Duc Tran - Mathematical Induction 101 - With 101 Practice Problems

Mathematical Induction 101
With 101 Practice Problems
Duc Van Khanh Tran
Illustrations by Vy Nguyen Tong

Table of Contents
About the Author 1
Preface 2
Prerequisites: Mathematical Induction 4
Problems 1-10 7
Problems 11-20 28
Problems 21-30 49
Problems 31-40 71
Problems 41-50 93
Problems 51-60 118
Problems 61-70 140
Problems 71-80 164
Problems 81-90 190
Problems 91-101 216
Acknowledgements 245
Reviews 246
About the Author
Hi! My name is Duc Van Khanh Tran, and I am a Vietnamese undergraduate at

the University of Texas at Austin majoring in Mathematics.
When I was in elementary school, I studied at Morinosato Elementary School in

Kanazawa, Ishikawa province, Japan for about two years. For middle school edu-
cation, I studied at Le Quy Don Middle School in Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam.
When I was in 9th grade, I came to the USA and started my high school study at
Brentwood Christian School in Austin, Texas. The classes in my high school were
more relaxing and less stressful than the classes in my middle school, so I began
understanding and enjoying the things I studied at school. After a while, I realized
that I enjoyed math the most out of all the subjects. Also, there was a math team
in my high school, and participating in the math team made me love mathematics
even more. That is how I “fell in love” with mathematics.
When I was in 11th grade, I came across @daily math , a very popular math account
on Instagram. Inspired by the @daily math page, I also created a math account
on Instagram called @dvkt math with about 33,000 followers currently. Other than
sharing mathematics knowledge by the means of a math page on Instagram, I de-
cided to also write math books. Before writing this book, I also wrote three other
books:
• An Introduction to Calculus: With Hyperbolic Functions, Limits, Derivatives,
and More (May 2021);
• Integrals and Sums Fiesta: An Integral Part of a Math Enthusiast’s Life
(November 2021);
• Basic Linear Algebra: An Introduction with an Intuitive Approach (May
2022).
1
Preface
Mathematical induction is one of the common methods of proof in mathematics.

It is a method to prove a statement about natural numbers n by figuring out the
pattern from some particular cases, such as n = 1, n = 2, n = 3, etc. The method
of mathematical induction is explained further in the “Prerequisites” chapter at
the beginning of the book.
After the “Prerequisites” chapter, there are 101 problems for the readers to practice
with mathematical induction. This book aims to introduce the method of math-
ematical induction to those who are unfamiliar with it while also providing some
interesting mathematical induction problems to those who are already familiar with
it. So, this book would be suitable for students who want to learn about mathemat-
ical induction or who are looking for more problems to practice with mathematical
induction.
Most of these problems are either created by myself or collected from online sources
such as Math Stack Exchange, Instagram, Twitter, etc. A few problems are taken
from or inspired by problems in the book The Cauchy-Schwarz Master Class by J.
Michael Steele and past preliminary exams of Singaporean junior colleges. (All of
the solutions are written by myself and not taken from others.)
While the practice problems cover a wide variety of topics (as you can see at the top
of each problem), most problems in this book only require the prerequisite knowl-
edge of high school Algebra and introductory Calculus. A few problems also require
some familiarity with the basics of Linear Algebra and Set Theory. There might
be some unfamiliar concepts to those who have only taken high school Algebra and
introductory Calculus, but some important definitions required to understand the
problems are provided in each problem.
Lastly, please note that since we are only proving using mathematical induction
in this book and the solutions are written by myself alone, some problems in this
book could have other ways to prove, either with or without using mathematical
induction. The readers are encouraged to find other possible methods of proof to
improve their proof skills.
I hope you enjoy the variety of mathematical induction problems awaiting ahead!
Duc Van Khanh Tran
Texas, USA, 2023
2
Prerequisites
Mathematical Induction
Mathematical induction is a proof method that can be used to prove a statement

about natural numbers n ∈ N. To clarify the notations, in this book N does not
include 0, and the letters k, m, and n always represent a natural number.
Before discussing the mathematical induction method itself, let us discuss why
it is called “mathematical induction.” There are mainly two types of proof: de-
ductive proof and inductive proof. A deductive proof is where we prove a general
statement directly by using axioms, definitions, proven theorems, etc. An inductive
proof is where we prove a general statement by proving some specific cases first and
then somehow relying on those specific cases to show that the statement is true
for all cases. As you will see, mathematical induction relies on some specific cases
called base cases.
In this book we will focus on two most common types of mathematical induc-
tion called weak induction and strong induction.
Weak Induction
To prove a statement S(n) for all natural numbers n, we prove the following.
1. S(1) is true;
2. If S(k) is true for some k ≥ 1, then S(k + 1) is also true.
Now let us discuss how this method can prove S(n) for all n ∈ N. First, we prove
that the base case S(1) is true. Then, we prove the induction step, which is S(k +1)
is true if S(k) is true. By applying the induction step to S(1), we can conclude
that S(2) is true. Then, we can also conclude that S(3) is true because S(2) is
true, S(4) is true because S(3) is true, S(5) is true because S(4) is true, and so on.
Thus, this method can prove that S(n) is true for all n ∈ N.
4
This method of weak induction can be modified slightly to prove a statement S(n)
for all n ≥ a for some natural number a > 1.
Weak Induction (Modified)

To prove a statement S(n) for all n ≥ a, we prove the following.
1. S(a) is true;
2. If S(k) is true for some k ≥ a, then S(k + 1) is also true.
Since we are proving a statement S(n) is true for all n ≥ a, the base case is S(a)
instead of S(1). Then, applying the induction step, we can conclude that S(a + 1),
S(a + 2), S(a + 3), etc. are true. Thus, we can prove that S(n) is true for all n ≥ a.
Strong Induction
To prove a statement S(n) for all natural numbers n, we prove the following.
1. S(1), S(2), · · · , S(`) are true for some natural number `;
2. If S(m) is true for all 1 ≤ m ≤ k for some k ≥ `, then S(k + 1) is also
true.
Now how does this method prove that S(n) is true for all n ∈ N? First, we prove
the base cases S(1), S(2), · · · , S(`). Then, we prove the induction step, which is
S(k + 1) is true if S(m) is true for all 1 ≤ m ≤ k. By applying the induction step
to S(1), S(2), · · · , S(`), we can conclude that S(` + 1) is true. Then, we can also
conclude that S(` + 2) is true because S(1), S(2), · · · , S(` + 1) are true, S(` + 3) is
true because S(1), S(2), · · · , S(` + 2) are true, and so on. Thus, this method can
prove that S(n) is true for all n ∈ N.
Similarly to weak induction, strong induction can also be modified slightly to prove
a statement S(n) for all n ≥ a for some natural number a > 1.
Strong Induction (Modified)

To prove a statement S(n) for all n ≥ a, we prove the following.
1. S(a), S(a + 1), · · · , S(a + `) are true for some natural number `;
2. If S(m) is true for all a ≤ m ≤ k for some k ≥ a + `, then S(k + 1) is

also true.
Since we are proving a statement S(n) is true for all n ≥ a, the base cases would
start with S(a) instead of S(1). So, the base cases would be S(a), S(a+1), · · · , S(a+
5
`). Then, applying the induction step, we can conclude that S(a+`+1), S(a+`+2),
S(a + ` + 3), etc. are true. Thus, we can prove that S(n) is true for all n ≥ a.
Now let us discuss the difference between weak induction and strong induction.
Note that in weak induction, we only need one previous case S(k) to prove S(k +1).
On the other hand, in strong induction, we need to use at least one previous case
other than S(k) to prove S(k + 1). Usually, we use two or more previous cases in
strong induction. However, like in problem 16, we do have some problems where
we only use one previous case in strong induction. In problem 16, we use S(k − 1),
NOT S(k), to prove S(k + 1), so it is strong induction instead of weak induction.
Thus, the difference between weak induction and strong induction mainly lies in
the induction step. That is why you will not be sure about whether to use weak or
strong induction and how many base cases you need to prove until you prove the
induction step.
When we prove the induction step, we need to assume that the previous case(s)
is/are true and then prove that S(k + 1) is true by using that assumption. The
induction step could be quite challenging because sometimes you would need to be
creative in connecting the previous cases to S(k + 1).
To be more familiar with mathematical induction and to be better at deciding

between weak and strong inductions, the best way is to practice as much as pos-
sible, and this book provides plenty of such practice problems. For each of the
problems in this book, I suggest that you try it on your own first and then look at
the solution after you figure it out or get stuck for a long time.
6
Problem 1
Topic: Series
Problem: Prove
n
X n(n + 1)
j= .
j=1
2
Solution
Base Cases
We need to prove that it is true for n = 1. We can check that
1
X 1(1 + 1)
j=1= ,
j=1
2
so it is true for n = 1.
Induction Step
Assume
k
X k(k + 1)
j= (1.1)
j=1
2
for some k ≥ 1. To prove the induction step, we need to prove
k+1
X (k + 1)(k + 1 + 1) (k + 1)(k + 2)
j= = .
j=1
2 2
7
Using assumption (1.1),
k+1
X k
X
j= j + (k + 1)
j=1 j=1
k(k + 1)
= + (k + 1)
2
k(k + 1) 2(k + 1)
= +
2 2
(k + 1)(k + 2)
= .
2
Thus, we proved that it is true for n = k + 1 if it is true for n = k.
Conclusion
We proved that it is true for n = 1. Then, we proved that it is true for n = k + 1
if it is true for n = k. Therefore, by weak induction,
n
X n(n + 1)
j=
j=1
2
for all n ∈ N.
8
Problem 2
Topic: Series
Problem: Prove
n
X n(n + 1)(2n + 1)
j2 = .
j=1
6
Solution
Base Cases
1
X 1(1 + 1)(2 · 1 + 1)
j 2 = 12 = 1 = ,
j=1
6
Induction Step
Assume
k
X k(k + 1)(2k + 1)
j2 = (2.1)
j=1
6
k+1
X (k + 1)(k + 1 + 1)(2(k + 1) + 1) (k + 1)(k + 2)(2k + 3)
j2 = = .
j=1
6 6
9
k+1
X k
X
j2 = j 2 + (k + 1)2
j=1 j=1
k(k + 1)(2k + 1)
= + (k + 1)2
6
k(k + 1)(2k + 1) (k + 1)(6k + 6)
= +
6 6
(k + 1) [k(2k + 1) + (6k + 6)]
=
6
(k + 1) 2k 2 + 7k + 6
=
6
(k + 1)(k + 2)(2k + 3)
= .
6
Conclusion
n
X n(n + 1)(2n + 1)
j2 =
j=1
6
for all n ∈ N.
10
Problem 3
Topic: Series
Problem: Prove
n 2
X
3 n(n + 1)
j = .
j=1
2
Solution
Base Cases
1 2
X 1(1 + 1)
j 3 = 13 = 1 = ,
j=1
2
Induction Step
Assume
k 2
X
3 k(k + 1)
j = (3.1)
j=1
2
k+1 2 2
X
3 (k + 1)(k + 1 + 1) (k + 1)(k + 2)
j = = .
j=1
2 2
11
k+1
X k
X
j3 = j 3 + (k + 1)3
j=1 j=1
2
k(k + 1)
= + (k + 1)3
2
k 2 (k + 1)2 (4k + 4)(k + 1)2
= +
4 4
(k + 1)2 k 2 + 4k + 4
=
4
2
(k + 1)2 (k + 2)
=
4
2
(k + 1)(k + 2)
= .
2
Conclusion
n 2
X
3n(n + 1)
j =
j=1
2
for all n ∈ N.
12
Problem 4
Topic: Harmonic Number, Inequality
Problem: Prove that Hn ≤ n for all n ∈ N where Hn denotes the n-th

Harmonic number.
Definition - Harmonic Number:

n
X 1
Hn = .
j=1
j
Solution
Base Cases
1
X 1 1
H1 = = = 1 ≤ 1,
j=1
j 1
Induction Step
Assume
Hk ≤ k (4.1)
Hk+1 ≤ k + 1.
13
k+1
X 1
Hk+1 =
j=1
j
k
X 1 1
= +
j=1
j k+1
1
= Hk +
k+1
1
≤k+ .
k+1
Since k + 1 ≥ 1,
1
≤ 1,
k+1
and we obtain
Hk+1 ≤ k + 1.
Conclusion
Hn ≤ n
for all n ∈ N.
14
Problem 5
Problem: Prove
2n
Hn ≥
n+1
for all n ∈ N where Hn denotes the n-th Harmonic number.

n
X 1
Hn = .
j=1
j
Solution
Base Cases
1
X 1 1 2·1
H1 = = =1≥ ,
j=1
j 1 1+1
Induction Step
Assume
2k
Hk ≥ (5.1)
k+1
15
2(k + 1) 2k + 2
Hk+1 ≥ = .
(k + 1) + 1 k+2

k+1
X 1
Hk+1 =
j=1
j
k
X 1 1
= +
j=1
j k+1
1
= Hk +
k+1
2k 1
≥ +
k+1 k+1
2k + 1
= .
k+1
Note that
2k + 1 2k + 2 k
− = ≥0
k+1 k+2 (k + 1)(k + 2)
because k ≥ 0, k + 1 > 0, and k + 2 > 0, so
2k + 1 2k + 2
≥ .
k+1 k+2
Therefore,
2k + 2
Hk+1 ≥ .
k+2
Conclusion
2n
Hn ≥
n+1
for all n ∈ N.
16
Problem 6
Topic: Inequality
Problem: Prove en > n + 1 for all n ∈ N where e is the base of natural

logarithm, e ≈ 2.7183.
Solution
Base Cases
e1 = e ≈ 2.7183 > 1 + 1,
Induction Step
Assume
ek > k + 1 (6.1)
ek+1 > (k + 1) + 1 = k + 2.
Multiplying e to both sides of the inequality in assumption (6.1),
ek+1 > ek + e.
Since e > 2 > 1,

ek + e > k + 2.
Therefore,
ek+1 > k + 2.
17
Conclusion
en > n + 1
for all n ∈ N.
18
Problem 7
Topic: Inequality
Problem: Prove en−1 > 2n for n ≥ 4 where e is the base of natural logarithm,
e ≈ 2.7183.
Solution
Base Cases
e4−1 = e3 ≈ (2.7183)3 > (2.7)3 = 19.683 > 24 ,
Induction Step
Assume
ek−1 > 2k (7.1)
e(k+1)−1 = ek > 2k+1 .
Multiplying e to both sides of the inequality in assumption (7.1),
ek > e · 2k .
Since e > 2,
e · 2k > 2 · 2k = 2k+1 .
Therefore,
ek > 2k+1 .
19
Conclusion
en−1 > 2n
for n ≥ 4.
20
Problem 8
Topic: Inequality
Problem: Prove n! > 2n + 2n for n ≥ 5.
Definition - Factorial:
n! = n · (n − 1) · (n − 2) · · · 2 · 1.
0! = 1.
Solution
Base Cases
5! = 120 > 42 = 2 · 5 + 25 ,
Induction Step
Assume
k! > 2k + 2k (8.1)
(k + 1)! > 2(k + 1) + 2k+1 .
Multiplying both sides of assumption (8.1) by k + 1,
(k + 1)! > 2k(k + 1) + 2k (k + 1).
21
Since k ≥ 5 > 1 and k + 1 ≥ 6 > 2,
2k(k + 1) > 2(k + 1)
and
2k (k + 1) > 2k · 2 = 2k+1 .
So,
(k + 1)! > 2(k + 1) + 2k+1 .
Conclusion
n! > 2n + 2n
for n ≥ 5.
22
Problem 9
Topic: Inequality
Problem: Prove nn > 3n2 + 6 for n ≥ 4.
Solution
Base Cases
44 > 3 · 42 + 6,
Induction Step
Assume
k k > 3k 2 + 6 (9.1)
(k + 1)k+1 > 3(k + 1)2 + 6 = 3k 2 + 6k + 9.
Since k + 1 > k,
(k + 1)k+1 = (k + 1) · (k + 1)k > (k + 1) · k k .
(k + 1) · k k > (k + 1) 3k 2 + 6 = 3k 3 + 3k 2 + 6k + 6.

Since k ≥ 4,
3k 3 + 6 ≥ 3 · 43 + 6 > 9,
23
so
3k 3 + 3k 2 + 6k + 6 > 3k 2 + 6k + 9.
Therefore,
(k + 1)k+1 > 3k 2 + 6k + 9 = 3(k + 1)2 + 6.
Conclusion
nn > 3n2 + 6
for n ≥ 4.
24
Problem 10
Topic: Inequality
Problem: Prove Bernoulli’s inequality, which states that
(1 + x)n ≥ 1 + nx
for x > −1 and n ∈ N.
Solution
Base Cases
We need to prove that it is true for n = 1. Since
(1 + x)1 = 1 + x
and
1 + 1 · x = 1 + x,
it is indeed true that

(1 + x)1 ≥ 1 + 1 · x.
Induction Step
Assume
(1 + x)k ≥ 1 + kx (10.1)
(1 + x)k+1 ≥ 1 + (k + 1)x.
25
Since x > −1, 1 + x > 0. So, we can multiply 1 + x to both sides of the inequality
in assumption (10.1) without changing the sign:
(1 + x)k+1 ≥ (1 + x)(1 + kx)

= 1 + (k + 1)x + kx2 .
Since k > 0 and x2 ≥ 0, kx2 ≥ 0, and thus
(1 + x)k+1 ≥ 1 + (k + 1)x.
Conclusion
(1 + x)n ≥ 1 + nx
if x > −1 for all n ∈ N.
26
Problem 11
Topic: Series
Problem: For a 6= 1, prove

n−1
X an − 1
aj = .
j=0
a−1
Solution
Base Cases
1−1
X a1 − 1
aj = a0 = 1 = ,
j=0
a−1
Induction Step
Assume
k−1
X ak − 1
aj = (11.1)
j=0
a−1

(k+1)−1 k
X
j
X ak+1 − 1
a = aj = .
j=0 j=0
a−1
28
k
X k−1
X
aj = aj + ak
j=0 j=0
ak − 1
= + ak
a−1
ak − 1 ak (a − 1)
= +
a−1 a−1
ak − 1 ak+1 − ak
= +
a−1 a−1
k+1
a −1
= .
a−1
Conclusion
n−1
X an − 1
aj =
j=0
a−1
if a 6= 1 for all n ∈ N.
29
Problem 12
Topic: Series, Fibonacci Number
Problem: Prove
n
X
Fj = Fn+2 − 1
j=1
where Fn denotes the n-th Fibonacci number.
Definition - Fibonacci Numbers: The Fibonacci numbers are a sequence

of numbers defined as F0 = 0, F1 = 1, and Fn = Fn−1 + Fn−2 for n ≥ 2.
Solution
Base Cases
We need to prove that it is true for n = 1. When n = 1,
1
X
Fj = F1 = 1
j=1
and
F1+2 − 1 = F3 − 1 = F2 + F1 − 1 = F1 + F0 + F1 − 1 = 1 + 0 + 1 − 1 = 1,
so it is indeed true that

1
X
Fj = F1+2 − 1.
j=1
30
Induction Step
Assume
k
X
Fj = Fk+2 − 1 (12.1)
j=1

k+1
X
Fj = F(k+1)+2 − 1 = Fk+3 − 1.
j=1

k+1
X k
X
Fj = Fj + Fk+1
j=1 j=1
= Fk+2 − 1 + Fk+1 .
Using the recursive relation of Fn ,
Fn = Fn−1 + Fn−2 ,
we have
Fk+2 + Fk+1 = Fk+3 .
Therefore,
k+1
X
Fj = Fk+3 − 1.
j=1
Conclusion
n
X
Fj = Fn+2 − 1
j=1
for all n ∈ N.
31
Problem 13
Problem: Prove
n
X
F2j+1 = F2n+2
j=0

Solution
Base Cases
1
X
F2j+1 = F1 + F3
j=0
and
F2·1+2 = F4 = F2 + F3 .
Since
F2 = F1 + F0 = F1 + 0 = F1 ,
it is indeed true that
1
X
F2j+1 = F2·1+2 .
j=0
32
Induction Step
Assume
k
X
F2j+1 = F2k+2 (13.1)
j=0

k+1
X
F2j+1 = F2(k+1)+2 = F2k+4 .
j=0

k+1
X k
X
F2j+1 = F2j+1 + F2k+3
j=0 j=0
= F2k+2 + F2k+3 .
Fn = Fn−1 + Fn−2 ,
we have
F2k+2 + F2k+3 = F2k+4 .
Therefore,
k+1
X
F2j+1 = F2k+4 .
j=0
Conclusion
n
X
F2j+1 = F2n+2
j=0
for all n ∈ N.
33
Problem 14
Problem: Prove
n
X
F2j = F2n+1 − 1
j=1

Solution
Base Cases
1
X
F2j = F2 = F1 + F0 = 1 + 0 = 1
j=1
and
F2·1+1 − 1 = F3 − 1 = F2 + F1 − 1 = F1 + F0 + F1 − 1 = 1 + 0 + 1 − 1 = 1,

1
X
F2j = F2·1+1 − 1.
j=1
34
Induction Step
Assume
k
X
F2j = F2k+1 − 1 (14.1)
j=1

k+1
X
F2j = F2(k+1)+1 − 1 = F2k+3 − 1.
j=1

k+1
X k
X
F2j = F2j + F2k+2
j=1 j=1
= F2k+1 − 1 + F2k+2 .
Fn = Fn−1 + Fn−2 ,
we have
F2k+1 + F2k+2 = F2k+3 .
Therefore,
k+1
X
F2j = F2k+3 − 1.
j=1
Conclusion
n
X
F2j = F2n+1 − 1
j=1
for all n ∈ N.
35
Problem 15
Problem: Prove
n
X
Fj2 = Fn Fn+1
j=1

Solution
Base Cases
1
X
Fj2 = F12 = 1
j=1
and
F1 F1+1 = F1 F2 = F1 (F1 + F0 ) = 1,

1
X
Fj2 = F1 F1+1 .
j=1
36
Induction Step
Assume
k
X
Fj2 = Fk Fk+1 (15.1)
j=1

k+1
X
Fj2 = Fk+1 F(k+1)+1 = Fk+1 Fk+2 .
j=1

k+1
X k
X
Fj2 = Fj2 + Fk+1
2
j=1 j=1
2
= Fk Fk+1 + Fk+1
= Fk+1 (Fk + Fk+1 ).
Fn = Fn−1 + Fn−2 ,
we have
Fk + Fk+1 = Fk+2 .
Therefore,
k+1
X
Fj2 = Fk+1 Fk+2 .
j=1
Conclusion
n
X
Fj2 = Fn Fn+1
j=1
for all n ∈ N.
37
Problem 16
Topic: Series
Problem: Prove
n
X 1 n+1
= n+1 .
j=0
2n + 4j 2
Solution
Base Cases
We need to prove that it is true for n = 1 and n = 2. We can check that
1
X 1 1 1 1 1+1
= + = = 1+1
j=0
21 + 4 j 2+1 2+4 2 2
and
2
X 1 1 1 1 3 2+1
= + + = = 2+1 ,
j=0
22 + 4j 4 + 1 4 + 4 4 + 16 8 2
so it is true for n = 1 and n = 2.
Induction Step
Assume
m
X 1 m+1
= m+1 (16.1)
j=0
2m +4 j 2
for all 1 ≤ m ≤ k for some k ≥ 2. To prove the induction step, we need to prove
k+1
X 1 (k + 1) + 1 k+2
= (k+1)+1 = k+2 .
j=0
2k+1 + 4j 2 2
38
Note that we can write the sum when n = k + 1 as
k+1 k
X 1 1 1 X 1
= + +
j=0
2k+1 + 4j 2k+1 + 1 2k+1 + 4k+1 j=1 2k+1 + 4j
k
1 1 1X 1
= k+1 + k+1 + .
2 +1 2 + 4k+1 4 j=1 2k−1 + 4j−1
Substituting j − 1 → j,
k k−1
X 1 X 1
k−1 j−1
= k−1 + 4j
.
j=1
2 +4 j=0
2
Then, by assumption (16.1) when m = k − 1,

k−1
X 1 (k − 1) + 1 k
= (k−1)+1 = k .
j=0
2k−1 + 4j 2 2
So,
k+1
X 1 1 1 1 k
= k+1 + + · k
j=0
2k+1 + 4j 2 + 1 2k+1 + 4k+1 4 2
1 1 k
= + + k+2
2k+1
+1 2k+1
(1 + 2 k+1 ) 2
k+1
2 +1 k
= k+1 k+1 +
2 (2 + 1) 2k+2
1 k
= k+1 + k+2
2 2
k+2
= k+2 .
2
Thus, we proved that it is true for n = k +1 if it is true for n = m for all 1 ≤ m ≤ k.
Conclusion
We proved that it is true for n = 1 and n = 2. Then, we proved that it is true for
n = k + 1 if it is true for n = m for all 1 ≤ m ≤ k. Therefore, by strong induction,
n
X 1 n+1
= n+1
j=0
2n + 4 j 2
for all n ∈ N.
39
Problem 17
Topic: Divisibility
Problem: Prove
3 | n3 − n

for all n ∈ N.
Definition - Divisibility: For a ∈ Z \ {0} and b ∈ Z, a divides b, denoted as

a | b, when a is a factor of b. Formally,
a | b ⇔ b = a`
for some ` ∈ Z.
Solution
Base Cases
13 − 1 = 0 = 3 · 0
where 0 is an integer,
3 | 13 − 1

by definition of divisibility.
Induction Step
Assume
3 | k3 − k

(17.1)
40
3 | (k + 1)3 − (k + 1) .

