Construction and Building Materials 241 (2020) 118149

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Construction and Building Materials

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/conbuildmat

Use of expanded polystyrene wastes in developing hollow block

masonry units
Youmna A.Y. Ali a, Ezzat H.A. Fahmy b,⇑, Mohamed N. AbouZeid b, Yoursy B.I. Shaheen c,
Mohamed N. Abdel Mooty b
a
Power Generation Engineering and Services Company, Cairo, Egypt
b
Department of Construction Engineering, the American University in Cairo, Cairo, Egypt
c
Faculty of Engineering, Menoufia University, Shbin Elkom, Menoufia, Egypt

h i g h l i g h t s

Block density and compressive strength decreases with the increase of EPS dosage.

The increase in the EPS dosage makes the failure of the blocks more gradual.

Skin reinforcement does not affect the strength, it improves the failure pattern.

The skin reinforcement rust and deteriorate after exposure to saline solution.

The proposed EPS hollow blocks are acceptable for non-loadbearing application.

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: This paper presents the results of an experimental investigation aimed at developing lightweight hollow
Received 3 November 2019 block masonry units of adequate mechanical and durability characteristics for applications in the con-
Received in revised form 4 January 2020 struction industry. Five dosages of EPS crumbles were used as partial replacement of the sand in the
Accepted 9 January 2020
blocks mixture, namely; 0%, 10%, 15%, 20%, and 26%. Skin reinforcement was added to some of the tested.
Available online 17 January 2020
Three types of EPS blocks were tested: 1 – plain blocks without reinforcement, 2 – blocks reinforced with
welded steel wire mesh, and 3 – blocks reinforced with fiberglass mesh. The density of the developed
Keywords:
blocks ranged between 2119 and 982 kg/m3 and the net area compressive strength ranged between
Cement mortar
Hollow block units
9.5 and 1.4 MPa. The presence of EPS in the mixture greatly improved the failure pattern of all the EPS
Polystyrene hollow blocks. The durability tests proved that EPS hollow blocks were resilient to acid and salt exposure.
Compressive strength The weight loss and compressive strength loss of the hollow blocks due to ettringite leach decreased sig-
Density nificantly with the addition of EPS. The presence of the skin reinforcement had minimal effect on the
Welded steel wire mesh compressive strength, but it improved the failure pattern. The developed EPS hollow blocks are suitable
Glass fiber mesh for non-load bearing application of exterior and interior walls within the stated limits of ASTM and the
Failure pattern Egyptian Standards.
Ó 2020 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction
Concrete masonry units (CMU) are used, among other types of
masonry units, as load bearing or non-load bearing building envel-
opes and interior partition walls. Concrete masonry units are made
from cement, fine, and coarse aggregates. They are divided into
three types according to the weight of the units: lightweight,
⇑ Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: youmna@aucegypt.edu (Y.A.Y. Ali), ezzat@aucegypt.edu
(E.H.A. Fahmy), mnagiba@aucegypt.edu (M.N. AbouZeid), mamooty@aucegypt.edu
(Mohamed N. Abdel Mooty).
medium, and dense CMU. Concrete hollow blocks represent one
of the two types of CMU available in the market, the other one is
the solid concrete brick. Although concrete hollow blocks are
ubiquitous, the call for lighter building units and higher thermal
efficiency in households and commercial buildings resulted in
researching novel materials with lighter weight and superior ther-
mal characteristics which in turn called for the improvement of
blocks manufacturing materials. The average weight of concrete
hollow blocks ranges between 18 and 22 kg, which is unergonomic,
as it adversely impacts the mason’s physiology and efficiency.
Moreover, although the concrete hollow blocks have lesser thermal
mass than solid concrete bricks due to the presence of holes, the

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2020.118149
0950-0618/Ó 2020 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
2 Y.A.Y. Ali et al. / Construction and Building Materials 241 (2020) 118149
gain in thermal performance is suppressed by the ribs of concrete
that frame the holes and the mortar joints [1]. These challenges
gave way to the introduction of lightweight aggregate (LWA) and
more thermally efficient materials in the production of concrete
hollow blocks and solid brick units.
The utilization of (LWA) in the production of (CMU) is a
research topic till today in terms of materials, mix design, mechan-
ical properties, and thermal characteristics. Some literatures
reported that the addition of (LWA) proportion equivalent to 1/3
of the volume of concrete decreased the strength of the mortar
by 50% [2]. That is why the mix design of (LWA) for (CMU) always
involves the addition of mineral admixtures such as fly ash and sil-
ica fume. Gunduz [3] investigated the use of fly ash, scoria, and
cement to produce cellular hollow lightweight masonry (CHLM)
blocks for building industry. He reported that CHLM blocks have
adequate strength and more convenient water absorption for their
use in general building industry. Saleh et al. [4] used iron slag
(granulated blast furnace slag) and titanate nanofibers to improve
the basic mechanical, chemical and physical parameters of the
cement matrix. They concluded that the produced composite is a
promising material for rigid construction and building applica-
tions. In a different publication [5] the same authors reported that
the integrity and durability of the cement-iron slag-titanate nano-
fibers composite was confirmed under flooding conditions.
With today’s environmental awareness, the urge to recycle
more wastes and reduce the carbon footprint of the construction
industry became a call everywhere in the world. Wastes are avail-
able worldwide and are available almost for free, but it usually
gains some value after being introduced as usable material. Use
of wastes in a recycling scheme such as partially replacing the nat-
ural aggregates and mixing it with cement saves the environment
and result in a more economic construction. It is worth noting that
most of the processed (LWA) such as expanded slag, fly ash and
LECA are made from recycled wastes. However, virgin wastes do
not always possess the qualities for producing (LWA) concretes.
These facts have channeled most of the new research in (LWA) to
investigate the use of wastes such as expanded polystyrene waste
(EPS), rubber tires, glass and wood chippings [6]. Expanded Poly-
styrene is light closed cell microstructures made of discrete air
voids dispersed in a polymer matrix with a density ranging
between 10 and 50 kg/m3 [7,8]. There are different attractions of
EPS concrete, among which, the easiness of its production, avail-
ability and cost effectiveness [9,10]. Recycling the unmodified
EPS wastes (crushed EPS wastes) as lightweight aggregates in con-
crete is considered the cheapest and most environmentally
rewarding methods as compared to the other recycling methods
[8].
EPS concrete is one of the lightweight aggregate concretes that
has high thermal and acoustic insulation properties which made it
attractive for non-structural building applications such as ther-
mally insulating wall and roof panels, core materials for sandwich
panels [11] as well as lightweight thermally insulating blocks [1,9–
11]. Yi Xu et al. [12] studied the relationship between the compo-
sition of EPS concrete and its properties and used the optimal mix-
ture to produce light weight hollow bricks. EPS beads were used in
that research. They concluded that the dosage of EPS beads played
the most important role in determining the mixture density and
strength. Allahverdi et al. [13] used EPS beads, silica fume, and
replaced the quartz powder and quartz sand in the mixture by
blast furnace slag to produce new class of lightweight mortar.
The developed mortar had a density ranging from 1257 to
1840 kg/m3 and compressive strength ranging from 20.8 to
85.6 MPa. Jianguo et al. [14] investigated experimentally the phys-
ical and mechanical properties of lightweight concrete incorporat-
ing EPS beads and soft marine clay. They concluded that the EPS to
clay ratio was the key factor controlling the density of the mixture.
They proposed an equation to correlate the compressive strength
of the mixture to the failure strain.
In a previous research by the authors [15], the results of an
experimental investigation of the use of expanded polystyrene
shreds in producing lightweight mortar and the viability of using
the developed EPS lightweight mortar in producing EPS light-
weight solid brick units were presented.
This paper presents the results of an experimental investigation
of using the developed lightweight mortar by the authors [15] in
producing EPS lightweight hollow block units. A parallel objective
of the current investigation is to examine the effect of introducing
outer skin reinforcement in accordance with the ferrocement tech-
nology [16] on the performance of the proposed EPS hollow blocks.
Three types of hollow blocks of dimensions 400  200, 200 mm
with two cylindrical holes each of diameter 125 mm were tested,
namely; 1 – plain EPS mortar hollow blocks with no outer skin
reinforcement, 2 – EPS mortar hollow blocks with its outer skin
reinforced with welded steel wire mesh, 3 – EPS mortar hollow
blocks with its outer skin reinforced with fiberglass mesh. The vari-
able parameters in the current research were: 1 – the EPS content
in mortar, 0%, 10%, 15%, 20%, and 26%. 2 – the type of block skin
reinforcement; plain (no reinforcement), welded steel wire mesh
reinforcement, fiberglass mesh reinforcement. The mechanical
properties and the durability characteristics of the produced three
hollow block types were determined. The thermal characteristics
of the proposed EPS hollow blocks is currently under investigation
by the authors as a continuation of the present work.
2. Experimental program
The experimental program was designed to investigate the
mechanical characteristics and durability of lightweight hollow
blocks incorporating different dosages of expanded polystyrene
(EPS) wastes and the viability of its application in the construction
industry. EPS was used as partial replacement of the sand in the
mixtures. The concept of ferrocement was used to reinforce the
skin of the hollow block units to investigate the impact of such
reinforcement on the properties of the blocks. The variables in
the test program were: 1 – the percentage of the EPS in the mix-
ture, namely: 0% (control specimen), 10%, 15%, 20% and 26%. 2 –
the type of block skin reinforcement, three types of blocks were
tested for each of the five mixes according to the type of skin rein-
forcement in the block. These types are plain blocks (control),
blocks reinforced with steel welded wire mesh, and blocks rein-
forced with and fiberglass mesh.
2.1. Materials properties
2.1.1. Cement
Type I normal Portland cement was used with a specific gravity
of 3.16 and a specific surface area (Blaine fineness) of 374 m2/kg.
The chemical composition of the Portland cement used in the pre-
sent research is given in Table 1.
2.1.2. Silica fume
Silica fume (S.F.) was used in the present work to enhance the
strength of the mix. It was used as partial replacement by weight
of cement in the mixtures. 9.8% replacement of the cement was
used in the current investigation. The S.F. had an average particle
size of 0.1 mm. The chemical composition of the silica fume is given
in Table 1.
2.1.3. Sand
Natural siliceous sand was used as fine aggregate throughout
the current research. The fine aggregate used was obtained from
 Y.A.Y. Ali et al. / Construction and Building Materials 241 (2020) 118149 3

