Food Research International 156 (2022) 111186

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Food Research International

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Review

Investigation of natural food fortificants for improving various properties of

fortified foods: A review
Siddharth Vishwakarma *, Chandrakant Genu Dalbhagat, Shubham Mandliya,
Hari Niwas Mishra
Agricultural and Food Engineering Department, Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur, Kharagpur, West Bengal 721 302, India

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Micronutrient malnutrition (MNM) is called “hidden hunger” due to its invisible vitamin-minerals deficiency
Food-to-food fortification symptoms in an individual. In most cases, the prime victim of MNM is children and women. Different strategies
Natural fortificants such as dietary diversification, supplementation, biofortification, and food fortification are used to fight MNM;
Nutritional properties
however, each method has its own merits and demerits. Therefore, this review discusses an alternate approach,
Mixture design
Linear programming
“food-to-food fortification (FtFF),” for combating MNM through enriching the daily diet with essential micro­
Processing technology nutrients. The main principle behind FtFF is the addition of one or more micronutrient-dense food/s in
commonly consumable products. The review highlighted potential natural fortificants rich in iron, folate, zinc,
protein, β-carotene, calcium, potassium, and fiber previously used under FtFF. These fortificants are basil,
moringa, marjoram, thyme, mint, garden cress, amaranth, fenugreek, and defatted coconut flour. Their effect on
nutritional and other properties like antioxidants and antimicrobial, after consuming fortified food, are discussed
in detail. At higher substitution levels, a significant impact on sensory and physiochemical properties was
observed. Therefore, suitable formulation strategies like mixture design and linear programming were advised to
be used before FtFF. A tabulated data on micro-and macronutrients content of fortificants are described for ease
in formulation. The review also focused on the latest processing technology in FtFF used for fortifying foods like
biscuits, pasta, bread, snack, flakes, porridge, ladoo, dhokla, and many more.

1. Introduction therefore, it is also termed as “Hidden Hunger” (Dalbhagat & Mishra,

The physical, social, and economic requirements of sufficient, safe,
and nutritious food to all age groups based on their dietary requirements
and food preferences should be met for an active and healthy life (FAO,
2006). However, it does not generally happen at the ground root level,
and a significant segment of the population sleeps every day with an
empty stomach. The adverse effect of this can be observed in all age
groups, but the first victims are always children and women. According
to the Development Initiatives (2020), hungry people in the world is one
out of nine and one in every three is overweight or obese. This existed
combination of undernutrition with overweight, obesity and other diet-
related non-communicable diseases is a big problem to be tackled by
government policies.
Micronutrient malnutrition (MNM) is a silent epidemic and is not
visible to the naked eye unless and until some adverse effect is observed;
2021). It is caused by regular intake of low micronutrient content or low
bioavailable micronutrient diet (Tam et al., 2020). However, sufficient
intake of micronutrients at regular basis can cure MNM and also help in
boosting immunity and fitness (Maggini et al., 2018).
The deficient micronutrients in the diet can be supplied to the
affected population through various techniques like dietary diversifi­
cation, supplementation, biofortification, and food fortification (Ram­
adas et al., 2020). Each technique has some advantages and
disadvantages but the novel approach in managing micronutrients using
the food-based strategy is the food-to-food fortification (FtFF). It is the
approach to add micro-or macro-nutrient dense food into nutrient
deficient foods for increasing its nutritional properties (Kruger et al.,
2020; Vishwakarma et al., 2021). It uses different plant-based foods and
their combination to enrich the diet. The FtFF in processed foods like
snack, pasta, biscuit, bread, etc. can provide multiple nutritional &