By assumption (17.1) and the definition of divisibility,
k 3 − k = 3`
for some ` ∈ Z. Then,
(k + 1)3 − (k + 1) = k 3 + 3k 2 + 3k + 1 − k − 1
= 3` + 3k 2 + 3k
= 3 ` + k2 + k .

Since ` + k 2 + k is an integer,
3 | (k + 1)3 − (k + 1)

by definition of divisibility. Thus, we proved that it is true for n = k + 1 if it is

true for n = k.
Conclusion
3 | n3 − n

for all n ∈ N.
41
Problem 18
Topic: Divisibility
Problem: Prove
5 | n5 − n

for all n ∈ N.

a | b ⇔ b = a`
for some ` ∈ Z.
Solution
Base Cases
15 − 1 = 0 = 5 · 0
5 | 15 − 1

Induction Step
Assume
5 | k5 − k

(18.1)
42
5 | (k + 1)5 − (k + 1) .

By assumption (18.1) and the definition of divisibility,
k 5 − k = 5`
(k + 1)5 − (k + 1) = k 5 + 5k 4 + 10k 3 + 10k 2 + 5k + 1 − k − 1

= 5` + 5k 4 + 10k 3 + 10k 2 + 5k
= 5 ` + k 4 + 2k 3 + 2k 2 + k .

Since ` + k 4 + 2k 3 + 2k 2 + k is an integer,
5 | (k + 1)5 − (k + 1)


true for n = k.
Conclusion
5 | n5 − n

for all n ∈ N.
43
Problem 19
Topic: Divisibility
Problem: Prove
7 | (9n − 2n )
for all n ∈ N.

a | b ⇔ b = a`
for some ` ∈ Z.
Solution
Base Cases
91 − 21 = 7 = 7 · 1
7 | 91 − 21

Induction Step
Assume
7 | 9k − 2k

(19.1)
44
7 | 9k+1 − 2k+1 .

By assumption (19.1) and by definition of divisibility,
9k − 2k = 7`
9k+1 − 2k+1 = 9 · 9k − 2 · 2k
= (7 + 2) · 9k − 2 · 2k
= 7 · 9k + 2 · 9k − 2k

= 7 · 9k + 2 · 7`
= 7 9k + 2` .

Since 9k + 2` is an integer,
7 | 9k+1 − 2k+1


true for n = k.
Conclusion
7 | (9n − 2n )
for all n ∈ N.
45
Problem 20
Topic: Divisibility
Problem: Prove
9 | 82n − 3 · 7n + 2

for all n ∈ N.

a | b ⇔ b = a`
for some ` ∈ Z.
Solution
Base Cases
82·1 − 3 · 71 + 2 = 45 = 9 · 5
9 | 82·1 − 3 · 71 + 2

Induction Step
Assume
9 | 82k − 3 · 7k + 2

(20.1)
46

9 | 82(k+1) − 3 · 7k+1 + 2 .
By assumption (20.1) and by definition of divisibility,
82k − 3 · 7k + 2 = 9`
82(k+1) − 3 · 7k+1 + 2 = 64 · 82k − 7 · 3 · 7k + 2

= 63 · 82k − 6 · 3 · 7k + 82k − 3 · 7k + 2
= 63 · 82k − 6 · 3 · 7k + 9`
= 9 7 · 82k − 2 · 7k + ` .

Since 7 · 82k − 2 · 7k + ` is an integer,

9 | 82(k+1) − 3 · 7k+1 + 2

true for n = k.
Conclusion
9 | 82n − 3 · 7n + 2

for all n ∈ N.
47
Problem 21
Topic: Inequality
Problem: For x, y ≥ 0, prove

n
xn + y n

x+y
≤
2 2
for all n ∈ N.
Solution
Base Cases
1
x1 + y 1

x+y x+y
= ≤ ,
2 2 2
Induction Step
Assume
k
xk + y k

x+y
≤ (21.1)
2 2
k+1
xk+1 + y k+1

x+y
≤ .
2 2
49
x+y
Multiplying both sides of the inequality in assumption (21.1) by 2 ,
k+1
xk + y k

x+y x+y
≤
2 2 2
xk+1 + y k+1 + xy k + yxk
=
4
xk+1 + y k+1 xk+1 + y k+1 xy k + yxk
= − +
2 4 4
xk+1 + y k+1 xk+1 + y k+1 − xy k − yxk
= −
2 4
xk+1 + y k+1 xk − y k (x − y)
= − .
2 4
For any real numbers x and y, it is always either x ≥ y or y ≥ x. If x ≥ y, then
x − y ≥ 0 and xk − y k ≥ 0, so
xk − y k (x − y) ≥ 0.

If y ≥ x, then x − y ≤ 0 and xk − y k ≤ 0, so
xk − y k (x − y) ≥ 0.

In both cases,
xk − y k (x − y) ≥ 0.

So,
xk − y k (x − y)
− ≤ 0,
4
and thus we have

xk+1 + y k+1 xk − y k (x − y) xk+1 + y k+1
− ≤ .
2 4 2
Therefore,
k+1
xk+1 + y k+1

x+y
≤ .
2 2
Conclusion
n
xn + y n

x+y
≤
2 2
for x, y ≥ 0 and for all n ∈ N.
50
Problem 22
Topic: Inequality
Problem: If a > b > 0, prove
(2a − 2b)n ≥ 2an − (2b)n
for all n ∈ N.
Solution
Base Cases
(2a − 2b)1 = 2a − 2b ≥ 2a1 − (2b)1 ,
Induction Step
Assume
(2a − 2b)k ≥ 2ak − (2b)k (22.1)
(2a − 2b)k+1 ≥ 2ak+1 − (2b)k+1 .
Since a > b, 2a − 2b > 0, so we can multiply 2a − 2b to both sides of the inequality
in assumption (22.1) without changing the sign:
(2a − 2b)k+1 ≥ (2a − 2b) 2ak − (2b)k

= 4ak+1 + (2b)k+1 − 4bak − (2a)(2b)k

= 2ak+1 + 2ak+1 − (2b)k+1 + 2(2b)k+1 − 4bak − (2a)(2b)k
= 2ak+1 − (2b)k+1 + 2(a − 2b) ak − (2b)k .

51
For any real numbers a and 2b, it is always either a ≥ 2b or 2b ≥ a. If a ≥ 2b, then
a − 2b ≥ 0 and ak − (2b)k ≥ 0, so
(a − 2b) ak − (2b)k ≥ 0.

If 2b ≥ a, then a − 2b ≤ 0 and ak − (2b)k ≤ 0, so
(a − 2b) ak − (2b)k ≥ 0.

In both cases,
(a − 2b) ak − (2b)k ≥ 0.

So,
2ak+1 − (2b)k+1 + 2(a − 2b) ak − (2b)k ≥ 2ak+1 − (2b)k+1 .

Therefore,
(2a − 2b)k+1 ≥ 2ak+1 − (2b)k+1 .
Conclusion
(2a − 2b)n ≥ 2an − (2b)n
if a > b > 0 for all n ∈ N.
52
Problem 23
Topic: Inequality
Problem: For y ≥ 0, prove
ny − y n ≤ n − 1
for all n ∈ N.
Solution
Base Cases
1 · y − y1 = 0 ≤ 1 − 1
and
2 · y − y 2 = −(y − 1)2 + 1 ≤ 1 = 2 − 1,
Induction Step
Assume
my − y m ≤ m − 1 (23.1)
(k + 1)y − y k+1 ≤ (k + 1) − 1 = k.
By assumption (23.1) when m = k,
ky − y k ≤ k − 1 ⇔ −y k ≤ k − 1 − ky.
53
Since y ≥ 0, we can multiply y to both sides of the inequality without changing the
sign:
−y k+1 ≤ y(k − 1 − ky).
So,
(k + 1)y − y k+1 ≤ (k + 1)y + y(k − 1 − ky)

= 2ky − ky 2
= k 2y − y 2 .

By assumption (23.1) when m = 2,
2y − y 2 ≤ 2 − 1 = 1.
Therefore,
(k + 1)y − y k+1 ≤ k.
Conclusion
ny − y n ≤ n − 1
if y ≥ 0 for all n ∈ N.
54
Problem 24
Topic: Matrices
Problem: For a, b ∈ R, prove

n n
a 0 a 0
=
0 b 0 bn
for all n ∈ N.
Definition - Matrix Multiplication: For those who are unfamiliar with

matrices, for our purpose here, we only need to know that

a11 a12 b11 b12 a11 b11 + a12 b21 a11 b12 + a12 b22
= .
a21 a22 b21 b22 a21 b11 + a22 b21 a21 b12 + a22 b22
Solution
Base Cases
1 1
a 0 a 0 a 0
= = ,
0 b 0 b 0 b1
Induction Step
Assume k k
a 0 a 0
= (24.1)
0 b 0 bk
55
k+1 k+1
a 0 a 0
= .
0 b 0 bk+1

k+1 k
a 0 a 0 a 0
=
0 b 0 b 0 b
k
a 0 a 0
=
0 bk 0 b
k
a · a + 0 · 0 ak · 0 + 0 · b

=
0 · a + bk · 0 0 · 0 + bk · b
k+1
a 0
= .
0 bk+1
Conclusion
n n
a 0 a 0
=
0 b 0 bn
for a, b ∈ R and for all n ∈ N.
56
Problem 25
Topic: Matrices
Problem: For a ∈ R, prove

n
1 a 1 na
=
0 1 0 1
for all n ∈ N.


a11 a12 b11 b12 a11 b11 + a12 b21 a11 b12 + a12 b22
= .
a21 a22 b21 b22 a21 b11 + a22 b21 a21 b12 + a22 b22
Solution
Base Cases
1
1 a 1 1·a
= ,
0 1 0 1
Induction Step
Assume k
1 a 1 ka
= (25.1)
0 1 0 1
57
k+1
1 a 1 (k + 1)a
= .
0 1 0 1

k+1 k
1 a 1 a 1 a
=
0 1 0 1 0 1

1 ka 1 a
=
0 1 0 1

1 · 1 + ka · 0 1 · a + ka · 1
=
0·1+1·0 0·a+1·1

1 (k + 1)a
= .
0 1
Conclusion
n
1 a 1 na
=
0 1 0 1
for all n ∈ N.
58
Problem 26
Topic: Matrices, Fibonacci Number
Problem: Prove n
1 1 F Fn
= n+1
1 0 Fn Fn−1
for all n ∈ N where Fn denotes the n-th Fibonacci number.


a11 a12 b11 b12 a11 b11 + a12 b21 a11 b12 + a12 b22
= .
a21 a22 b21 b22 a21 b11 + a22 b21 a21 b12 + a22 b22

Solution
Base Cases
1
1 1 1 1 F F1
= = 2
1 0 1 0 F1 F0
because F0 = 0, F1 = 1, and F2 = F1 + F0 = 1 + 0 = 1, so it is true for n = 1.
59
Induction Step
Assume k
1 1 Fk+1 Fk
= (26.1)
1 0 Fk Fk−1
k+1
1 1 F(k+1)+1 Fk+1 Fk+2 Fk+1
= = .
1 0 Fk+1 F(k+1)−1 Fk+1 Fk

k+1 k
1 1 1 1 1 1
=
1 0 1 0 1 0

Fk+1 Fk 1 1
=
Fk Fk−1 1 0

Fk+1 · 1 + Fk · 1 Fk+1 · 1 + Fk · 0
=
Fk · 1 + Fk−1 · 1 Fk · 1 + Fk−1 · 0

Fk + Fk+1 Fk+1
= .
Fk−1 + Fk Fk
Using the recursive relation
Fn = Fn−1 + Fn−2
of Fn ,
Fk + Fk+1 = Fk+2
and
Fk−1 + Fk = Fk+1 .
Therefore,
k+1
1 1 F Fk+1
= k+2 .
1 0 Fk+1 Fk
Conclusion
n
1 1 Fn+1 Fn
=
1 0 Fn Fn−1
for all n ∈ N.
60
Problem 27
Topic: Floor Function, Inequality
Problem: Prove j k
n+1 n
0≤ − ≤1
2 2
for all n ∈ N where b·c denotes the floor function.
Definition - Floor Function: For x ∈ R, the floor function bxc is the largest
integer not exceeding x. For example, b2c = 2, b3.6c = 3, b−1.2c = −2, etc.
Formally, for any ` ∈ Z,
bxc = ` ⇔ ` ≤ x < ` + 1.
With this definition of floor function, it should be easy to show that bxc has
the property
bx + ac = bxc + a
for any a ∈ Z.
Solution
Base Cases

1+1 1
− = 1 − 0 = 1,
2 2
so it is true that
1+1 1
0≤ − ≤ 1.
2 2
61
Induction Step
Assume
k+1 k
0≤ − ≤1 (27.1)
2 2

(k + 1) + 1 k+1
0≤ − ≤ 1.
2 2
Note that

(k + 1) + 1 k+1 k+2 k+1
− = −
2 2 2 2

k k+1
= +1 −
2 2

k k+1
= +1−
2 2

k+1 k
=1− − .
2 2
By assumption (27.1),
k+1 k
0≤ − ≤ 1,
2 2
so
k+1 k
0≤1− − ≤ 1.
2 2
Therefore,
(k + 1) + 1 k+1
0≤ − ≤ 1.
2 2
Conclusion
j k
n+1 n
0≤ − ≤1
2 2
for all n ∈ N.
62
Problem 28
Problem: Prove
n+1 n
≥
2 2
bxc = ` ⇔ ` ≤ x < ` + 1.
the property
bx + ac = bxc + a
for any a ∈ Z.
Solution
Base Cases

1+1 1
=1≥
2 2
and
2+1 2
=1≥ ,
2 2
63
Induction Step
Assume
m+1 m
≥ (28.1)
2 2

(k + 1) + 1 k+1
≥ .
2 2
Note that
(k + 1) + 1 k+2 k k
= = +1 = + 1.
2 2 2 2
By assumption (28.1) when m = k − 1,

(k − 1) + 1 k k−1
= ≥ .
2 2 2
Therefore,
(k + 1) + 1 k−1 k+1
≥ +1= .
2 2 2
Conclusion

n+1 n
≥
2 2
for all n ∈ N.
64
Problem 29
Problem: Prove √ n
n ≤
2
for n ≥ 2 where b·c denotes the floor function.
bxc = ` ⇔ ` ≤ x < ` + 1.
the property
bx + ac = bxc + a
for any a ∈ Z.
Solution
Base Cases
We need to prove that it is true for n = 2 and n = 3. When n = 2,
√ √ √ √
1 < 2 < 4 ⇔ 1 < 2 < 2,
so j√ k 2
2 =1≤ .
2
When n = 3, √ √ √ √
1< 3< 4⇔1< 3 < 2,
65
so j√ k 3
3 =1≤ .
2
Induction Step
Assume √ m
m ≤ (29.1)
2
j√ k k+1
k+1 ≤ .
2
Note that for k ≥ 3, √ √
2 k − 1 ≥ 2 2 ≥ 1,
so √
k + 2 k − 1 ≥ k + 1.
Since
√ √ √ 2
k + 2 k − 1 = (k − 1) + 1 + 2 k − 1 = k−1+1 ,
we have the inequality

√ 2
k−1+1 ≥ k + 1.
Taking square root of both sides,

√ √
k − 1 + 1 ≥ k + 1.
So, j√ k j√ k j√ k
k+1 ≤ k−1+1 = k − 1 + 1.

j√ k k−1
k−1 ≤ .
2
Therefore,
j√ k k−1 k+1
k+1 ≤ +1= .
2 2
Conclusion
√ n
n ≤
2
for n ≥ 2.
66
Problem 30
Topic: Floor Function
Problem: Prove a floor function identity of Ramanujan,

jnk n + 2 n + 4 jnk n + 3
+ + = + ,
3 6 6 2 6
bxc = ` ⇔ ` ≤ x < ` + 1.
the property
bx + ac = bxc + a
for any a ∈ Z.
Solution
Base Cases
We need to prove that it is true for n = 1, n = 2, n = 3, n = 4, n = 5, and n = 6.
We can check that

1 1+2 1+4 1 1+3
+ + = + = 0,
3 6 6 2 6
67

2 2+2 2+4 2 2+3
+ + = + = 1,
3 6 6 2 6

3 3+2 3+4 3 3+3
+ + = + = 2,
3 6 6 2 6

4 4+2 4+4 4 4+3
+ + = + = 3,
3 6 6 2 6

5 5+2 5+4 5 5+3
+ + = + = 3,
3 6 6 2 6
and

6 6+2 6+4 6 6+3
+ + = + = 4,
3 6 6 2 6
so it is true for n = 1, n = 2, n = 3, n = 4, n = 5, and n = 6.
Induction Step
Assume
jmk j k
m+2 m+4 m m+3
+ + = + (30.1)
3 6 6 2 6

k+1 (k + 1) + 2 (k + 1) + 4 k+1 (k + 1) + 3
+ + = + .
3 6 6 2 6
Note that

k+1 (k + 1) + 2 (k + 1) + 4
+ +
3 6 6

k−5 (k − 5) + 2 (k − 5) + 4
= +2 + +1 + +1
3 6 6

k−5 (k − 5) + 2 (k − 5) + 4
= +2+ +1+ +1
3 6 6

k−5 (k − 5) + 2 (k − 5) + 4
= + + + 4.
3 6 6

k−5 (k − 5) + 2 (k − 5) + 4 k−5 (k − 5) + 3
+ + = + .
3 6 6 2 6
68
Therefore,

k+1 (k + 1) + 2 (k + 1) + 4
+ +
3 6 6

k−5 (k − 5) + 3
= + +4
2 6

k−5 (k − 5) + 3
= +3+ +1
2 6

k−5 (k − 5) + 3
= +3 + +1
2 6

k+1 (k + 1) + 3
= + .
2 6
Conclusion
We proved that it is true for n = 1, n = 2, n = 3, n = 4, n = 5, and n = 6. Then,
we proved that it is true for n = k + 1 if it is true for n = m for all 1 ≤ m ≤ k.
Therefore, by strong induction,
jnk n + 2 n + 4 jnk n + 3
+ + = +
3 6 6 2 6
for all n ∈ N.
69
Problem 31
Topic: Sequence
Problem: Let a1 , a2 be arbitrary real numbers, and
an = 2an−1 − an−2
for n ≥ 3. Prove that
an = (n − 1)a2 − (n − 2)a1
for all n ∈ N.
Solution
Base Cases
(1 − 1)a2 − (1 − 2)a1 = a1
and
(2 − 1)a2 − (2 − 2)a1 = a2 ,
Induction Step
Assume
am = (m − 1)a2 − (m − 2)a1 (31.1)
ak+1 = ((k + 1) − 1)a2 − ((k + 1) − 2)a1 = ka2 − (k − 1)a1 .
71
Since k + 1 ≥ 3, we can use the recursive formula and get
ak+1 = 2ak − ak−1 .
ak = (k − 1)a2 − (k − 2)a1 .
ak−1 = (k − 2)a2 − (k − 3)a1 .
So,
ak+1 = 2[(k − 1)a2 − (k − 2)a1 ] − [(k − 2)a2 − (k − 3)a1 ]

= ka2 − (k − 1)a1 .
Conclusion
an = (n − 1)a2 − (n − 2)a1
for all n ∈ N.
72
Problem 32
Topic: Sequence
Problem: Let a1 = 5, a2 = 11, a3 = 29, and
an = 3an−1 + an−2 − 3an−3

an = 3n + 2
for all n ∈ N.
Solution
Base Cases
We need to prove that it is true for n = 1, n = 2, and n = 3. We can check that
a1 = 5 = 31 + 2,
a2 = 11 = 32 + 2,
and
a3 = 29 = 33 + 2,
so it is true for n = 1, n = 2, and n = 3.
Induction Step
Assume
am = 3m + 2 (32.1)
ak+1 = 3k+1 + 2.
73
ak+1 = 3ak + ak−1 − 3ak−2 .
ak = 3k + 2.
ak−1 = 3k−1 + 2.
ak−2 = 3k−2 + 2.
So,
ak+1 = 3 3k + 2 + 3k−1 + 2 − 3 3k−2 + 2

= 3k+1 + 2.
Conclusion
We proved that it is true for n = 1, n = 2, and n = 3. Then, we proved that it is
true for n = k + 1 if it is true for n = m for all 1 ≤ m ≤ k. Therefore, by strong
induction,
an = 3n + 2
for all n ∈ N.
74
Problem 33
Topic: Sequence
Problem: Let a1 , a2 , a3 be arbitrary real numbers, and
an = 3an−1 − 3an−2 + an−3

1 1
an = (n − 1)(n − 2)a3 − (n − 1)(n − 3)a2 + (n − 2)(n − 3)a1
2 2
for all n ∈ N.
Solution
Base Cases
We need to prove that it is true for n = 1, n = 2, and n = 3. We can check that
1 1
(1 − 1)(1 − 2)a3 − (1 − 1)(1 − 3)a2 + (1 − 2)(1 − 3)a1 = a1 ,
2 2
1 1
(2 − 1)(2 − 2)a3 − (2 − 1)(2 − 3)a2 + (2 − 2)(2 − 3)a1 = a2 ,
2 2
and
1 1
(3 − 1)(3 − 2)a3 − (3 − 1)(3 − 3)a2 + (3 − 2)(3 − 3)a1 = a3 ,
2 2
so it is true for n = 1, n = 2, and n = 3.
Induction Step
Assume
1 1
am = (m − 1)(m − 2)a3 − (m − 1)(m − 3)a2 + (m − 2)(m − 3)a1 (33.1)
2 2
75
1 1
ak+1 = k(k − 1)a3 − k(k − 2)a2 + (k − 1)(k − 2)a1 .
2 2
ak+1 = 3ak − 3ak−1 + ak−2 .