Table 1 obtained from three randomly selected EPS bags is shown in

Chemical composition of the Portland cement and silica fume. Fig. 1b.
Ordinary Portland Cement Silica Fume
Constituents Weight Constituent Weight
(%) (%) 2.1.5. Water
Ordinary municipal water was used in the current research.
Silica as SiO2 19.8 Amorphous Silicon Min.
Dioxide (SiO2) 92%
Alumina as Al2O3 5.6 Carbon (C) Max. 1%
Iron as FeO3 2.4 Iron Oxide (Fe2O3) Max. 2.1.6. High range water reducer
1.5% As the use of EPS resulted in reduction of workability, high
Potassium as K2O 0.58 Aluminum Oxide (Al2O3) Max. 1% range water reducer (HRWR) of a synthetic type dispersion base
Calcium as CaO 65.9 Calcium Oxide (CaO) Max.
0.75%
was used to improve the mix workability. It complies with ASTM
Sodium as Na2O 0.29 Magnesium Oxide Max. 1% C494 Type A & F and B.S. 5075 Part 3. The HRWR produces 3% air
(MgO) bubbles of definite spherical shape which was noticed on the sur-
Sulphur as SO3 2.8 Potassium Oxide (K2O) Max. face finish and on the cross section of saw-cut specimens in all
1.2%
mixes.
Loss in ignition 1.2 Sodium Oxide (Na2O) Max.
0.8%
Insoluble residue 0.4 Phosphorous Pent-oxide Max.
(P2O5) 0.05% 2.1.7. Welded steel wire mesh
Free lime 0.9 Sulphur Trioxide (SO3) Max. Galvanized high tensile welded steel wire mesh of diameter
0.5% 0.8 mm and opening size of 12.7  12.7 mm was used to reinforce
Lime Saturation Factor 100.4 Chloride (Cl) Max.
0.1%
the skin of one group of the EPS hollow blocks and its correspond-
Lime Combination Factor 98.9 Moisture (when packed) Max. ing control specimens. The welded wire mesh had proof stress of
0.5% 490 MPa, ultimate strength of 570 MPa, modulus of elasticity of
Silica ratio 2.48 Loss on ignition 750 °C Max. 2% 200 GPa.
Alumina ratio 2.33 Loss on ignition 950 °C Max. 3%
Tricalcium Cilicate (C3S) 65.1 Coarse particles >45 mm Max. 2%
Dicalcium cilicate (C2S) 7.6 PH – value (fresh) 5.5–7.5
2.1.8. Fiberglass mesh
Tricalcium Aluminate (C3A) 10.8 Bulk density (when 250–
packed) kg/m3 350 Alkali resistant fiberglass mesh was used to reinforce the skin of
Tetracalcium Aluminate 7.3 Specific surface area Min. another group of the EPS hollow blocks and its corresponding con-
Ferrite (C4AF) (m2/g) 15% trol specimens. The specifications of the fiberglass mesh as
obtained from the manufacturer are given in Table 2.

the new Cairo district in Egypt. The selected sand was character-
ized by its large particles. Its specific gravity was 2.6 and it pos-
sessed a high fineness modulus of 3.28 and a low percentage of
particles finer than sieve No. 200 which resulted in a low absorp-
tion percentage of 0.81%.
2.1.4. Expanded polystyrene
Expanded polystyrene (EPS) crumbles of different shapes and
sizes as shown in Fig. 1a were used as partial replacement of the
sand in the mortar mix. The EPS crumbles had size ranged from
2.23 mm to 19 mm, unit weight ranging from 20 to 22 kg/m3,
and water absorption 2.7%. The average gradation of EPS crumbles
2.2. Mix design
Four Expanded polystyrene Mortar (EPSM) mixes were
designed in addition to the control mix and used in manufacturing
the hollow block units. The mix design is based on partial replace-
ment of fine aggregates (sand) by polystyrene crumbles known
commercially as ‘‘Addipore 55” to produce lighter mortars. Table 3
shows the constituents of the different mixes/m3. Silica fume was
used in the mix as replacement of cement to enhance the proper-
ties of the produced expanded polystyrene mortar. High range
water reducing admixture (HRWR) was used to improve the work-
ability of the mixes and its proportion in kg/m3 of the mix was
adjusted so that a slump of 20 cm was achieved.