* Corresponding author at: Food Chemistry and Technology Laboratory, Agricultural and Food Engineering Department, Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur,
Kharagpur, West Bengal 721 302, India.
E-mail address: siddharth.vishwakarmar08@gmail.com (S. Vishwakarma).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodres.2022.111186
Received 19 September 2021; Received in revised form 19 March 2022; Accepted 22 March 2022
Available online 25 March 2022
0963-9969/© 2022 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
S. Vishwakarma et al.
health benefits and can contribute to fighting against MNM. However,
the knowledge of availability of potential fortificants and its level under
FtFF is unclear. Its effect on nutritional properties, physiochemical
properties and sensory properties of fortified food is limitedly known.
Therefore, this review article summarises the use of different natural
fortificants in food fortification and their effect on improving micro-and
macro-nutrient content under FtFF. The improvement in additional
properties like antioxidant and antimicrobial activity was also dis­
cussed. The technology for FtFF and its formulation technique was
described briefly. At last, the effect of FtFF on physico-chemical and
sensory properties of fortified foods was reviewed, which can help food
processors, scientists, and technologists to develop a balanced
micronutrient-rich processed food for the long-term fight against MNM.
2. Food to food fortification for combating against MNM
The regular intake of pre-requisite quantity of bioavailable micro­
nutrient can fight effectively against MNM. The different strategies
adopted for alleviating it are shown in Fig. 1.
Dietary diversification is defined as adopting various types of
micronutrient-rich foods in the diet via traditional food preservation and
processing methods for improving micronutrient intake and other viable
nutritive factors like antioxidants, probiotics, etc (Allen et al., 2006;
FAO, 2006). Its success depends on the availability of various
micronutrient-rich foods at home for a longer time, households’ pur­
chasing capacity, and ease in accepting changes in dietary behavior
(Kruger et al., 2020; Podder et al., 2017). However, the challenges like
slow returns, lack of evidence base, lack of measurable endpoints, and
affordability issues have made its application limited (Nair et al., 2016).
Supplementation is the term used to describe the process of
providing relatively large doses or optimum amount of micronutrients
(single or multiple types), generally in the form of pills, capsules, tablets,
drops, or syrups (FAO, 2006; Tam et al., 2020). This method is mostly
regarded as an effective and fastest short-term strategy to control, pre­
vent, and sometimes solve the micronutrient deficiencies in the
Fig. 1. Strategies to combat against various forms of micronutrient malnutrition.
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Food Research International 156 (2022) 111186
individuals or population groups (Bailey et al., 2015; Podder et al.,
2017). But the risk of overdose, adverse micronutrient interaction,
limited reach, poor government policies and administrative infirmities
have prevented its successful implementation among deficient popula­
tion groups (Lockyer et al., 2018).
Biofortification is deliberately increasing levels of essential micro­
nutrients like vitamins and minerals in the food crop through modern
biotechnology practices (Kruger et al., 2020). Conventional practices
involves crossbreeding of staple crops with micronutrient-rich crops
whereas agronomic technique apply micronutrient-rich fertilizers
directly to the crop’s edible portion and last transgenic biofortification
made targeted delivery of micronutrient through insertion of genes
(Lockyer et al., 2018). Besides producing good outcomes (Ramadas
et al., 2020), high variability, labor-intensive, expensive & long-time
research (for both conventional and agronomic), uneven current polit­
ical and economic landscape (for transgenic biofortification) are the
challenges still need to be solve for long lasting application (Garg et al.,
2018).
Food fortification is defined as the method of deliberately increasing
the content of one or more essential micronutrients in food, whether or
not generally present, to prevent or correct the demonstrated deficiency
in population or specific population groups (Allen et al., 2006; FSSAI,
2018). It has a much wider and more sustained impact on providing
essential micronutrients to targeted populations (FAO, 2006) and many
fortification programs run in both developed and developing countries
(Bailey et al., 2015). In some countries, it has become mandatory and/or
going to become mandatory to add micronutrients in certain staple foods
(Chadare et al., 2019; McAuliffe et al., 2020). However, most outcomes
from fortification are mostly research analyzed under small-scale and
pilot-scale manufacturing whose application into large-scale production
for consumers is limited. Uniform mixing of small quantities of for­
tificants in the flour, stability of the added micronutrients and signifi­
cant changes in sensory properties are the major areas for improvement
in the field of food fortification (Bailey et al., 2015; Habeych et al.,
2016).
S. Vishwakarma et al.
The FtFF is defined as a strategy of adding one or more than one
micronutrient-dense food to a recipe or the replacement of nutrient
deficient/antinutrient rich ingredient, to effectively enhance the quan­
tity of bioavailable micronutrient/s, in view of satisfying the population
with low intake of bioavailable micronutrients (Kruger et al., 2020).
This approach helps to improve the overall micronutrient level of staple
or regular foods. The prime goal of FtFF is to provide nutrient-rich foods
to cover the daily dietary requirements without losing sensory accept­
ability. Over time, classical fortification has become frequent in use;
however, its aim has changed to improve people’s health instead of
deficiencies’ prevention (Chadare et al., 2019). Thus, for combating
micronutrient deficiency and even improving public health, locally
available foods should be added as natural fortificants in the staple food
and processed foods. These foods must be rich in one or more than one
type of micronutrient and may include the advantage of providing some
additional non-targeted properties such as protein, dietary fiber, and
antioxidants.
For the FtFF, the prominent source of natural fortificants is mostly
plant-based food due to safety and ease in availability among the target
population. The practice should be like to first select the micronutrient-
rich foods known as fortifying food and then blend with the common
staple food to provide the required micronutrient levels with minimum
changes in consumer acceptability (Chadare et al., 2019). For instance,
the baobab fruit powder rich in vitamins A, C, E, F, proteins, fiber,
carbohydrates, iron, zinc, calcium, and potassium were used as fortify­
ing food and added in the fermented cereal-based dough mostly made
from maize (Adejuyitan et al., 2012). The greatest role of fortifying food
is increasing the micronutrient level and filling the sensory, biological,
and physical gaps. It was observed that the vitamin A status of pre-
schoolers attending day-care centers in South India had been
improved due to the consumption of sweetened products fortified from
β-carotene-rich blue-green alga spirulina (Annapurna et al., 1991).
In FtFF, fortification level of nutrient-rich food can be varied from
1% to 50%, based on various factors like compatibility of the vehicle
(the staple food), nature of fortificants, consumer acceptability of the
final fortified product, and sensory quality (Chadare et al., 2019). In
some cases, <20% of the fortification rate was enough to obtain the
required level of micronutrients and sensory acceptability. For example,
only 2% and 3% of M. oleifera leaves fortification in Labneh cheese and
buttermilk, respectively, were sufficient to enrich their nutritional
properties (Abdullahi et al., 2014). On the other hand, 15% of
dry M. oleifera leaves fortification in the maize-ogi provided the required
micronutrient level in the final product (Abioye & Aka, 2015). The
fortification of sorghum ogi with pawpaw fruit at 40% substitution levels
showed the increased nutritional value of ogi without affecting the
sensory quality (Chadare et al., 2019). This high level of fortification has
the advantage of uniform mixing with staple food without any need for
specialized dosing equipment (Kruger et al., 2020).
The objectives of the food fortification and FtFF can be similar, but
the approach is different. It does not mean that the FtFF should be used
to replace the conventional food fortification, but rather viewed as an
additional strategy to combat micronutrient deficiencies that help other
strategies focus on the same goal. Those homes that produce their staple
food, and areas where it is difficult to supply fortified foods from clas­
sical fortification, then local produce rich in micronutrients can be
added in a recommended quantity during the cooking of staple foods.
For example, those vegetables eaten daily can be fortified with nutrient-
dense food like basil. These processes of food compositing/blending
from a household method are safe and have the potential to get stan­
dardized and work on a commercial scale (Kruger et al., 2020).
It can be seemed to have some similarity in the approach of FtFF and
dietary diversification. Actually, the later mostly focus on ingredient
variability for having nutrient rich diet. Instead, the FtFF follows the
process of adding nutrient rich food in the staple diet in achieving target
levels of one or more than one type of micro-and/or macro nutrient. The
staple diet can be local foods and/or processed foods like snack, pasta,
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Food Research International 156 (2022) 111186
biscuit, bread, cookies, etc.
3. Potential natural fortificants for food-to-food fortification
The selection of potential natural fortificants under the FtFF method
is based on several factors such as (i) type of micronutrient-rich foods,
(ii) different micronutrients present in food, (iii) quantity of micro­
nutrients present in food, (iv) effect on sensory properties of food
vehicle, and (v) consumer acceptability. There are plenty of foods that
are rich in either one or many micronutrients. For instance, basil,
spearmint, and marjoram leaves in their dried form are highly rich in
iron, folate, vitamins B1 and B2; mature yardlong beans, raw and mature
moth beans, cowpeas mature seeds, and chickpeas beans are rich in
folate; paprika, cayenne pepper, and chili powder are rich in vitamins A,
B3, and B6 (Kaur et al., 2018; Longvah et al., 2017; United States
Department of Agriculture, 2019). The natural fortificants reported in
many literatures in context with FtFF are described in this review:
thyme, basil, spearmint, peppermint, marjoram, moringa, garden cress
seeds, amaranth seeds, fenugreek seeds, and coconut meal. The detailed
micronutrient and macronutrient concentration in natural fortificants
suitable for FtFF is enlisted in Table 1 and Table 2, respectively.
3.1. Moringa
Moringa (Moringa oleifera) is an herb known for centuries for its
nutrient-dense and medicinal properties because of containing 46
powerful antioxidants, 18 amino acids (8 essential amino acids), 36 anti-
inflammatory compounds, and 90 natural nutrients such as vitamins and
minerals (Candriasih et al., 2019). Adding a few spoonsful Moringa leaf
powder in the food can increase many macro-and micro-nutrients con­
tent, making it more nutritious for healthy individuals (Tessera et al.,
2015). It is regarded as the mother’s best friend due to its ability to
increase milk production in the nursing mother (Chukwuebuka, 2015).
The world health organization (WHO) has promoted it since 1988 as an
alternative food to overcome malnutrition (Sihotang et al., 2018).
A study on the rat’s induced aniline has shown anti-anemia activity
by moringa leaves extract (Elgaml et al., 2018). Furthermore, the use of
moringa has increased the iron and zinc content of fortified foods such as
ogi (Abioye & Aka, 2015), cow cheese (Elgaml et al., 2018) and biscuits
(Candriasih et al., 2019; Tessera et al., 2015). The effect of moringa on
improvement in micronutrient contents in the processed food can be
seen in Table 3.
3.2. Thymes
Thymes (Thymus vulgaris L.) is another herb containing high iron,
folate, and zinc (Table 1). This is an aromatic herb found in the Medi­
terranean region and belongs to the Lamiaceae family. The thyme leaves
are mostly used for providing flavor, aroma, and preservation to meat
and fish (Al-Badr, 2011). Phenols and flavonoids are the most important
bioactive agents found in thyme, preventing food from self-oxidation
(Menati et al., 2018). Other properties of thyme are anti-
inflammatory, antithrombotic, anti-Alzheimer’s disease, and DNA pro­
tectiveness (Hedges & Lister, 2007). Instead of these properties, thyme
can be used to fight against anemia due to improvement in the body’s
iron content, as mentioned in Table 3 (Abu Jadayil et al., 1999).
3.3. Dried basil
Basil (Ocimum sanctum) is a culinary herb belonging to the Lamiaceae
(mints) family. It originated in north-central India back to 5000 years
ago and has grown throughout the eastern world tropics (Trivedi et al.,
2014). The Holy basil is regarded as “The Queen of Herb” and “elixir of
life” in Ayurveda due to its diverse healing properties and believed to
promote longevity (Cohen, 2014). In addition, the dried form of basil
has very high iron, folate, and vitamin B2 content (Table 1) and was used
S. Vishwakarma et al. Food Research International 156 (2022) 111186

Table 1
Micronutrient content of the natural fortificants suitable for food-to-food fortification.
Fortificants Iron (mg) Zinc Vit-A Vit-B1 Vit-B2 Vit-B3 Vit-B6 Folate Vit-C Calcium Potassium Copper
(mg) (mg) (mg) (mg) (mg) (mg) (mg) (mg) (g) (g) (mg)

Dried thyme 95.29(1), 6.03(10) 0.18(10) 0.50(10) 0.39(10) 4.82(10) 0.54(10) 0.27(10) 48.80(10) 1.84(10) 0.79(10) 0.84(10)
120.64(10)
Dried Basil 90.15(10) 7.13(10) 0.04(10) 0.08(10) 1.21(10) 4.92(10) 1.34(10) 0.31(10) 0.80(10) 2.25(10) 2.64(10) 2.11(10)
Dried 48.88(6), 2.44(10), 0.54(10), 0.11(6), 1.08(6), 4.23(6), 0.97(6), 0.54(10), NF 1.17(6), 1.95(10), 1.56(10),
Spearmint 88.50(11), 4.28(6) 26.28(6) 0.29(10) 1.44(10) 6.66(10) 2.62(10) 0.60(6) 1.51(10) 3.08(6) 2.11(6)
88.75(10),
Dried 80.26(2), 3.51(10), 0.40(10) 0.28(10) 0.31(10) 4.01(10) 1.16(10) 0.267(10) 50.08(10) 0.20(2), 1.48(10), 1.10(10),
Marjoram 80.60(10) 3.49(2) 1.94(10) 0.52(2) 1.13(2)
Fenugreek 8.27(6), 3.71(6), 0.14(6) 0.27(6) 0.137(6), 1.16(6) 0.75(6) 0.50(6) 83.95(7), 0.09g(7), 0.87(6) 1.13(6)
seeds 54.60(7), 6.97(7), 34.36(7), 100.82g(7) 0.09(7),
89.93g(7) 10.86g(7) 49.90g(7) 0.13(6)
Fenugreek 38.59(6) 3.66(6) 62.70 (6) 0.75(6) 1.49(6) 4.75(6) 2.58(6) 0.51(6) NF 1.86(6) 1.53(6) 1.22(6)
leaves
Amaranth 9.32(6), 2.66(6), NF 0.04(6) 0.04(6) 0.45(6) 0.45(6) 0.27(6) NF 0.08(4), 0.43(6) 0.81(6)
seed, black 8.7(8), 4.21(4), 0.186)
13.67 (4) 4.47(8)
Amaranth 30.64(6), 4.47(3), 55.84(6) 0.07(6) 1.78(6) 4.09(6) 1.45(6) 0.54(6) NF 2.18(6) 3.76(6) 1.39(6)
leaf 94.54(3) 5.68(6)
powder
Garden 16.23(6), 4.56(6) NF 0.49(6) 0.14(6) 5.35(6) 0.05(6) 0.29(6) NF 0.30(6) 0.51(6) 0.48(6)
cress, 84.07(7)
seeds
Dried 7.39(9), 2.31(5), 64.84 (6) 0.22(6) 1.66(6) 3.03(6) 3.22(6) 0.16(6) NF 1.16(6), 1.47(6) 1.63(6)
moringa 16.85(6), 2.66(6) 1.61(5)
141.98(5)

(1) Al-Sayyed and Takruri (2007); (2) Al Garni and Hafez (2015); (3) Beswa et al. (2016); (4) Emire and Arega (2012); (5) Jalgaonkar et al. (2018); (6) Longvah et al.
(2017); (7) Mahmoud et al. (2012); (8) Sanz-Penella et al. (2013); (9) Sihotang et al. (2018); (10) United States Department of Agriculture (2019); (11) Zahra et al.
(2020); g = germinated, All fortificants have a moisture content of 10% wet basis, NF = Not found, Vit = Vitamin.