1 1
ak = (k − 1)(k − 2)a3 − (k − 1)(k − 3)a2 + (k − 2)(k − 3)a1 .
2 2
1 1
ak−1 = (k − 2)(k − 3)a3 − (k − 2)(k − 4)a2 + (k − 3)(k − 4)a1 .
2 2
1 1
ak−2 = (k − 3)(k − 4)a3 − (k − 3)(k − 5)a2 + (k − 4)(k − 5)a1 .
2 2
So,
3 3
ak+1 = (k − 1)(k − 2)a3 − 3(k − 1)(k − 3)a2 + (k − 2)(k − 3)a1
2 2
3 3
− (k − 2)(k − 3)a3 + 3(k − 2)(k − 4)a2 − (k − 3)(k − 4)a1
2 2
1 1
+ (k − 3)(k − 4)a3 − (k − 3)(k − 5)a2 + (k − 4)(k − 5)a1
2 2
1 1
= k(k − 1)a3 − k(k − 2)a2 + (k − 1)(k − 2)a1 .
2 2
Conclusion
We proved that it is true for n = 1, n = 2, and n = 3. Then, we proved that it is
true for n = k + 1 if it is true for n = m for all 1 ≤ m ≤ k. Therefore, by strong
induction,
1 1
an = (n − 1)(n − 2)a3 − (n − 1)(n − 3)a2 + (n − 2)(n − 3)a1
2 2
for all n ∈ N.
76
Problem 34
Topic: Sequence, Inequality
Problem: Let a0 = 1 and an = nan−1 + n for n ≥ 1. Prove that
an ≥ 3 · n!
for n ≥ 2.
n! = n · (n − 1) · (n − 2) · · · 2 · 1.
0! = 1.
Solution
Base Cases
We need to prove that it is true for n = 2. Using the recursive formula,
a1 = 1a0 + 1 = 1 · 1 + 1 = 2,
and
a2 = 2a1 + 2 = 2 · 2 + 2 = 6 ≥ 3 · 2!,
Induction Step
Assume
ak ≥ 3 · k! (34.1)
77
ak+1 ≥ 3 · (k + 1)!.
Using the recursive formula and by assumption (34.1),
ak+1 = (k + 1)ak + (k + 1)
≥ (k + 1) · 3 · k! + k + 1
≥ (k + 1) · 3 · k!
= 3 · (k + 1)!.
Conclusion
an ≥ 3 · n!
for n ≥ 2.
78
Problem 35
Problem: Let a0 = 1 and an = nan−1 + r for n ≥ 1 where r is some non-

negative real number. Prove that
an ≥ (1 + r) · n!
for all n ∈ N.
n! = n · (n − 1) · (n − 2) · · · 2 · 1.
0! = 1.
Solution
Base Cases
a1 = 1a0 + r = 1 · 1 + r = 1 + r ≥ (1 + r) · 1!,
Induction Step
Assume
ak ≥ (1 + r) · k! (35.1)
79
ak+1 ≥ (1 + r) · (k + 1)!.
Using the recursive formula and by assumption (35.1), since r is non-negative,
ak+1 = (k + 1)ak + r
≥ (k + 1) · (1 + r) · k! + r
≥ (k + 1) · (1 + r) · k!
= (1 + r) · (k + 1)!.
Conclusion
an ≥ (1 + r) · n!
for all n ∈ N.
80
Problem 36
Problem: Let a0 be an arbitrary real number such that 0 < a0 < 1. Let
r
1 + an−1
an =
2
1
1− < an < 1
2n
for all n ∈ N.
Solution
Base Cases
r
1 + a0
a1 = .
2
Since 0 < a0 < 1,
1 < 1 + a0 < 2
1 1 + a0
< <1
2 r 2
1 1 + a0
√ < < 1.
2 2
√ √
Since 2< 4 = 2,
1 1
√ > .
2 2
81
So,
1 1
1− 1
= < a1 < 1,
2 2
and it is true for n = 1.
Induction Step
Assume
1
1−
< ak < 1 (36.1)
2k
1
1 − k+1 < ak+1 < 1.
2
Using the recursive formula,
r
1 + ak
ak+1 = .
2
1
2− < 1 + ak < 2
2k
1 1 + ak
1 − k+1 < <1
r 2 r2
1 1 + ak
1 − k+1 < < 1,
2 2
so r
1
1 − k+1 < ak+1 < 1.
2
1
Since 1 − 2k+1
< 1,
r
1
1− < 1,
2k+1
q
1
and multiplying 1− 2k+1
to both sides gives
r
1 1
1 − k+1 < 1 − k+1 .
2 2
So,
1
1−
< ak+1 < 1.
2k+1
Conclusion
1
1 − n < an < 1
2
for all n ∈ N.
82
Problem 37
Topic: Sequence
Problem: Let a0 be an arbitrary real number, and
an = 2a2n−1
for n ≥ 1. Prove that n

−1 2n
an = 22 a0
for all n ∈ N.
Solution
Base Cases
a1 = 2a20 .
We can check that

1
−1 21
22 a0 = 2a20 = a1 ,
Induction Step
Assume
k
−1 2k
ak = 22 a0 (37.1)
k+1
−1 2k+1
ak+1 = 22 a0 .
83
Using the recursive formula and the assumption (37.1),
ak+1 = 2a2k
k 2
k
= 2 22 −1 a20
k
−2 2·2k
= 2 · 22·2 a0
k+1
−1 2k+1
= 22 a0 .
Conclusion
n
−1 2n
an = 22 a0
for all n ∈ N.
84
Problem 38
Topic: Sequence
Problem: Let a0 = −2 and
(n + 2)an−1
an =
n + 1 + 2an−1

n+2
an =
2n − 1
for all n ∈ N.
Solution
Base Cases
We need to prove that it is true for n = 1. By the recursive formula of an ,
(1 + 2)a0 3 · (−2) 1+2

a1 = = =3= ,
1 + 1 + 2a0 2 + 2 · (−2) 2·1−1
Induction Step
Assume
k+2
ak = (38.1)
2k − 1
(k + 1) + 2 k+3
ak+1 = = .
2(k + 1) − 1 2k + 1
85
Using the recursive formula of an and the assumption (38.1),
(k + 3)ak
ak+1 =
k + 2 + 2ak
k+2
(k + 3) · 2k−1
= k+2
k+2+2· 2k−1
(k + 3)(k + 2)
=
(k + 2)(2k − 1) + 2(k + 2)
(k + 3)(k + 2)
=
(k + 2)(2k + 1)
k+3
= .
2k + 1
Conclusion
n+2
an =
2n − 1
for all n ∈ N.
86
Problem 39
Topic: Sequence, Floor Function, Inequality
Problem: Let a0 be an arbitrary real number, and
ban−1 c an−1
an = +
2 2
for n ≥ 1 where b·c denotes the floor function. Prove that
n
a0 − < an ≤ a0
2
for all n ∈ N.
bxc = ` ⇔ ` ≤ x < ` + 1.
the property
bx + ac = bxc + a
for any a ∈ Z.
Solution
Base Cases
We need to prove that it is true for n = 1. By the recursive formula,
ba0 c a0
a1 = + .
2 2
87
From the definition of floor function, we know that
ba0 c ≤ a0 < ba0 c + 1 ⇔ a0 − 1 < ba0 c ≤ a0 ,
so
a0 − 1 ba0 c a0
< ≤
2 2 2
1 ba0 c a0
a0 − < + ≤ a0 .
2 2 2
Hence,
1
a0 − < a1 ≤ a0 ,
2
Induction Step
Assume
k
a0 − < ak ≤ a0 (39.1)
2
k+1
a0 − < ak+1 ≤ a0 .
2
By the recursive formula,
bak c ak
ak+1 = + .
2 2
bak c ≤ ak < bak c + 1 ⇔ ak − 1 < bak c ≤ ak ,
so
ak − 1 bak c ak
< ≤
2 2 2
1 bak c ak
ak − < + ≤ ak ,
2 2 2
and we have
1
ak − < ak+1 ≤ ak .
2
ak+1 ≤ ak ≤ a0 ,
and
1 k 1 k+1
ak+1 > ak − > a0 − − = a0 − .
2 2 2 2
Hence,
k+1
a0 − < ak+1 ≤ a0 .
2
88
Conclusion
n
a0 − < an ≤ a0
2
for all n ∈ N.
89
Problem 40
Topic: Sequence, Floor Function, Inequality
Problem: Let a1 , b1 be arbitrary real numbers such that a1 > b1 . Let
ban−1 c 1
an = +
3 2
and
bn−1 1
bn = +
3 6
for n ≥ 2. Prove that an > bn for all n ∈ N.
bxc = ` ⇔ ` ≤ x < ` + 1.
the property
bx + ac = bxc + a
for any a ∈ Z.
Solution
Base Cases
We need to prove that it is true for n = 1. Since we are given that a1 > b1 , it is
true for n = 1.
90
Induction Step
Assume
ak > bk (40.1)
for some k ≥ 1. To prove the induction step, we need to prove ak+1 > bk+1 . By
the recursive formula of an ,
bak c 1
ak+1 = + .
3 2
ak < bak c + 1 ⇔ bak c > ak − 1.
So,
ak − 1 1 ak 1
ak+1 > + = + .
3 2 3 6
Using assumption (40.1), since ak > bk ,
bk 1
ak+1 > + .
3 6
By the recursive formula of bn ,
bk 1
+ = bk+1 .
3 6
Hence, ak+1 > bk+1 . Thus, we proved that it is true for n = k + 1 if it is true for
n = k.
Conclusion
an > bn
for all n ∈ N.
91
Problem 41
Problem: Prove
Hn Hn(2) + 2 ≥ Hn + Hn(2) + Hn(3)
(m)
for all n ∈ N where Hn denotes the n-th Harmonic number and Hn denotes
the n-th generalized Harmonic number of order m.

n
X 1
Hn = .
j=1
j
Definition - Generalized Harmonic Number:

n
X 1
Hn(m) = m
.
j=1
j
Solution
Base Cases
(2) (2) (3)
H1 H1 + 2 = 1 · 1 + 2 = 3 ≥ 3 = 1 + 1 + 1 = H1 + H1 + H1 ,
93
Induction Step
Assume
(2) (2) (3)
Hk Hk + 2 ≥ Hk + Hk + Hk (41.1)

(2) (2) (3)
Hk+1 Hk+1 + 2 ≥ Hk+1 + Hk+1 + Hk+1 .
Note that
k+1 k
X 1 X1 1 1
Hk+1 = = + = Hk + ,
j=1
j j=1
j k+1 k+1
k+1 k
(2)
X 1 X 1 1 (2) 1
Hk+1 = 2
= 2
+ 2
= Hk + ,
j=1
j j=1
j (k + 1) (k + 1)2
and
k+1 k
(3)
X 1 X 1 1 (3) 1
Hk+1 = 3
= 3
+ 3
= Hk + .
j=1
j j=1
j (k + 1) (k + 1)3

(2) 1 (2) 1
Hk+1 Hk+1 +2= Hk + Hk + +2
k+1 (k + 1)2
(2)
(2) Hk Hk 1
= Hk Hk + + + +2
k + 1 (k + 1)2 (k + 1)3
(2)
(2) (3) Hk Hk 1
≥ Hk + Hk + Hk + + + +
k + 1 (k + 1)2 (k + 1)3
(2)
Hk (2) Hk (3)
= Hk + + Hk + + Hk+1 .
k+1 (k + 1)2
For k ≥ 1,
1 1
Hk = 1 + + · · · + ≥ 1,
2 k
and
(2) 1 1
Hk =1+ + · · · + 2 ≥ 1.
22 k
So,
(2) 1 (2) 1 (3)

Hk+1 Hk+1 + 2 ≥ Hk + + Hk + + Hk+1
k+1 (k + 1)2
(2) (3)
= Hk+1 + Hk+1 + Hk+1 .
94
Conclusion
Hn Hn(2) + 2 ≥ Hn + Hn(2) + Hn(3)
for all n ∈ N.
95
Problem 42
Problem: Prove
j
n X
X i+j
Hn Hn(2) <
j=1 i=1
i2 j 2
(m)
for all n ∈ N where Hn denotes the n-th Harmonic number and Hn denotes
the n-th generalized Harmonic number of order m.

n
X 1
Hn = .
j=1
j
Definition - Generalized Harmonic Number:

n
X 1
Hn(m) = m
.
j=1
j
Solution
Base Cases
We need to prove that it is true for n = 1. We have
(2)
H1 H1 =1·1=1
96
and
j
1 X 1
X i+j X i+1 1+1
= = = 2.
j=1 i=1
i2 j 2 i=1
i2 12 12 12
So,
j
1 X
(2)
X i+j
H1 H1 < ,
j=1 i=1
i2 j 2
Induction Step
Assume
j
k X
(2)
X i+j
Hk Hk < (42.1)
j=1 i=1
i2 j 2
k+1 j
(2)
XX i+j
Hk+1 Hk+1 < .
j=1 i=1
i2 j 2
Note that
k+1 j k j k+1
XX i+j X X i + j X i + (k + 1)
= +
j=1 i=1
i2 j 2 j=1 i=1
i2 j 2 i=1
i2 (k + 1)2
j
k X k+1 k+1
X i+j 1 X1 1 X 1
= + +
j=1 i=1
i2 j 2 (k + 1)2 i=1 i k + 1 i=1 i2
j
k X (2)
X i+j Hk+1 H
= + + k+1 .
j=1 i=1
i2 j 2 (k + 1) 2 k+1

k+1 j (2)
XX i+j (2) Hk+1 H
2 2
> Hk Hk + 2
+ k+1
j=1 i=1
i j (k + 1) k+1

(2) 1 1 1 (2) 1
= Hk Hk + Hk + + Hk +
(k + 1)2 k+1 k+1 (k + 1)2
(2)
(2) Hk H 2
= Hk Hk + 2
+ k +
(k + 1) k + 1 (k + 1)3
(2)
(2) Hk H 1
> Hk Hk + + k +
(k + 1)2 k + 1 (k + 1)3

1 (2) 1
= Hk + Hk +
k+1 (k + 1)2
(2)
= Hk+1 Hk+1 .
97
Conclusion
j
n X
X i+j
Hn Hn(2) <
j=1 i=1
i2 j 2
for all n ∈ N.
98
Problem 43
Problem: Prove
n
H2n ≥ 1 +
2
for all n ∈ N where Hn denotes the n-th Harmonic number.

n
X 1
Hn = .
j=1
j
Solution
Base Cases
1 1
H21 = 1 + ≥1+ ,
2 2
Induction Step
Assume
k
H2k ≥ 1 + (43.1)
2
k+1
H2k+1 ≥ 1 + .
2
99
Note that
k+1 k k
2X 2X+2
1 1
H2k+1 = =
j=1
j j=1
j
1 1 1 1 1 1
= + + ··· + k + k + + ··· + k
1 2 2 2 + 1 2k + 2 2 + 2k
1 1 1
= H2k + k + + ··· + k .
2 + 1 2k + 2 2 + 2k
k 1 1 1
H2k+1 ≥ 1 + + k + k + ··· + k .
2 2 +1 2 +2 2 + 2k
Since 2k + 1 ≤ 2k + 2 ≤ · · · ≤ 2k + 2k ,
1 1 1
≥ k ≥ ··· ≥ k .
2k + 1 2 +2 2 + 2k
So,
k 1 1 1
H2k+1 ≥ 1 + + + k + ··· + k
2 2k + 2k 2 + 2k 2 + 2k
| {z }
2k terms
k
k 2
=1+ + k
2 2 + 2k
k 1
=1+ +
2 2
k+1
=1+ .
2
Conclusion
n
H2n ≥ 1 +
2
for all n ∈ N.
100
Problem 44
Topic: Series, Trigonometry
Problem: Prove
n n+1
n

X cos 2 sin 2
cos j = 1
.
j=1
sin 2
Solution
Base Cases
1 1+1
1

X cos 2 sin 2
cos j = cos 1 = 1
,
j=1
sin 2
Induction Step
Assume
k k+1
k

X cos 2 sin 2
cos j = 1
(44.1)
j=1
sin 2
k+1 k+2
k+1

X cos 2 sin 2
cos j = 1
.
j=1
sin 2
101
k+1
X k
X
cos j = cos j + cos (k + 1)
j=1 j=1
k+1 k

cos 2 sin 2
= 1
+ cos (k + 1).
sin 2
1

Multiplying both sides by sin 2 ,
k+1
1 X k+1 k 1
sin cos j = cos sin + cos (k + 1) sin .
2 j=1 2 2 2
Using the formula

1
cos (a) sin (b) = [sin (a + b) − sin (a − b)],
2
we have
k+1 k 1 1 1
cos sin = sin k + − sin
2 2 2 2 2
and
1 1 3 1
cos (k + 1) sin = sin k + − sin k + .
2 2 2 2
Hence,

k+1 k 1 1 3 1
cos sin + cos (k + 1) sin = sin k + − sin
2 2 2 2 2 2

k+2 k+1
= cos sin ,
2 2
and we have
k+1
1 X k+2 k+1
sin cos j = cos sin
2 j=1 2 2
k+1
cos k+2 sin k+1

X
2 2 .
cos j = 1
j=1
sin 2
Conclusion
n
cos n+1 sin n2

X
2
cos j =
sin 12

j=1
for all n ∈ N.
102
Problem 45
Topic: Series, Trigonometry
Problem: Prove
n n+1
n

X sin 2 sin 2
sin j = 1
.
j=1
sin 2
Solution
Base Cases
1 1+1
1

X sin 2 sin 2
sin j = sin 1 = 1
,
j=1
sin 2
Induction Step
Assume
k k+1
k

X sin 2 sin 2
sin j = 1
(45.1)
j=1
sin 2
k+1 k+2
k+1

X sin 2 sin 2
sin j = 1
.
j=1
sin 2
103
k+1
X k
X
sin j = sin j + sin (k + 1)
j=1 j=1
k+1 k

sin 2 sin 2
= 1
+ sin (k + 1).
sin 2
1

Multiplying both sides by sin 2 ,
k+1
1 X k+1 k 1
sin sin j = sin sin + sin (k + 1) sin .
2 j=1 2 2 2
Using the formula

1
sin (a) sin (b) = [cos (a − b) − cos (a + b)],
2
we have
k+1 k 1 1 1
sin sin = cos − cos k +
2 2 2 2 2
and
1 1 1 3
sin (k + 1) sin = cos k + − cos k + .
2 2 2 2
Hence,

k+1 k 1 1 1 3
sin sin + sin (k + 1) sin = cos − cos k +
2 2 2 2 2 2

k+2 k+1
= sin sin ,
2 2
and we have
k+1
1 X k+2 k+1
sin sin j = sin sin
2 j=1 2 2
k+1
sin k+2 sin k+1

X
2 2 .
sin j = 1
j=1
sin 2
Conclusion
n
sin n+1 sin n2

X
2
sin j =
sin 12

j=1
for all n ∈ N.
104
Problem 46
Topic: Fibonacci Number, Golden Number
Problem: Prove
ϕn = Fn ϕ + Fn−1
for all n ∈ N where ϕ is the golden number and Fn denotes the n-th Fibonacci
number.
Definition - Golden Number: The golden number ϕ is the positive real

solution of x2 − x − 1 = 0. Its exact value is
√
1+ 5
ϕ= .
2

Solution
Base Cases
F1 ϕ + F0 = ϕ = ϕ1
because F1 = 1 and F0 = 0, so it is true for n = 1.
105
Induction Step
Assume
ϕk = Fk ϕ + Fk−1 (46.1)
ϕk+1 = Fk+1 ϕ + Fk .
Multiplying both sides of (46.1) by ϕ,
ϕk+1 = Fk ϕ2 + Fk−1 ϕ.
From the definition of ϕ, we have
ϕ2 − ϕ − 1 = 0 ⇔ ϕ2 = ϕ + 1.
So,
ϕk+1 = Fk (ϕ + 1) + Fk−1 ϕ
= (Fk−1 + Fk )ϕ + Fk .
Fk−1 + Fk = Fk+1 .
Hence,
ϕk+1 = Fk+1 ϕ + Fk .
Conclusion
ϕn = Fn ϕ + Fn−1
for all n ∈ N.
106
Problem 47
Topic: Fibonacci Number, Golden Number
Problem: Prove Binet’s formula for Fn ,
ϕn − (1 − ϕ)n
Fn = √ ,
5
where Fn denotes the n-th Fibonacci number and ϕ is the golden number.

√
1+ 5
ϕ= .
2

Solution
Base Cases
√
1+ 5
1
ϕ − (1 − ϕ) 1
2ϕ − 1 2· 2 −1
√ = √ = √ = 1 = F1 .
5 5 5
107
When n = 2,

ϕ2 − (1 − ϕ)2 ϕ2 − 1 − 2ϕ + ϕ2 2ϕ − 1
√ = √ = √ = 1 = 1 + 0 = F1 + F0 = F2 .
5 5 5
So, it is true for n = 1 and n = 2.
Induction Step
Assume
ϕm − (1 − ϕ)m
Fm = √ (47.1)
5
ϕk+1 − (1 − ϕ)k+1
Fk+1 = √ .
5
Fk+1 = Fk−1 + Fk .
ϕk−1 − (1 − ϕ)k−1
Fk−1 = √ .
5
ϕk − (1 − ϕ)k
Fk = √ .
5
So,
ϕk−1 − (1 − ϕ)k−1 ϕk − (1 − ϕ)k

Fk+1 = √ + √
5 5
ϕk−1 (1 + ϕ) − (1 − ϕ)k−1 (1 + 1 − ϕ)
= √ .
5
ϕ2 − ϕ − 1 = 0 ⇔ ϕ2 = ϕ + 1.
We can check that 1 − ϕ is also a solution of x2 − x − 1 = 0 since
(1 − ϕ)2 − (1 − ϕ) − 1 = 1 − 2ϕ + ϕ2 − 1 + ϕ − 1
= ϕ2 − ϕ − 1 = 0.
So,
(1 − ϕ)2 = 1 − ϕ + 1.
108
Hence,
ϕk−1 · ϕ2 − (1 − ϕ)k−1 · (1 − ϕ)2

Fk+1 = √
5
ϕk+1 − (1 − ϕ)k+1
= √ .
5
Conclusion
ϕn − (1 − ϕ)n
Fn = √
5
for all n ∈ N.
109
Problem 48
Topic: Lucas Number, Golden Number
Problem: Prove Binet’s formula for Ln ,
Ln = ϕn + (1 − ϕ)n ,
where Ln denotes the n-th Lucas number and ϕ is the golden number.