Fig. 1. EPS crumbles and its gradation.

4 Y.A.Y. Ali et al. / Construction and Building Materials 241 (2020) 118149

Table 2 Table 4
Specifications of fiberglass mesh as obtained from the Manufacturer. Block designations of the test program.

Composition Fiberglass Approx. 84% Mortar Mix Type of Block Skin Reinforcement
Alkali resistant finish Approx. 16% Designation
Plain Steel Welded Wire Fiberglass
Weight SP 04/02/12 Raw mesh 75 g/m2 ± 5% Mesh Mesh
(ISO 3374) Finished mesh 90 g/m2 ± 5%
C CB0P CB0W CB0F
Mesh size (SP 04/02/12) Measured between yarn Approx. 4  5 mm
EPSM10 EPSB10P EPSB10W EPSB10F
midpoints
EPSM15 EPSB15P EPSB15W EPSB15F
Tensile Strength Warp Average value
EPSM20 EPSB20P EPSB20W EPSB20F
1450 N/5 cm
EPSM26 EPSB26P EPSB26W EPSB26F
Weft Average value
1550 N/5 cm
Elongation Warp and Weft 4.5% ± 1
Table 5
Summary of the conducted durability tests, specimen type and sample size.

2.3. Test specimens Test Description Cycle description Sample Size

48-hour water absorption 48 h of immersion in water and 2 blocks per
The test program comprised 135 hollow blocks of dimensions 48 h drying at room mix after
200  200  400 mm with two cylindrical holes each of 125 mm temperature and atmosphere. 28 days
in diameter. A designation was assigned to each block according One cycle
Cyclic ponding in 5% 4 days in acidic pond and 3 days 2 blocks per
to the EPS content and the type of skin reinforcement as shown sulfuric acid (H2SO4) drying at room temperature and mix after
in Table 4. solution atmosphere. 28 days
The blocks were tested under compression in a universal testing A total of 4 cycles
machine to determine the compressive strength of the blocks. 3 Cyclic ponding in super 7 days in brine pond and 7 days 2 blocks per
saturated sodium drying at room temperature and mix after
blocks for every block designation were tested after 28 days from
chloride (NaCl) salt atmosphere. 28 days
casting. The blocks were also tested to determine its absorption solution A total of 4 cycles
and durability. The performed absorption and durability tests
and samples size are summarized in Table 5.
Water absorption is an indirect and fast method to determine
the permeability of materials. It is a well-known factor to indicate block were formed by inserting two PVC pipes of outside diameter
the durability and serviceability of concrete masonry units and to of 125 mm and a length of 250 mm at the time of casting. The pipes
assess their susceptibility to deleterious materials migration inside were removed after 2 h from casting. For the blocks reinforced with
the pores. Deleterious materials transported by the absorbed water welded wire mesh, a strip of the welded wire mesh was folded to
vary from mild/aggressive salt solutions to mild/aggressive acids, form a rectangular hoop of dimensions 375  175  190 mm and
which react with the hydration products especially the portlandite was placed in the mold before casting the mortar. The wire mesh
(Ca(OH)2). Also, an immediate outcome of knowing the absorption hoop was secured in the mold at distance 12.5 mm from block sur-
percent of the EPS hollow blocks is to assess the water cement ratio face. For the blocks reinforced with fiberglass mesh, a similar hoop
and the amount of water necessary for the joint mortar and pre- was formed by the mesh and was placed in the mold at distance
wetting procedures in construction. 12.5 mm from the block surface. Due to the nature of the fiberglass
The selection of cyclic ponding in 5% sulfuric acid (H2SO4) solu- mesh fabrics, the fiber mesh was wrapped around a specially fab-
tion to simulate the aggressive chemical attack is mainly because ricated steel wire cage to form a hoop of dimensions
of two major reasons: 1) it has a rapid chemical attack on concrete 375  175  190 mm.
at ambient temperature and 2) it causes a double action of acid The casting process of the blocks followed the following order:
attack and sulphate salt attack [17].
Cyclic ponding in super saturated sodium chloride (NaCl) salt - The mold was assembled, and the interior surface of the mold
solution test was selected in the present investigation as the chlo- was oiled. For the reinforced block, the reinforcement was pre-
ride ingression in porous cementitious materials is by far the pared and secured in place. The PVC pipes were oiled and
prevalent cause of its deterioration. The chloride ions affect the secured in place as shown in Fig. 2.
three components of the proposed EPS blocks: cement mortar, wire - The cement, silica and sand were given a dry rotation in the
mesh and fiber mesh in a series of chemical and physical reactions planetary drum mixer. The HRWR was added to the mixing
that are responsible for the subsequent strength loss and aesthetic water and then added to the dry mix in the mixer. The mixer
degradation. drum was kept rotating for 3–5 min until a homogeneous mor-
tar was reached before adding the EPS particles. Because the
2.4. Preparation of the test specimens EPS particles tend to float, it was added in stages with hand stir-
ring and mixing at each stage until homogeneity, as observed
The hollow blocks were cast in a specially designed and manu- visually, was reached. The average slump obtained was
factured rectangular molds. The two hollow cylindrical holes in the 200 mm.

Table 3
Mix proportions of the control mix and the expanded polystyrene mortar mixes.

