Building Construction

Chapter – III - Foundation

1. Foundation:-

Definition: - It is the lower portion of the building usually located below ground level, which transmits
the load of the super-structure to the sub-soil.

 The soil which is located immediately below the base of the foundation is called the sub-soil or
foundation soil, while the lowermost portion of the foundation which is in direct contact with the
sub-soil is called the footing.
1.1 Functions of Foundation:-
 The basic function of a foundation is to transmit the dead loads, super-imposed loads (or live
loads) and wind loads from a building to the soil on which the building rests, in such a way that
(a) settlements are within permissible limits, without causing cracks in the super-structure, and
(b) the soil does not fail. When loads are transmitted to the Sub-soil it settles. If this settlement is
slight and uniform throughout, no damage will be caused to the building.
 But if the settlement is excessive or unequal, serious damage may result in the form of
cracked walls, distorted doors and window openings, cracked lintels, walls thrown out of plumb
etc., and sometimes the complete collapse of the building.

è Foundations serve the following purposes:

1. Reduction of load intensity: Foundations distribute the loads of the super-structure, to a
larger area so that the intensity of the load at its base (i.e. total load divided by the total
area) does not exceed the safe bearing capacity of the sub-soil. In the case of deep
foundations, it transmits the super-imposed loads to the sub-soil both through side
friction as well as through end bearing.
2. Even distribution of Load: Foundations distribute the non-uniform load of the super-structure
evenly to be sub-soil. For example, two columns carrying unequal loads can have a combined
footing.
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 3. Provision of level surface: Foundations provide leveled and hard surface over which the super-
structure can be built.
4. Lateral Stability: It anchors the superstructure to the ground, thus imparting lateral stability to
the super-structure. The stability of the building, against sliding and overturning, due to
horizontal forces (such as wind, earthquake etc.) is increased due to foundations.
5. Safety against Undermining: It provides the structural safety against undermining or scouring due
to burrowing animals and flood water.
6. Protection against soil movements: A special foundation measure prevents or minimizes the
cracks in the super-structure, due to expansion or contraction of the sub-soil because of moisture
movement in some problematic soils.

1.2 Essential requirements of Foundation:-

Foundations should be constructed to satisfy the following requirements :

1. The Foundations shall be constructed to sustain the dead and imposed loads and to
transmit these to the sub-soil in such a way that pressure on it will not cause settlement
which would disturb the stability of the building or adjoining structures.
2. Foundation base should be rigid so that settlements are minimized, especially for the case when
super-imposed loads are not evenly distributed.
3. Foundations should be taken sufficiently deep to guard the building against damage caused by
swelling or shrinkage of sub-soil.
4. Foundations should be so located that its performance may not be affected due to any
unexpected future influence.

1.3 Types of Foundation:-

Foundations may be broadly classified under two heads:-

i) Shallow Foundations: - Foundation is shallow if its depth is equal to or less than its width. Shallow
foundations are used when stable soil of adequate bearing capacity occurs relatively near to the
ground surface.
ii) Deep foundations: - Foundation is deep if the depth is equal to or greater than its width.
Deep foundations are used if soil underlying foundation is unstable or of inadequate bearing
capacity.

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 i) Shallow Foundations: -
Shallow foundations may be of the following types:
a) Spread Footings:- Spread footings are defined as extended bases of walls and columns carried below the
ground level to distribute the load of the structure over a larger area of the sub-soil. Spread footings
support either a column or wall. It is very common type of foundation used for ordinary buildings on
ordinary soils or alluvial soils (loose soil or unconsolidated soil).
Spread may be of the following types:
1) Single footing for a column
2) Stepped footing for a column
3) Sloped footing for a column
4) Wall footing without step
5) Stepped footing for wall

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 Fig. (a) shows a single footing for a column, in which, the loaded area of the column
has been spread to the through a single spread. The base is generally made of concrete. Fig.
(b) shows the stepped footing for a heavily loaded column, which requires greater spread.
The base of the column is made of concrete. Fig. (c) shows the case in which the concrete base
does not have uniform thickness, but is made sloped, with greater thickness at its junction with
the column and smaller thickness at the ends.
Size of footing is based on area required to distribute the load of the column safely over the soil.
These footings are provided over 100 to 150mm bed concrete.

Above fig. shows the spread footing for a wall, consisting of concrete base without any steps.
Usually, masonry wall have stepped footings with concrete base as shown in Fig. below.

