suicide but lost his nerve, asked a companion to demonstrate
 Stabbed himself in the throat with aid of a secretary
 Committed suicide on the anniversary of Octavia’s death
 “With the help of his secretary, he stabbed himself in the throat … he muttered ’Dead, and so great an artist.’”
(Suetonius)
 “With Nero the line of the Caesars became extinct.” (Suetonius)

AN ASSESSMENT OF NERO

 Emperor for 14 years (AD 54 - 68)

 16 when he becomes emperor, nearly 30 when he dies
 Break Nero’s reign down into the Quinquenium Neronus, the middle period, and the last 4/5 years
 The first 5 years of his reign are effective due to Seneca, Burrus and Agrippina’s guidance
 In the middle / transitional period he begins to break away from his advisors
o Kills his mother, Burrus dies, Seneca retires
o The ‘real’ Nero starts to emerge
o Popaea and Tigellunus begin to fill the void left by the others - positive influences fade out and are
replaced by negative ones
 The last years of his reign is chaos, an absolute disaster - fires, conspiracies, rebellion, suicide. One crisis after
another, and Nero cannot deal with it
 His passions are music and chariot racing, which he pursues with every fibre of his being - he is totally
disconnected from his role as emperor
 Should never have been emperor - he was living out his mother’s dream

THE YEAR OF THE FOUR EMPERORS

 June AD 68 - December AD 69
 Period of 18 months following the suicide of Nero
 A terrible time of civil war - chaotic due to the ‘revolving door’ of emperors
 Main players - Galba, Otho, Vitellius, Vespasian
 “The Principate had originally rescued the Empire from civil war…now it was itself to be the prize of such a
war.” (Massie)

IMPORTANCE OF THE ARMIES

 The Julio-Claudians are extinct

 Rome has a power vacuum
 “Nero had failed to understand the source of his power” (Massie)

 “Supreme power belonged to the sword” (Massie)

 “In the absence of an emperor the armies did not know where to look” (Massie)
GALBA

 Destroyed/enormously fined towns that didn’t accept him immediately

 Cancelled reforms of Nero
 Executed many nobles without trial
 Refused to pay Praetorians the rewards promised to them
 Legions of Germany refused to swear allegiance, instead acclaimed Vitellius, their governor, as emperor

OTHO

 Bribed Praetorians
 Praetorians killed Galba in the Forum
 Otho recognised as Emperor the same day

VITELLIUS

 Marching on Rome as Otho being proclaimed emperor

 Otho sent emissaries to propose peace and offer marriage to Vitellius’ daughter but too late
 Otho defeated in battle, committed suicide
 Quickly became unpopular – bad auspices, lengthy and expensive feasts, bankruptcy
 Torture and executions of money lenders calling in their debts
 Ruthless execution of rivals

VESPASIAN

 Legions in Egypt, Judaea and Syria acclaimed Vespasian emperor

 Defeated Vitellius in battle
 Vitellius killed as he attempted to flee
 Senate acknowledged Vespasian as emperor 21 December AD 69
 Vespasian ushered in a period of stability, founded the Flavian dynasty, died of natural causes in AD 79