Mix Designation Cement kg/m3 Silica Fume kg/m3 Sand kg/m3 EPS kg/m3 Water kg/m3 HRWR/Cement %
C 455 45 1613 0 225 1.1
EPSM10 455 45 1078 10.0 225 2.2
EPSM15 455 45 833 15.1 225 1.6
EPSM20 455 45 605 20.4 225 1.4
EPSM26 455 45 408 26.2 225 2.2
 Y.A.Y. Ali et al. / Construction and Building Materials 241 (2020) 118149
Fig. 2. Casting of the blocks.
- The mold was placed on a vibrating table. The EPS mortar was
poured to fill the mold and the vibrating table was operated.
The PVC pipes were kept in place for 2 h then removed. The
excess EPS mortar was removed, and the surface was leveled
as shown in Fig. 2.
- All types of blocks were removed from molds after 48 h and
were cured in the curing room for 28 days, then were stacked
and left to dry freely in the laboratory conditions before testing.
2.5. Test procedures
2.5.1. Compressive strength
The compressive strength of the hollow blocks was determined
using ELE universal testing machine. As the surface finish of the
block was rough, a polymer grout soft capping was implemented
during testing. The capping consisted of mortar mix of proportions
1:1 fine sand to cement and w/c ratio of 0.35. Latex based bonding
agent commercially known as ‘Addibond 65’ was added to replace
1/3 of the mixing water in the mortar mix. Accelerating agent
obtained commercially known as ‘Sika Rapid’ was used to acceler-
ate the process of cap hardening and strength gaining. To reduce
the friction between the machine head and the sample, rubber
cap of 20 mm thickness and dimensions of 250 mm  450 mm
was placed between the machine head and the block. The blocks
were tested under compression up to failure and the cracks during
the test were visually detected.
2.5.2. Water absorption
The water absorption test was conducted on the control and EPS
mortar hollow block specimens according to the guidelines pro-
vided by ASTM C642 with a modification to suit this type of hollow
blocks. The provisions of ASTM C642 require the dry mass to be
oven dry mass after subjecting specimens to 100 or 110 degrees
Celsius for 24 h. This procedure was not followed in the present
investigation because EPS wastes shrink and evaporate at about
70 °C. Therefore, the 48-h water absorption was determined based
on air-dry mass rather than oven-dry one. The blocks were
weighed in their dry state, then were immersed in fresh water
5
for 48 h then were weighed wet. The difference between the
weights of the block at the two conditions was calculated and
hence the percent absorption was determined.
2.5.3. Cyclic ponding in sulfuric acid solution
The blocks were weighed before the start of the experiment to
obtain their initial dry weight. Then they were immersed in 5%
diluted sulfuric acid solution. Commercial sulfuric acid that con-
tained impurities was obtained from local Egyptian chemical fac-
tory with concentration 98–99% and was added to water to
produce 5% diluted solution. Four cycles of wetting and drying
were performed. In each cycle, the blocks were immersed in the
acidic solution for 4 days, and then removed. The wet weighed
was measured and the blocks were left to dry in lab conditions
for 3 days. The dry weight was measured before the blocks were
immersed in the acidic solution to start the next cycle. The pH of
the acidic solution was checked to ensure an aggressive acidic
environment using a PH digital. The PH ranged between 0.6 and
0.8 which indicates strong acidic environment [18].
At the end of the test, the blocks were tested to determine their
compressive strength using the universal testing machine. The
apparent degradation of the blocks throughout the four cycles
was observed and recorded.
2.5.4. Cyclic ponding in super saturated Sodium chloride salt solution
This test is done by subjecting specimens to wet-and-dry cycles
of saline attacks [19]. The blocks were weighed before the start of
the experiment to obtain their initial dry weight. Then they were
immersed in saturated saline solution of fine pure salt. Sodium
chloride was selected to produce the saturated saline solution to
serve two purposes: high alkalinity for fiberglass abrasion and pas-
sive film attack for steel corrosion. Four cycles of wetting and dry-
ing were performed. In each cycle, the blocks were immersed in
brine for 7 days, and then removed and their wet weigh was mea-
sured. The blocks were then left to dry in lab conditions for 7 days
and their dry weight was measured before they were immersed in
the brine to start the next cycle. The salinity of the brine was
checked by making sure of the presence of salt particles
6 Y.A.Y. Ali et al. / Construction and Building Materials 241 (2020) 118149

precipitating in the bottom of the testing container as a sign of full
saturation.
At the end of the test, the blocks were tested to determine their
compressive strength using the universal testing machine. The
apparent degradation of the blocks through the four cycles was
assessed.
3. Test results and discussions
3.1. Weight and density of EPS hollow blocks
Table 6 presents the weight, density, and the gross and net com-
pressive strength of the tested control and EPS hollow blocks. The
gross compressive strength was calculated by dividing the experi-
mental ultimate compressive load over the area of the block
(400  200 mm2) while the net compressive strength is calculated
by dividing the experimental ultimate compressive load by the net
area of the block which is the area of the block (400  200 mm2)
less the area of two cylindrical cavities (2  p  1752/4 mm2).
The results presented in Table 6 are the average of three blocks
for each of the block designations. Fig. 3 shows the variation of
density with EPS percentage and reinforcement type.
In addition to the test on the proposed control and EPS hollow
blocks, a typical commercial concrete hollow block available in
the Egyptian market of dimensions 200  400  200 mm was
tested and the recorded results for this type were: 1 – Average
weight of 17.2 kg, 2 – average density of 2100 kg/m3, and 3 – aver-
age net strength of 5.5 MPa.
The results show that regardless of the reinforcement type, the
density decreased with the increase of the EPS content in the mix.
Based on the previously published results of the density of poly-
styrene mortar with different EPS content [15], an equation is pro-
posed to determine the density (q) as a function of the percentage
of the EPS content (EPSC) in the form of:
q ¼ 2146  43 EPSC ð1Þ
The proposed equation was used to determine the density of
the proposed hollow block and the results are tabulated in Table 6.
The predicted results were very close to the experimental one
within 2% and +7% except for EPSB10W which came within 10%.
Although it would be expected that the W type reinforcement
would result in slightly higher density due to the weight of the
steel mesh, this was not observed from the results as shown in
Fig. 3b. The density depends very much on the compaction of the
blocks which may have the major effect on these observed results.
Table 6 shows that hollow block types EPSB15, EPSB20, and
EPSB26 were lighter than the tested typical commercial concrete
hollow block available in the Egyptian market. These types of EPS
hollow blocks have a unit weight below 17.2 kg and would be more
convenient for laborers to handle and stack. The other two type
CB0 and EPSB10 had higher weight as the size of block cavity in
the proposed block is much smaller than that of the commercial

Table 6
The density, weight and strength of EPS hollow blocks.

Block Weight Experimental Density (kg/ Gross Strength Net Strength Strength Standard Predicted Density (kg/ qpred/
Designation (kg) m3) (MPa) (MPa) Deviation m3) qexp
CBP 23.5 2119 6.6 9.5 0.5 2146 1.01
CBW 23.2 2092 6.6 9.5 0.9 2146 1.03
CBF 23.9 2157 6.0 8.7 0.4 2146 1.00
EPSBP10 19.5 1758 4.8 6.9 0.4 1716 0.98
EPSBW10 21.2 1910 4.7 6.8 2.0 1716 0.90
EPSBF10 19.4 1750 4.4 6.3 0.4 1716 0.98
EPSBP15 16.5 1487 3.3 4.1 0.2 1497 1.01
EPSBW15 16.6 1497 3.4 4.9 0.1 1497 1.00
EPSBF15 15.6 1408 3.4 4.9 0.8 1497 1.06
EPSBP20 14.0 1265 3.0 4.3 0.5 1269 1.00
EPSBW20 13.8 1246 3.1 4.5 0.3 1269 1.02
EPSBF20 13.8 1242 2.8 4.0 0.3 1269 1.02
EPSBP26 10.6 956 1.7 2.4 0.1 1019 1.07
EPSBW26 10.6 957 1.6 2.4 0.2 1019 1.07
EPSBF26 10.9 982 1.6 2.4 0.1 1019 1.04

Fig. 3. Variation of density with EPS percentage and reinforcement type.

