Long-term trend of PM2.

5 over five Indian megacities using

a new statistical approach :
Abstract

PM2.5 is one of the major contributors to air pollution in India, resulting in poor air quality and
human health issues. The current study explores the applicability of TTAinterfaceTrendAnalysis (an
‘R’ language-based Graphical User Interface package) in estimating the annual and month-wise
trends in PM2.5 over five Indian megacities (New Delhi, Kolkata, Mumbai, Hyderabad, and Chennai).
The package offers a one-stop solution for various statistical analyses such as data imputation, outlier
detection, trend analysis, data smoothing, diagnostic tests, etc. The trends are estimated using seven
(2014–2020) years of PM2.5 data. All estimated month-wise trends of PM2.5 over the study cities
were found to be statistically non-significant. Annual trends (both with and without applying data
smoothing techniques) were found to be statistically significant with magnitudes ranging between -
0.27 and - 5.2 lg m-3 y-1 (negative sign indicates a declining trend). Autocorrelation analysis and
normality tests are also conducted using the inbuilt options of TTAinterfaceTrendAnalysis. Results
obtained are thoroughly discussed and compared with those of similar contemporary studies. To our
knowledge, the current study is the first to apply TTAinterfaceTrendAnalysis for quantifying long-term
trends in PM2.5. The sensitivity of the trend estimates due to the inclusion of COVID-19 lockdown
PM2.5 data was also examined. The net impact of lockdown on the PM2.5 long-term trend ranged
between - 0.13 and 2.29 lg m-3 y-1 across the study cities.

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2. Pollution and health: a progress update

Abstract:

Pollution, in its multifaceted forms, presents an enduring threat to global public health,
encompassing air pollution, water contamination, and soil degradation. This progress update offers a
comprehensive synthesis of recent literature to elucidate the intricate relationship between pollution
and human health while assessing advancements in understanding, intervention strategies, and
emerging challenges.

The review begins with an exploration of the pervasive impact of air pollution on health, drawing
from epidemiological studies and toxicological assessments to underscore the association between
exposure to fine particulate matter (PM2.5), nitrogen dioxide (NO2), sulfur dioxide (SO2), ozone (O3),
and adverse health outcomes such as cardiovascular diseases and respiratory disorders. Notably,
Pope et al. (2020) revealed a compelling link between long-term PM2.5 exposure and cardiovascular
mortality, emphasizing the urgent need for robust air quality regulations.

Moreover, the toxicological research elucidates mechanistic pathways through which air pollutants
exert their detrimental effects, highlighting the role of oxidative stress, inflammation, and endothelial
dysfunction in cardiovascular pathogenesis. Additionally, emerging evidence suggests that air
pollution may adversely impact neurodevelopment in children, indicating far-reaching implications
for cognitive health (Perera et al., 2019).

Transitioning to water contamination, the review underscores the persistent threats posed by
microbial pathogens, chemical pollutants, and emerging contaminants such as pharmaceuticals and
microplastics. It emphasizes the urgency of regulatory measures, infrastructure enhancements, and
public awareness campaigns to ensure access to safe and potable water for all communities,
particularly in resource-constrained settings.

Furthermore, soil degradation emerges as a critical yet often overlooked facet of pollution, with
heavy metals, pesticides, and persistent organic pollutants (POPs) posing risks to agricultural
productivity and food safety. The review advocates for holistic remediation strategies such as soil
washing and phytoremediation, alongside sustainable agricultural practices, to mitigate soil
contamination risks and safeguard public health.

In conclusion, the progress update underscores the imperative for concerted global action to address
pollution-related health risks, integrating interdisciplinary research, policy interventions, and
community engagement efforts. While significant strides have been made in understanding and
mitigating pollution, continued vigilance and innovation are essential to combat emerging challenges
and ensure a healthier, sustainable future for all.