√
1+ 5
ϕ= .
2
Definition - Lucas Numbers: The Lucas numbers are a sequence of numbers

defined as L0 = 2, L1 = 1, and Ln = Ln−1 + Ln−2 for n ≥ 2.
Solution
Base Cases
ϕ1 + (1 − ϕ)1 = 1 = L1 .
When n = 2,
ϕ2 + (1 − ϕ)2 = ϕ2 + 1 − 2ϕ + ϕ2 = 2ϕ2 − 2ϕ + 1.

110
ϕ2 − ϕ − 1 = 0 ⇔ ϕ2 = ϕ + 1,
so
ϕ2 + (1 − ϕ)2 = 2(ϕ + 1) − 2ϕ + 1 = 3 = 2 + 1 = L0 + L1 = L2 .
Induction Step
Assume
Lm = ϕm + (1 − ϕ)m (48.1)
Lk+1 = ϕk+1 + (1 − ϕ)k+1 .
Using the recursive relation of Ln ,
Lk+1 = Lk−1 + Lk .
Lk−1 = ϕk−1 + (1 − ϕ)k−1 .
Lk = ϕk + (1 − ϕ)k .
So,
Lk+1 = ϕk−1 + (1 − ϕ)k−1 + ϕk + (1 − ϕ)k

= ϕk−1 (1 + ϕ) + (1 − ϕ)k−1 (1 + 1 − ϕ).
ϕ2 − ϕ − 1 = 0 ⇔ ϕ2 = ϕ + 1.
We can check that 1 − ϕ is also a solution of x2 − x − 1 = 0 since
(1 − ϕ)2 − (1 − ϕ) − 1 = 1 − 2ϕ + ϕ2 − 1 + ϕ − 1
= ϕ2 − ϕ − 1 = 0.
So,
(1 − ϕ)2 = 1 − ϕ + 1.
Hence,
Lk+1 = ϕk−1 · ϕ2 + (1 − ϕ)k−1 · (1 − ϕ)2

= ϕk+1 + (1 − ϕ)k+1 .
111
Conclusion
Ln = ϕn + (1 − ϕ)n
for all n ∈ N.
112
Problem 49
Topic: Fibonacci Number, Lucas Number
Problem: Prove
Ln = Fn−1 + Fn+1
where Ln denotes the n-th Lucas number and Fn denotes the n-th Fibonacci
number.
Definition - Lucas Numbers: The Lucas numbers are a sequence of numbers

defined as L0 = 2, L1 = 1, and Ln = Ln−1 + Ln−2 for n ≥ 2.

Solution
Base Cases
F0 + F2 = F0 + F0 + F1 = 0 + 0 + 1 = 1 = L1 .
When n = 2,
F1 + F3 = F1 + F1 + F2 = F1 + F1 + F0 + F1 = 1 + 1 + 0 + 1 = 3
and
L2 = L0 + L1 = 2 + 1 = 3,
so
F1 + F3 = L2 .
113
Induction Step
Assume
Lm = Fm−1 + Fm+1 (49.1)
Lk+1 = Fk + Fk+2 .
Using the recursive relation of Ln ,
Lk+1 = Lk−1 + Lk .
Lk−1 = Fk−2 + Fk .
Lk = Fk−1 + Fk+1 .
So,
Lk+1 = Fk−2 + Fk + Fk−1 + Fk+1

= (Fk−2 + Fk−1 ) + (Fk + Fk+1 ).
Fk−2 + Fk−1 = Fk ,
and
Fk + Fk+1 = Fk+2 .
Hence,
Lk+1 = Fk + Fk+2 .
Conclusion
Ln = Fn−1 + Fn+1
for all n ∈ N.
114
Problem 50
Topic: Sequence, Fibonacci Number
Problem: Let a1 and a2 be arbitrary real numbers, and
an = an−1 + an−2

an = a1 Fn−2 + a2 Fn−1
for n ≥ 2 where Fn denotes the n-th Fibonacci number.

Solution
Base Cases
a2 = a1 F0 + a2 F1
because F0 = 0 and F1 = 1. When n = 3, by the recursive formula of an ,
a3 = a1 + a2 = a1 F1 + a2 F2
because F1 = 1 and F2 = F0 + F1 = 0 + 1 = 1. So, it is true for n = 2 and n = 3.
Induction Step
Assume
am = a1 Fm−2 + a2 Fm−1 (50.1)
115
ak+1 = a1 Fk−1 + a2 Fk .
By the recursive formula of an ,
ak+1 = ak−1 + ak .
ak−1 = a1 Fk−3 + a2 Fk−2 .
ak = a1 Fk−2 + a2 Fk−1 .
So,
ak+1 = a1 Fk−3 + a2 Fk−2 + a1 Fk−2 + a2 Fk−1

= a1 (Fk−3 + Fk−2 ) + a2 (Fk−2 + Fk−1 ).
Fk−3 + Fk−2 = Fk−1 ,
and
Fk−2 + Fk−1 = Fk .
Hence,
ak+1 = a1 Fk−1 + a2 Fk .
Conclusion
an = a1 Fn−2 + a2 Fn−1
for n ≥ 2.
116
Problem 51
Topic: Fibonacci Number
Problem: For `, n ∈ N, prove
F`+n = F`−1 Fn + F` Fn+1

Solution
Base Cases
We need to prove that it is true for n = 1 and n = 2. When n = 1, by the recursive
relation of Fn ,
F`+1 = F`−1 + F` = F`−1 F1 + F` F2
because F1 = 1 and F2 = F0 + F1 = 0 + 1 = 1. When n = 2, by the recursive
relation of Fn ,
F`+2 = F` + F`+1 = F` + F`−1 + F` = F`−1 + 2F` = F`−1 F2 + F` F3
because F2 = 1 and F3 = F1 + F2 = 1 + 1 = 2. So, it is true for n = 1 and n = 2.
Induction Step
Assume
F`+m = F`−1 Fm + F` Fm+1 (51.1)
118
F`+k+1 = F`−1 Fk+1 + F` Fk+2 .
F`+k+1 = F`+k−1 + F`+k .
F`+k−1 = F`−1 Fk−1 + F` Fk .
F`+k = F`−1 Fk + F` Fk+1 .
So,
F`+k+1 = F`−1 Fk−1 + F` Fk + F`−1 Fk + F` Fk+1

= F`−1 (Fk−1 + Fk ) + F` (Fk + Fk+1 ).
Fk−1 + Fk = Fk+1 ,
and
Fk + Fk+1 = Fk+2 .
Hence,
F`+k+1 = F`−1 Fk+1 + F` Fk+2 .
Conclusion
F`+n = F`−1 Fn + F` Fn+1
for all n ∈ N.
119
Problem 52
Topic: Iterated Function
Problem: For a, b ∈ R and a 6= 0, if f (x) = ax + b, then prove

n−1
X
f n (x) = an x + b aj
j=0
for all n ∈ N where f n (x) denotes the n-th iterate of f (x).
Definition - Iterated Function: The n-th iterate of f (x) is the composition

of f (x) with itself n times, i.e.
f n (x) = (f ◦ f ◦ · · · ◦ f )(x).
| {z }
n times
Solution
Base Cases
1−1
X
f 1 (x) = a1 x + b aj = ax + b = f (x),
j=0
120
Induction Step
Assume
k−1
X
f k (x) = ak x + b aj (52.1)
j=0

k
X
f k+1 (x) = ak+1 x + b aj .
j=0

k−1
X
f k+1 (x) = f k ◦ f (x) = ak (ax + b) + b aj

j=0
k−1
X
= ak+1 x + bak + b aj
j=0
k
X
= ak+1 x + b aj .
j=0
Conclusion
n−1
X
f n (x) = an x + b aj
j=0
for all n ∈ N.
121
Problem 53
Topic: Iterated Function, Fibonacci Number
Problem: If
1
f (x) = ,
1+x
then prove
Fn−1 x + Fn
f n (x) =
Fn x + Fn+1
for all n ∈ N where f n (x) denotes the n-th iterate of f (x) and Fn denotes the
n-th Fibonacci number.

f n (x) = (f ◦ f ◦ · · · ◦ f )(x).
| {z }
n times

Solution
Base Cases
F0 x + F1 0·x+1 1
f 1 (x) = = = = f (x)
F1 x + F2 1·x+1 1+x
122
because F0 = 0, F1 = 1, and F2 = F0 + F1 = 0 + 1 = 1, so it is true for n = 1.
Induction Step
Assume
Fk−1 x + Fk
f k (x) = (53.1)
Fk x + Fk+1
Fk x + Fk+1
f k+1 (x) = .
Fk+1 x + Fk+2

1
Fk−1 · 1+x + Fk
f k+1 (x) = f k ◦ f (x) =

1
Fk · 1+x + Fk+1
1
Fk−1 · 1+x + Fk 1+x
= 1 ·
Fk · 1+x + Fk+1 1+x
Fk−1 + Fk + Fk x
= .
Fk + Fk+1 + Fk+1 x
Fk−1 + Fk = Fk+1 ,
and
Fk + Fk+1 = Fk+2 .
Hence,
Fk x + Fk+1
f k+1 (x) = .
Fk+1 x + Fk+2
Conclusion
Fn−1 x + Fn
f n (x) =
Fn x + Fn+1
for all n ∈ N.
123
Problem 54
Problem: If p
f (x) = x2 + 1,
then prove p
f n (x) = x2 + n

f n (x) = (f ◦ f ◦ · · · ◦ f )(x).
| {z }
n times
Solution
Base Cases
p
f 1 (x) = x2 + 1 = f (x),
Induction Step
Assume p
f k (x) = x2 + k (54.1)
124
p
f k+1 (x) = x2 + k + 1.

r 2
p
k+1 k

f (x) = f ◦ f (x) = x2 + 1 + k
p
= x2 + k + 1.
Conclusion
p
f n (x) = x2 + n
for all n ∈ N.
125
Problem 55
Problem: For a ∈ R and some function g, if
f (x) = g −1 (g(x) + a),
then prove
f n (x) = g −1 (g(x) + na)

f n (x) = (f ◦ f ◦ · · · ◦ f )(x).
| {z }
n times
Solution
Base Cases
f 1 (x) = g −1 (g(x) + 1 · a) = g −1 (g(x) + a) = f (x),
Induction Step
Assume
f k (x) = g −1 (g(x) + ka) (55.1)
126
f k+1 (x) = g −1 (g(x) + (k + 1)a).
f k+1 (x) = f k ◦ f (x)

= g −1 (g(f (x)) + ka).
Since
g(f (x)) = g(g −1 (g(x) + a)) = g(x) + a,
we have
f k+1 (x) = g −1 (g(x) + a + ka)

= g −1 (g(x) + (k + 1)a).
Conclusion
f n (x) = g −1 (g(x) + na)
for all n ∈ N.
127
Problem 56
Problem: If
f (x) = 2x(1 − x),
then prove
1h n
i
f n (x) = 1 − (1 − 2x)2
2
n
for all n ∈ N where f (x) denotes the n-th iterate of f (x).

f n (x) = (f ◦ f ◦ · · · ◦ f )(x).
| {z }
n times
Solution
Base Cases
1h 1
i
f 1 (x) = 1 − (1 − 2x)2
2
1
4x − 4x2

=
2
= 2x − 2x2
= 2x(1 − x) = f (x),
128
Induction Step
Assume
1h k
i
f k (x) =
1 − (1 − 2x)2 (56.1)
2
1h k+1
i
f k+1 (x) = 1 − (1 − 2x)2 .
2
1h k
i
f k+1 (x) = f k ◦ f (x) = 1 − (1 − 2 · 2x(1 − x))2

2
1 2k
= 1 − 1 − 4x + 4x2
2
1h k+1
i
= 1 − (1 − 2x)2 .
2
Conclusion
1h n
i
f n (x) = 1 − (1 − 2x)2
2
for all n ∈ N.
129
Problem 57
Problem: If
f (x) = 2x2 − 1,
then prove

1 p 2n p 2n
f n (x) = x + x2 − 1 + x − x2 − 1
2

f n (x) = (f ◦ f ◦ · · · ◦ f )(x).
| {z }
n times
Solution
Base Cases

1 p 21 p 21
1 2 2
f (x) = x+ x −1 + x− x −1
2
1h 2 p p i
= x + 2x x2 − 1 + (x2 − 1) + x2 − 2x x2 − 1 + (x2 − 1)
2
= 2x2 − 1 = f (x),
130
Induction Step
Assume
1 p 2k p 2k
k 2 2
f (x) = x+ x −1 + x− x −1 (57.1)
2

1 p 2k+1 p 2k+1
k+1 2 2
f (x) = x+ x −1 + x− x −1 .
2
f k+1 (x)
= f k ◦ f (x)

" 2k 2k #
1
q q
2 2
= 2x2 − 1 + (2x2 − 1) − 1 + 2x2 − 1 − (2x2 − 1) − 1
2

1 2 p 2k p 2k
2 2 2
= 2x − 1 + 2x x − 1 + 2x − 1 − 2x x − 1 .
2
Note that p p 2
2x2 − 1 + 2x x2 − 1 = x + x2 − 1
and p p 2
2x2 − 1 − 2x x2 − 1 = x − x2 − 1 .
Hence,
1 p 2k+1 p 2k+1
k+1 2 2
f (x) = x+ x −1 + x− x −1 .
2
Conclusion

1 p 2n p 2n
n 2 2
f (x) = x+ x −1 + x− x −1
2
for all n ∈ N.
131
Problem 58
Topic: Iterated Function, Derivative
Problem: If f (x) = ex , then prove

n
d n Y
f (x) = f j (x)
dx j=1

f n (x) = (f ◦ f ◦ · · · ◦ f )(x).
| {z }
n times
Solution
Base Cases
1
d 1 d d x Y
f (x) = f (x) = e = ex = f 1 (x) = f j (x),
dx dx dx j=1
132
Induction Step
Assume
k
d k Y
f (x) = f j (x) (58.1)
dx j=1

k+1
d k+1 Y
f (x) = f j (x).
dx j=1
By applying the chain rule of derivative and using assumption (58.1),
d k+1 d
f k ◦ f (x)

f (x) =
dx dx
d k x
= f (e )
dx
k
Y d x
= f j (ex ) × e
j=1
dx
k
Y
= f j (ex ) × ex .
j=1

Since f j (ex ) = f j ◦ f (x) = f j+1 (x) and ex = f 1 (x),
k
d k+1 Y
f (x) = f j+1 (x) × f 1 (x)
dx j=1
k+1
Y
= f j (x) × f 1 (x)
j=2
k+1
Y
= f j (x).
j=1
Conclusion
n
d n Y
f (x) = f j (x)
dx j=1
for all n ∈ N.
133
Problem 59
Topic: Iterated Function, Derivative
Problem: If f (x) = ln(x), then prove

 −1
n−1
d n 1 Y j 
f (x) = f (x)
dx x j=1
for n ≥ 2 where f n (x) denotes the n-th iterate of f (x).

f n (x) = (f ◦ f ◦ · · · ◦ f )(x).
| {z }
n times
Solution
Base Cases
We need to prove that it is true for n = 2. Applying the chain rule of derivative,
 −1
2−1
d 2 d 1 1 1 1 1 Y j 
f (x) = ln(ln(x)) = × = 1 × = f (x) ,
dx dx ln(x) x f (x) x x j=1
134
Induction Step
Assume  −1
k−1
d k 1 Y
f (x) =  f j (x) (59.1)
dx x j=1

 −1
k
d k+1 1 Y
f (x) =  f j (x) .
dx x j=1
By applying the chain rule of derivative and using assumption (59.1),

d k+1 d
f k ◦ f (x)

f (x) =
dx dx
d k
= f (ln(x))
dx
 −1
k−1
1  Y d
= f j (ln(x)) × ln(x)
ln(x) j=1 dx
 −1
k−1
1 Y j 1
= f (ln(x)) × .
ln(x) j=1 x

Since f j (ln(x)) = f j ◦ f (x) = f j+1 (x) and ln(x) = f 1 (x),
 −1
k−1
d k+1 1  Y 1
f (x) = 1 f j+1 (x) ×
dx f (x) j=1 x
 −1
k
1 Y j  1
= 1 f (x) ×
f (x) j=2 x
 −1
k
1 Y
= f j (x) .
x j=1
Conclusion
 −1
n−1
d n 1 Y
f (x) =  f j (x)
dx x j=1
for n ≥ 2.
135
Problem 60
Problem: If
x2
f (x) = ,
2x − 1
then prove
 −1
n−1
Yh i
n j j
f n (x) = x2  x2 + (x − 1)2 
j=0
n
for all n ∈ N where f (x) denotes the n-th iterate of f (x).

f n (x) = (f ◦ f ◦ · · · ◦ f )(x).
| {z }
n times
Solution
Base Cases
 −1
1−1 h i
1 Y j j
f 1 (x) = x2  x2 + (x − 1)2 
j=0
h 0 0
i−1 x2
= x2 x2 + (x − 1)2 = = f (x),
2x − 1
136
Induction Step
Assume  −1
k−1
Yh i
k j j
f k (x) = x2  x2 + (x − 1)2  (60.1)
j=0

 −1
k h i
k+1 Y j j
f k+1 (x) = x2  x2 + (x − 1)2  .
j=0
f k+1 (x)
= f k ◦ f (x)

2j # −1
 
2k k−1
" 2j
x2 x2 x2
Y
=  + −1 
2x − 1 j=0
2x − 1 2x − 1
2j # −1
 
2k −1 2
2k k−1
"
2
2j 2
2x − 1 x Y x x
=  + −1 
2x − 1 2x − 1 j=0
2x − 1 2x − 1
2j # −1
" j
 
k+1 k−1
Y x2 2
x2 2

1 x
= ·  + −1  .
(2x − 1)2k −1 2x − 1 j=0 2x − 1 2x − 1
In problem 11, we proved that

n−1
X an − 1
aj = .
j=0
a−1
Let a = 2 and n = k,
k−1
X
k
2 −1= 2j = 20 + 21 + · · · + 2k−2 + 2k−1 .
j=0
So,
1 1 1 1 1
k −1 = 0 · 1 ··· k−2 ·
(2x − 1)2 (2x − 1) 2 (2x − 1) 2 (2x − 1) 2 (2x − 1)2k−1
 −1
k−1
Y j
=  (2x − 1)2  .
j=0
137
Hence,
f k+1 (x)
2j # −1 k−1
 " j
  −1
k+1 k−1
Y x2 2
x2 2

x Y j
  (2x − 1)2 
=  + −1
2x − 1 j=0 2x − 1 2x − 1 j=0
 −1
2k+1 k−1
Y
x j
2 2
2j
=  x + x2 − 2x + 1 
2x − 1 j=0
 −1
k+1 k−1
x2 Y h j+1 2j+1
i
=  x2 + (x − 1) 
2x − 1 j=0
 −1
2k+1 k h
x Y j 2 j
i
=  x2 + (x − 1)  .
2x − 1 j=1
Since
1 0 −1
h 0 i
= x2 + (x − 1)2 ,
2x − 1
we have  −1
k h i
k+1 Y j j
f k+1 (x) = x2  x2 + (x − 1)2  .
j=0
Conclusion
 −1
n−1
Yh i
n j j
f n (x) = x2  x2 + (x − 1)2 
j=0
for all n ∈ N.
138
Problem 61
Topic: Product
Problem: Prove
n j
Y 1 (n + 1)n
1+ = .
j=1
j n!
n! = n · (n − 1) · (n − 2) · · · 2 · 1.
0! = 1.
Solution
Base Cases
1 j 1
(1 + 1)1

Y 1 1
1+ = 1+ =2= ,
j=1
j 1 1!
Induction Step
Assume
k j
Y 1 (k + 1)k
1+ = (61.1)
j=1
j k!
140
k+1 j
Y 1 (k + 2)k+1
1+ = .
j=1
j (k + 1)!

k+1
Y j k+1 Y k j
1 1 1
1+ = 1+ × 1+
j=1
j k+1 j=1
j
k+1
(k + 1)k

k+2
= ×
k+1 k!
(k + 2)k+1
=
(k + 1) · k!
(k + 2)k+1
= .
(k + 1)!
Conclusion
n j
Y 1 (n + 1)n
1+ =
j=1
j n!
for all n ∈ N.
141
Problem 62
Topic: Product, Trigonometry
Problem: Prove
n x
Y sin x
cos = .
j=1
2j 2n sin 2xn
Solution
Base Cases
We need to prove that it is true for n = 1. Using the identity sin(2θ) = 2 sin (θ) cos(θ),
x x
sin(x) = 2 sin cos ,
2 2
so
1 x x
Y sin x
cos j = cos = x .

j=1
2 2 2 sin 2
So, it is true for n = 1.
Induction Step
Assume
k x
Y sin x
cos = (62.1)
sin 2xk

j=1
2j 2k

k+1 x
Y sin x
cos = x
.
j=1
2j 2k+1 sin 2k+1
142
k+1
Y x x Y k x
cos = cos × cos
j=1
2j 2k+1 j=1
2j
x sin x
= cos k+1 × k .
2 2 sin 2xk
Using the identity sin(2θ) = 2 sin (θ) cos(θ),

x

x x x x sin 2k
sin k
= 2 sin k+1 cos k+1 ⇔ cos k+1 = x ,
2 2 2 2 2 sin 2k+1
so
k+1 x

Y x sin 2k sin x
cos = x ×
2k sin 2xk

j=1
2j 2 sin 2k+1
sin x
= x
.
2k+1 sin 2k+1
Conclusion
n x
Y sin x
cos =
2n sin 2xn

j=1
2j
for all n ∈ N.
143
Problem 63
Topic: Product, Series
Problem: Prove n
n−1
Y 2X −1
2j
1+x = xj .
j=0 j=0
Solution
Base Cases
1
1−1
Y 2X −1
j 0
1 + x2 = 1 + x2 = 1 + x = x0 + x1 = xj ,
j=0 j=0
Induction Step
Assume
k
k−1
Y 2X −1
j
1 + x2 = xj (63.1)
j=0 j=0
k 2k+1
X−1
2j
Y
1+x = xj .
j=0 j=0
144
k k−1
Y
Y j j k
1 + x2 = 1 + x2 × 1 + x2
j=0 j=0
 k

2X −1
k
= xj  × 1 + x2
j=0
k k
2X −1 2X −1
k
= xj + xj+2 .
j=0 j=0
Changing the index j + 2k → j,

k
2X −1 2k −1+2k
2k+1
X−1
j+2k
X
j
x = x = xj .
j=0 j=2k j=2k
Hence,
k
k 2X −1 2k+1
X−1 2k+1
X−1
2j
Y
j j
1+x = x + x = xj .
j=0 j=0 j=2k j=0
Conclusion
n
n−1
Y 2X −1
2j
1+x = xj
j=0 j=0
for all n ∈ N.
145
Problem 64
Topic: Product, Series
Problem: Prove n
n−1
Y 3X −1
3j 2·3j
1+x +x = xj .
j=0 j=0
Solution
Base Cases
1
1−1
Y 3X −1
j j 0 0
1 + x3 + x2·3 = 1 + x3 + x2·3 = 1 + x + x2 = x0 + x1 + x2 = xj ,
j=0 j=0
Induction Step
Assume
k
k−1
Y 3X −1
j j
1 + x3 + x2·3 = xj (64.1)
j=0 j=0
k 3k+1
X−1
3j 2·3j
Y
1+x +x = xj .
j=0 j=0
146
k k−1
Y
Y j j j j k k
1 + x3 + x2·3 = 1 + x3 + x2·3 × 1 + x3 + x2·3
j=0 j=0
 k