 Y.A.Y. Ali et al. / Construction and Building Materials 241 (2020) 118149 7

Fig. 4. Effect of the EPS content and type of reinforcement on the block compressive strength.

block. However, these blocks had higher net compressive strength density of the block as follows: 1) minimum strength of 5.0, and
compared to the commercial one as shown in Table 6. 4.0 MPa for load bearing hollow blocks of low or medium density
and heavy density respectively, 2) minimum strength of 2.0, and
1.6 MPa for non-load bearing hollow blocks of low or medium den-
3.2. Compressive strength and failure patterns of the EPS hollow blocks
sity and heavy density respectively.
Based on the results presented in Table 6, None of the tested
The results presented in Table 6 and Fig. 4a show that irrespec-
hollow block units comply with the ASTM C-90 criteria for load
tive of the type of reinforcement, the compressive strength of the
bearing units. However, all tested EPS hollow block units except
EPS hollow blocks was adversely affected by the increase of EPS
those made of mortar designation EPSM26 (EPSB26P, EPSB26W
content. Blocks type EPSB10P, EPSB15P, EPSB20P, and EPSB26P
and EPSB26F) comply with the ASTM C-129 criteria for non-load
showed reduction in their compressive strength of 28%, 50%, 55%
bearing units used for above grade and external wall application.
and 75% respectively when compared to that of the control block
On the other hand, while only hollow blocks made with the control
CB0P. For the welded wire mesh reinforcement, these reduction
and EPSM10 mortar (CBP, CBW, CBF, EPSB10P, EPSB10W and
ratios were 28%, 49%, 52%, and 72% while for the fiber mesh rein-
EPSB10F) comply with the EOS 2005/42 strength criteria for load
forcement, these ratios were 34%, 49%, 58%, and 75%.
bearing applications; all of the tested EPS hollow block units com-
It was anticipated that the reinforced blocks would yield higher
ply with the EOS 2005/42 strength criteria for non-load bearing
compressive strength than the plain ones. The expected higher
hollow blocks used for above grade and external wall application.
compressive strength is attributed to the contribution of the verti-
Although the existence of the skin reinforcement did not show
cal wires of the wire mesh in carrying part of the applied vertical
significant effect on the block strength, it enhanced the ductility of
load in addition to the confinement effect exerted by the horizontal
failure of the blocks as shown in Fig. 5 which shows the different
wires of the wire mesh. For the fiberglass mesh reinforcement, the
type of blocks after failure. The control plain hollow block exhib-
increase in the compressive strength could occur due to the con-
ited sudden and brittle failure and the block shattered. On the
finement effect of the mesh on the core mortar. However, the
other hand, the failure of the skin reinforced control hollow blocks
results did not show a clear relation between the compressive
were intact and minimum debris was noticed. However, some of
strength and the type of reinforcement as shown in Fig. 4b. The
the fiberglass reinforced hollow blocks split into two halves from
obtained results for each of the three types of reinforcement varied
the corner as the fiberglass wrap strands were torn upon failure.
with the variation of the EPS content. The plain and the welded
While the partial replacement of the sand with EPS particles
wire mesh blocks had almost the same compressive strength and
and increasing the percentage of the EPS resulted in reducing the
in some cases the reinforced blocks had slightly less compressive
compressive strength; it improved the ductility of failure of the
strength. The deviation of the results from the natural expectation
blocks as shown in Fig. 5. The increase of the EPS dosage increased
could be attributed to the difference in density of the blocks and
the ductility and toughness of the hollow blocks and exhibited
non-homogeneity of the distribution of the EPS particles in the
more dispersed spalls and cracks rather than defined ones.
core of the block and the outside shell due to the presence of the
mesh reinforcement. In some fiber mesh reinforced blocks, the face
shell of the block spalled before failure leading to lower failure 3.3. Durability tests
load. However, the deviation of the compressive strength of the
reinforced blocks from that of the corresponding plain ones ranged 3.3.1. Water absorption test results
from 9% to +3%. The average absorption percentages of the tested hollow blocks
The compressive strength of the EPS hollow blocks was assessed are presented in Table 7. The low absorption percentage of the con-
in accordance to the limits set by the ASTM C-90 [20], ASTM C-129 trol hollow blocks, regardless of the type of reinforcement, indi-
[21], and the Egyptian Standards EOS 2005/24 [22]. The ASTM cates the excellent quality of the mortar matrix. This could be
[14,15] uses the net compressive strength of hollow block concrete mainly attributed to the presence of the silica fume in the mixture.
masonry units (CMU) and specifies a minimum strength of Silica fume densifies the cement matrix and produces finer and dis-
13.1 MPa and 4.14 MPa for load bearing and non-load bearing units connected pore system [23] and consequently enhances the pore
respectively. On the other hand, the Egyptian Standards [22] spec- structure of the blocks. The average absorption percentages
ifies the required strength for hollow blocks which varies with the increased sharply by replacing part of the fine aggregate with the
8 Y.A.Y. Ali et al. / Construction and Building Materials 241 (2020) 118149

Fig. 5. Examples of the failure patterns of plain and EPS hollow blocks.

Table 7
Results of the Absorption and cyclic ponding in 5% sulfuric acid.

Block Type Designation Water Absorption (%) Results of Cyclic Ponding in 5% Sulfuric Acid
Cumulative Weight Loss (%) Loss in Comp. Strength (%)
Cycle 1 Cycle 2 Cycle 3 Cycle 4
CB0P 0.47 6.49 15.11 20.11 23.25 25.78
CB0W 0.77 3.80 6.57 8.90 12.27 19.06
CB0F 0.93 6.50 12.24 17.43 21.40 22.89
EPSB10P 3.03 3.28 9.37 13.43 15.97 47.43
EPSB10W 3.37 2.72 7.96 11.85 14.94 40.09
EPSB10F 3.41 4.20 9.92 12.49 14.01 22.69
EPSB15P 3.73 2.39 6.35 7.88 9.22 14.73
EPSB15W 3.94 2.33 5.35 6.36 7.05 14.63
EPSB15F 4.14 3.88 6.63 7.66 8.84 14.88
EPSB20P 4.61 2.30 3.17 3.17 3.17 27.22
EPSB20W 4.36 5.16 6.06 6.06 6.21 29.28
EPSB20F 3.64 2.91 4.17 4.17 4.17 25.20
EPSB26P 3.32 0.28 0.28 0.28 0.28 17.56
EPSB26W 3.47 0.79 1.50 1.50 1.50 18.36
EPSB26F 2.76 2.73 3.11 3.11 3.11 15.42