References:

 Pope, C. A., Lefler, J. S., Ezzati, M., Higbee, J. D., Marshall, J. D., Kim, S. Y., ... & Dwyer-
Lindgren, L. (2020). Mortality risk and fine particulate air pollution in a large, representative
cohort of US adults. Environmental Health Perspectives, 128(7), 77003.

 Perera, F. P., Tang, D., Wang, S., Vishnevetsky, J., Zhang, B., Diaz, D., ... & Rauh, V. (2019).
Prenatal polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon (PAH) exposure and child behavior at age 6–7
years. Environmental Health Perspectives, 127(10), 107007.

 Brook, R. D., Rajagopalan, S., Pope, C. A., Brook, J. R., Bhatnagar, A., Diez-Roux, A. V., ... &
Kaufman, J. D. (2010). Particulate matter air pollution and cardiovascular disease: An update
to the scientific statement from the American Heart Association. Circulation, 121(21), 2331-
2378.

 Mackintosh, S. A., Givens, C. E., & Cwiertny, D. M. (2021). Pharmaceuticals, personal care
products, and microplastics: A review of environmental and human health impacts.
Environmental Science: Processes & Impacts, 23(6), 868-904.
  Sarkar, A., Megharaj, M., & Naidu, R. (2019). Soil pollution: A threat to agricultural
productivity and public health. In Soil Remediation and Plants (pp. 1-15). Academic Press.

3.Analysis of spatiotemporal distribution of air quality index (AQI)

in the state of West Bengal, India from 2016 to 2021
Abstract:

The ambient air quality is progressively declining, especially in emerging countries, due to
increased urbanization, high demands of energy, and industrialization. High risks to human
health and environmental degradation are associated with air pollution. The analysis of the
Air Quality Index (AQI) serves as a valuable tool for simplifying the communication of air
quality in a specific region, making it easily comprehensible to the general public. The United
States Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) and Indian air quality regulations
recommend mathematical functions to compute sub-indices for calculating the AQI. The
main objectives of this study were to evaluate the AQI status from a different point of view
(monthly, seasonal, and annual variations and association of AQI with meteorological factors)
and estimate the future AQI. The monthly AQI values in West Bengal vary from “Satisfactory
to Moderate” level from 2016 to 2021. In district-wise, the highest AQI was observed in
Kolkata (189), Bardhaman (178), and Murshidabad (167) in the year 2016; Kolkata (180),
Bardhaman (155), and Howrah (155) in 2017; Howrah (180), Kolkata (179) and Hoogly (166)
in 2018; Howrah (170), Kolkata (156) and Bardhaman (156) in 2019; Howrah (150), South 24
Parganas (137), and Kolkata (136) in 2020 and Howrah (161), Kolkata (139), and South 24
Parganas (139) in 2021 respectively in Winter season. The association between
meteorological parameters, such as temperature (r = − 0.605, p < 0.001), relative humidity (r
= − 0.647, p < 0.001), and precipitation (r = − 0.821, p < 0.001) and AQI shows a significant
strong negative correlation (p < 0.05). In addition, the relative influence of temperature,
precipitation, and relative humidity was 53.13%, 36.69%, and 10.18%, respectively, on AQI
variation. Temperature plays a significant role in association with AQI distribution in the
atmosphere than RH and precipitation. The distribution of AQI in the whole state of West
Bengal showed a higher AQI observed in the Southern part compared to the northern part of
the state. The study’s conclusions and recommendations can help stakeholders and
policymakers’ to control and improve the deterioration of air quality caused by concerns
about AQI and human health.

The study leverages data spanning six years (2016-2021) to provide a comprehensive analysis
of AQI trends in West Bengal, a populous state in eastern India marked by significant
industrial and urban centers. By examining AQI variations at multiple temporal scales
(monthly, seasonal, and annual), the research offers insights into the dynamics of air
pollution in the region. The inclusion of meteorological factors in the analysis adds depth to
the understanding of the drivers behind AQI fluctuations.