Table 2
Proximate analysis of natural fortificants suitable for food-to-food fortification.
Fortificants Energy (kcal/100 g) Protein content (g/ Fat content (g/ Crude fibre (g/100 g) Ash content (g/100 g) Carbohydrate content
100 g) 100 g) (g/100 g)

Dried thyme 269.38(11), 302.74(1) 8.89(11), 17.50(1) 7.25(11), 3.39(1) 7.57 (1), 36.11(11) 10.98 (1), 11.46 (11) 50.54(1), 62.41(11)
Dried Basil 233.91(11) 23.07(11) 4.09(11) 37.85(11) 14.91(11) 47.94(11)
Dried Spearmint 211.52(8), 289.18(11), 20.08(12), 20.22(11), 3.71(8), 6.12(11) 30.24(11), 30.18(12), 10.86(11), 12.45(8), 13.65(8), 52.80(11)
26.61(8) 33.64(8) 22.19(12)
Dried Marjoram 264.07(11) 11.69(3), 12.34(11), 6.86(11), 7.04(2) 15.31(2), 15.95(3), 8.62(4), 9.58(3), 59.01(11)
12.66(2), 13.22(4) 19.07(4), 39.27(11) 11.79(11), 12.10(2)
Fenugreek seeds 229.38(8), 363.03g(9), 24.81(8), 27.88(9), 5.58(8), 6.82g(9), 7.32 (5), 9.79(9), 11g(9), 2.86(8), 3.23(5), 10.32(8), 41.53g(9),
386.26(9), 29.18(5), 32.21g(9) 8.36(9), 46.42(8) 4.50g(9), 5.86(9) 49.87(9), 53.41(5)
Fenugreek leaves 233.38(8) 24.96(8) 5.63(8) 33.23(8) 11.46(8) 14.72(8)
Amaranth seed, 249.61(6), 355.68(8) 14.13(6), 14.57(8) 5.73(8), 7.45(6) 5.78(6), 7.01(8) 2.38 (6), 2.78(8) 33.52 (6), 59.91(8)
black
Amarnath leaf 208.33(8) 20.40(8), 31.63(5) 2.94(5), 3.50(8) 2.94(5), 30.37(8) 10.32 (5)
, 16.84(8) 18.95(8), 27.48(5)
powder,
Garden cress, 420.07(8), 489.28(10) 22.04(8), 29.19(10) 22.40(8), 7.80(8) 5.32(10), 6.01(8) 6.54 (10), 31.75(8)
seeds 34.75(10)
Dried moringa 260.57(8) 17.03(7), 23.69(8), 5.19(7), 6.06(8) 4.15 (5), 30.34(8) 3.99(5), 9.09(8), 15.95 (5), 20.77(
30.79(5) 10.09(7)

Al-Sayyed and Takruri (2007); (2) Al Garni and Hafez (2015); (3) Ali (2014); (4) Bakr et al. (2017); (5) Dhawi et al. (2020); (6) Emire and Arega (2012); (7) Jalgaonkar
et al. (2018); (8) Longvah et al. (2017); (9) Mahmoud et al. (2012); (10) Mohite et al. (2012); (11) United States Department of Agriculture (2019); (12) Zahra et al.
(2020); g = germinated, All fortificants have a moisture content of 10% wet basis.

as natural fortificants in cookies, snacks, and cakes (Table 3). 3.5. Mint

Mint belongs to the Lamiaceae family and comprises 25–30 species.

3.4. Dried marjoram
The most popular species of mint is spearmint, also known as common
mint (Kaur et al., 2018). This has a close relative named peppermint,
Marjoram (Majorana hortensis) is a very popular aromatic, perennial
which has similar advantages as common mint. Earlier, this peppermint
and herbaceous plant (Al Garni & Hafez, 2015; Ali, 2014), especially in
was used for whitening teeth, but nowadays is used for flavoring
Mediterranean countries. It is considered to be a carminative expecto­
toothpaste. In addition, spearmint and peppermint have various other
rant and tonic. It contains exceptionally high levels of β-carotene,
properties like antioxidant, antitumor, fungicidal, antibacterial, anti­
zeaxanthin, lutein, vitamin A and cryptoxanthin. Later three are
viral, insecticidal, and antiallergenic activities (Paknejad et al., 2020).
powerful antioxidants and work as protective scavengers against
Apart from these properties, both mints are rich in nutrients (Table 1 &
oxygen-derived free radicals (Sharangi & Guha, 2013). The most widely
2), whose fortification in fruit bars and snacks has increased iron, zinc,
studied properties of marjoram are its ability to improve the hemoglobin
calcium, β-carotene, protein, and fiber content (Table 3).
(Hb) of the body, mainly due to its high iron and folate content (Table 1).

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Table 3
Effect of investigated fortificants on the nutritional properties of food-to-food fortified products.
Form Food vehicle FF levels (%) Improved Improved Improvement in Optimal FF level Reference
micronutrient content macronutrient other properties
(mg/100 g) content (g/100 g)

Moringa (Moringa oleifera)

Powder Maize-ogi 10 & 15 Fe12.77, Zn0.63, bc1.06, P17.63 & CF3.37 (15%) Swelling capacity 10% → SA Abioye and Aka
Cu0.53, Ca445.1 & (2015)
K233.3(15%)
Powder Cow cheese 1, 3 & 6 Fe9.02, Zn4.35, Ca567.67, P22.87 (3%) AOX 3% → SA on milk Elgaml et al.
K114.33, Vit-A0.16, B20.69, and curd (2018)
B50.98 & E0.66 (3%)
Extract Cow cheese 1, 3 & 6 Fe6.85, Zn3.92, Ca557.33, P23.28 (3%) AOX & AMB 3% → SA on milk
K96.33, Vit-A0.14, B20.69, and curd
B50.89 & E0.51(3%)
Blanched Wheat biscuit 33, 45 & 50 Fe13.39 & Zn7.72 (50%) P11.52 (50%) ng 45% → SA Candriasih et al.
powder (2019)
Flour Wheat biscuit 5, 10, 15 & 20 Fe7.77, Zn1.06 & Ca486.78 ng ng 5% → higher Fe Tessera et al.
(20%) bioavailability (2015)
Powder Semolina and 3, 5 & 8 Fe12.58, Zn3.87 & Ca38.46 P12.44
& Ash 0.94
(5%) Flavonoid, carotenoid 3% → SA and Jalgaonkar et al.
millet-based (3%) & AOX activity cooking attributes (2018)
pasta
Powder Wheat and 1, 2, 3, 4 & 5 Fe4.68, Zn2.78, Ca88.50, P3.00, CF3.00 & Ash2.75 TPC, flavonoid, AOX & 3% → SA Kaur et al.
chickpea snack Cu17.46 & bc98.10 (3%) (3%) RSA (2018)
Soaked seed Buffalo 0.1 & 0.2 Fe0.71, Zn0.06, Ca193.30 & ng AMB, AOX, TPC & 0.2% → NA Dhawi et al.
powder yoghurt K85.40 (0.2%) viability culture (2020)
powder Millet snack 5, 10 & 15 Fe9.91, Zn2.30 & Ca437.40 P9.68
(15%) AOX activity 15%→ NA Mounika et al.
(15%) (2021)
powder White bread 5 & 10 Fe16.55, Zn2.95 & Ca0.15 P14.59, Ash2.54 & ng 5%→ SA Govender and
(10%) NDF14.77 (10%) Siwela (2020)
Brown bread Fe30.95, Zn3.10 & Ca0.09 P13.34, Ash2.62 &
(10%) NDF17.75 (10%)

Thymes (Thymus vulgaris L.)

Powder Basal rat diet 1.25, 2.5 & Fe15.50 (10%) ng Tannin 1.25% → weight Al-Sayyed and
10 loss Takruri (2007)

Basil (Ocimum sanctum)

Powder Cookies 14, 16 & 18 Fe15.30 (18%) P14.44, CF6.85 & Decrease in rancidity 18% → NA Akbar et al.
Ash2.66 (18%) (2020)
Powder Wheat and 1, 2, 3, 4 & 5 Fe4.48, Zn2.96, Ca77.94, P11.35, CF3.20 & TPC, AOX, RSA & 3% → SA Kaur et al.
chickpea snack Cu9.72 & bc0.09 (3%) Ash2.80 (3%) flavonoid (2018)
Powder Rice cake 1 Fe0.45, Ca15.03, Mg26.40 & DF2.36 (1%) No change in body & ng Kharsahnoh
K83.40 (1%) texture et al. (2021)

Spearmint (Mentha spicata L.)