EPS crumbles in the mortar mix. EPS crumbles are hydrophobic
lightweight aggregates. Therefore, the change in the absorption
values with the presence EPS comes from the effect EPS crumbles
on the cement matrix rather than the porous structure of the EPS
aggregates as in the case of processed porous lightweight aggre-
gates such as LECA. The effect of EPS crumbles is mainly due to
the occurrence of shrinkage micro-cracks in the EPS mortar, which
are influenced by: 1 – the higher rate of drying of EPS mortar [24],
2 – the welcoming effect of EPS particle to cement paste shrinkage
away from the walls of the mold and the resulting tensile stresses
in cement paste due to the restraining action of the walls of the
mold. Table 7 also shows that the average water absorption values
of EPS hollow blocks do not seem to vary significantly with the
change of EPS dosage. Despite of the increase of water absorption
with the presence of EPS, the recorded absorption values for the
control and EPS hollow blocks were well below the ASTM C-90
maximum absorption limits. Similar absorption range was
reported by other researchers [25].
The reinforcing mesh in the skin of the hollow blocks has two
effects which influence the absorption of the blocks. On one hand
it helps in resisting the shrinkage cracks and accordingly reduces
absorption. On the other hand, less compaction was used for the
reinforced block than for the plain ones during casting to ensure
that the reinforcement cage will not sway off its position which
might have caused the formation of more surface pores or air pock-
ets that allows for the ingress of water in the block. The net effect
of the reinforcement on absorption is the cumulative effect of both
factors. Table 7 shows that the skin reinforcement resulted in an
increase in the absorption ratio except for block EPSB20W.
3.3.2. Cyclic ponding in sulfuric acid solution test results
After the first cycle of immersing the control block in the acid
solution, large dense white spots, which could be gypsum, were
observed on the surface of the block. By the end of the second
cycle, formation of a thin whitish/yellowish layer was observed,
the thickness of the block shell was notably reduced, part of rein-
forcing wire and fiberglass meshes was exposed, and oxidation of
the exposed part of the wire mesh was observed. During the last
two cycles, the thickness of the whitish layer continued to increase,
the exposure of the reinforcing wire and fiber meshes increased,
and the exposed wire mesh continued to oxidize. Similar deteriora-
tion of the plain blocks was reported in the literature by Fattuhi
and Hughes [18].
The deterioration of EPS hollow blocks was significantly differ-
ent. A general observation was that the quantity of leached con-
taminants decreased with the increase of the EPS content in
blocks and the leached material flowed out carrying some of
the surface EPS particles. The first wetting cycle was character-
 Y.A.Y. Ali et al. / Construction and Building Materials 241 (2020) 118149
ized by maximum leaching of hydration products of all the four
cycles. The first drying cycle revealed the eroded EPS particles
and a thick gypsum layer formed on the block’s surface. By the
second wetting cycle, EPS blocks of higher densities revealed a
reduction in the thickness of the face shell while EPS blocks of
lower densities exhibited expansion in volume. The remaining
cycles were characterized by the expansion of the eroded EPS
particles in a popcorn like shape and the expansion of the gyp-
sum layer. The eroded EPS particles and gypsum layer would fall
off with friction. Small part of the welded wire mesh was exposed
and was oxidized by the third drying cycle. By the fourth wetting
cycle all EPS blocks exhibited some sort of expansion in the face
shell. All EPS blocks displayed sponge like shape and texture at
the end of the fourth drying cycle. Table 7 shows that the per-
centage of weight loss decreased with the increase of the EPS
content. This could be attributed to the presence of the hydropho-
bic EPS particles which act as separate buffer zones that causes
sluggish path of contaminants in the mortar. The more of the
EPS content the more it is difficult for the leaching process to
occur. Table 7 also shows that the rate of increase in the weight
loss over the four cycles of EPS hollow blocks decreased with the
increase of the EPS content. Block type EPSB20 and EPSB26,
regardless of the reinforcement type, almost ceased losing weight
after the second cycle. This indicates that the shrinking core and
the moving leaching shell phenomenon ceased to exist in EPS
mortar blocks of lower densities and the porosity of the face shell
would not be compromised with more acid leaching. This was not
the case for the control specimens where weight loss continued
at a high rate till the fourth cycle, which suggests that the shell
deterioration pattern would continue even after four cycles and
the porosity of the control blocks increases and the size of the
block continues to decrease.
The results of the percentage of compressive strength loss at the
end of the four cycles are given in Table 7. The table shows that
there is no distinct relation between the EPS content or the type
of reinforcement and the percentage of compressive strength loss.
This could be explained by the fact that sulphate attack only tar-
gets the hydration products of the binder which is kept at a con-
stant content of 500 kg/m3 which are the primary strength
setters in the EPS mortar. Therefore, the deterioration in compres-
sive strength of the control and the different EPS blocks may differ,
but the strength loss would be within a certain range depending on
sulphate reaction with the hydrated paste. The percentage of com-
pressive strength loss ranged between 14.6% and 25.9% for all
blocks except for block types EPSB10P, EPSB10W, and EPSB20W
which was 47.4%, 40.1%, and 29.3% respectively,
Fig. 6. Failure pattern of plain hollow blocks after wet-dry acid cycles.
9
Fig. 6 shows the failure pattern of the unreinforced control and
EPS hollow blocks at the end of the acid ponding test. The surface
deterioration of the hollow blocks is evident and the effect of the
EPS content on the failure pattern is clear from this figure. The fail-
ure blocks CB0P was sudden and brittle in an explosive manner.
The failure was in the form of splitting longitudinal cracks that
shuttered the blocks into separate vertical pieces. With the
increase of the EPS content to 10 and 15 kg/m3 (Blocks EPSB10P
and EPS15P) the failure transformed from brittle to a more gradual
one, yet, failure was in the form of disintegration into vertical
pieces. Further increase of EPS content to 20 and 26 kg/m3 (blocks
EPSB20P and EPS26P) resulted in a more ductile failure without
disintegration of the blocks.
Fig. 7 shows the failure patterns of the (W) type blocks rein-
forced with welded wire mesh. The failure of blocks CB0W was
gradual and in the form of longitudinal splitting cracks and spall
of the mortar cover. The split sections were kept intact by means
of the wire cage and the block retained its volumetric shape. The
presence of the EPS shreds improved the failure behavior of the
hollow blocks reinforced with welded wire mesh. Failure of blocks
EPSB10W and EPSB15W was characterized by developing a num-
ber of longitudinal surficial cracks more than those in the control
block which is indicative of a more ductile failure. The blocks
retained their volumetric shape and no debris was noticed. More
ductile failure was revealed by block types EPSB20W and EPSB26W
failure occurred in these two types by crushing of the top surface of
the block. It was noticed, prior to failure, for all types of blocks that
buried wire mesh was undamaged. The effect of the wire mesh was
evident in the ductile failure of the (W) type blocks and in main-
taining the blocks perfectly intact at failure.
Failure patterns of the glass fiber mesh reinforced blocks are
shown Fig. 8. The failure of type CB0F blocks was characterized
by spalling of part of the mortar cover, failure of the fiber mesh
in tension along the long side of the block and finally the block split
into two pieces. The failure pattern of fiberglass hollow blocks was
much improved with the presence of the EPS shreds in the mortar
mixture. For the fiber mesh reinforced EPS blocks, vertical cracks
developed and were visible in type EPSB10F blocks, but were hair
crack type for blocks EPSB15F, EPSB20F, and EPSB26F. Blocks
EPSB15F and EPS26F failed by crushing of the top surface of the
block. Spalling of the cover was not observed for these types of
blocks and the blocks remained intact at failure as shown in Fig. 8.
The percentages of weight loss, the percentages of strength loss,
and the improved failure patterns indicate that the proposed EPS
hollow blocks showed good resistance to strong acidic environ-
ments. This was manifested by retaining about 84% at least of
10 Y.A.Y. Ali et al. / Construction and Building Materials 241 (2020) 118149

Fig. 7. Failure pattern of the hollow blocks reinforced with welded steel wire mesh after wet-dry acid cycles.