3X −1
k k
= xj  × 1 + x3 + x2·3
j=0
k k k
3X −1 3X −1 3X −1
k k
= xj + xj+3 + xj+2·3 .
j=0 j=0 j=0
Changing the index j + 3k → j,

k
3X −1 3k −1+3k k
X−1
2·3
j+3k
X
j
x = x = xj .
j=0 j=3k j=3k
Changing the index j + 2 · 3k → j,

k
3X −1 3k −1+2·3k
3k+1
X−1
j+2·3k
X
j
x = x = xj .
j=0 j=2·3k j=2·3k
Hence,
k k
k 3X −1 X−1
2·3 3k+1
X−1 3k+1
X−1
3j 2·3j
Y
j j j
1+x +x = x + x + x = xj .
j=0 j=0 j=3k j=2·3k j=0
Conclusion
n
n−1
Y 3X −1
3j 2·3j
1+x +x = xj
j=0 j=0
for all n ∈ N.
147
Problem 65
Topic: Supergolden Number, Narayana Sequence
Problem: Prove that
ψ n = Nn−2 ψ 2 + Nn−4 ψ + Nn−3
for n ≥ 4 where ψ is the supergolden number and Nn denotes the n-th number
in Narayana sequence.
Definition - Supergolden Number: The supergolden number ψ is the real

solution of x3 − x2 − 1 = 0. Its exact value is
√ √
 s s 
1 3 29 + 3 93 3 29 − 3 93 
ψ= 1+ + .
3 2 2
Definition - Narayana Sequence: The Narayana sequence {Nn } is a se-

quence of numbers defined by N0 = N1 = N2 = 1 and Nn = Nn−1 + Nn−3 for
n ≥ 3.
Solution
Base Cases
We need to prove that it is true for n = 4. From the definition of supergolden
number,
ψ 3 − ψ 2 − 1 = 0 ⇔ ψ 3 = ψ 2 + 1.
148
Multiplying both sides by ψ,
ψ 4 = ψ 3 + ψ = ψ 2 + ψ + 1 = N2 ψ 2 + N0 ψ + N1
because N0 = N1 = N2 = 1. So, it is true for n = 4.
Induction Step
Assume
ψ k = Nk−2 ψ 2 + Nk−4 ψ + Nk−3 (65.1)
ψ k+1 = Nk−1 ψ 2 + Nk−3 ψ + Nk−2 .
Multiplying both sides of (65.1) by ψ,
ψ k+1 = Nk−2 ψ 3 + Nk−4 ψ 2 + Nk−3 ψ.
From the definition of supergolden number,
ψ 3 − ψ 2 − 1 = 0 ⇔ ψ 3 = ψ 2 + 1.
So,
ψ k+1 = Nk−2 ψ 2 + 1 + Nk−4 ψ 2 + Nk−3 ψ

= (Nk−2 + Nk−4 ) ψ 2 + Nk−3 ψ + Nk−2 .
Using the recursive relation of Nn ,
Nk−2 + Nk−4 = Nk−1 .
Hence,
ψ k+1 = Nk−1 ψ 2 + Nk−3 ψ + Nk−2 .
Conclusion
ψ n = Nn−2 ψ 2 + Nn−4 ψ + Nn−3
for n ≥ 4.
149
Problem 66
Topic: Inequality
Problem: Prove
n
X n
X
xj ≤ |xj |
j=1 j=1
for all n ∈ N for real numbers xj , which is an extension of the triangle inequal-
ity.
Solution
Base Cases
1
X 1
X
xj = |x1 | ≤ |x1 | = |xj |,
j=1 j=1
so it is true for n = 1. Now using the fact that a number is less than or equal to
its absolute value,
x1 x2 ≤ |x1 x2 |
x1 x2 ≤ |x1 ||x2 |.
Multiplying both sides by 2,
2x1 x2 ≤ 2|x1 ||x2 |.
Adding x21 + x22 to both sides,
x21 + 2x1 x2 + x22 ≤ x21 + 2|x1 ||x2 | + x22 .
150
Since x21 = |x1 |2 and x22 = |x2 |2 ,
x21 + 2x1 x2 + x22 ≤ |x1 |2 + 2|x1 ||x2 | + |x2 |2

2
(x1 + x2 )2 ≤ (|x1 | + |x2 |) .
Taking square root of both sides,
|x1 + x2 | ≤ |x1 | + |x2 |.
Induction Step
Assume
m
X m
X
xj ≤ |xj | (66.1)
j=1 j=1
k+1
X k+1
X
xj ≤ |xj |.
j=1 j=1
|x1 + x2 | ≤ |x1 | + |x2 |.

k
X
Let x1 = xj and x2 = xk+1 ,
j=1
k
X k
X
xj + xk+1 ≤ xj + |xk+1 |
j=1 j=1
k+1
X k
X
xj ≤ xj + |xk+1 |.
j=1 j=1
k
X k
X
xj ≤ |xj |.
j=1 j=1
Hence,
k+1
X k
X k+1
X
xj ≤ |xj | + |xk+1 | = |xj |.
j=1 j=1 j=1
151
Conclusion
n
X n
X
xj ≤ |xj |
j=1 j=1
for all n ∈ N.
152
Problem 67
Topic: Inequality
Problem: Prove Cauchy-Schwarz inequality,
(a1 b1 + a2 b2 + · · · + an bn )2 ≤ a21 + a22 + · · · + a2n b21 + b22 + · · · + b2n ,

for all n ∈ N and a1 , · · · , an , b1 , · · · , bn ≥ 0.
Solution
Base Cases
(a1 b1 )2 = a21 b21 ≤ a21 b21 ,

so it is true for n = 1. When n = 2,
a21 + a22 b21 + b22 − (a1 b1 + a2 b2 )2 = a21 b22 + a22 b21 − 2a1 b1 a2 b2

= (a1 b2 − a2 b1 )2 ≥ 0,
so it is true that
(a1 b1 + a2 b2 )2 ≤ a21 + a22 b21 + b22 .

Induction Step
Assume
(a1 b1 + a2 b2 + · · · + am bm )2 ≤ a21 + a22 + · · · + a2m b21 + b22 + · · · + b2m

q q
⇔a1 b1 + a2 b2 + · · · + am bm ≤ a21 + a22 + · · · + a2m b21 + b22 + · · · + b2m (67.1)
153
(a1 b1 + a2 b2 + · · · + ak+1 bk+1 )2 ≤ a21 + a22 + · · · + a2k+1 b21 + b22 + · · · + b2k+1 .

a1 b1 + a2 b2 + · · · + ak bk + ak+1 bk+1
q q
≤ a21 + a22 + · · · + a2k b21 + b22 + · · · + b2k + ak+1 bk+1 . (67.2)

q q
a1 b1 + a2 b2 ≤ a21 + a22 b21 + b22 .
p p
Let a1 = a21 + a22 + · · · + a2k , b1 = b21 + b22 + · · · + b2k , a2 = ak+1 , and b2 = bk+1 ,
q q
a21 + a22 + · · · + a2k b21 + b22 + · · · + b2k + ak+1 bk+1
q q
≤ a21 + a22 + · · · + a2k + a2k+1 b21 + b22 + · · · + b2k + b2k+1 . (67.3)
Hence, from (67.2) and (67.3),

q q
a1 b1 + a2 b2 + · · · + ak+1 bk+1 ≤ a21 + a22 + · · · + a2k+1 b21 + b22 + · · · + b2k+1
(a1 b1 + a2 b2 + · · · + ak+1 bk+1 )2 ≤ a21 + a22 + · · · + a2k+1 b21 + b22 + · · · + b2k+1 .

Conclusion
(a1 b1 + a2 b2 + · · · + an bn )2 ≤ a21 + a22 + · · · + a2n b21 + b22 + · · · + b2n

for all n ∈ N.
154
Problem 68
Topic: Inequality
Problem: Prove Aczél’s inequality, which states that if
x21 + x22 + · · · + x2n < x20
and
y12 + y22 + · · · + yn2 < y02 ,
then
x20 − x21 − x22 − · · · − x2n y02 − y12 − y22 − · · · − yn2

2
≤ (x0 y0 − x1 y1 − x2 y2 − · · · − xn yn ) .
Solution
Base Cases
We need to prove that it is true for n = 1, i.e. if x21 < x20 and y12 < y02 , then
2
x20 − x21 y02 − y12 ≤ (x0 y0 − x1 y1 ) .

Since
2
(x0 y0 − x1 y1 ) − x20 − x21 y02 − y12 = −2x0 y0 x1 y1 + x21 y02 + x20 y12

= (x1 y0 − x0 y1 )2 ≥ 0,
it is true that
2
x20 − x21 y02 − y12 ≤ (x0 y0 − x1 y1 ) .

155
Induction Step
Assume if x21 + x22 + · · · + x2m < x20 and y12 + y22 + · · · + ym
2
< y02 , then
x20 − x21 − x22 − · · · − x2m y02 − y12 − y22 − · · · − ym

2

2
≤ (x0 y0 − x1 y1 − x2 y2 − · · · − xm ym ) (68.1)
that if x21 + x22 + · · · + x2k+1 < x20 and y12 + y22 + · · · + yk+1
2
< y02 , then
x20 − x21 − x22 − · · · − x2k+1 y02 − y12 − y22 − · · · − yk+1

2

2
≤ (x0 y0 − x1 y1 − x2 y2 − · · · − xk+1 yk+1 ) .
First, note that

q 2
x21 + x22 + · · · + x2k+1 < x20 ⇒ x21 + x22 + · · · + x2k < x20 − x2k+1 (68.2)
and
q 2
y12 + y22 + · · · + yk+1
2
< y02 ⇒ y12 + y22 + · · · + yk2 < y02 − yk+1
2 . (68.3)
By assumption (68.1) when m = k, if x21 +x22 +· · ·+x2k < x20 and y12 +y22 +· · ·+yk2 <
y02 , then
x20 − x21 − x22 − · · · − x2k y02 − y12 − y22 − · · · − yk2

2
≤ (x0 y0 − x1 y1 − x2 y2 − · · · − xk yk ) .
q q
Let x0 = x20 − x2k+1 and y0 = y02 − yk+1 2 , if
q 2
x21 + x22 + · · · + x2k < x20 − x2k+1
and q 2
y12 + y22 + · · · + yk2 < y02 − yk+1
2 ,
then
x20 − x2k+1 − x21 − x22 − · · · − x2k y02 − yk+1

2
− y12 − y22 − · · · − yk2

q q 2
≤ x20 − x2k+1 y02 − yk+1
2 − x1 y1 − x2 y2 − · · · − xk yk . (68.4)
By assumption (68.1) when m = 1, if x21 < x20 and y12 < y02 , then
2
x20 − x21 y02 − y12 ≤ (x0 y0 − x1 y1 ) .

Let x1 = xk+1 and y1 = yk+1 , if x2k+1 < x20 and yk+1

2
< y02 , then
2
x20 − x2k+1 y02 − yk+1
2

≤ (x0 y0 − xk+1 yk+1 ) ,
156
which implies q q
x20 − x2k+1 y02 − yk+1
2 ≤ x0 y0 − xk+1 yk+1 .
So,
q q 2
x20 − x2k+1 y02 − yk+1
2 − x1 y1 − x2 y2 − · · · − xk yk
2
≤ (x0 y0 − xk+1 yk+1 − x1 y1 − x2 y2 − · · · − xk yk ) . (68.5)
Hence, from (68.2), (68.3), (68.4), and (68.5), if x21 + x22 + · · · + x2k+1 < x20 and
y12 + y22 + · · · + yk+1
2
< y02 , then
x20 − x21 − x22 − · · · − x2k+1 y02 − y12 − y22 − · · · − yk+1

2

2
≤ (x0 y0 − x1 y1 − x2 y2 − · · · − xk+1 yk+1 ) .
Conclusion
if it is true for n = m for all 1 ≤ m ≤ k. Therefore, by strong induction, if
x21 + x22 + · · · + x2n < x20 and y12 + y22 + · · · + yn2 < y02 , then
x20 − x21 − x22 − · · · − x2n y02 − y12 − y22 − · · · − yn2

2
≤ (x0 y0 − x1 y1 − x2 y2 − · · · − xn yn )
for all n ∈ N.
157
Problem 69
Topic: Inequality
Problem: Prove
n
X n
Y
aj − aj ≤ n − 1
j=1 j=1
if 0 ≤ aj ≤ 1 for all 1 ≤ j ≤ n for all n ∈ N.
Solution
Base Cases
1
X 1
Y
aj − aj = a1 − a1 = 0 ≤ 1 − 1,
j=1 j=1
Induction Step
Assume
k
X k
Y
aj − aj ≤ k − 1 (69.1)
j=1 j=1
if 0 ≤ aj ≤ 1 for all 1 ≤ j ≤ k for some k ≥ 1. To prove the induction step, we

need to prove
k+1
X k+1
Y
aj − aj ≤ (k + 1) − 1 = k
j=1 j=1
158
if 0 ≤ aj ≤ 1 for all 1 ≤ j ≤ k + 1. First, if 0 ≤ aj ≤ 1 for all 1 ≤ j ≤ k + 1, then
a1 + a2 + · · · + ak ≤ k and ak+1 ≤ 1, which imply
 
Xk
k − aj  ≥ 0
j=1
and (1 − ak+1 ) ≥ 0. Multiplying them together,

 
Xk
k − aj  (1 − ak+1 ) ≥ 0
j=1
k
X k
X
k− aj − kak+1 + ak+1 aj ≥ 0
j=1 j=1
k
X k
X
k− aj − ak+1 − (k − 1)ak+1 + ak+1 aj ≥ 0
j=1 j=1
   
Xk Xk
k− aj + ak+1  + ak+1  aj − (k − 1) ≥ 0
j=1 j=1
 
k+1
X Xk
k− aj + ak+1  aj − (k − 1) ≥ 0.
j=1 j=1
So,  
k+1
X Xk
aj ≤ k + ak+1  aj − (k − 1) .
j=1 j=1
k
X k
Y
aj − (k − 1) ≤ aj ,
j=1 j=1
so
 
k
X k
Y
k + ak+1  aj − (k − 1) ≤ k + ak+1 · aj
j=1 j=1
k+1
Y
=k+ aj .
j=1
Hence,
k+1
X k+1
Y
aj ≤ k + aj
j=1 j=1
k+1
X k+1
Y
aj − aj ≤ k.
j=1 j=1
159
Conclusion
n
X n
Y
aj − aj ≤ n − 1
j=1 j=1
if 0 ≤ aj ≤ 1 for all 1 ≤ j ≤ n for all n ∈ N.
160
Problem 70
Topic: Inequality
Problem: For x1,j , x2,j , · · · , xn,j ≥ 0 for all 1 ≤ j ≤ `, prove

 2     
X` X` X` `
X
 x1,j x2,j · · · xn,j  ≤  x21,j   x22,j  · · ·  x2n,j 
j=1 j=1 j=1 j=1
for n ≥ 2.
Solution
Base Cases
We need to prove that it is true for n = 2. In problem 67, we proved that
 2   
`
X X` `
X
 a j bj  ≤  a2j   b2j  .
j=1 j=1 j=1
Let aj → x1,j and bj → x2,j ,
 2   
X` `
X X`
 x1,j x2,j  ≤  x21,j   x22,j  .
j=1 j=1 j=1
161
Induction Step
Assume
 2     
`
X X` X` X`
 x1,j x2,j · · · xk,j  ≤  x21,j   x22,j  · · ·  x2k,j  (70.1)
j=1 j=1 j=1 j=1

 2     
X ` X` X` `
X
 x1,j x2,j · · · xk+1,j  ≤  x21,j   x22,j  · · ·  x2k+1,j  .
j=1 j=1 j=1 j=1
Using assumption (70.1), let xk,j → xk,j xk+1,j ,

 2     
X` X` X` X`
 x1,j x2,j · · · xk,j xk+1,j  ≤  x21,j   x22,j  · · ·  x2k,j x2k+1,j  .
j=1 j=1 j=1 j=1
By expanding the product of two sums, we have

  
X ` X`
 x2k,j   x2k+1,j 
j=1 j=1
`
X X X
= x2k,j x2k+1,j + x2k,i x2k+1,j + x2k,i x2k+1,j
j=1 1≤i<j≤` 1≤j<i≤`
`
X
≥ x2k,j x2k+1,j .
j=1
Hence,
 2
X`
 x1,j x2,j · · · xk,j xk+1,j 
j=1
     
X` X` `
X X`
≤ x21,j   x22,j  · · ·  x2k,j   x2k+1,j  .
j=1 j=1 j=1 j=1
Conclusion
 2     
X ` X` X` X`
 x1,j x2,j · · · xn,j  ≤  x21,j   x22,j  · · ·  x2n,j 
j=1 j=1 j=1 j=1
for n ≥ 2.
162
Problem 71
Topic: Inequality
Problem: For aj , bj > 0 for all 1 ≤ j ≤ n, prove Milne’s inequality

     
n n n n
X X a b
j j 
X X
 (aj + bj )  ≤ aj   bj 
j=1 j=1
a j + bj j=1 j=1
for all n ∈ N.
Solution
Base Cases
We need to prove that it is true for n = 1 and n = 2. When n = 1, we can check
that
     
1 1 1 1
X
 (aj + bj ) 
X a j b j  = a1 b1 ≤ a1 b1 = 
X X
aj   bj  ,
j=1 j=1
a j + b j j=1 j=1
so it is true for n = 1. For n = 2, since

     
2 2 2 2
X X X X aj bj 
 aj   bj  −  (aj + bj ) 
j=1 j=1 j=1 j=1
aj + bj
(a1 + b1 )a2 b2 (a2 + b2 )a1 b1

=a1 b2 + a2 b1 − −
a2 + b2 a1 + b1
2
(a1 b2 − a2 b1 )
= ≥ 0,
(a1 + b1 )(a2 + b2 )
164
it is true that
     
2 2 2 2
X X aj bj  X X
 (aj + bj )  ≤ aj   bj  .
j=1 j=1
aj + bj j=1 j=1
Induction Step
Assume      
m m m m
X
 (aj + bj ) 
X a j bj ≤
X X
aj   bj  (71.1)
j=1 j=1
a j + b j j=1 j=1
     
k+1
X k+1
X aj bj k+1
X k+1
X
 (aj + bj )  ≤ aj   bj  .
j=1
a + bj
j=1 j j=1 j=1
First, note that

  
k+1
X k+1
X a j bj
 (aj + bj )  
j=1 j=1
aj + bj
  
k k
X X a j b j ak+1 bk+1
=  (aj + bj ) + (ak+1 + bk+1 )  + 
j=1 j=1
a j + b j ak+1 + bk+1
  
k k k
X X aj bj  ak+1 bk+1 X
=  (aj + bj )  + ak+1 bk+1 + (aj + bj )
j=1
a + bj
j=1 j
ak+1 + bk+1 j=1
k
X aj bj
+ (ak+1 + bk+1 )
a + bj
j=1 j
and
  
k+1
X k+1
X
 aj   bj 
j=1 j=1
  
Xk k
X
= aj + ak+1   bj + bk+1 
j=1 j=1
  
Xk Xk k
X k
X
=  aj   bj + ak+1 bk+1 + bk+1
 aj + ak+1 bj .
j=1 j=1 j=1 j=1

     
k k k k
X X aj bj  X X
 (aj + bj )  ≤ aj   bj  . (71.2)
j=1 j=1
aj + bj j=1 j=1
165

a1 b1 a2 b2
[(a1 + b1 ) + (a2 + b2 )] + ≤ (a1 + a2 )(b1 + b2 )
a1 + b1 a 2 + b2
(a1 + b1 )a2 b2 (a2 + b2 )a1 b1
a1 b1 + a2 b2 + + ≤ a 1 b1 + a 2 b2 + a 1 b2 + a 2 b1
a2 + b2 a1 + b1
(a1 + b1 )a2 b2 (a2 + b2 )a1 b1
+ ≤ a 1 b2 + a 2 b1 .
a2 + b2 a1 + b1
Let a1 = aj , b1 = bj , a2 = ak+1 , b2 = bk+1 , and then taking the sum from j = 1 to
j = k,
k X k
X (aj + bj )ak+1 bk+1 (ak+1 + bk+1 )aj bj
+ ≤ (aj bk+1 + ak+1 bj )
j=1
ak+1 + bk+1 aj + bj j=1
k k k k
ak+1 bk+1 X X aj bj X X
(aj + bj ) + (ak+1 + bk+1 ) ≤ bk+1 aj + ak+1 bj .
ak+1 + bk+1 j=1 a + bj
j=1 j j=1 j=1
(71.3)
Adding (71.2) and (71.3) and then adding ak+1 bk+1 to both sides, we have the
inequality
     
k+1
X k+1
X aj bj k+1
X k+1
X
 (aj + bj )  ≤ aj   bj  .
j=1 j=1
aj + b j j=1 j=1
Conclusion
     
n n n n
X X a b
j j 
X X
 (aj + bj )  ≤ aj   bj 
j=1 j=1
a j + b j j=1 j=1
for all n ∈ N.
166
Problem 72
Topic: Inequality
Problem: For aj , bj > 0 for all 1 ≤ j ≤ n, prove Milne’s inequality

 2   
n n n 2 2
X X X aj b j
a2j + b2j  

 aj bj  ≤  2 + b2

j=1 j=1 j=1
aj j
for all n ∈ N.
Solution
Base Cases
We need to prove that it is true for n = 1 and n = 2. When n = 1, we can check
that
 2   
1 1 1 2 2
X X X aj bj
aj bj  = a21 b21 ≤ a21 b21 =  a2j + b2j  

 ,
a2 + b2
j=1 j=1 j=1 j j
so it is true for n = 1. For n = 2, since

    2
2 2 2 2 2
X X a j bj
X
a2j + b2j  

 − aj bj 
a 2 + b2
j=1 j=1 j j j=1
2 2
2 2 2 2
2 2
a +b a b a +b a b
= 1 2 1 2 2 2 + 2 2 2 2 1 1 − 2a1 b1 a2 b2
a 2 + b2 a1 + b1
2 2
a1 + b21 a2 b2 − a22 + b22 a1 b1
= ≥ 0,
(a21 + b21 ) (a22 + b22 )
167
it is true that
 2   
2 2 2 2 2
X X X a b
j j 
a2j + b2j  

 aj bj  ≤  2 + b2 .
j=1 j=1
a
j=1 j j
Induction Step
Assume  2   
m m m 2 2
X X X a b
j j 
a2j + b2j  

 aj bj  ≤  2 + b2 (72.1)
j=1 j=1 j=1
aj j
 2   
k+1 k+1 k+1
X X X a2j b2j
a2j + bj  
2

 aj bj  ≤  .
j=1 j=1 j=1
a2j + b2j
First, note that

 2  2
k+1
X Xk
 aj bj  =  aj bj + ak+1 bk+1 
j=1 j=1
 2
Xk k
X
= aj bj  + a2k+1 b2k+1 + 2ak+1 bk+1 aj bj
j=1 j=1
and
  
k+1
X k+1
X a2j b2j
a2j + b2j  

 
j=1
a2 + b2j
j=1 j
  
k k
X
2 2
2 2
X a2j b2j a2k+1 b2k+1
= aj + bj + ak+1 + bk+1   + 2 
j=1 j=1 j
a2 + b2j ak+1 + b2k+1
  
k k 2 2 k
X X aj bj a2 b2 X
a2j + b2j    + a2k+1 b2k+1 + k+1 k+1 a2j + b2j

= 2 2 2 2
j=1
a + bj
j=1 j
ak+1 + bk+1 j=1
k
X a2j b2j
+ a2k+1 + b2k+1 .
a2 + b2j
j=1 j