Powder Fruit bar 3.96, 5, 7.50, Fe18.53 (7.50%) P5.51, CF11.23 & SA of fruit bar 7.5 % → Zahra et al.
10 & 11.03 Ash3.49 (7.5%) organoleptic (2020)
evaluation
Powder Wheat and 1, 2, 3, 4 & 5 Fe4.96, Zn2.81, Ca69, P12.02, CF3.20 & TPC, AOX, SA & 3% → SA Kaur et al.
chickpea snack Cu10.12 & bc0.08 (3%) Ash2.84 (3%) flavonoid (2018)

Garden cress seed (Lepidium sativum)

Flour Biscuits 5, 10 & 15 Fe13.60 (10%) P6.99, CF0.14 & Ash1.37 SA (10%) 10% → SA Rana and Kaur
(10%) (2016)
7.61
Ladoo 5, 10 & 15 Fe (10%) P14.91, CF0.82& Texture & taste 10% → SA
Ash2.13 (10%)
Namakpara 5, 10 & 15 Fe13.37 (10%) P8.21, CF0.19 & Ash1.93 ng 10% → SA
(10%)
Powder Dhokla mix 5 Fe8.52, Zn3.26, Cu0.99, P18.39 & CF1.31 (5%) In-vitro protein 5% Lohekar and
Ca123.28, bc0.126, B10.39, digestibility Arya (2014)
B20.18 & B32.59 (5%)
Flour Cookies 5 & 10 Fe8.10 (10%) P8.4, CF2.53 & Ash1.03 TPC & AOX 10% → NA, Shehata (2021)
(5%) haematological
response
Flour Potato cutlets 10, 20 & 30 Fe3.35, Zn2.30 & Ca124.15 P9.83, DF13.89 & SA 30% → SA John et al.
(30%) Ash2.43 (30%) (2020)
Flour Little millet 5 Fe65.83, Zn2.61 & Cu0.37 P8.43 (5%) Zero trans fat 5% Kotagi et al.
flakes (5%) (2013)
Flour Wheat cookies 10, 20 & 30 Fe44.58 & Ca199.70 (30%) ng Microbiologically safe 30% Nathiya and
more than 14 days Vigasini (2014)
Flour Corn-moth 2.5, 5, 7.5 & Fe21.30 (10%) P16.90, CF3.00 & Negligible change in 7.5 % → overall Sisodia and
bean snack 10 Ash4.50 (7.5%) taste & appearance acceptability Sadana (2015)
Flour Corn-moth 2.5, 5 & 7.5 Fe21.30, Ca56.30 & Zn3.10 P16.90, CF3.00 & Methionine, lysine & 7.5 % → overall Sisodia and
bean snack (7.5%) Ash4.50 (7.5%) cystine acceptability Sadana (2016)
(continued on next page)

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S. Vishwakarma et al. Food Research International 156 (2022) 111186

Table 3 (continued )
Form Food vehicle FF levels (%) Improved Improved Improvement in Optimal FF level Reference
micronutrient content macronutrient other properties
(mg/100 g) content (g/100 g)

Flour SM Health 1, 2, 3, 4 & 5 Fe2.90 & Ca127.20 (3%) P3.44, CF1.22 & Ash0.85 SA 3% → overall Mohite et al.
drink (3%) acceptability (2012)
3.74 1.66 35.37
Roasted grain Biscuits 7.5 Fe , Zn & Ca P6.88, CF1.20 & Ash2.55 Lysine, protein & 7.5% Jain et al.
flour (7.5%) (7.5%) albumin (2017)

Amaranth (Amaranthus spp.)

Popped grain Wheat bread 10, 15 & 20 Fe6.54, Zn1.26, Cu0.46, P13.90, CF1.10 & AOX squalene 15% Bodroža-Solarov
flour K158.20 & Ca21.90 (20%) Ash1.32 (20%) et al. (2008)
Grain flour Wheat bread 5, 10, 15, 20, Fe4.31, Zn1.51 & Ca55.18 P10.78 & CF3.41 (15%) Water absorption, 10% → rheological Emire and Arega
25 & 30 (30%) decrease in gluten prop. and SA (2012)
Grain flour Wheat bread 10, 20, 30 & Fe4.37, Zn2.49, Cu0.42, P16.30, TF5.90 & Myo-inositol 20% → product Sanz-Penella
40 Ca0.10 & K0.32 (40%) Ash2.06 (40%) phosphates quality and NA et al. (2013)
Semolina: Pasta 65:35/8; Fe12.70(65:35/8), P19.04(65:35/4), Phenolic 65:35/4 → SA Cárdenas-
amaranth 65:35/4; Zn12.46(45:55/5), CF4.14(45:55/5) & Hernández et al.
flour/ dried 45:55/5; Ca665(65:35/0) & Ash2.82(65:35/8) (2016)
leaf flour 65:35/0; K1242.00(45:55/5)
45:55/5
Grain flour Cheese bread 10, 15 & 20 Fe0.64 & Ca140.00 (10%) P6.80, DF1.51 & Texture, flavour & 10% → SA & closer Lemos et al.
CHO38.5 (10%) overall acceptability prop. To control (2012)
Grain flour Maize porridge 35 Fe23.00 (35%) ng Iron 35% Macharia-Mutie
et al. (2012)
Leaf powder Wheat noodle 1, 2 & 3 Zn12.00, Ca0.10 & K0.28 P12.38, NDF12.36 & AOX ng Qumbisa et al.
(3%) Ash3.82 (3%) (2021)

Fenugreek (Trigonella Foenum-gracium)

Raw FGS Composite 5, 10, 15 & 20 Fe9.70, Zn5.20 & Ca63.80 P15.30 & TF17.30 Lysine ng Hooda and Jood
powder flour (20%) (20%) (2004)
Soak FGS Fe9.50, Zn5.10 & Ca62.80 P15.20 & TF15.10 ng
powder (20%) (20%)
Ger FGS powder Fe9.60, Zn5.10 & Ca62.90 P16.30 & TF13.40 20%
(20%) (20%)
Raw FGS Wheat bread 5, 10, 15 & 20 Fe8.09, Zn55.76 & Ca60.32 P13.06, CF1.97 & Lysine & In vitro starch 15% → Taste and Hooda and Jood
powder (20%) Ash1.63 (15%) digestibility overall (2005)
Soak FGS Fe7.83, Zn3.88 & Ca59.34 P12.92, CF2.11 & acceptability
powder (20%) Ash1.59 (15%)
Ger FGS powder Fe8.04, Zn3.98 & Ca59.48 P13.98, CF2.46 &
(20%) Ash1.70 (15%)
Debitter FGS Wheat rusk 5, 10, 15 & 20 Fe9.24, Ca67.3, K225.00 & P15.50, TF16.77 & TPC & AOX 15%→ NA, SA & Dhull et al.
powder Cu0.52 (20%) Ash1.97 (20%) AOX (2020)
Soak seed Buffalo 0.1 & 0.2 Fe0.65, Zn0.04, Ca184.00 & ng AMB & viability of 0.2% → NA Dhawi et al.
powder yoghurt K77.12 (0.2%) culture (2020)
Soak FGS Wheat biscuit 5, 10, 15 & 20 Fe7.44, Zn2.93 & Ca43.96 ng Decrease in phytic acid 10% → SA, AN, Nut. Ibrahium and
powder (10%) prop. Hegazy (2009)
Ger FGS powder Fe7.81, Zn3.19 & Ca47.89 ng
(10%)
Ger FGS powder Wheat biscuits 5, 10 & 20 Fe11.95, Ca56.17, Zn4.36, P15.31, CF5.46 & AOX & polyphenols 10% → SA, AN, Nut. Mahmoud et al.
bc1.61 & B221.09 (10%) Ash2.76 (10%) prop. (2012)

Coconut (Cocos nucifera L.)

Raw CCF Cookies 6 Fe6.01, Ca35.88 & K14.72 P8.90 (6%) SA & AOX 6% Tkachenko et al.
(6%) (2021)
Defatted CCF Wheat biscuit 5, 10, 15, 20 Fe5.97, Zn24.35, Ca24.35 & P5.97, CF3.55 & Ash0.73 Fatty acid profile 15% → acceptable Srivastava et al.
& 25 K442.05 (25%) (25%) SA and texture (2010)
Defatted CCF Wheat biscuit 14, 15, 17.5, Fe20.81 (25%) P15.15, CF2.40 & ng 20% → SA Sivakami and
20, 22.5 & 25 CHO42.00 (14%) Sarojini (2013)
1.22 1.23 16.89
Partially Composite 10, 20, 30, 40 Fe , Zn , K & P19.14, CF5.12 & Water absorption 50% → NA Makinde and
defatted CCF flour & 50 Ca2.59 (50%) Ash2.13 (50%) capacity & swelling Eyitayo (2019)
capacity
Raw CCF Biscuits 7 Fe3.33, Zn1.10 & Ca268.50 ng Bioavailability of Fe, 7% → NA Agrahar-
(7%) Ca & Zn Murugkar
(2020)
Partially Snack 20 & 25 Fe4.33, Vit-A5.34, B10.13, ng SA 20% → SA and NA Okafor and
defatted CCF B20.09 & B30.27 (25%) Ugwu (2014)

AMB = Antimicrobial, Antinutritional = AN, AOX = Antioxidant, B1 = Vitamin B1, B2 = Vitamin B2, B3 = Vitamin B3, B5 = Vitamin B5, bc = β-carotene, Ca = Calcium,
CCF = Coconut flour, CF = Crude fat, CHO = Carbohydrate, Cu = Copper, E = Vitamin E, Fe = Iron, FF = Fortification, FGS = Fenugreek seed, FL = Fenugreek leaves,
Germinated = Ger, K = Potassium, NA = Nutritional attributes, NDF = Non dietary fiber, ng = not given, Nutritional = Nut., P = Protein, RSA = Radical scavenging
activity, SA = Sensory attributes, TF = Total fiber, TPC = Total phenolic content, Zn = Zinc, superscript in symbol of nutrient in fourth and fifth column shows its
quantity in respective unit, percentage values inside the parentheses at fourth and fifth column showed the fortification level at which highest increase was noted,
prop. = properties, → = based on.