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 b) Combined Footing:
A spread footing which supports two or more columns is termed as combined footing. This
type of footing is necessary when column is very close to boundary of property & there is
no scope to project footing much beyond column face. The combined footings may be of
the following kinds:
(i) Rectangular combined footing Fig (a)
(ii) Trapezoidal combined fooling Fig (b)
(iii) Combined column-wall footings Fig (c)
Combined footings are invariably constructed of reinforced concrete.

The combined footing for columns will be rectangular in shape if they carry equal loads.
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 If the columns carry unequal loads, the footing is of trapezoidal shape, as shown in Fig. (b).
Sometimes, it may be required to provide a combined footing for columns and a wall. Such combined
footings are shown in Fig below.

When columns carry equal loads, the footing is of rectangular shape as shown in Fig. (a) above & When
columns carry unequal loads, the footing is of trapezoidal shape as shown in Fig. (b) Above.
Following points should be kept in mind while designing the combined footing foundation: -
1. The base area should be shaped as to be symmetrical along the centre line of the two columns.
2. The base area of the combined footing base should be equal to or more than that secured by
dividing total load of the columns & safe bearing capacity of soil. -
3. The centre of gravity (C.G.) of the combined loads should coincide with the C.G. of the base area.
c) Strap Footing:

-
The independent footings of two columns are connected by a beam; it is called a strap footing. A strap
footing may be used where the distance between the columns is so great that a combined trapezoidal
footing becomes quite narrow, with high bending moments. In that case, each column is provided with
its independent footings and a beam is used to connect the two footings. The strap beam does not
remain in contact with soil, and thus does not transfer any pressure to the soil.

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d) Mat Foundation (Raft Foundation): A raft or mat is a combined footing that covers the entire area
beneath a structure and supports all the walls and columns. When the allowable soil pressure is low, or the
building loads are heavy, it may prove more economical to use mat or raft foundation. They are also used
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where the soil mass is compressible or the soil is sufficiently erratic (moving or changing in ways) so that
the differential settlement would be difficult to control. The mat or raft tends to bridge over the erratic
deposits and eliminates the differential settlements. Raft foundation is also used to reduce settlement
above highly compressible soils, by making the weight of structure and raft approximately equal to the
weight of the soil excavated.
column

raft floor
columns raft
raft

columns columns columns

beams

floor fill

plain raft/ mat foundation (b) ribs underneath (c) ribs on top )a(

Fig. Raft foundations

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ii) Deep Foundation:-
Pile foundation: - It is a deep foundation in the form of piles that go deep enough in the soil stratum
passing through weak soil until it reaches a sub soil that is strong enough to support the intended
structure. Piles are columns made of wood, steel, concrete or R.C.C. place or embedded into the ground
to transmit the load of the structure to hard stratum or compressed soil. Pile foundation may be
adopted in following cases: - (i) instead of a raft foundation where good quality soil not exists at any
reasonable depth and the loading is uneven (ii) when pumping of sub-soil water would be too costly to
permit the construction of normal foundations.
Classification of pile: -
Material Classification: - 1. Timber piles 2. Concrete piles 3. Reinforced cement concrete piles 4. Steel
piles 5. Composite piles 6. Sand piles 7. Under-reamed piles.

Working classification: - Piles used for building foundation may be of four types :
(i) End bearing pile Fig.(a)
(ii) Friction pile Fig. (b)
(iii) Combined end bearing and friction pile Fig. (c)
(iv) Compaction piles Fig. (d)
i) End bearing piles Fig.(a) are used to transfer load through water or soft soil to a suitable bearing soil.
Such piles are used to carry heavy loads safely & transfer to hard strata (hard soil). Multi-storied
buildings are invariably founded on end bearing piles, so that the settlements are minimized.
ii) Friction piles - Fig. (b) are used to transfer loads to a depth by means of skin friction along the length
of the pile. Such piles are generally used in granular soil where the depth of hard stratum is very great.
iii) Combined End Bearing pile-Fig. (c) shows a pile which transfers the super-imposed load both through
side friction as well as end bearing. Such piles are more common, specially when the end bearing piles
pass through granular soils (soil containing gravel, sand or silt).
iv) Compaction piles Fig. (d) are used to compact loose granular soils, thus increasing their bearing
capacity. The compaction piles themselves do not carry a load. Hence they may be of weaker material
(such as timber, bamboo sticks etc.) sometimes of sand only.