Fig. 8. Failure pattern of the hollow blocks reinforced with fiberglass mesh after wet-dry acid cycles.

the weight, preservation of almost 70–80% of the compressive
strength and maintaining the block integrity at failure after expo-
sure to the severe acidic environment.
3.3.3. Cyclic ponding in super saturated sodium chloride salt solution
test results
Table 8 shows saline solution absorption, salt precipitation, and
the percentage of compressive strength loss for all tested hollow
blocks. Saline solution was absorbed into the pores of the hollow
block through the wetting cycles. The loss of the absorbed saline
solution during the drying cycles was very slow and at the end of
each drying cycle some of the blocks had some retained moisture
content. This could be explained by the fact that during the drying
cycles, surface water evaporated, leaving behind salts in the mortar
pores to precipitate and clog the surface pores which made the
water in the inner pores of the mortar to remain trapped (water
retention). With the progression of wetting and drying cycles, the
mass difference between wet and dry specimens decreased and
the blocks never returned to their initial weight. Similar behavior
was reported in the literature by Spragg et al. [19].
Salt crystallization and efflorescence phenomena occurred in all
hollow block specimens. By the second drying cycles, it was
observed that the upper surface of the hollow blocks was shiny
and saturated with salt crystals that were adsorbed by and precip-
itated on the surface pores. Also, efflorescence in the form of whit-
ish streaks of salts accumulated on the block’s side surfaces and
discoloration was noticed. The EPS hollow blocks suffered less dis-
coloration and the whitish streaks were reduced to whitish patches
and spots except for blocks EPSB26 which showed the maximum
deterioration due to salt crystallization. This may be attributed to
the porous surface finish of that type of hollow blocks which
helped foster more of salt crystallization. The extent of efflores-
cence in control and EPS blocks reinforced with fiberglass mesh
was the severest among all other types of blocks. Hollow blocks
group EPSB20 suffered the least of efflorescence deterioration.
The percentages of compressive strength loss in the hollow
blocks after being subjected to cyclic chloride ponding are reported
in Table 8. The reduction of strength in the hollow block could be
largely attributed to distresses and micro-cracks resulted from the
salt crystallization phenomenon. For the plain hollow blocks, the
existence of the EPS shred resulted in a reduction in the compres-
sive strength loss in comparison to the control blocks. However,
there is no clear relation between the EPS content in the mixture
and the percentage of compressive strength loss which was
26.7%, 16.7%, 18.0%, 21.6%, and 6.1% for block CB0P, EPSB10P,
EPSB15P, EPSB20P, and EPSB26 respectively.
 Y.A.Y. Ali et al. / Construction and Building Materials 241 (2020) 118149 11

Table 8
Cumulative rate of saline solution absorption and salt precipitation of the hollow blocks.

Block Designation Cumulative saline solution absorption (%) Cumulative salt precipitation (%) Loss in Comp. Strength (%)
Cycle 1 Cycle 2 Cycle 3 Cycle 4 Cycle 1 Cycle 2 Cycle 3 Cycle 4
CB0P 0.41 0.33 0.33 0.26 0.04 0.00 0.00 0.02 26.7
CB0W 1.22 1.22 1.13 1.06 0.74 0.63 0.54 0.67 3.7
CB0F 1.25 1.27 1.14 1.21 0.75 0.67 0.39 0.78 24.0
EPSB10P 3.23 3.15 3.20 3.07 2.03 2.09 2.06 2.22 16.7
EPSB10W 2.63 2.63 2.53 2.67 1.80 1.80 2.02 2.19 59.6
EPSB10F 2.59 2.59 2.57 2.64 1.84 1.84 2.07 2.19 90.2
EPSB15P 4.21 4.18 4.71 4.21 2.52 2.65 2.62 2.85 18.0
EPSB15W 3.71 3.71 3.71 3.83 2.78 2.78 3.06 3.18 11.4
EPSB15F 3.09 3.09 3.22 3.18 2.23 2.23 2.43 2.53 80.5
EPSB20P 2.94 2.91 3.02 3.06 1.38 1.49 1.38 1.57 21.6
EPSB20W 2.20 2.20 2.42 2.71 1.03 1.03 1.43 1.76 15.1
EPSB20F 2.70 2.70 2.93 3.00 1.61 1.61 1.94 2.08 25.7
EPSB26P 3.67 3.91 4.39 4.24 0.91 1.14 1.29 1.71 6.1
EPSB26W 4.46 4.84 4.88 5.12 1.79 2.30 2.12 2.58 15.1
EPSB26F 2.36 2.73 3.20 3.16 0.38 0.52 0.53 0.90 6.5

The aggressive cyclic chloride ponding caused corrosion of the
welded wire mesh reinforcement in all of type (W) hollow blocks.
The corrosion, as indicated by the appearance of leached rust prod-
ucts from the surface pores of the blocks, was noticed as early as
the first cycle of testing. It is worth noting that the sign of corrosion
was noticed in control and EPS hollow blocks regardless of the EPS
content in the mixture. The expansive corrosion products devel-
oped underneath the reinforcement strands could be one of the
reasons that caused the mortar layer to crack Fig. 9.
The formation of oxidized leaks from the composite’s pores
indicated that the concentration of soluble chloride ions reached
the threshold value when the passive layer was pitted. The wet
and dry cycles supplied the chemical reaction with soluble chlo-
ride, moisture and oxygen, which accelerated the corrosion of the
reinforcing mesh.
There is no clear relationship between the existence of the
welded wire mesh and the percentage of the compression strength
loss as compared to the plain blocks. For the CB0W, EPSB15W, and
EPSB20W the presence of the welded wire mesh resulted in less
percentage in the compressive strength loss while for EPSB10W
and EPSB26W the percentage was higher than that of the plain
block. In addition to the effect of the corrosion of the steel mesh,
the loss of strength could also be attributed to the combination
of the effect of the mortar quality, degree of compaction, quality
of the surface of the blocks, and formation of the micro-cracks.
Although the glass fiber mesh used in this research is alkaline
resistant, degradation of glass fiber mesh was observed in the test.
The glass fiber degradation could have occurred due to the forma-
tion of a gel coat of H2SiO3 (Silicic acid) that was formed due to the
hydration and dissolution of glass fibers when subjected to mois-
ture inside the pore solution of concrete [26]. The degradation of
fiber-cage initiated the failure in the blocks and affected the per-
centage of the compression strength loss. Block type CB0F experi-
enced slightly less strength loss compared to block CB0P. On the
other hand, block EPSB10F, EPSB15F and EPSB20F suffered much
higher compressive strength loss compared EPSB10P, EPSB15P,
and EPSB20P respectively, and block EPSB26F experienced slightly
higher compressive strength loss compared to EPSB26P as shown
in Table 8.
The failure pattern of the plain block is shown in Fig. 10. The
failure of blocks CB0P was a brittle one that was characterized by
developing longitudinal cracks and splitting of the block at failure.
Block EPSB10P showed more ductile failure that was characterized
by narrower longitudinal cracks and spall of the face shell. This
type of block also failed by splitting of the block. Blocks EPSB15P
and EPSB20P exhibited more ductile failure. Spalls and chipped
surface were observed during the test of these blocks. These two
types of blocks remained intact at failure. EPSB26P blocks had
almost no visible longitudinal cracks and failed by surface shell
spall. It is clear that the presence and increase of EPS dosage in
the mixture improved the failure pattern of the blocks as discussed
and as shown in Fig. 10.
The failure of the blocks reinforced with welded wire mesh was
characterized by slippage in all specimens. This was noted when
the loading machine stopped recording increase in loading at the
beginning of the test. A popping sound was heard, and the machine
resumed loading till failure. Some specimens suffered more than
one slippage incident during testing. Tensile failure occurred in
blocks CB0W and EPSB10W which was characterized by brittle
explosive failure. The cracks were tensile cracks and wire mesh
failed by either rupture or large deformation. Blocks EPSB15W
and EPSB20W displayed more ductile failure; however, deep ten-
sile cracks were also noticed. For block EPSB26W, no cracks were
observed until failure. It is worth noting that specimens EPSB20W
and EPSB26W showed decrease in their height in a compressed
barreling failure. This behavior could be attributed to the internal