6
S. Vishwakarma et al.
3.6. Garden cress seeds
Garden cress seed (GCS) (Lepidium sativum) is an annual, rapid-
growing, perennial edible plant of the Brassicaceae family (Jain &
Grover, 2016). This seed has a botanical relationship with mustard and
generally does not come under common foodstuff. In India, it is widely
known as Halim, land cress, and common cress. The seeds have immense
health-promoting properties, so it was used to treat diarrhea, respiratory
disturbances, cough, bleeding piles, and anemia (Rana & Kaur, 2016).
The seeds contain the most notable concentration of protein (25.3%),
iron (100 mg/100 g) and vitamin B complex (0.59 mg/100 g thiamine;
0.61 mg/100 g riboflavin; 14.3 mg/100 g niacin) (Longvah et al., 2017).
In addition, this seed is regarded as a plant source containing the highest
iron ever known with better bioavailability (Yadav et al., 2010).
Therefore, the GCSs must be used as natural fortificants to fortify staple
foods or most commonly processed food in the local area to combat
malnutrition, anemia, and other micronutrient deficiencies. Its appli­
cation in a variety of foods is shown in Table 3.
3.7. Amaranth seed/flours/ leaves
Amaranth (Amaranthus spp.) is a pseudo-cereal and an ancient crop
cultivated in different countries in South and Central America, Africa,
India, and Asia (Sanz-Penella et al., 2012). Major three species of
amaranth used as food grains are Amaranthus caudatus, Amaranthus
cruentus, and Amaranthus hypochondriac. These species can be utilized as
flour grinding seeds, salads from fresh leaves, and inflorescences as a
natural red dye (Cárdenas-Hernández et al., 2016). In addition, these
species contain high levels of vitamins, including β-carotene, vitamin B6,
riboflavin, folate, and minerals like iron and zinc (Beswa et al., 2016).
Therefore, the amaranth can be used to fortify many cereal products like
bread, cakes, muffins, pancakes, cookies, dumplings, crepes, noodles,
and crackers (Table 3) (Sanz-Penella et al., 2013).
3.8. Fenugreek seeds and flour
Fenugreek (Trigonella Foenum-graecum) is a plant that belongs to the
Leguminosae family, which is generally grown on an annual basis. It is
widely cultivated in Mediterranean countries and Asia, where the largest
producer is India (Vidyashankar, 2014). The fenugreek seeds (FSs) have
many beneficial health-promoting properties such as antidiabetic,
antioxidant, anticarcinogenic, hypoglycemic, and hypocholesterolemic
(Dhawi et al., 2020). These medicinal values of fenugreek are due to its
chemical composition, viz. 20–25% proteins, 45–50% dietary fiber,
20–25% mucilaginous soluble fiber, 6–8% fixed fatty acids and essential
oils, and 2–5% steroidal saponins (Khorshidian et al., 2016). Moreover,
the FSs and leaves are rich in iron, zinc, and β-carotene content
(Table 1), which have been used to fortify many foods like rusk, bread,
yogurt, and biscuits (Table 3).
3.9. Coconut meal
Coconut (Cocos nucifera L.) is grown in tropical and subtropical re­
gions with an excellent source of energy, dietary fiber, and calcium
(Agrahar-Murugkar, 2020). It presents several biologically active com­
ponents: sugars, proteins, free amino acids, vitamins, minerals, and
growth-promoting factors. The coconut flour is produced by defatting
the hygienically milled coconut meal (CM). This flour is believed to be a
“nutraceutical food” because it provides many health benefits beyond its
nutritional content (Makinde & Eyitayo, 2019). The defatted coconut
flour (DCF) contains low molecular weight amino acids in the form of
coagulated proteins. These amino acids have the property to enhance
absorption of dietary iron (as ferrous form) in the mucosal wall thus
increasing the bioavailability of iron in the gut (Sivakami & Sarojini,
2013). The Indian Council of Medical Research indicates that 100 g of
deoiled coconut meal contains 69.4 mg of iron (Longvah et al., 2017). It
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Food Research International 156 (2022) 111186
has been used to fortify cookies, biscuits, and snacks from 5 to 50%
(Table 3).
4. Nutritional enrichment using FtFF approach
4.1. Protein
Protein-rich products are in great demand for building muscles in
today’s lifestyle. All the reported natural fortificants contain protein
greater than 10 g/100 g, with the highest being shown by FS flour
(Table 2). In addition, herbs like dried marjoram, dried basil, and dried
spearmint improved the protein content of foods like maize ogi, pasta,
cheese, yogurt, snack, cookies, bar, etc (Table 3). For example, the
fortification at a 15% level with moringa flour resulted in 17.63 g pro­
tein per 100 g of maize ogi from the unfortified one having 9.10 g pro­
tein/100 g (Abioye & Aka, 2015). A similar improvement in protein
content was observed in cheese (Elgaml et al., 2018), biscuits (Tessera
et al., 2015), pasta (Jalgaonkar et al., 2018), snacks (Mounika et al.,
2021), and bread (Govender & Siwela, 2020). In the case of dried basil,
Akbar et al. (2020) found a significant increase in protein quantity from
10.18 to 14.44 g/100 g in cookies at 18% fortification levels. Though
spearmint have high protein content nearly 20 g/100 g (Table 2), but
experimental results showed very minute change (4%) in protein con­
tent i.e., from 11.07 to 11.52 g/100 g of snack after 3% fortification
(Kaur et al., 2018).
Nuts, oilseeds, and cereals are too good sources of protein, but ex­
periments showed little contribution in improving protein content of
fortified product. GCS fortification at 15% in biscuits improved protein
content from 6.09 to 7.36 g/100 g (Rana & Kaur, 2016). In RTE flakes,
GCS fortification (5%) resulted in a 13% increment in protein from 7.45
to 8.43 g/100 g (Kotagi et al., 2013). The GCS fortification at 7.5% level
resulted in increase in protein from 9.1 g/100 g to 16.9 g/100 g (Sisodia
& Sadana, 2016). However, other results in GCS fortification led to
minor protein increase, for example, in cookies from 7.66 to 9.27 g/100
g (10% level) and potato cutlets from 5.74 to 9.83 g/100 g (20% level).
This showed that further experimentation on GCS fortification is
required for consistent resulted in protein content. In case of amaranth
seed flour, a very minor increment in protein was observed in bread
from 14.29 to 16.30 g/100 g at 40% (Sanz-Penella et al., 2013) and in
pasta from 15.13 to 17.26 g/100 g at 50% level (Cárdenas-Hernández
et al., 2016)
The FSs contain protein up to 30 g per 100 g (Table 2) and are used in
the fortification of RTE products like yogurt (Dhawi et al., 2020), bread
(Hooda & Jood, 2005), biscuits (Ibrahium & Hegazy, 2009), and rusk
(Dhull et al., 2020). The increment of protein content from 11.27 to
13.03 g/100 g was observed in 20% fortification level of germinated FS
flour in the wheat bread where its in-vitro digestibility was observed as
75.60% (Hooda & Jood, 2005). Similar protein content in rusk at same
fortification levels was observed using debittered FS flour (Dhull et al.,
2020). The DCF addition has also produced biscuits with high protein
content (Sivakami & Sarojini, 2013; Srivastava et al., 2010). The forti­
fication of snack at 50% DCF level improved protein content from 14.93
to 19.14 g/100 g (Makinde & Eyitayo, 2019). Furthermore, a 20%
increment (from 7.4 to 8.9 g/100 g) in protein content in cookies was
reported at a 6% fortification level with non-defatted coconut flour
(Tkachenko et al., 2021). Thus, the natural fortificants have potential to
enrich foods with protein but some further experimentation is still
required for concrete results.
4.2. Fiber
Fiber is important for keeping the digestive system healthy as it helps
in digestion and prevents constipation. The listed natural fortificants in
this review have high crude fiber content, as shown in Table 2. Herbs
like dried thyme, dried basil, dried spearmint, and dried marjoram
contain fiber greater than 30 g per 100 g. Maize-ogi fortification with
S. Vishwakarma et al.
moringa powder at a 15% level resulted in a 55% increment in fiber
content (Abioye & Aka, 2015). Similar enrichment in fiber content was
reported in white and brown bread at a 10% fortification level of mor­
inga powder (Govender & Siwela, 2020). Comparable improvement in
fiber content was noticed in extruded basil fortification (Kaur et al.,
2018). Healthy cookies were prepared by Akbar et al. (2020) through
basil fortification at an 18% level significantly increased its fiber content
from 0.55 % to 6.85%. However, a lower fortification level (1%) resulted
in mere increment in dietary fiber content in rice cake (Kharsahnoh
et al., 2021). The fruit bar fortification at 5% level of spearmint powder
increased fiber content from 6.33 to 10.54 g per 100 g (Zahra et al.,
2020). A similar fiber-rich snack was prepared by Kaur et al. (2018)
using a 3% fortification level. These reported literatures showed the
immense potential of listed herbs in improving the fiber content of
foods.
On the other hand, seeds like garden cress and amaranth contain a
low crude fiber level below 10 g per 100 g (Table 2). The incorporation
of them in between 5 and 50% in wheat bread (Sanz-Penella et al.,
2013), Dhokla mix (Lohekar & Arya, 2014), pasta (Cárdenas-Hernández
et al., 2016), biscuits (Jain et al., 2017), and cookies (Shehata, 2021)
resulted in crude fiber content of 1.2 to 5.9 g/100 g. In case of FS flour,
the 15% substitution of its germinated form in wheat bread resulted in
an 84% increment in crude fiber but the resultant product had still low
fiber content (control: 2.46 g/100 g) (Hooda & Jood, 2005). Small
increment was noticed at 20% level of its debittered form in rusk (Dhull
et al., 2020). The fortified wheat biscuit contains 5.46 g/100 g of the
crude fiber (control: 2.45 g/100 g) after 10% fortification with germi­
nated FS flour (Mahmoud et al., 2012). A similar quantity of crude fiber
was noticed in fortified composite flour, having 50% partially DCF
(Makinde & Eyitayo, 2019). However, in virgin coconut meal fortified
biscuits, 3.55 g of crude fiber (control: 0.15 g/100 g) was obtained after
25% substitution (Srivastava et al., 2010). Thus, most of the herbs has
potential to increase the fiber content at lower fortification level, but
this is not true with nuts and seeds. So, one must go for higher level of
nuts and seeds and do a formulation for best sensory qualities of fortified
food.
4.3. Minerals
4.3.1. Iron
Iron is the most prominent mineral to be addressed in the MNM. This
helps in forming hemoglobin (Hb) and improves red blood counts
(RBCs). All the discussed natural fortificants were able to improve the
iron content of the food vehicle (Agrahar-Murugkar, 2020; Akbar et al.,
2020; Al-Sayyed & Takruri, 2007; Cárdenas-Hernández et al., 2016;
Dhawi et al., 2020; Elgaml et al., 2018; Rana & Kaur, 2016; Zahra et al.,
2020). The dried thyme has shown the highest iron content among
natural fortificants (Table 1), whose addition up to 10% resultant in
15.50 mg/100 g of iron content in basil diet with 40% improved
apparent iron absorption in rats (Abu Jadayil et al., 1999). Nevertheless,
this increase in iron absorption negatively affected the Hb, RBC count,
and serum iron concentration due to the presence of polyphenols,
particularly tannins in the thyme powder (Al-Sayyed & Takruri, 2007).