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 1.4 Settlements of Foundation:-
The vertical downward movement of the base of a structure is called settlement and its effect upon the
structure depends on its magnitude, its uniformity, the length of the time over which it takes place, and
the nature of the structure itself.
Foundation settlement may be caused by some or a combination of the following reasons:
1. Elastic compression of the foundation and the underlying soil.
2. Plastic compression of the underlying soils which is much larger than the elastic compression.
3. Ground water lowering – Repeated lowering and raising or water level in loose granular soil tends to
compact the soil and cause settlement of the ground surface.
4. Vibrations due to pile driving, blasting and oscillating machineries may cause settlement in deposits of
granular soils.
5. Seasonal swelling and shrinkage of expansive soils.
6. Ground movement on earth slopes, such as surface erosion, landslide, etc.
7. Other causes such as adjacent excavation, underground erosion, etc.

1.5 Methods of Improving Bearing Capacity:-

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Sometimes, the safe bearing pressure of soil is so low that the dimensions of the footings work out to be
very large and un- economical. In such a circumstance, it becomes essential to improve the safe bearing
pressure of soil, which can be done by the following methods:
i) Increasing depth of foundation (ii) compacting the soil iii) draining the soil iv) confining the soil-
v) Grouting vi) chemical treatment
i) Increasing depth of foundation:- It has been found that in granular soil, the bearing capacity increases
with the depth due to the confining weight of overlying material.
ii) compacting the soil:- It has found that compaction of natural soil deposits (loose) or man-made fills results
in the improvement of bearing capacity and reduction in the resulting settlements.
iii) Draining the soil:- It is a well known fact that presence of water decreases the bearing power of soil,

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specially when it is saturated. This is because of low shearing strength of soil in presence of excess water.
Drainage results in decrease in the voids ratio, and improvement or bearing power.
iv) Confining the soil:- Sometimes the safe bearing pressure of the soil is low because of settlements resulting
due to the lateral movement of loose granular soil. Such a tendency of lateral movement can be checked by
confining the soil, outside the perimeter of foundation area, by driving sheer piles, thus forming an enclosure
and confining the soil.
v) Grouting: - This method is useful in loose gravels and fissured rocky strata. Bore holes in sufficient numbers
are driven in the ground and cement grout is forced through these under pressure. The cracks, voids and
fissures of the strata are thus filled with the grout, resulting in the increase in the bearing value.
vi) Chemical treatment: - In this method, certain chemicals are grouted in the place of cement grout. The
chemical should be such that it can solidify and gain early strength.

1.6 CAUSES OF FAILURES OF FOUNDATIONS AND REMEDIAL MEASURES:-

The foundations may fail due to the following reasons:
1) Unequal settlement of sub-soil. Unequal settlement of the sub-soil may lead to cracks in the structural
components and rotation thereof. The failures of foundation due to unequal settlement can be checked by
: (i) resting the foundation on rigid strata, such as rock or hard moorum, (ii) proper design of the base of
footing; so that it can resist cracking, (iii) limiting the pressure in the Soil, and (iv)avoiding eccentric loading.
2) Unequal settlement of masonry: This portion of masonry, situated between the ground level and concrete
footing (base) has mortar joints which may either shrink or compress, leading to unequal settlement of
masonry. This should be checked by (i) using mortar of proper strength (ii) using thin mortar joints.
3) Sub-soil moisture movement:- This is one of the major causes of failures of footings on cohesive soil, where
the subsoil water level fluctuates. When water table drops down, shrinkage of sub-soil takes place. Due to
this, there is lack of sub-soil support to the footings which results in the cracks in the building. Foundation
has to be designed for such situation.
4) Lateral pressure on the walls:- The walls transmitting the load to the foundation may be subjected to lateral
pressure or thrust from wind action. Due to this, the foundation will be subjected to a moment. If the
foundation has not been designed for such a situation, it may fail by either overturning or by generation of
tensile stresses on one side and high compressive stresses on the other side of the footing.
5) Lateral movement of sub-soil:- This is applicable to very soft soil which are liable to move out or squeeze
out laterally under vertical loads, specially at locations where the ground is sloping. Due to such movement,
excessive settlements take place, or the structure may even collapse.
If such a situation exists, sheet piles should be driven to prevent the lateral movement or escape of the soil.

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