 2   
k k k 2 2
X X X a b
j j 
a2j + b2j  

 aj bj  ≤  2 + b2 . (72.2)
j=1 j=1
a
j=1 j j
168
a21 b21 a22 b22

(a1 b1 + a2 b2 )2 ≤ a21 + b21 + a22 + b22

+
a21 + b21 a22 + b22

a2 + b2 a2 b2 a2 + b2 a2 b2
a21 b21 + a22 b22 + 2a1 b1 a2 b2 ≤ a21 b21 + a22 b22 + 1 2 1 2 2 2 + 2 2 2 2 1 1
a 2 + b2 a1 + b1
2 2
2 2 2 2
2 2
a +b a b a +b a b
2a1 b1 a2 b2 ≤ 1 2 1 2 2 2 + 2 2 2 2 1 1 .
a 2 + b2 a1 + b1
Let a1 = aj , b1 = bj , a2 = ak+1 , b2 = bk+1 , and then taking the sum from j = 1 to

j = k,
k k
" #
X X a2j + b2j a2k+1 b2k+1 a2k+1 + b2k+1 a2j b2j
2aj bj ak+1 bk+1 ≤ +
j=1 j=1
a2k+1 + b2k+1 a2j + b2j
k k k
X a2k+1 b2k+1 X 2 2
2 2
X a2j b2j
2ak+1 bk+1 aj bj ≤ 2 2 a j + b j + ak+1 + b k+1 .
j=1
ak+1 + bk+1 j=1 2
a + b2j
j=1 j
(72.3)
Adding (72.2) and (72.3) and then adding a2k+1 b2k+1 to both sides, we have the
inequality
 2   
k+1
X k+1
X k+1
X a2j b2j
a2j + b2j  

 aj bj  ≤  .
j=1 j=1
a2 + b2j
j=1 j
Conclusion
 2   
n n n 2 2
X X X a b
j j 
a2j + b2j  

 aj bj  ≤  2 + b2
j=1 j=1 j=1
aj j
for all n ∈ N.
169
Problem 73
Topic: Binomial Coefficient
Problem: Prove the binomial theorem,

n
n
X n
(x + y) = xn−j y j ,
j=0
j
for all n ∈ N.
Definition - Binomial Coefficient: For non-negative integers p and r,

( p!
p if r ≤ p
= r!(p−r)! .
r 0 if r > p
Solution
Base Cases
1
X 1 1−j j 1 1 0 1 0 1
x y = x y + x y = x + y = (x + y)1 ,
j=0
j 0 1
170
Induction Step
Assume
k
X k k−j j
(x + y)k = x y (73.1)
j=0
j

k+1
X
k+1 k + 1 k+1−j j
(x + y) = x y .
j=0
j
Multiplying both sides of (73.1) by x + y,

k k
X k X k
(x + y)k+1 = xk+1−j y j + xk−j y j+1
j=0
j j=0
j
k k−1
X k k+1−j j X k k−j j+1
= xk+1 + x y + x y + y k+1 .
j=1
j j=0
j
Let j + 1 → j,
k−1
X k k
k k−j j+1 X k X k
x y = xk−(j−1) y j = xk+1−j y j .
j=0
j j=1
j − 1 j=1
j − 1
So,
k
X k k
(x + y)k+1 = xk+1 + + xk+1−j y j + y k+1 .
j=1
j j−1
Since

k k k! k!
+ = +
j j−1 j!(k − j)! (j − 1)!(k − j + 1)!
(k − j + 1) · k! j · k!
= +
j!(k − j + 1)! j!(k − j + 1)!

(k + 1)! k+1
= = ,
j!(k + 1 − j)! j
which is known as Pascal’s identity, we have
k
k+1 k+1
X k+1
(x + y) =x + xk+1−j y j + y k+1 .
j=1
j
Note that
k + 1 k+1−0 0
xk+1 = x y
0
and
k+1 k + 1 k+1−(k+1) k+1
y = x y .
k+1
171
Hence,
k+1
X
k + 1 k+1−j j
(x + y)k+1 = x y .
j=0
j
Conclusion
n
X n n−j j
(x + y)n = x y
j=0
j
for all n ∈ N.
172
Problem 74
Topic: Binomial Coefficient
Problem: For n, r ∈ N, prove the Hockey-Stick identity,

n
X j n+1
= ,
j=r
r r+1
for n ≥ r.

( p!
p if r ≤ p
= r!(p−r)! .
r 0 if r > p
Solution
Base Cases
We need to prove that it is true for n = r. We can check that
r
X j r r+1
= =1= ,
j=r
r r r+1
so it is true for n = r.
173
Induction Step
Assume
k
X j k+1
= (74.1)
j=r
r r+1
for some k ≥ r. To prove the induction step, we need to prove

k+1
X
j k+2
= .
j=r
r r+1

k+1
X k
j X j k+1
= +
j=r
r j=r
r r

k+1 k+1
= + .
r+1 r
In problem 73, we have calculated that

k k k+1
+ = .
j j−1 j
Let k → k + 1 and j → r + 1,

k+1 k+1 k+2
+ = .
r+1 r r+1
So,
k+1
X
j k+2
= .
j=r
r r+1
Conclusion
We proved that it is true for n = r. Then, we proved that it is true for n = k + 1
n
X j n+1
=
j=r
r r+1
for n ≥ r.
174
Problem 75
Topic: Binomial Coefficient, Inequality
Problem: Prove
2n
≤ 22n−1
n
for all n ∈ N.

( p!
p if r ≤ p
= r!(p−r)! .
r 0 if r > p
Solution
Base Cases

2 2!
= = 2 ≤ 2 = 22·1−1 ,
1 1! 1!
Induction Step
Assume
2k
≤ 22k−1 (75.1)
k
175

2k + 2
≤ 22(k+1)−1 = 22k+1 .
k+1
Note that

2k + 2 (2k + 2)!
=
k+1 ((k + 1)!)2
(2k + 2)(2k + 1) (2k)!
= ·
(k + 1)2 (k!)2

(2k + 2)(2k + 1) 2k
= .
(k + 1)2 k
Since 2k + 1 ≤ 2k + 2, using assumption (75.1),
(2k + 2)2 2k

2k + 2
≤
k+1 (k + 1)2 k

2 2k
=2
k
≤ 22 · 22k−1
= 22k+1 .
Conclusion

2n
≤ 22n−1
n
for all n ∈ N.
176
Problem 76
Topic: Binomial Coefficient, Fibonacci Number
Problem: For any non-negative integer `, prove

n
X n
F`+j = F`+2n
j=0
j

( p!
p if r ≤ p
= r!(p−r)! .
r 0 if r > p

Solution
Base Cases
1
X 1 1 1
F`+j = F`+0 + F`+1 = F` + F`+1 = F`+2 ,
j=0
j 0 1
it is true for n = 1.
177
Induction Step
Assume
k
X k
F`+j = F`+2k (76.1)
j=0
j
k+1
X k + 1
F`+j = F`+2(k+1) = F`+2k+2 .
j=0
j
First, note that

k+1
X k + 1 k
k+1 X k+1 k+1
F`+j = F`+0 + F`+j + F`+k+1
j=0
j 0 j=1
j k+1
k
X k+1
= F` + F`+j + F`+k+1 .
j=1
j

k+1 k k
= + .
j j j−1
So,
k+1
X k
k+1 X k k
F`+j = F` + + F`+j + F`+k+1
j=0
j j=1
j j−1
k k
X k X k
= F` + F`+j + F`+j + F`+k+1 .
j=1
j j=1
j−1
k k−1
X k
X k
F`+j = F`+j+1 .
j=1
j−1 j=0
j
So,
k+1
X k k−1
X k
k+1 X k
F`+j = F` + F`+j + F`+1+j + F`+k+1 .
j=0
j j=1
j j=0
j
Note that
k k k
X k k X k X k
F` + F`+j = F`+0 + F`+j = F`+j
j=1
j 0 j=1
j j=0
j
and
k−1
X k−1
X k k
k k X k
F`+1+j + F`+k+1 = F`+1+j + F`+1+k = F`+1+j .
j=0
j j=0
j k j=0
j
178
Hence,
k+1
X k k
k+1 X k X k
F`+j = F`+j + F`+1+j .
j=0
j j=0
j j=0
j
k
X k
F`+j = F`+2k
j=0
j
and
k
X k
F`+1+j = F`+1+2k ,
j=0
j
so
k+1
X
k+1
F`+j = F`+2k + F`+1+2k = F`+2k+2
j=0
j
by using the recursive relation of Fn . Thus, we proved that it is true for n = k + 1

if it is true for n = k.
Conclusion
n
X n
F`+j = F`+2n
j=0
j
for all n ∈ N.
179
Problem 77
Topic: Binomial Coefficient, Fibonacci Number
Problem: Prove
n
X n−j
= Fn+1
j=0
j

( p!
p if r ≤ p
= r!(p−r)! .
r 0 if r > p

Solution
Base Cases
1
X 1−j 1 0
= + = 1 + 0 = 1 = F2
j=0
j 0 1
180
because F2 = F1 + F0 = 1 + 0 = 1. When n = 2,
2
X 2−j 2 1 0
= + + = 1 + 1 + 0 = 2 = F3
j=0
j 0 1 2
because F3 = F2 + F1 = 1 + 1 = 2. So, it is true for n = 1 and n = 2.
Induction Step
Assume
m
X m−j
= Fm+1 (77.1)
j=0
j
k+1
X
k+1−j
= Fk+2 .
j=0
j
Note that
k+1
X X k
k+1−j k+1 k+1−j 0
= + +
j=0
j 0 j=1
j k+1
k
X k+1−j
=1+ .
j=1
j

k+1 k k
= + .
j j j−1
Let k → k − j,
k+1−j k−j k−j
= + .
j j j−1
So,
k+1
X k k
k+1−j X k−j X k−j
=1+ + .
j=0
j j=1
j j=1
j−1
Note that
k X k X k
X k−j k−0 k−j k−j
1+ = + = .
j=1
j 0 j=1
j j=0
j
k k−1
X
X k−j k−1−j
= .
j=1
j−1 j=0
j
181
Hence,
k+1
X k k−1
X
k+1−j X k−j k−1−j
= + .
j=0
j j=0
j j=0
j

k
X k−j
= Fk+1 .
j=0
j

k−1
X
k−1−j
= Fk .
j=0
j
So,
k+1
X
k+1−j
= Fk+1 + Fk = Fk+2
j=0
j
by using the recursive relation of Fn . Thus, we proved that it is true for n = k + 1

if it is true for n = m for all 1 ≤ m ≤ k.
Conclusion
n
X n−j
= Fn+1
j=0
j
for all n ∈ N.
182
Problem 78
Topic: Derivative
Problem: Prove
dn n
x = n!
dxn
for all n ∈ N.
n! = n · (n − 1) · (n − 2) · · · 2 · 1.
0! = 1.
Solution
Base Cases
d
x = 1 = 1!,
dx
Induction Step
Assume
dk k
x = k! (78.1)
dxk
183
dk+1 k+1
x = (k + 1)!.
dxk+1
dk+1 k+1 dk

d k+1
k+1
x = k x
dx dx dx
dk
(k + 1)xk

=
dxk
dk
= (k + 1) k xk
dx
= (k + 1) · k!
= (k + 1)!.
Conclusion
dn n
x = n!
dxn
for all n ∈ N.
184
Problem 79
Topic: Derivative
Problem: If f (x) is an even function, then prove that f (2n) (x) is even for all
n ∈ N where f (n) (x) denotes the n-th derivative of f (x).
Solution
Base Cases
We need to prove that it is true for n = 1. If f (x) is even, then
f (x) = f (−x).
Differentiating both sides with respect to x twice,
f (1) (x) = −f (1) (−x)

f (2) (x) = − −f (2) (−x) = f (2) (−x).
So, f (2) (x) is even.
Induction Step
Assume that f (2k) (x) is even if f (x) is even for some k ≥ 1. To prove the induction
step, we need to prove that f (2k+2) (x) is even. By the assumption that f (2k) (x) is
even,
f (2k) (x) = f (2k) (−x).
Differentiating both sides with respect to x twice,
f (2k+1) (x) = −f (2k+1) (−x)

f (2k+2) (x) = − −f (2k+2) (−x) = f (2k+2) (−x).
185
Hence, f (2k+2) (x) is even. Thus, we proved that it is true for n = k + 1 if it is true
for n = k.
Conclusion
if it is true for n = k. Therefore, by weak induction, if f (x) is an even function,
then f (2n) (x) is even for all n ∈ N.
186
Problem 80
Topic: Derivative, Trigonometry
Problem: Prove
dn nπ
sin x = sin x +
dxn 2
for all n ∈ N.
Solution
Base Cases
d
sin x = cos x
dx
and π π π
sin x + = sin x cos + cos x sin = cos x,
2 2 2
it is true that
d π
sin x = sin x + .
dx 2
Induction Step
Assume
dk

kπ
sin x = sin x + (80.1)
dxk 2
dk+1

(k + 1)π
sin x = sin x + .
dxk+1 2
187
Differentiating both sides of (80.1) with respect to x using the chain rule,
dk+1

d kπ kπ
sin x = sin x + = cos x + .
dxk+1 dx 2 2
By using the addition formula of sine,

kπ kπ π kπ π
cos x + = sin x + cos + cos x + sin
2 2 2 2 2

(k + 1)π
= sin x + .
2
Hence,
dk+1

(k + 1)π
sin x = sin x + .
dxk+1 2
Conclusion
dn nπ
sin x = sin x +
dxn 2
for all n ∈ N.
188
Problem 81
Problem: Prove
dn nπ
cos x = cos x +
dxn 2
for all n ∈ N.
Solution
Base Cases
d
cos x = − sin x
dx
and π π π
cos x + = cos x cos − sin x sin = − sin x,
2 2 2
it is true that
d π
cos x = cos x + .
dx 2
Induction Step
Assume
dk

kπ
cos x = cos x + (81.1)
dxk 2
dk+1

(k + 1)π
cos x = cos x + .
dxk+1 2
190
Differentiating both sides of (81.1) with respect to x using the chain rule,
dk+1

d kπ kπ
cos x = cos x + = − sin x + .
dxk+1 dx 2 2
By using the addition formula of cosine,

kπ kπ π kπ π
− sin x + = cos x + cos − sin x + sin
2 2 2 2 2

(k + 1)π
= cos x + .
2
Hence,
dk+1

(k + 1)π
cos x = cos x + .
dxk+1 2
Conclusion
dn nπ
cos x = cos x +
dxn 2
for all n ∈ N.
191
Problem 82
Topic: Derivative
Problem: Prove
dn (−1)n−1 (n − 1)!
n
ln x =
dx xn
for all n ∈ N.
n! = n · (n − 1) · (n − 2) · · · 2 · 1.
0! = 1.
Solution
Base Cases
d 1 (−1)1−1 (1 − 1)!
ln x = = ,
dx x x1
Induction Step
Assume
dk (−1)k−1 (k − 1)!
k
ln x = (82.1)
dx xk
192
dk+1 (−1)k k!
ln x = .
dxk+1 xk+1
Differentiating both sides of (82.1) with respect to x,
dk+1 d (−1)k−1 (k − 1)!

k+1
ln x =
dx dx xk
d 1
= (−1)k−1 (k − 1)! ×
dx xk
−k
= (−1)k−1 (k − 1)! × k+1
x
(−1)k k!
= .
xk+1
Conclusion
dn (−1)n−1 (n − 1)!
ln x =
dxn xn
for all n ∈ N.
193
Problem 83
Topic: Derivative
Problem: For a, b, c, d ∈ R and b, c 6= 0, prove
dn ax + b n!(−c)n−1 (ad − bc)

n
=
dx cx + d (cx + d)n+1
for all n ∈ N.
n! = n · (n − 1) · (n − 2) · · · 2 · 1.
0! = 1.
Solution
Base Cases
We need to prove that it is true for n = 1. By the quotient rule,
d ax + b a(cx + d) − c(ax + b) ad − bc 1!(−c)1−1 (ad − bc)

= 2
= 2
= ,
dx cx + d (cx + d) (cx + d) (cx + d)1+1
Induction Step
Assume
dk ax + b k!(−c)k−1 (ad − bc)
= (83.1)
dxk cx + d (cx + d)k+1
194
dk+1 ax + b (k + 1)!(−c)k (ad − bc)

= .
dxk+1 cx + d (cx + d)k+2
dk+1 ax + b d k!(−c)k−1 (ad − bc)

k+1
=
dx cx + d dx (cx + d)k+1
d 1
= k!(−c)k−1 (ad − bc) ×
dx (cx + d)k+1
c(−k − 1)
= k!(−c)k−1 (ad − bc) ×
(cx + d)k+2
(k + 1)!(−c)k (ad − bc)
= .
(cx + d)k+2
Conclusion
dn ax + b n!(−c)n−1 (ad − bc)

n
=
dx cx + d (cx + d)n+1
for all n ∈ N.
195
Problem 84
Topic: Derivative
Problem: Prove
dn 1 (2n)! 1
√ = n ·
dx n
1−x 4 n! (1 − x)n+ 12
for all n ∈ N.
n! = n · (n − 1) · (n − 2) · · · 2 · 1.
0! = 1.
Solution
Base Cases
d 1 1 2! 1
√ = = 1 · ,
dx 1 − x 2(1 − x)3/2 4 · 1! (1 − x)1+ 21
Induction Step
Assume
dk 1 (2k)! 1
√ = k · (84.1)
dxk 1 − x 4 k! (1 − x)k+ 21
196
dk+1 1 (2k + 2)! 1

√ = k+1 · .
dx k+1
1−x 4 (k + 1)! (1 − x)k+1+ 21
dk+1 1 d (2k)! 1
√ = ·
dxk+1 1 − x dx 4k k! (1 − x)k+ 12
(2k)! d 1
= k ×
4 k! dx (1 − x)k+ 12
(2k)! k + 12
= k
× 1
4 k! (1 − x)k+ 2 +1
(2k)! (2k + 1)(2k + 2) 1
= k × × 1
4 k! 4(k + 1) (1 − x)k+1+ 2
(2k + 2)! 1
= k+1 · .
4 (k + 1)! (1 − x)k+1+ 12
Conclusion
dn 1 (2n)! 1
√ = n ·
dxn 1 − x 4 n! (1 − x)n+ 12
for all n ∈ N.
197
Problem 85
Problem: Prove
dn −1 (−1)n−1 (n − 1)!
sin n cot−1 x

tan x =
dxn 2
(1 + x )
n/2
for all n ∈ N.
n! = n · (n − 1) · (n − 2) · · · 2 · 1.
0! = 1.
Solution
Base Cases
sin2 cot−1 x + cos2 cot−1 x = 1

and
cos cot−1 x

= cot cot−1 x = x,

−1
sin cot x
we have
1
sin cot−1 x = √

.
1 + x2
198
So,
d 1
tan−1 x =
dx 1 + x2
1 1
=√ ·√
1 + x2 1 + x2
(−1)1−1 (1 − 1)!
sin cot−1 x .

= 1/2
(1 + x2 )
Induction Step
Assume
dk −1 (−1)k−1 (k − 1)!
sin k cot−1 x

tan x = (85.1)
dxk 2
(1 + x )
k/2

dk+1 (−1)k k!
tan−1 x = sin (k + 1) cot−1 x .

dx k+1 (k+1)/2
(1 + x2 )
Differentiating both sides of (85.1) with respect to x using the product rule,
dk+1 −1 d (−1)k−1 (k − 1)!

sin k cot−1 x

k+1
tan x = k/2
dx dx (1 + x2 )
d 1
=(−1)k−1 (k − 1)! sin k cot−1 x ×

dx (1 + x2 )k/2
(−1)k−1 (k − 1)! d
sin k cot−1 x .

+ k/2
×
(1 + x2 ) dx
Using the chain rule,

d 1 −kx
k/2
= (k+2)/2
dx (1 + x2 ) (1 + x2 )
and
d −k
sin k cot−1 x = cos k cot−1 x ·

.
dx 1 + x2
So,
dk+1 −kx
tan−1 x =(−1)k−1 (k − 1)! sin k cot−1 x ×

dx k+1 (k+2)/2
(1 + x2 )
(−1)k−1 (k − 1)! −k cos k cot−1 x

+ ×
(1 + x2 )
k/2 1 + x2
(−1)k k!

x
sin k cot−1 x

= (k+1)/2
√
2 1+x 2
(1 + x )

1
cos k cot−1 x .

+√
1 + x2
199
Since
sin2 cot−1 x + cos2 cot−1 x = 1

and
cos cot−1 x

= cot cot−1 x = x,

−1

sin cot x
we have
1
sin cot−1 x = √

1 + x2
and
x
cos cot−1 x = √

.
1 + x2
Hence,
dk+1 −1 (−1)k k!
cos cot−1 x sin k cot−1 x

k+1
tan x = (k+1)/2
dx (1 + x2 )
+ sin cot−1 x cos k cot−1 x

(−1)k k!
sin (k + 1) cot−1 x .

= (k+1)/2
2
(1 + x )
Conclusion
dn −1 (−1)n−1 (n − 1)!
sin n cot−1 x

tan x =
dxn 2
(1 + x )
n/2
for all n ∈ N.
200
Problem 86
Topic: Derivative, Hyperbolic Functions
Problem: Prove
d2n (2n − 1)!
tanh−1 x = −1

2n 2 n sinh 2n tanh x
dx (1 − x )
for all n ∈ N.
n! = n · (n − 1) · (n − 2) · · · 2 · 1.
0! = 1.
Solution
Base Cases
We need to prove that it is true for n = 1. The second derivative of tanh−1 x is
d2 d 1 2x
tanh−1 x = = 2.
dx2 dx 1 − x2 (1 − x2 )
The hyperbolic cosine cosh x and the hyperbolic sine sinh x satisfy the identity
cosh2 x − sinh2 x = 1,
which can be proven using the definitions

ex + e−x
cosh x =
2
201
and
ex − e−x
sinh x = .
2
Since
cosh2 tanh−1 x − sinh2 tanh−1 x = 1

and
sinh tanh−1 x

= tanh tanh−1 x = x,

−1
cosh tanh x
we have
x
sinh tanh−1 x = √

1 − x2
and
1
cosh tanh−1 x = √

.
1 − x2
Using the identity sinh (2x) = 2 sinh x cosh x,
sinh 2 tanh−1 x = 2 sinh tanh−1 x cosh tanh−1 x

x 1 2x
=2· √ ·√ = .
1−x 2 1−x 2 1 − x2
So,
(2 · 1 − 1)! 1 2x 2x
sinh 2 tanh−1 x =

1 2
· 2
= 2.
(1 − x2 ) 1−x 1−x (1 − x2 )
Hence, it is true that
d2 (2 · 1 − 1)!
tanh−1 x = −1

dx2 2 1 sinh 2 tanh x .
(1 − x )
Induction Step
Assume
d2k (2k − 1)!
tanh−1 x = sinh 2k tanh−1 x

2k k
(86.1)
dx (1 − x2 )
d2k+2 (2k + 1)!

tanh−1 x = sinh (2k + 2) tanh−1 x .

dx 2k+2 2 k+1
(1 − x )
Differentiating both sides of (86.1) with respect to x using the product rule,
d2k+1 d 1
tanh−1 x =(2k − 1)! sinh 2k tanh−1 x ×

dx2k+1 dx (1 − x2 )k
(2k − 1)! d
sinh 2k tanh−1 x .