The second highest iron content was found in dried basil (Table 1). The
fortification level of 18% using dried basil resulted in a significant in­
crease (p < 0.05) in iron content from 0.007 to 15.3 g/100 g in cookies
with better heat and storage stability (Akbar et al., 2020). A similar
effect was reported by Kaur et al. (2018) in snack fortification. However,
a lower fortification level resulted in an insignificant increase with little
change in appearance and texture in rice cakes (Kharsahnoh et al.,
2021).
The fortification of ogi using moringa flour at 15% resulted in 2.5
times increment in iron content with final product having 12.77 g/100 g
of iron (Abioye & Aka, 2015). Candriasih et al. (2019) observed a similar
increment of iron content, where the moringa flour was added from 33%
to 50% levels in wheat biscuits. The iron content of nearly 10 mg/100 g
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Food Research International 156 (2022) 111186
was observed in moringa fortified multi-millet snacks at a 15% fortifi­
cation level (Mounika et al., 2021). The increase in iron from 6.5 to
16.55 g/100 g in white bread was reported by Govender & Siwela
(2020) at 10% fortification of dried moringa. However, better iron
bioavailability was observed in a low level of fortification (5%) due to
phytate content in wheat flour that binds the iron more effectively at a
higher fortification level. These biscuits consumed at five pieces (60 g)
per day resulted in recovering anemic pregnant women (Sihotang et al.,
2018). Similarly, a mere 2% marjoram powder fortified basal diet
significantly (p < 0.05) increased Hb, RBC levels, and white blood cells
(WBC) (Abdel-Wahab, 2019). The extract form of fortificants improved
Hb, RBC, and WBC levels at low-level better than powdered fortificants
(Yousefi et al., 2021). In mints, both spearmint and peppermint fortifi­
cation increased iron content in foods like fruit bars, snacks, and basal
diet (Kaur et al., 2018; Zahra et al., 2020). This increment directly im­
proves Hb, RBC, and WBC levels of the body (Paknejad et al., 2020). In
herbs, basil has shown better natural fortificants properties than others
due to high iron content and lesser antinutritional factors like tannins
and polyphenols (Abbas et al., 2021).
Among nuts, oilseeds, and cereals, FSs have shown the highest iron
content (Table 1) and have been incorporated in foods like yogurt,
snacks, bread, and biscuits. The debittered FS at 20% fortification level
reported nearly 10 mg/100 g of iron (control: 3.5 mg/100 g) in wheat
rusk (Dhull et al., 2020). Its raw powder has higher phytate content than
its germinated form. That is why, in phytate-rich foods like wheat bis­
cuits, fortification with germinated form has shown better iron
bioavailability than its raw form (Hooda & Jood, 2004, 2005). These
former fortified wheat biscuits increased Hb levels and hematocrit
percent of anemic rats (Mahmoud et al., 2012). On the contrary, low
iron availability at higher fortification levels of raw amaranth seed flour
was observed in bread in three different studies (Bodroža-Solarov et al.,
2008; Emire & Arega, 2012; Sanz-Penella et al., 2013). This was due to
increased fiber and phytate content at higher substitution levels
(>40%), which bind minerals. This statement was supported by results
showing low ferritin content in 20% than 40% amaranth seed flour
sample in the upper chamber of the simulated gastrointestinal digester
(Sanz-Penella et al., 2012). So, it is recommended to not use very high
fortification level greater than 20% for amaranth seed flour as it reduces
iron bioavailability and acts as only mixing of ingredient. Further, its
leaf form (at 3%) resulted in a decrement in iron content in noodles but
insignificant (p > 0.05) in nature (Qumbisa et al., 2021). Instead, GCS
flour is a potential iron-rich fortificant, whose mere 5% fortification
increased iron content of a variety of items such as extruded food (snack,
pasta, and flakes), bakery products (bread and biscuits) and Indian foods
(namakpara, dhokla, ladoo, and cutlets) (Table 3). Nathiya & Vigasini
(2014) produced Nutri cookies, fortified with a 30% fortification level of
GCS flour, with an iron content of 44.58 mg/100 g (control: 14.56 mg/
100 g). The in vitro iron bioavailability of GCS flour fortified food (14.9
to 17.8%) was quite better than those of vegetable diet (5–12%) (Sisodia
& Sadana, 2015). The 10% fortification resulted in cookies with 8.1 mg/
100 g of iron (control: 5.4 mg/100 g), whose consumption by rats caused
significant improvement in Hb levels and RBCs of rats in 28 days of study
(Shehata, 2021). Similarly, the consumption of 7% GCS level fortified
biscuits brought back eight moderate anemic children and one mild
anemic child to a normal state among an experimental group of 30
students (Jain et al., 2017).
The DCF has significantly improved the iron content of biscuits,
bread, and snacks at low fortification levels (5%) (Table 3). The non-
defatted coconut flour fortification at 6% resulted in 6.01 mg/100 g
iron in cookies (Tkachenko et al., 2021). However, a marked drop in iron
content was observed at higher fortification levels (50%) (Makinde &
Eyitayo, 2019). Overall, the GCS flour has shown better fortificant
properties among nuts, oilseeds, and cereals due to higher iron content
and better bioavailability.
S. Vishwakarma et al.
4.3.2. Calcium
Calcium is important for making bone strong in the body. All the
listed herbs are highly rich in calcium, with a quantity greater than
1500 mg per 100 g (Table 1). However, nuts and oilseeds have
comparatively less calcium content (<300 mg/100 g) but have been
used to fortify a variety of foods. FtFF with moringa showed excellent
improvement in the calcium content of many foods (Table 3). The
fortification of moringa flour (20%) in wheat biscuits resulted in calcium
content from 69.73 to 486.78 mg/100 g (Tessera et al., 2015). Similar
result was observed by Mounika et al. (2021) in multi-millet rusk for­
tified with a 15% level of moringa powder. In pasta fortification, a
nearly 80% increase in calcium content (control: 21.66 mg/100 g) was
observed with merely 3% addition of moringa powder (Jalgaonkar et al.,
2018). In dried basil, Kaur et al. (2018) fortified wheat biscuit with basil
powder and spearmint powder separately and found a 56% and 38% rise
in calcium content (control: 49.84 mg/100 g), respectively. However,
mere 1% addition of basil with 1% black cherry pulp resulted in almost
15 mg/100 g of calcium content (control: 8 mg/100 g) in rice cake
(Kharsahnoh et al., 2021).
In case of GCS, the calcium content of wheat cookies become nearly
200 mg/100 g from 88 mg/100 g after 30% fortification (Nathiya &
Vigasini, 2014). After a similar fortification level, the potato culet
showed almost 120 mg/100 g of calcium content from 30 mg/100 g
(John et al., 2020). The snack fortification with 5% GCS resulted in
almost 4.5 times increment in calcium (control: 13 mg/100 g) (Sisodia &
Sadana, 2016). In case of amaranth seed flour, 30% fortification level
resulted in 665 mg/100 g calcium in pasta which is more than 3.5 times
than control (Cárdenas-Hernández et al., 2016). However, its dried leaf
form at a 3% fortification level in noodles showed a very low calcium
content (Qumbisa et al., 2021). In the case of germinated FS flour, 10%
substitution in wheat biscuit resulted in a 30% increment in calcium
(control: 36 mg/100 g) (Ibrahium & Hegazy, 2009); however, its
dibertted form at double fortification level produced nearly 80 % higher
calcium containing wheat rusk than control (Dhull et al., 2020). Besides
lower calcium content in raw coconut flour (RCF), a mere 7% level of
fortification resulted in nearly 200 mg/100 g of calcium in wheat bis­
cuits from 94 mg/100 g in control (Agrahar-Murugkar, 2020). Compa­
rably, lower calcium content (nearly 35 mg/100 g) was reported in 6%
RCF fortified cookies (control: 10 mg/100 g) (Tkachenko et al., 2021).
Overall, the investigated fortificants in the review showed potential to
boost calcium content in fortified foods.
4.3.3. Zinc
Zinc is an important micronutrient that supports greater than 300
biochemical reactions, including carbohydrate, protein, lipid, nucleic
acid metabolism, transcription, and process of gene expression. It is
widely found in foods of animal origin like meats, fish, and shellfish
(Sirohi et al., 2018). However, plant-based foods like FSs, dried basil,
dried thyme, amaranth leaf powder, etc., are also rich in zinc. The wheat
biscuit fortification with germinated FS flour at a 10% level significantly
increased (p < 0.05) zinc content from 2.17 to 4.36 mg/100 g (Mah­
moud et al., 2012). But ungerminated form leads to a loss in zinc
bioavailability due to higher phytate content (Hooda & Jood, 2005). The
leaves and seed form of amaranth are a rich source of zinc. The addition
of 15% amaranth seed flours significantly (p < 0.05) increased zinc
content in bread from 7.21 to 12.59 mg/100 g (Bodroža-Solarov et al.,
2008). However, there is the issue of low bioavailability of zinc at higher
fortification levels due to higher phytate content (Sanz-Penella et al.,
2012). On the other hand, the amaranth leaves flour showed higher zinc
content than amaranth seed flour in the pasta fortification (Cárdenas-
Hernández et al., 2016). The GCS flour is rich in zinc which has been
shown from its zinc increasing properties in Indian foods like dhokla
(Lohekar & Arya, 2014), little millet flakes (Kotagi et al., 2013) at both
5% fortification level, and potato cutlets (John et al., 2020) at 20%
fortification level. The amaranth seed flour has shown potential in
enhancing zinc content from 1.2 to 2.5 mg/100 g in wheat bread,
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however, at higher fortification level (40%) (Sanz-Penella et al., 2013).
However, its leaf form addition at 3% showed increment in the zinc
levels in noodles but not significantly (p > 0.05) different from control
(Qumbisa et al., 2021). The virgin CM fortification at 25% has little bit
increased zinc content of biscuits from 0.22 to 0.73 mg/100 g (Srivas­
tava et al., 2010). The Agrahar-Murugkar (2020) reported zinc incre­
ment from 0.05 to 1.10 mg/100 g through 7% addition of coconut
powder. Its fortification at higher level like 50% cannot be recom­
mended due to reduction in zinc bioavailability observed in wheat bis­
cuit fortification (Makinde & Eyitayo, 2019).
The dried form of basil has shown better zinc content in herbs than
others (Table 1). Kaur et al. (2018) added 3% dried basil during
extruded snack production and found a 59% rise in zinc content (con­
trol: 1.86 mg/100 g). The dried moringa powder is also rich in zinc and
has improved zinc content in various foods like maize-ogi, biscuits,
cheese, pasta, and yogurt (Table 3). The fortification of ogi at a 15%
fortification level resulted in 2.5 times increment in zinc content (con­
trol: 0.23 mg/100 g) (Abioye & Aka, 2015). A similar increment was
observed by Candriasih et al. (2019). Contradictally, a similar fortificant
level reported a very less (14%) and insignificant (p > 0.05) increase in
zinc in multi-millet snacks (control: 2 mg/100 g) and white & brown
bread (control: 3–3.2 mg/100 g) (Govender & Siwela, 2020; Mounika