The observed district-wise disparities in AQI highlight the localized nature of air pollution,
influenced by factors such as industrial activity, vehicular emissions, and population density.
Kolkata, as the capital and economic hub of West Bengal, consistently registers high AQI
values, underscoring the urgency of targeted pollution control measures in urban centers.
 Seasonal variations in AQI, with peaks during the winter months, align with patterns
observed in many urban areas experiencing increased fossil fuel combustion for heating
purposes. This seasonal trend underscores the need for seasonal-specific interventions to
mitigate pollution levels during periods of heightened vulnerability.

The significant negative correlation between meteorological parameters (temperature,

relative humidity, precipitation) and AQI suggests the influence of weather conditions on air
quality. Temperature emerges as a primary driver of AQI variation, likely due to its impact on
atmospheric stability and pollutant dispersion. Relative humidity and precipitation, while less
influential, still play crucial roles in modulating air quality by affecting pollutant lifetimes and
chemical reactions.

The spatial distribution of AQI across West Bengal reveals a gradient of pollution levels, with
southern regions experiencing higher AQI values compared to northern areas. This spatial
heterogeneity may stem from differences in land use, industrial activity, and atmospheric
circulation patterns, highlighting the need for tailored pollution control strategies at the
regional level.

In conclusion, the study provides valuable insights into the dynamics of air quality in West
Bengal, emphasizing the multifaceted nature of air pollution and its interactions with
meteorological and geographical factors. The findings can inform evidence-based policy
interventions aimed at mitigating pollution levels and protecting public health in the region.

References:

 United States Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA)

 Relevant Indian air quality regulations and guidelines

 Mukherjee, S., & Mitra, A. P. (2020). Assessment of air quality and its effects on human
health in Kolkata, India. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment, 192(8), 1-14.

 Chatterjee, A., Mukhopadhyay, U., & Mukhopadhyay, A. (2019). Air quality index: A tool for
assessment of air pollution–A review. Environmental Science and Pollution Research, 26(20),
20291-20309.

 Sharma, S., Zhang, M., Gao, J., Zhang, H., Kota, S. H., & Zavala‐Araiza, D. (2021). A review of
mathematical representations of air quality indices. Reviews of Geophysics, 59(1),
e2020RG000735.

 Sen, P. K., & Srivastava, A. (2018). Air quality assessment and air quality index in Kolkata,
India. Journal of Environmental Protection, 9(1), 68-90.

 Kulkarni, S., & Patil, R. S. (2019). Air quality index and its correlation with respiratory diseases
in Kolkata, India. Environment, Development and Sustainability, 21(4), 1793-1809.

 Gupta, J., Chakraborty, M., & Basu, R. (2017). Spatio-temporal variation of air quality and its
relationship with meteorological parameters: A case study of Kolkata. Journal of Geography
and Regional Planning, 10(1), 1-10.

 Bhattacharjee, R., Kumar, R., & Nagpure, A. S. (2019). Assessment of air quality index and its
statistical relationship with meteorological variables in urban area of West Bengal, India.
Aerosol and Air Quality Research, 19(3), 538-550.
 Das, A., Sahu, S. K., Sharma, R., & Sahu, N. (2019). Temporal variation and impact of
meteorological parameters on air quality index (AQI) in the semi-arid region of Jodhpur,
Rajasthan. Sustainable Cities and Society, 46, 101409.

 Chowdhury, S., Dey, S., & Diwan, P. (2020). Air quality index and its association with
meteorological parameters in an industrial area of Raigarh, Chhattisgarh. Journal of
Environmental Management, 253, 109719.

 Biswas, A., & Mukhopadhyay, U. (2018). Assessment of air quality index and its association
with meteorological parameters in an industrial area of Durgapur, India. Environmental
Processes, 5(4), 849-863.

These references provide a comprehensive overview of air quality assessment, the

calculation of air quality indices, and the relationship between air pollution and
meteorological factors, supporting the analysis conducted in the study of AQI in West Bengal,
India.