+ k
×
2
(1 − x ) dx
202
d 1 2kx
k
= k+1
dx (1 − x )
2 (1 − x2 )
and
d 2k
sinh 2k tanh−1 x = cosh 2k tanh−1 x ·

.
dx 1 − x2
Hence,
d2k+1 2kx
tanh−1 x =(2k − 1)! sinh 2k tanh−1 x ×

dx 2k+1 k+1
(1 − x2 )
2k cosh 2k tanh−1 x

(2k − 1)!
+ k
×
(1 − x2 ) 1 − x2

(2k)! x
sinh 2k tanh−1 x

= 1 √
k+ 1−x 2
(1 − x2 ) 2

1
cosh 2k tanh−1 x

+√
1 − x2
(2k)! −1
−1

= k+ 1 sinh tanh x sinh 2k tanh x
(1 − x2 ) 2
+ cosh tanh−1 x cosh 2k tanh−1 x .

Using the identity
cosh(x + y) = cosh x cosh y + sinh x sinh y,
we get
d2k+1 (2k)!
tanh−1 x = −1

2k+1 1 cosh (2k + 1) tanh x .
dx k+
(1 − x2 ) 2
Differentiating both sides with respect to x again using the product rule,
d2k+2 d 1
tanh−1 x =(2k)! cosh (2k + 1) tanh−1 x ×

dx 2k+2 dx (1 − x2 )k+ 21
(2k)! d
cosh (2k + 1) tanh−1 x .

+ 1 ×
k+
(1 − x2 ) 2 dx

d 1 (2k + 1)x
=
dx (1 − x2 )k+ 12 k+ 3
(1 − x2 ) 2
and
d 2k + 1
cosh (2k + 1) tanh−1 x = sinh (2k + 1) tanh−1 x ·

.
dx 1 − x2
203
Hence,
d2k+2 (2k + 1)x

tanh−1 x =(2k)! cosh (2k + 1) tanh−1 x ×

dx 2k+2 k+ 3
(1 − x2 ) 2
(2k + 1) sinh (2k + 1) tanh−1 x

(2k)!
+ k+ 1
×
(1 − x2 ) 2 1 − x2

(2k + 1)! x
cosh (2k + 1) tanh−1 x

= k+1
√
2 1−x 2
(1 − x )

1
sinh (2k + 1) tanh−1 x

+√
1 − x2
(2k + 1)!
sinh tanh−1 x cosh (2k + 1) tanh−1 x

= k+1
(1 − x2 )
+ cosh tanh−1 x sinh (2k + 1) tanh−1 x .

Using the identity
sinh(x + y) = sinh x cosh y + cosh x sinh y,
we get
d2k+2 (2k + 1)!
tanh−1 x = sinh (2k + 2) tanh−1 x .

dx 2k+2 k+1
(1 − x2 )
Conclusion
d2n (2n − 1)!

tanh−1 x = −1

2n 2 n sinh 2n tanh x
dx (1 − x )
for all n ∈ N.
204
Problem 87
Topic: Derivative, Binomial Coefficient
Problem: Prove the Leibniz rule,

n
dn X n (j)
(f (x)g(x)) = f (x)g (n−j) (x),
dxn j=0
j
for all n ∈ N where f (n) (x) denotes the n-th derivative of f (x).

( p!
p if r ≤ p
= r!(p−r)! .
r 0 if r > p
Solution
Base Cases
We need to prove that it is true for n = 1. By definition of derivative,
f (x + h) − f (x)
f 0 (x) = lim .
h→0 h
So,
d f (x + h)g(x + h) − f (x)g(x)
(f (x)g(x)) = lim .
dx h→0 h
205
Adding and subtracting f (x)g(x + h) in the numerator,
d
(f (x)g(x))
dx
f (x + h)g(x + h) − f (x)g(x + h) + f (x)g(x + h) − f (x)g(x)
= lim
h→0 h
f (x + h)g(x + h) − f (x)g(x + h) f (x)g(x + h) − f (x)g(x)
= lim + lim
h→0 h h→0 h

f (x + h) − f (x) g(x + h) − g(x)
= lim · g(x) + f (x) · lim
h→0 h h→0 h
=f 0 (x)g(x) + f (x)g 0 (x).
For the right-hand side,

1
X 1 (j) (1−j) 1 (0) (1) 1 (1)
f (x)g (x) = f (x)g (x) + f (x)g (0) (x)
j=0
j 0 1
= f 0 (x)g(x) + f (x)g 0 (x).
So, it is true that

1
d X 1 (j)
(f (x)g(x)) = f (x)g (1−j) (x).
dx j=0
j
Induction Step
Assume
m
dm X m (j)
m
(f (x)g(x)) = f (x)g (m−j) (x) (87.1)
dx j=0
j
k+1
dk+1 X k + 1
(f (x)g(x)) = f (j) (x)g (k+1−j) (x).
dxk+1 j=0
j

k
dk X k (j)
k
(f (x)g(x)) = f (x)g (k−j) (x).
dx j=0
j
Differentiating both sides with respect to x,

k
dk+1 d X k (j)
(f (x)g(x)) = f (x)g (k−j) (x)
dxk+1 dx j=0 j
k
X k d (j)
= f (x)g (k−j) (x) .
j=0
j dx
206
1
d X 1 (j)
(f (x)g(x)) = f (x)g (1−j) (x) = f 0 (x)g(x) + f (x)g 0 (x).
dx j=0
j
So,
d (j)
f (x)g (k−j) (x) = f (j+1) (x)g (k−j) (x) + f (j) (x)g (k+1−j) (x),
dx
and we have
k h
dk+1 X k i
k+1
(f (x)g(x)) = f (j+1) (x)g (k−j) (x) + f (j) (x)g (k+1−j) (x)
dx j=0
j
k k
X k (j+1) (k−j)
X k
= f (x)g (x) + f (j) (x)g (k+1−j) (x).
j=0
j j=0
j
Substituting j + 1 → j,
k k+1
X
X k (j+1) (k−j) k
f (x)g (x) = f (j) (x)g (k+1−j) (x).
j=0
j j=1
j−1
Hence,
dk+1
(f (x)g(x))
dxk+1
k+1 k
X k (j) (k+1−j)
X k (j)
= f (x)g (x) + f (x)g (k+1−j) (x)
j=1
j − 1 j=0
j
k
k (k+1) (k+1−k−1)
X k
= f (x)g (x) + f (j) (x)g (k+1−j) (x)
k j=1
j − 1
k
X k k (0)
+ f (j) (x)g (k+1−j) (x) + f (x)g (k+1−0) (x)
j=1
j 0
k
X k k
=f (k+1) (x)g(x) + + f (j) (x)g (k+1−j) (x) + f (x)g (k+1) (x).
j=1
j − 1 j

k k k+1
+ = .
j−1 j j
207
So,
dk+1
(f (x)g(x))
dxk+1
k
X k + 1 (j)
=f (k+1) (x)g(x) + f (x)g (k+1−j) (x) + f (x)g (k+1) (x)
j=1
j
k
k + 1 (k+1) X k + 1 (j)
= f (x)g (k+1−k−1) (x) + f (x)g (k+1−j) (x)
k+1 j=1
j

k + 1 (0)
+ f (x)g (k+1−0) (x)
0
k+1
X k + 1
= f (j) (x)g (k+1−j) (x).
j=0
j
Conclusion
if it is true for n = m for all 1 ≤ m ≤ k. Therefore, by strong induction,
n
dn X n (j)
(f (x)g(x)) = f (x)g (n−j) (x)
dxn j=0
j
for all n ∈ N.
208
Problem 88
Topic: Derivative
Problem: Prove
 
n n n
d Y Y X fj0 (x)
fj (x) = fj (x) ·  
dx j=1 j=1
f (x)
j=1 j
for all n ∈ N.
Solution
Base Cases
 
1 0 1 1 0
d Y f (x) Y X fj (x)
fj (x) = f10 (x) = f1 (x) · 1 = fj (x) ·  .
dx j=1 f1 (x) j=1 f
j=1 j
(x)
When n = 2, by the product rule of derivative,
2
d Y d
fj (x) = (f1 (x)f2 (x)) = f10 (x)f2 (x) + f1 (x)f20 (x)
dx j=1 dx
 
2 2
f10 (x) f20 (x) fj0 (x)
Y X
= f1 (x)f2 (x) · + = fj (x) ·  .
f1 (x) f2 (x) j=1 j=1
fj (x)
209
Induction Step
Assume  
m m m 0
d Y Y X f j (x)
fj (x) = fj (x) ·   (88.1)
dx j=1 j=1
f
j=1 j
(x)
 
k+1 k+1 k+1
X fj0 (x)
d Y Y
fj (x) = fj (x) ·  .
dx j=1 j=1 j=1
fj (x)
f10 (x) f20 (x)

d
(f1 (x)f2 (x)) = f1 (x)f2 (x) · + .
dx f1 (x) f2 (x)
k
Y
Let f1 (x) → fj (x) and f2 (x) → fk+1 (x),
j=1
 −1 
k+1 k+1 k k 0
d Y Y Y d Y f (x) 
fj (x) = fj (x) ·  fj (x) · fj (x) + k+1 .

dx j=1 j=1 j=1
dx j=1
f k+1 (x)

 
k k k
d Y Y X fj0 (x)
fj (x) = fj (x) ·  .
dx j=1 j=1 j=1
fj (x)
So,
k+1
d Y
fj (x)
dx j=1
 −1   
k+1 k k k 0 0
Y Y Y X fj (x) f (x) 
= fj (x) · 

fj (x) · fj (x) ·   + k+1
f (x) fk+1 (x)

j=1 j=1 j=1 j=1 j
 
k+1 k
Y X fj0 (x) fk+1
0
(x)
= fj (x) ·  + 
j=1
f (x) fk+1 (x)
j=1 j
 
k+1
Y k+1
X fj0 (x)
= fj (x) ·  .
j=1
f (x)
j=1 j
210
Conclusion
 
n n n
d Y Y X fj0 (x)
fj (x) = fj (x) ·  
dx j=1 j=1 j=1
f j (x)
for all n ∈ N.
211
Problem 89
Topic: Matrices
Problem: If A is an idempotent matrix, then prove that An = A for all n ∈ N.
Definition - Idempotent Matrix: An idempotent matrix is a matrix A such

that A2 = A.
Solution
Base Cases
We need to prove that it is true for n = 1. The base case n = 1 is trivial since it is
always true that A1 = A.
Induction Step
Assume that Ak = A if A is an idempotent matrix for some k ≥ 1. To prove the
induction step, we need to prove that Ak+1 = A if A is an idempotent matrix. By
the assumption that Ak = A, we have
Ak+1 = AAk = AA = A2 .
If A is an idempotent matrix, then by definition of idempotent matrix, A2 = A.
So, Ak+1 = A2 = A if A is an idempotent matrix. Thus, we proved that it is true
for n = k + 1 if it is true for n = k.
Conclusion
if it is true for n = k. Therefore, by weak induction, if A is an idempotent matrix,
then An = A for all n ∈ N.
212
Problem 90
Topic: Matrices
n
Problem: Let A be an invertible matrix. Prove
that the inverse of A is equal
−1 n −1 −1 n
to the n-th power of A , i.e. (A ) = A , for all n ∈ N.
Definition - Inverse of Matrix: For an invertible matrix A, the inverse of

A is the matrix A−1 such that
AA−1 = A−1 A = I,
where I is the identity matrix. In this problem, we will use the property
(AB)−1 = B −1 A−1 .
We can check that this is true by checking that
AB B −1 A−1 = B −1 A−1 AB = I.

However, note that this is NOT a rigorous proof of the property.
Solution
Base Cases
−1 1
A1 = A−1 = A−1 ,
213
Induction Step
Assume −1 k
Ak = A−1 (90.1)
−1 k+1
Ak+1 = A−1 .
By using the assumption (90.1) and the property (AB)−1 = B −1 A−1 ,

−1 −1
Ak+1 = AAk
−1 −1
= Ak A
k
= A−1 A−1

k+1
= A−1 .
Conclusion
−1 n
(An ) = A−1
for all n ∈ N.
214
Problem 91
Topic: Matrices
Problem: Let A be a diagonalizable matrix, i.e. A = P DP −1 where D is a

diagonal matrix. Then, prove that An = P Dn P −1 for all n ∈ N.
Definition - Inverse of Matrix: For an invertible matrix A, the inverse of

A is the matrix A−1 such that
AA−1 = A−1 A = I,
where I is the identity matrix.
Solution
Base Cases
A1 = A = P DP −1 = P D1 P −1 ,
Induction Step
Assume
Ak = P Dk P −1 (91.1)
Ak+1 = P Dk+1 P −1 .
216
Ak+1 = Ak A
= P Dk P −1 P DP −1

= P Dk P −1 P DP −1

= P Dk IDP −1
= P Dk DP −1
= P Dk+1 P −1 .
Conclusion
An = P Dn P −1
for all n ∈ N.
217
Problem 92
Topic: Set Theory
Problem: If Sn is a set with n elements, then prove that Sn has 2n subsets.
Definition - Subset: For two sets A and B, A is a subset of B, denoted as

A ⊆ B, when all elements in A are in B. For example, {1, 3, 5} ⊆ {1, 2, 3, 5, 6}.
Formally,
A ⊆ B ⇔ [∀x, x ∈ A ⇒ x ∈ B].
Also, the empty set ∅ is a subset of any set, but this needs to be proven using
the formal definition of subset. However, we will not prove this here.
Definition - Set Union: For two sets A and B, the union of A and B,
denoted as A ∪ B, is the set containing all elements in A and all elements in
B. For example, {1, 2, 3} ∪ {1, 3, 5} = {1, 2, 3, 5}. Formally,
x ∈ A ∪ B ⇔ [x ∈ A or x ∈ B].
Solution
Base Cases
We need to prove that it is true for n = 1. Let S1 be a set with 1 element,
S1 = {a1 }.
Then, it has 2 subsets, ∅ and {a1 }. So, it is true that a set with 1 element S1 has
21 subsets.
218
Induction Step
Assume that a k-element set Sk ,
Sk = {a1 , a2 , · · · , ak },
has 2k subsets. To prove the induction step, we need to prove that a k + 1-element
set Sk+1 ,
Sk+1 = {a1 , a2 , · · · , ak , ak+1 },
has 2k+1 subsets. Note that
Sk+1 = {a1 , a2 , · · · , ak } ∪ {ak+1 } = Sk ∪ {ak+1 }.
A subset of Sk+1 either contains or does not contain ak+1 .
Subsets of Sk+1 that do not contain ak+1 are subsets of Sk . By the assumption
that Sk has 2k subsets, Sk+1 has 2k subsets that do not contain ak+1 .
Subsets of Sk+1 that contain ak+1 are the unions of a subset of Sk with {ak+1 }.
Since there are 2k subsets of Sk by assumption, there are 2k sets formed by taking
the union of a subset of Sk with {ak+1 }. So, Sk+1 has 2k subsets that contain ak+1 .
Hence, Sk+1 has 2k + 2k = 2k+1 subsets. Thus, we proved that it is true for
n = k + 1 if it is true for n = k.
Conclusion
if it is true for n = k. Therefore, by weak induction, Sn has 2n subsets if it has n
elements for all n ∈ N.
219
Problem 93
Topic: Set Theory
Problem: Let S1 , S2 , · · · , Sn be sets such that Sn ⊆ Sn−1 ⊆ · · · ⊆ S2 ⊆ S1 ,

then prove that
n
\
Si = Sn
i=1
for all n ∈ N.
Definition - Set Intersection: For two sets A and B, the intersection of A

and B, denoted as A ∩ B, is the set containing all elements that are in both A
and B. For example, {1, 2, 3} ∩ {1, 3, 5} = {1, 3}. Formally,
x ∈ A ∩ B ⇔ [x ∈ A and x ∈ B].
For more than 2 sets, we have

n
\
Ai = A1 ∩ A2 ∩ · · · ∩ An .
i=1

Formally,
A ⊆ B ⇔ [∀x, x ∈ A ⇒ x ∈ B].
Definition - Equal Sets: For two sets A and B, A is equal to B, denoted as

A = B, when all elements in A are in B and all elements in B are in A. For
220
example, {1, 3, 5} = {1, 1, 3, 5, 5}. Formally,
A = B ⇔ [∀x, x ∈ A ⇔ x ∈ B],
or equivalently
A = B ⇔ [A ⊆ B and B ⊆ A].
Solution
Base Cases
We need to prove that it is true for n = 1 and n = 2. The case when n = 1 is
trivial since it is always true that
1
\
Si = S1 .
i=1
For n = 2, we need to prove that

2
\
Si = S1 ∩ S2 = S2
i=1
if S2 ⊆ S1 .
First, we need to prove S1 ∩ S2 ⊆ S2 . Let x ∈ S1 ∩ S2 . By definition of set

intersection,
x ∈ S1 ∩ S2 ⇒ [x ∈ S1 and x ∈ S2 ].
Since the statement “x ∈ S1 and x ∈ S2 ” is true only when “x ∈ S1 ” and “x ∈ S2 ”
are both true,
[x ∈ S1 and x ∈ S2 ] ⇒ x ∈ S2 .
Hence,
∀x, x ∈ S1 ∩ S2 ⇒ x ∈ S2 ,
and S1 ∩ S2 ⊆ S2 by definition of subset.
Next, we need to prove S2 ⊆ S1 ∩ S2 . Let x ∈ S2 . If S2 ⊆ S1 , then by defi-

nition of subset,
x ∈ S2 ⇒ x ∈ S1 .
So,
x ∈ S2 ⇒ [x ∈ S1 and x ∈ S2 ].
By definition of set intersection,
[x ∈ S1 and x ∈ S2 ] ⇒ x ∈ S1 ∩ S2 .
221
Hence,
∀x, x ∈ S2 ⇒ x ∈ S1 ∩ S2 ,
and S2 ⊆ S1 ∩ S2 by definition of subset.
Thus, S1 ∩ S2 ⊆ S2 and S2 ⊆ S1 ∩ S2 . By definition of equal sets, S1 ∩ S2 = S2 if

S2 ⊆ S1 .
Induction Step
Assume
m
\
Si = Sm (93.1)
i=1
if Sm ⊆ Sm−1 ⊆ · · · ⊆ S2 ⊆ S1 for all 1 ≤ m ≤ k for some k ≥ 2. To prove the
induction step, we need to prove
k+1
\
Si = Sk+1
i=1
if Sk+1 ⊆ Sk ⊆ · · · ⊆ S2 ⊆ S1 . By the assumption (93.1) when m = k,

k
\
Si = Sk
i=1
if Sk ⊆ Sk−1 ⊆ · · · ⊆ S2 ⊆ S1 . So,
k+1
\ k
\
Si = Si ∩ Sk+1 = Sk ∩ Sk+1 .
i=1 i=1
By the assumption (93.1) when m = 2, S1 ∩ S2 = S2 if S2 ⊆ S1 . Let S1 → Sk and

S2 → Sk+1 ,
Sk ∩ Sk+1 = Sk+1
if Sk+1 ⊆ Sk . Hence,
k+1
\
Si = Sk+1
i=1
if Sk+1 ⊆ Sk ⊆ · · · ⊆ S2 ⊆ S1 . Thus, we proved that it is true for n = k + 1 if it is
true for n = m for all 1 ≤ m ≤ k.
Conclusion
n
\
Si = Sn
i=1
if Sn ⊆ Sn−1 ⊆ · · · ⊆ S2 ⊆ S1 for all n ∈ N.
222
Problem 94
Topic: Set Theory
Problem: Let S1 , S2 , · · · , Sn be sets such that Sn ⊆ Sn−1 ⊆ · · · ⊆ S2 ⊆ S1 ,

then prove that
n
[
Si = S1
i=1
for all n ∈ N.
Definition - Set Union: For two sets A and B, the union of A and B,
denoted as A ∪ B, is the set containing all elements in A and all elements in
B. For example, {1, 2, 3} ∪ {1, 3, 5} = {1, 2, 3, 5}. Formally,
x ∈ A ∪ B ⇔ [x ∈ A or x ∈ B].
For more than 2 sets, we have

n
[
Ai = A1 ∪ A2 ∪ · · · ∪ An .
i=1

Formally,
A ⊆ B ⇔ [∀x, x ∈ A ⇒ x ∈ B].
Definition - Equal Sets: For two sets A and B, A is equal to B, denoted as

A = B, when all elements in A are in B and all elements in B are in A. For
223
example, {1, 3, 5} = {1, 1, 3, 5, 5}. Formally,
A = B ⇔ [∀x, x ∈ A ⇔ x ∈ B],
or equivalently
A = B ⇔ [A ⊆ B and B ⊆ A].
Solution
Base Cases
We need to prove that it is true for n = 1 and n = 2. The case when n = 1 is
trivial since it is always true that
1
[
Si = S1 .
i=1
For n = 2, we need to prove that

2
[
Si = S1 ∪ S2 = S1
i=1
if S2 ⊆ S1 .
First, we need to prove S1 ∪ S2 ⊆ S1 . Let x ∈ S1 ∪ S2 . By definition of set

union,
x ∈ S1 ∪ S2 ⇒ [x ∈ S1 or x ∈ S2 ].
If S2 ⊆ S1 , then by definition of subset,
x ∈ S2 ⇒ x ∈ S1 .
So,
[x ∈ S1 or x ∈ S2 ] ⇒ [x ∈ S1 or x ∈ S1 ] ⇒ x ∈ S1 .
Hence,
∀x, x ∈ S1 ∪ S2 ⇒ x ∈ S1 ,
and S1 ∪ S2 ⊆ S1 by definition of subset.
Next, we need to prove S1 ⊆ S1 ∪ S2 . Let x ∈ S1 . Since the statement “x ∈ S1 or

x ∈ S2 ” is true when either “x ∈ S1 ” or “x ∈ S2 ” is true,
x ∈ S1 ⇒ [x ∈ S1 or x ∈ S2 ].
224
By definition of set union,
[x ∈ S1 or x ∈ S2 ] ⇒ x ∈ S1 ∪ S2 .
Hence,
∀x, x ∈ S1 ⇒ x ∈ S1 ∪ S2 ,
and S1 ⊆ S1 ∪ S2 by definition of subset.
Thus, S1 ∪ S2 ⊆ S1 and S1 ⊆ S1 ∪ S2 . By definition of equal sets, S1 ∪ S2 = S1 if