et al., 2021). Further, zinc bioavailability at a higher fortification level is
drastically reduced in wheat biscuits due to the phytate binding effect
(Tessera et al., 2015). In spearmint, a 3% fortification level resulted in a
32% increase in zinc content in an extruded snack (control: 1.86 mg/
100 g) (Kaur et al., 2018). No literature was available showing zinc
improving properties of dried thyme, peppermint, and marjoram in
foods apart from having individual higher zinc content (Table 1). Thus,
for zinc fortification with FtFF, those natural fortificants should be
selected having higher zinc content with lesser antinutritional factors
like in case of dried basil, GCS, and germinated FSs.
4.3.4. Potassium
Potassium is one of the most important minerals for the body due to
its function in regulating cell and blood fluids, which helps in control of
heart rate and blood pressure (Sharangi & Guha, 2013). All the listed
herbs except thyme are highly rich in potassium, nearly 1500 mg/100 g
(Table 2). The rice cake fortification using 1% dried basil powder and
1% black cherrypulp causes a significant 30% increase in potassium
content (control: 64 mg/100 g) (Kharsahnoh et al., 2021). Similarly, a
mere 0.2% fortification of dried moringa and dried FS flour separately in
yogurt resulted in a 33% and 32% increment in the potassium content
(control: 125 mg/100 g), respectively (Dhawi et al., 2020). The maize-
ogi fortification with dried moringa leaves at a 15% level increased
potassium content from 21.67 to 233.33 mg/100 g (Abioye & Aka,
2015). A nearly 70% increase in potassium was observed after 40%
fortification of amaranth seed flour in wheat bread (control: 127 mg/
100 g) (Sanz-Penella et al., 2013). When added at 4% in pasta with a
35% level of amaranth seed flour, the potassium-rich dried amaranth
leaves powder resulted in a 2.5 times increase in potassium with final
content of 945 mg/100 g (Cárdenas-Hernández et al., 2016). However,
other studies on noodle fortification with amaranth dried leaf at a 3%
level cause an insignificant (p > 0.05) increase in potassium (Qumbisa
et al., 2021). Virgin coconut flour addition in wheat biscuit at 25% level
boosted potassium content of about 7.5 times (fortified biscuit con­
taining 442.06 mg/100 g of potassium) (Srivastava et al., 2010). Similar
130% enrichment in potassium was observed at a 6% fortification level
in cookies (control: 175 mg/100 g) (Tkachenko et al., 2021). Adding 3%
dried amaranth leaf powder in wheat noodles causes an insignificant (p
> 0.05) increase in potassium (Qumbisa et al., 2021). However, when
used at a higher fortification level (5%) with a 55% concentration of
amaranth seed flour resulted in pasta with very high potassium content
(1242 mg/100 g) (Cárdenas-Hernández et al., 2016). Apart from having
the high potential of fortificants like marjoram, spearmint, peppermint,
and DCF in increasing potassium, extremely limited research was carried
S. Vishwakarma et al.
out in determining its FtFF effect on food.
4.4. Vitamins
4.4.1. Vitamin A
Vitamin A takes part in several body functions, including vision,
bone growth, immunity, and protection of epithelial tissue in the body
(Chukwuebuka, 2015). The natural fortificants listed in the review are
rich in β-carotene, a precursor of vitamin A. Dried basil, dried moringa,
dried spearmint, and fenugreek leaves are highly rich in vitamin A. In
the case of moringa, a fortification level of 15% resulted in eight times
increment in β-carotene content in maize-ogi (control: 121 μg/100 g)
(Abioye & Aka, 2015), whereas in snack, only 3% enrichment led to
98.10 μg/100 g of β-carotene content (control: 33 μg/100 g) (Kaur et al.,
2018). The same group of researchers have worked on snack fortifica­
tion using dried basil and dried spearmint powder. They found a 32%
and 59% increase in β-carotene content after fortifying snacks with 3%
dried spearmint and 3% dried basil, respectively. Though vitamin A
content was not reported in GCS flour (Table 1), the literature showed
significant improvement in β-carotene content up to 126.2 ± 9.82 µg/
100 g at 5% fortification in instant dhokla (control: 73 µg/100 g)
(Lohekar & Arya, 2014). Dried leaves of amaranth are an excellent
source of vitamin A. When added at a 3% fortification level in pro-
vitamin A biofortified maize flour, it resulted in β-carotene content of
80 µg/100 g dry weight (control: 49 µg/100 g dry weight) (Beswa et al.,
2016). The germinated FS flour has shown a slight increase in β-carotene
content (1.61 mg/100 g) in the wheat biscuit at a 10% substitution level
(control: 1.10 mg/100 g) (Mahmoud et al., 2012). Very limited litera­
ture was found focusing on increasing β-carotene content of fortified
food in the case of CM, dried thyme, dried peppermint, and dried mar­
joram. Among all the natural fortificants, the greatest improvement in
β-carotene was observed in dried basil and dried moringa (Table 3).
4.4.2. Vitamin B complex
Vitamin B complex contains several vitamins like thiamine (B1),
riboflavin (B2), niacin (B3), pantothenic acid (B5), and pyridoxine (B6).
Thiamine is required for the efficient breakdown of carbohydrates.
Riboflavin maintains healthy blood cells and boosts metabolism & en­
ergy levels. Niacin helps convert carbohydrates into glucose, assist in
producing fatty acids and cholesterol, and repair DNA damage. Pan­
tothenic acid helps in the metabolism of carbohydrates, fats, protein and
maintains a healthy neurological system. Pyridoxine supports the syn­
thesis of Hb and the production of neurotransmitters (Mikkelsen &
Apostolopoulos, 2019). Though these vitamins are present in listed
natural fortificants from medium to high quantity (Table 1), only a few
pieces of literature were available to show their effect on food. The 3%
fortification using dried moringa powder resulted in 3.7 and 3 times
increment in vitamin B2 and B5 content of cow cheese with final content
of 687.67 µg/100 g and 890.67 µg/100 g, respectively (Elgaml et al.,
2018). The Indian dish (dhokla mix) fortification with 5% GCS flour
resulted in vitamin B1, B2, and B3 concentrations of 390, 180, and 2590
µg/100 g from 320, 110, and 1930 µg/100 g respectively (Lohekar &
Arya, 2014). The germinated FS flour contains a very high vitamin B2
content (49.90 mg/100 g) (Table 1). This was used as fortificant at a
10% level in biscuits and resulted in a 98% increase in vitamin B2
content (control: 10 mg/100 g dry weight basis) (Mahmoud et al.,
2012). The DCF fortification at 20% level produced snacks having
vitamin B1, B2, and B3 content of 143, 14, and 277 µg/100 g respectively
(Okafor & Ugwu, 2014). More research is needed for knowing the effect
of potential natural fortificants on the nutritional aspect of fortified
food, especially vitamin complexes.
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Food Research International 156 (2022) 111186
5. Effect of FtFF on antioxidant and antimicrobial activity of
food
5.1. Antioxidants
Antioxidants are important for preventing the production of free
radicals in the body and are mostly worked during the development of
functional food. The antioxidant activity of a food is generally quantified
in terms of total phenolic content (TPC), flavonoids, radical scavenging
activity (RSA), 1,1-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) assay value, and
total flavonoids (Cárdenas-Hernández et al., 2016; Jalgaonkar et al.,
2018). Natural fortificants like moringa showed excellent antioxidant
properties having 46 powerful antioxidants, 18 amino acids (8 essential
amino acids), and 36 anti-inflammatory compounds (Candriasih et al.,
2019). Its fortification in foods like cheese, snacks, pasta, and yogurt has
shown excellent improvement in antioxidant properties in terms of TPC,
flavonoids, and RSA (Elgaml et al., 2018; Jalgaonkar et al., 2018; Kaur
et al., 2018). These phenols and flavonoids are the most important
bioactive agents which prevent food from self-oxidation (Menati et al.,
2018). The 15% fortification of dried moringa powder in multi-millet
snacks resulted in an almost 90% increment in antioxidant activity
(control: 122 µg/100 g) (Mounika et al., 2021).
Dried thyme is rich in the phenols and flavonoids with the ability to
avoid shelf oxidation of food. The combined addition of thyme (up to 0.2
%) and rosemary (up to 0.02%) in the biscuits showed an increase in
antioxidant stability, which further increased their shelf life (Chochkov
et al., 2018). This fact of thyme’s ability in promoting antioxidant effect
was further supported by Roby et al. (2013) after observing high values
of free RSA in thyme mainly due to a high quantity of phenolic com­
ponents like cinnamic acid, ferulic acid, rosmarinic acid, and methyl
rosmarinate. Similarly, the addition of dehydrated basil leaves produced
snacks with total phenols of 184.76 mg/100 g (control: 125 mg/100 g)
and flavonoid content of 222.37 mg/100 g (control: 125 mg/100 g) with
an increase in total antioxidant capacity (103%) and RSA (97%) of
extruded snacks (Kaur et al., 2018). This high antioxidant capacity of
dried basil powder prevented lipid oxidation in cookies (Akbar et al.,
2020). In the case of marjoram, phenolic compounds, sabinene, and
terpinen-4-ol are powerful natural antioxidants that work together as
protective scavengers against oxygen-derived free radicals. Therefore,
its fortification resulted in improved antioxidant activity of the basal
diet (Roby et al., 2013; Yousefi et al., 2021). The peppermint is also rich
in antioxidants whose addition in powder, aqueous extract, and ethanol
extracts form could boost antioxidant activity, prevent lipid oxidation,
and enhance the aroma and taste of the fortified food product (Hussain
et al., 2015).
Nuts and oilseeds are also rich in antioxidants. The GCS flour addi­
tion at 10% in cookies resulted in a nearly 40% increase in TPC, total
flavonoids, and DPPH% with the respective final content of 116.50 mg
gallic acid equivalent/100 g, 16.20 mg quercetin equivalents/100 g, and
23.80% (Shehata, 2021). Similar improvement in phenolic content of
pasta was observed due to amaranth fortification in seed flour and dried
leaf powder form (Cárdenas-Hernández et al., 2016). The later form at a
3% fortification level resulted in 57 mg/mL RSA in noodles (control: 53
mg/mL RSA) (Qumbisa et al., 2021). Instead, the FS flour has antioxi­
dant and antibacterial properties whose 8% addition causes 232% and
89% increase in TPC (control: 136 mgGAE/100 g) and DPPH assay value
(control: 33%) with a significant decrease in total plate count and yeast
& mold count (Man et al., 2019). A similar observation with increase in
phenolic content and antioxidant activity was observed by substituting
debittered FSs flour in the wheat flour. The TPC, total flavonoids, and
DPPH (%) were increased from 157 mg GAE/100 g, 5.5 mg CE/100 g
and 20% to 455 mg GAE/100 g, 8.2 mg CE/100 g and 46% respectively
after 20% fortification in the wheat rusk (Dhull et al., 2020). In the case
of coconut flour, 6% fortification level resulted in 3 times enrichment of
thiamine (control: 0.05 mg%) and tocopherol (control: 0.26 mg%) in
fortified cookies (Tkachenko et al., 2021). Overall, the investigated
S. Vishwakarma et al. Food Research International 156 (2022) 111186