Fig. 9. Deterioration of ferrocement hollow blocks due to wet-dry saline cycles.

12 Y.A.Y. Ali et al. / Construction and Building Materials 241 (2020) 118149

Fig. 10. Failure pattern of the plain hollow blocks after wet-dry saline cycles.

Fig. 11. Failure pattern of the hollow blocks reinforced with welded steel wire mesh after wet-dry saline cycles.

micro-cracks developed by the salt crystallization and expansive The failure of hollow block groups CB0F, EPSB10F and EPSB15F
corrosion products that were not restrained by the EPS particles. was a brittle failure. CB0F blocks first suffered slippage of the fiber-
Fig. 11 shows the failure mode of the (W) type hollow blocks after glass mesh, then the composite block failed suddenly. Fig. 12
being subjected to the wet-dry saline cycles. shows shuttered pieces of mortar falling loosely off the fiberglass

Fig. 12. Failure pattern of the hollow blocks reinforced with fiberglass mesh after wet-dry saline cycles.
 Y.A.Y. Ali et al. / Construction and Building Materials 241 (2020) 118149
cage in an indication of loss of bond. On the other hand, this loss of
bond did not exist in blocks belonging to batches EMB10F and
EMB15F. Deep tensile cracks were observed in these two types of
blocks and the fiber mesh was ruptured at the location of these
cracks. On the other hand, blocks EPSB20F and EPSB26F displayed
a more gradual and ductile failure. Fig. 12 shows the mode of fail-
ure for these five types of fiber mesh reinforced hollow blocks.
4. Summary and conclusions
An experimental program to investigate using expanded poly-
styrene (EPS) wastes to produce light weight hollow block masonry
units was conducted. The use of welded steel wire mesh and fiber-
glass mesh to reinforce the blocks’ shell was also investigated.
Based on the results and observations of this investigation, the fol-
lowing conclusions could be drawn:
- The compressive strength of the developed EPS hollow blocks
was significantly affected by the EPS content in the mixture.
The net compressive strength of the EPS hollow blocks ranged
between 6.9 and 2.4 MPa with a corresponding block weight
range between 19.5 and 10.6 kg. The control hollow blocks
had a compressive strength of 9.5 MPa and weighed about
23.5 kg.
- The compressive strength of all the developed EPS hollow
blocks except EPSB26 group met the ASTM strength require-
ments for non-load bearing masonry units. On the other hand,
all the strength of the developed hollow block units met the
strength requirements of the Egyptian standards EOS 2005/42
for non-load bearing masonry units. Blocks type EPSB10 also
meet the strength requirements of the Egyptian standards
EOS 2005/42 for load bearing masonry units.
- The increase in the EPS dosage increased the ductility and
toughness of the EPS hollow blocks. The failure became more
gradual and cracks became less visible with the introduction
of the welded wire mesh and fiberglass mesh skin
reinforcements.
- The presence of block skin reinforcement in the form of welded
steel wire mesh and fiberglass mesh does not have a noticeable
effect on the block compressive strength. However, it affects the
durability and failure pattern of the blocks. The existence of the
skin reinforcement mesh resulted in more gradual failure and
the blocks retained their integrity after failure.
- Partial replacement of the sand by EPS particles in the block
mixture resulted in an increase of the blocks’ water absorption
in comparison to the control blocks. An average water absorp-
tion of about 4% was recorded for almost all the EPS mortar hol-
low blocks of different EPS dosages.
- The wet-dry cyclic exposure to 5% diluted sulfuric acid solution
unveiled that the presence of the EPS particles resulted in the
decrease in the percentage of weight loss. It also revealed that
the strength loss was slightly affected by the presence of the
EPS particles in comparison with the control specimen except
for a few outliers. The strength loss for all the hollow blocks
ranged between 14.6% and 25.9%, except for the outlier blocks
EPSB10P, EPSB10W, and EPSB20W where the strength loss ran-
ged between 29.3% and 47.4%.
- The wet-dry cyclic exposure to the saturated saline solution
adversely affected the plain and reinforced EPS hollow blocks.
All hollow blocks suffered from weight retention after drying
cycles which resulted in prolonged drying due to salt precipita-
tion. Plain hollow blocks suffered from efflorescence and micro-
cracking due to salt crystallization. The compressive strength
loss ranged between 26.7% and 6.1%, depending on the EPS
content. The wet-dry cyclic exposure to the saturated saline
13
solution resulted in rusting of the welded wire mesh reinforce-
ment and degradation of the glass fiber mesh reinforcement.
The strength loss for the welded wire mesh reinforced blocks
was less than that for the plain blocks except for groups EPSB10
and EPSB26. On the other hand, the strength loss for the glass
fiber mesh reinforced blocks was higher than that of the plain
block for all tested hollow block groups.
Considering the strength, toughness, and durability of the EPS
hollow blocks as stated in this paper, EPS hollow block could be
suitable for exterior and interior non load-bearing wall
applications.
CRediT authorship contribution statement
Youmna A.Y. Ali: Resources, Data curation, Formal analysis,
Investigation, Visualization, Writing - review & editing, Project
administration. Ezzat H.A. Fahmy: Funding acquisition, Conceptu-
alization, Methodology, Formal analysis, Data Curation, Visualiza-
tion, Supervision, Writing - Original draft, Project administration.
Mohamed N. AbouZeid: Funding acquisition, Supervision, Writing
- review & editing. Yoursy B.I. Shaheen: Supervision, Writing -
review & editing. Mohamed N. Abdel Mooty: Supervision, Writing
- review & editing.
Declaration of Competing Interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing finan-
cial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared
to influence the work reported in this paper.
Acknowledgements
This publication is based on work supported by King Abdullah
University of Science and Technology (KAUST), KSA and the
American University in Cairo (AUC), Egypt.
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