S2 ⊆ S1 .
Induction Step
Assume
m
[
Si = S1 (94.1)
i=1
if Sm ⊆ Sm−1 ⊆ · · · ⊆ S2 ⊆ S1 for all 1 ≤ m ≤ k for some k ≥ 2. To prove the
induction step, we need to prove
k+1
[
Si = S1
i=1
if Sk+1 ⊆ Sk ⊆ · · · ⊆ S2 ⊆ S1 . By the assumption (94.1) when m = k,

k
[
Si = S1
i=1
if Sk ⊆ Sk−1 ⊆ · · · ⊆ S2 ⊆ S1 . So,
k+1
[ k
[
Si = Si ∪ Sk+1 = S1 ∪ Sk+1 .
i=1 i=1
By the assumption (94.1) when m = 2, S1 ∪ S2 = S1 if S2 ⊆ S1 . Let S2 → Sk+1 ,

S1 ∪ Sk+1 = S1
if Sk+1 ⊆ S1 . Hence,
k+1
[
Si = S1
i=1
if Sk+1 ⊆ Sk ⊆ · · · ⊆ S2 ⊆ S1 . Thus, we proved that it is true for n = k + 1 if it is
true for n = m for all 1 ≤ m ≤ k.
Conclusion
n
[
Si = S1
i=1
if Sn ⊆ Sn−1 ⊆ · · · ⊆ S2 ⊆ S1 for all n ∈ N.
225
Problem 95
Topic: Integrals
Problem: Prove Z ∞
xn e−x dx = n!.
0
n! = n · (n − 1) · (n − 2) · · · 2 · 1.
0! = 1.
Solution
Base Cases
We need to prove that it is true for n = 1. By integration by parts,
Z ∞ Z ∞
−x −x ∞
e−x dx

xe dx = −xe 0
+
0 0
Z ∞
= e−x dx
0 ∞
= −e−x 0 = 1 = 1!,
Induction Step
Assume Z ∞
xk e−x dx = k! (95.1)
0
226
Z ∞
xk+1 e−x dx = (k + 1)!.
0
By integration by parts,
Z ∞ Z ∞
∞
xk+1 e−x dx = −xk+1 e−x 0 + (k + 1) xk e−x dx

0 0
Z ∞
= (k + 1) xk e−x dx.
0
Using the assumption (95.1),

Z ∞
xk+1 e−x dx = (k + 1) · k! = (k + 1)!.
0
Conclusion
Z ∞
xn e−x dx = n!
0
for all n ∈ N.
227
Problem 96
Topic: Integrals, Trigonometry
Problem: Prove
Z π4 n
(−1)n ln 2 (−1)n X (−1)j
tan2n+1 x dx = + .
0 2 2 j=1 j
Solution
Base Cases
We need to prove that it is true for n = 1. By using the identity 1+tan2 x = sec2 x,
Z π Z π
4 4
tan3 x dx = tan x sec2 x − 1 dx

0 0
Z π Z π
4 4
= tan x sec2 x dx − tan x dx
0 0
π4
tan2 x

= + ln (cos x)
2 0
1 ln 2
= −
2 2
1
(−1)1 ln 2 (−1)1 X (−1)j
= + ,
2 2 j=1 j
228
Induction Step
Assume
π k
(−1)k ln 2 (−1)k X (−1)j
Z 4
tan2k+1 x dx = + (96.1)
0 2 2 j=1 j

π k+1
(−1)k+1 ln 2 (−1)k+1 X (−1)j
Z 4
tan2k+3 x dx = + .
0 2 2 j=1
j
By using the identity 1 + tan2 x = sec2 x,

Z π Z π
4 4
2k+3
tan2k+1 x sec2 x − 1 dx

tan x dx =
0 0
Z π Z π
4 4
= tan2k+1 x sec2 x dx − tan2k+1 x dx
0 0
π Z π
tan2k+2 x 4

4
= − tan2k+1 x dx
2k + 2 0 0
Z π4
1
= − tan2k+1 x dx.
2k + 2 0
By the assumption (96.1),

π k
(−1)k ln 2 (−1)k X (−1)j
Z 4 1
tan2k+3 x dx = − −
0 2k + 2 2 2 j=1 j
k
(−1)k+1 (−1)k+1 (−1)k+1 ln 2 (−1)k+1 X (−1)j
= + +
2(k + 1) 2 2 j=1
j
k+1
(−1)k+1 ln 2 (−1)k+1 X (−1)j
= + .
2 2 j=1
j
Conclusion
π n
(−1)n ln 2 (−1)n X (−1)j
Z 4
tan2n+1 x dx = +
0 2 2 j=1 j
for all n ∈ N.
229
Problem 97
Problem: Prove Z π
2 (2n)! π
sin2n x dx = · .
0 4n (n!)2 2
n! = n · (n − 1) · (n − 2) · · · 2 · 1.
0! = 1.
Solution
Base Cases
1−cos (2x)
We need to prove that it is true for n = 1. By using the identity sin2 x = 2 ,
π π
1 − cos (2x)
Z 2
Z 2
sin2 x dx = dx
0 0 2
π
x sin (2x) 2
= −
2 4 0
π 2! π
= = 1 · ,
4 4 (1!)2 2
230
Induction Step
Assume
Z π
2 (2k)! π
sin2k x dx = · (97.1)
0 4k (k!)2 2

Z π
2 (2k + 2)! π
sin2k+2 x dx = · .
0 4k+1 ((k 2
+ 1)!) 2
By using the identity sin2 x + cos2 x = 1,

Z π Z π
2 2
2k+2
sin2k x 1 − cos2 x dx

sin x dx =
0 0
Z π Z π
2 2
2k
= sin x dx − sin2k x cos2 x dx. (97.2)
0 0
π
" # π2 Z π2
sin2k+1 x
Z 2
2k 1
sin 2
x cos x dx = · cos x + sin2k+2 x dx
0 2k + 1 2k + 1 0
0
Z π2
1
= sin2k+2 x dx.
2k + 1 0
Substituting this into (97.2),

Z π Z π Z π
2
2k+2
2
2k 1 2
sin x dx = sin x dx − sin2k+2 x dx
0 0 2k + 1 0
Z π Z π
2k + 2 2
2k+2
2
sin x dx = sin2k x dx
2k + 1 0 0
Z π Z π
2 2k + 1 2
sin2k+2 x dx = sin2k x dx.
0 2k + 2 0

Z π
2 2k + 1 (2k)! π
sin2k+2 x dx = · ·
0 2k + 2 4k (k!)2 2
2k + 2 2k + 1 (2k)! π
= · · ·
2k + 2 2k + 2 4k (k!)2 2
(2k + 2)! π
= k+1 · .
4 ((k + 1)!)2 2
231
Conclusion
Z π
2 (2n)! π
sin2n x dx = ·
0 4n (n!)2 2
for all n ∈ N.
232
Problem 98
Problem: Prove
 
π n
(2n)!  π X 2j (j!)2 
Z 4
2n
sin x dx = n − .
0 4 (n!)2 4 j=1 2j(2j)!
n! = n · (n − 1) · (n − 2) · · · 2 · 1.
0! = 1.
Solution
Base Cases
1−cos (2x)
We need to prove that it is true for n = 1. By using the identity sin2 x = 2 ,
Z π4 Z π4
2 1 − cos (2x)
sin x dx = dx
0 0 2
π
x sin (2x) 4
= −
2 4 0
π 1
= −
8 4  
1
2!  π X 2j (j!)2 
= − ,
41 (1!)2 4 j=1 2j(2j)!
233
Induction Step
Assume
 
Z π k j 2
4 (2k)! π X 2 (j!)
sin2k x dx = k  −  (98.1)
0 4 (k!)2 4 j=1 2j(2j)!

 
Z π k+1 j 2
4 (2k + 2)! π − 2 (j!)  X
sin2k+2 x dx = .
0 4k+1 ((k + 1)!)2 4 j=1 2j(2j)!
Z π Z π
4 4
sin2k+2 x dx = sin2k x 1 − cos2 x dx

0 0
Z π Z π
4 4
= sin2k x dx − sin2k x cos2 x dx. (98.2)
0 0
π
" # π4 Z π4
sin2k+1 x
Z 4
2k 1
sin x cos x dx =2
· cos x + sin2k+2 x dx
0 2k + 1 2k + 1 0
0
Z π4
1 1
= + sin2k+2 x dx.
2k+1 (2k + 1) 2k + 1 0
Substituting this into (98.2),
Z π Z π Z π
4 4 1 1 4
sin2k+2 x dx = sin2k x dx − − sin2k+2 x dx.
0 0 2k+1 (2k + 1) 2k + 1 0
So,
Z π Z π
2k + 2 4 4 1
sin2k+2 x dx = sin2k x dx −
2k + 1 0 0 2k+1 (2k + 1)
Z π Z π
4 2k + 1 4 1
sin2k+2 x dx = sin2k x dx − .
0 2k + 2 0 2k+2 (k + 1)
234
 
Z π k j 2
4 2k + 1 (2k)!  π X 2 (j!)  1
sin2k+2 x dx = · − − k+2
0 2k + 2 4k (k!)2 4 j=1 2j(2j)! 2 (k + 1)
 
k j 2
(2k + 2)! π −
X 2 (j!)  1
= k+1 − k+2
4 ((k + 1)!)2 4 j=1 2j(2j)! 2 (k + 1)
 
k+1 j 2
(2k + 2)! π −
X 2 (j!) 
= k+1 .
4 ((k + 1)!)2 4 j=1 2j(2j)!
Conclusion
 
Z π4 n j 2
(2n)! π X 2 (j!)
sin2n x dx = n  − 
0 4 (n!)2 4 j=1 2j(2j)!
for all n ∈ N.
235
Problem 99
Problem: Prove
π n−1
22n−1 (n!)2 X (2j)!
Z 4
sec2n x dx = .
0 n (2n)! j=0 2j (j!)2
n! = n · (n − 1) · (n − 2) · · · 2 · 1.
0! = 1.
Solution
Base Cases
π 1−1
22·1−1 (1!)2 X (2j)!
Z 4 π
sec2 x dx = [tan x]04 = 1 = ,
0 1 · 2! j=0
2j (j!)2
Induction Step
Assume
π k−1
22k−1 (k!)2 X (2j)!
Z 4
2k
sec x dx = (99.1)
0 k (2k)! j=0 2j (j!)2
236
π k
22k+1 ((k + 1)!)2 X (2j)!
Z 4
sec2k+2 x dx = .
0 (k + 1)(2k + 2)! j=0 2j (j!)2
By integration by parts and using the identity 1 + tan2 x = sec2 x,

Z π Z π
4 4
sec2k+2 x dx = sec2k x sec2 x dx
0 0
Z π
π 4
= sec2k x tan x 04 − 2k sec2k x tan2 x dx

0
Z π
4
k
sec2k x sec2 x − 1 dx

= 2 − 2k
0
Z π Z π
4 4
= 2k − 2k sec2k+2 x dx + 2k sec2k x dx.
0 0
So,
π π
2k
Z Z
4 2k 4
sec2k+2 x dx = + sec2k x dx.
0 2k + 1 2k + 1 0

π k−1
2k 22k−1 (k!)2 X (2j)!
Z 4 2k
sec2k+2 x dx = + ·
0 2k + 1 2k + 1 k (2k)! j=0 2j (j!)2
k−1
2k 22k+1 ((k + 1)!)2 X (2j)!
= +
2k + 1 (k + 1)(2k + 2)! j=0 2j (j!)2
k
22k+1 ((k + 1)!)2 X (2j)!
= .
(k + 1)(2k + 2)! j=0 2j (j!)2
Conclusion
π n−1
22n−1 (n!)2 X (2j)!
Z 4
sec2n x dx =
0 n (2n)! j=0 2j (j!)2
for all n ∈ N.
237
Problem 100
Problem: Prove
π n
(−1)n (2n)! π 2j
Z 2 X
x2n cos x dx = .
0 j=0
(−1)j (2j)! 2
n! = n · (n − 1) · (n − 2) · · · 2 · 1.
0! = 1.
Solution
Base Cases
We need to prove that it is true for n = 1. By integration by parts twice,
Z π2 Z π2
2
2 π2
x cos x dx = x sin x 0 − 2 x sin x dx
0 0
Z π
π 2 2
= −2 x sin x dx
2 0
Z π
π 2 π 2
= + [2x cos x]02 − 2 cos x dx
2 0
Z π
π 2 2 π 2
= −2 cos x dx = − 2.
2 0 2
238
Since
1
X (−1)1 2! π 2j π 2
= − 2,
j=0
(−1)j (2j)! 2 2
it is true that
π 1
(−1)1 2! π 2j
Z 2 X
x2 cos x dx = .
0 j=0
(−1)j (2j)! 2
Induction Step
Assume
π k
(−1)k (2k)! π 2j
Z 2 X
x2k cos x dx = (100.1)
0 j=0
(−1)j (2j)! 2

π k+1
(−1)k+1 (2k + 2)! π 2j
Z 2 X
2k+2
x cos x dx = .
0 j=0
(−1)j (2j)! 2
By integration by parts twice,

Z π
2
x2k+2 cos x dx
0
Z π
π 2
= x2k+2 sin x 02 − (2k + 2) x2k+1 sin x dx

0
Z π
π 2k+2 2
= − (2k + 2) x2k+1 sin x dx
2 0
Z π
π 2k+2 π 2
+ (2k + 2) x2k+1 cos x 02 − (2k + 2)(2k + 1) x2k cos x dx

=
2 0
Z π
π 2k+2 2
= − (2k + 2)(2k + 1) x2k cos x dx.
2 0

π k
(−1)k (2k)! π 2j
Z 2 π 2k+2 X
x2k+2 cos x dx = − (2k + 2)(2k + 1)
0 2 j=0
(−1)j (2j)! 2
k
π 2k+2 X (−1)k+1 (2k + 2)! π 2j
= +
2 j=0
(−1)j (2j)! 2
k+1
X (−1)k+1 (2k + 2)! π 2j
= .
j=0
(−1)j (2j)! 2
239
Conclusion
π n
(−1)n (2n)! π 2j
Z 2 X
x2n cos x dx =
0 j=0
(−1)j (2j)! 2
for all n ∈ N.
240
Problem 101
Problem: Prove
 
π n−1
(2n)!  π 2 X 4j (j!)2 
Z 2
2n
x cos x dx = n − .
0 4 (n!)2 8 j=0
(2j + 2)!
n! = n · (n − 1) · (n − 2) · · · 2 · 1.
0! = 1.
Solution
Base Cases
1+cos (2x)
We need to prove that it is true for n = 1. By using the identity cos2 x = 2 ,
Z π2 Z π2
x + x cos (2x)
x cos2 x dx = dx
0 0 2
2 π
x x sin (2x) cos (2x) 2
= + +
4 4 8 0
π2 1
= −
16 4  
1−1
2!  π 2 X 4j (j!)2 
= 1 − ,
4 (1!)2 8 j=0
(2j + 2)!
241
Induction Step
Assume
 
Z π
2 k−1 j 2
2 (2k)!  π 4 (j!)  X
x cos2k x dx = − (101.1)
0 4k (k!)2 8 j=0
(2j + 2)!
 
Z π k j 2 2
2 (2k + 2)! π −
X 4 (j!) 
x cos2k+2 x dx = k+1 .
0 4 ((k + 1)!)2 8 j=0
(2j + 2)!
Z π Z π
2 2
2k+2
x cos2k x 1 − sin2 x dx

x cos x dx =
0 0
Z π Z π
2 2
= x cos 2k
x dx − x cos2k x sin2 x dx. (101.2)
0 0
Z π
2
− x cos2k x sin2 x dx
0
Z π
2
(x sin x) − cos2k x sin x dx

=
0
π Z π2
cos2k+1 x 2

1
= x sin x · − (sin x + x cos x) cos2k+1 x dx
2k + 1 0 2k + 1 0
Z π2 Z π2
1 2k+1 1
=− sin x cos x dx − x cos2k+2 x dx
2k + 1 0 2k + 1 0
Z π2
1 1
=− − x cos2k+2 x dx.
(2k + 2)(2k + 1) 2k + 1 0
Substituting this into (101.2) and simplifying algebraically gives
Z π Z π
2 2k + 1 2 1
x cos2k+2 x dx = x cos2k x dx − .
0 2k + 2 0 4(k + 1)2
242
 
Z π
2 k−1 j 2
2 2k + 1 (2k)!  π X 4 (j!)  1
x cos2k+2 x dx = · − −
0 2k + 2 4k (k!)2 8 j=0
(2j + 2)! 4(k + 1)2
 
2 k−1 j 2
(2k + 2)! π −
X 4 (j!)  1
= k+1 −
4 ((k + 1)!)2 8 j=0
(2j + 2)! 4(k + 1)2
 
2 k j 2
(2k + 2)! π −
X 4 (j!) 
= k+1 .
4 ((k + 1)!)2 8 j=0
(2j + 2)!
Conclusion
 
Z π2 2 n−1
X 4j (j!)2
(2n)! π
x cos2n x dx = n  − 
0 4 (n!)2 8 j=0
(2j + 2)!
for all n ∈ N.
243
Acknowledgements
In this section, I would like to mention some people whom I would like to thank
for their help during the process of producing this book.
On Instagram, I have established an edit team consisting of a few members with

various math backgrounds. I would like to thank those members for their helpful
feedback and suggestions for the book. The following is the list of the members of
the edit team in no particular order:
• Thang Pang Ern

• Keyvon Rashidi
• Mislav Plavac
I also appreciate Andrzej Kukla, the cover designer of this book, and Vy Nguyen
Tong, the illustrator of this book, for their artistic contribution to make this book
more than just a boring math book with a simple cover and a long list of problems.
245
Reviews
“In the ideal situation, every college student should learn some mathematics, with
the depth and difficulty largely varying. As in the practice of most refined uni-
versities, mathematical education should never be standardized. Meanwhile, math
induction is one of the key tools that students need to know. Based on my teaching
experiences to many Chinese and international students, I found Tran’s book fairly
interesting and accessible.
Mathematical Induction 101 contains 101 carefully chosen exercise problems. I

believe that Tran’s book will prove to be useful for college students in the broad
range of arts and sciences. Hopefully many will appreciate the beauty and power
of mathematical reasoning with mastery of math induction after using this book.”
Dr. Chunwei Song

Professor of Mathematics, Peking University
“This book provides an interesting collection of identities and inequalities that

can be proved by mathematical induction. These 101 practices will be useful to
learn standard techniques. Some of the topics and their solutions would also be
found stimulating even for advanced students of mathematics.”
Dr. Hiroaki Nakamura

Professor of Mathematics, Osaka University
“This book provides almost all types of problems in high school and collegiate
mathematics which can be solved by mathematical induction. To each problem,
a self-contained and detailed solution is given. Difficulty ranges from quite ele-
mentary to somewhat complex. Among them there are many interesting ones.
I am particularly interested in problems related to the Fibonacci sequence, floor
function, and iterated functions.”
Dr. Young-One Kim

Professor Emeritus of Mathematics, Seoul National University
246
“As a mathematics student, this is a book I would have loved in my introductory
proof class. Duc Van Khanh Tran has written up a fantastic way to both learn
and practice one of the most essential tools in a mathematician’s toolkit: Induction!
It’s difficult to find such a large, comprehensive array of well-written and demon-
strative practice problems, which makes this all the more valuable a resource. Duc
Van Khanh Tran carefully pens each solution to be as intuitive and explanatory as
possible, so the risk of confusion at a solution is minimal.
The vast amount of problems is complemented by the vast array of topics the
book covers. Inequalities, sequences, trigonometry, power series, derivatives, and
integrals are only some of the concepts found, guaranteeing that anyone interested
in math will get something new out of this book. I’ve tried a few of these for fun!
I really like the integral problems myself.
All in all, if you’d like to learn about induction, hone your induction skills, or
just want a bunch of fun induction problems, purchase away! You won’t regret it!”
Said Kaili
Undergraduate Student of Mathematics, University of Virginia
“Despite minimal prior proof background, I can grasp the main scopes of the book
without much difficulty. Indeed, Duc Tran’s book provides clear instructions, com-
prehensive content, and helpful problems that ease students into learning mathe-
matical induction.”
Ky Minh Vinh Nguyen
Undergraduate Student of Informatics, University of Texas at Austin
247

Duc Tran - Mathematical Induction 101 - With 101 Practice Problems

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Duc Tran - Mathematical Induction 101 - With 101 Practice Problems

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Mathematical Induction 101

With 101 Practice Problems

Duc Van Khanh Tran

Illustrations by Vy Nguyen Tong

About the Author 1

Prerequisites: Mathematical Induction 4

Problems 51-60 118

Problems 61-70 140

Problems 71-80 164

Problems 81-90 190

Problems 91-101 216

Hi! My name is Duc Van Khanh Tran, and I am a Vietnamese undergraduate at

When I was in elementary school, I studied at Morinosato Elementary School in

Mathematical induction is one of the common methods of proof in mathematics.

Mathematical induction is a proof method that can be used to prove a statement

2. If S(k) is true for some k ≥ 1, then S(k + 1) is also true.

Weak Induction (Modified)

Strong Induction (Modified)

2. If S(m) is true for all a ≤ m ≤ k for some k ≥ a + `, then S(k + 1) is

To be more familiar with mathematical induction and to be better at deciding

for some k ≥ 1. To prove the induction step, we need to prove

for some k ≥ 1. To prove the induction step, we need to prove

for some k ≥ 1. To prove the induction step, we need to prove

Thus, we proved that it is true for n = k + 1 if it is true for n = k.

Problem: Prove that Hn ≤ n for all n ∈ N where Hn denotes the n-th

Definition - Harmonic Number:

Definition - Harmonic Number:

Using assumption (5.1),

Problem: Prove en > n + 1 for all n ∈ N where e is the base of natural

Multiplying e to both sides of the inequality in assumption (6.1),

Since e > 2 > 1,

e4−1 = e3 ≈ (2.7183)3 > (2.7)3 = 19.683 > 24 ,

e(k+1)−1 = ek > 2k+1 .

Multiplying e to both sides of the inequality in assumption (7.1),

Problem: Prove n! > 2n + 2n for n ≥ 5.

(k + 1)! > 2(k + 1) + 2k+1 .

Multiplying both sides of assumption (8.1) by k + 1,

(k + 1)! > 2k(k + 1) + 2k (k + 1).

2k(k + 1) > 2(k + 1)

Problem: Prove nn > 3n2 + 6 for n ≥ 4.

(k + 1)k+1 > 3(k + 1)2 + 6 = 3k 2 + 6k + 9.

(k + 1)k+1 = (k + 1) · (k + 1)k > (k + 1) · k k .

Using assumption (9.1),

Problem: Prove Bernoulli’s inequality, which states that

for x > −1 and n ∈ N.

it is indeed true that

for some k ≥ 1. To prove the induction step, we need to prove

(1 + x)k+1 ≥ (1 + x)(1 + kx)

Since k > 0 and x2 ≥ 0, kx2 ≥ 0, and thus

Thus, we proved that it is true for n = k + 1 if it is true for n = k.

if x > −1 for all n ∈ N.

Problem: For a 6= 1, prove

for some k ≥ 1. To prove the induction step, we need to prove

where Fn denotes the n-th Fibonacci number.

Definition - Fibonacci Numbers: The Fibonacci numbers are a sequence

so it is indeed true that

for some k ≥ 1. To prove the induction step, we need to prove

Using assumption (12.1),

Using the recursive relation of Fn ,

Thus, we proved that it is true for n = k + 1 if it is true for n = k.

where Fn denotes the n-th Fibonacci number.

Definition - Fibonacci Numbers: The Fibonacci numbers are a sequence

for some k ≥ 1. To prove the induction step, we need to prove