fortificants can boost the antioxidant properties of fortified food. fortification level of peppermint extract. In the case of spearmint, 3%
fortification in extruded snacks resulted in nearly 40% and 150% in­
crease in total phenols (control: 125 mg/100 g) and flavonoids (control:
5.2. Antimicrobial activity
125 mg/100 g) respectively (Kaur et al., 2018). These phenolic com­
pounds and phytochemicals correlate with antimicrobial activity, due to
Antimicrobial activity in foods helps in increasing shelf life, protect
which the substantial reduction in the colony-forming unit of Gram-
against potential pathogens, prevents food spoilage, and promote low
negative bacteria (i.e., coliforms) was observed after spearmint essen­
use of preservatives during storage (Al Garni & Hafez, 2015; Hedges &
tial oil fortification (Abbas et al., 2021). In the case of nuts and oilseeds
Lister, 2007; Kaur et al., 2018). Most herbs possess antimicrobial
like debittered FS flour fortification at 0.2% level in yogurt resulted in
properties (Sharangi & Guha, 2013), whose fortification resulted in
nearly 30% and more than 50% increment in inhibition zone diameter of
boosting these properties in food (Table 3). Moringa contains spirochin,
Salmonella spp. and total bacterial, E. coli & total fungi count respec­
which in small amounts displays antibacterial properties (Chukwue­
tively (Dhawi et al., 2020). However, not clear and very limited litera­
buka, 2015). The addition of dried form of moringa at 3% level in cheese
ture was observed in reviewing the effect of GCS flour, amaranth seed
resulted in a nearly 50% reduction in the total bacterial count (control:
flour, and DCF on the antimicrobial property of fortified food. But, from
3.73 log cfu/g) (Elgaml et al., 2018). Merely 0.2% fortification of
the above discussion, herbs have shown immense potential in protecting
moringa in yogurt produces the highest inhibition zone diameter 12.65,
fortified foods from microorganisms and increasing nutritional content.
13.14, 17.23, and 14.49 mm for E. coli, S. aureus, L. monocytogenes, and
Salmonella spp. respectively compared to the yogurt fortified with
6. Ingredient formulation and processing technique in FtFF
fenugreek seed flour (6.24, 7.77, 14.22 and 12.23 mm) and control
yogurt (4.12, 5.21, 8.55 and 8.39 mm) (Dhawi et al., 2020). Similarly,
The first step in FtFF is to convert natural fortificants from their raw
basil essential oil supplementation at 0.05% level in both brown and
form to powder or extract form. This concentrated form is then mixed
golden Japanese quail resulted in a significant decrease (p ≤ 0.05) in
with food vehicles based on the targeted final micronutrient concen­
total bacterial, E. coli, and total fungi count and a significant increase (p
tration. Thus, development of a formulation is important in FtFF which
≤ 0.05) in lactic acid bacterial count (Abbas et al., 2021). The use of
can be mostly done by two methods viz. mixture design and linear
thyme in white chicken feed and broiler chicks has reduced the number
programming problem (Agrahar-Murugkar, 2020; Development Initia­
of bacteria in wastes due to increased thymol compounds (Menati et al.,
tives 2018, 2018). A brief overview of technological application and
2018).
formulation designing under FtFF is shown in Fig. 2.
The peppermint essential oil supplementation in both brown and
golden Japanese quail at 0.05% level significantly (p ≤ 0.05) reduced
total bacterial, E. coli, and total fungi count due to tannins and flavo­ 6.1. Formulation
noids in the plant extract (Abbas et al., 2021). A similar observation of
antimicrobial effect was observed by Adel et al. (2015) in terms of the 6.1.1. Mixture design
increment (nearly 50%) in inhibition zone diameter of E. coli at 3% Mixture design (MD) is defined as aspatial type of response surface

Fig. 2. Ingredient selection, formulation strategy, process technology, and product application of food-to-food fortification. D. = Dried.

11
S. Vishwakarma et al.
methodology where the mixture components are the factors and change
in proportions affect the response variables (Buruk Sahin et al., 2016). In
MDs, there are generally two or more components mixed at different
proportions and the properties of product like nutritional, functional,
physical, chemical, etc. based on requirement are recorded. These re­
sponses do not depend on the physical state except only on ingredient
proportions. The output varies depending on the proportions, but the
total remains constant as 1 (Galvan et al., 2021).
In the system of three factors (or components), the figure of an
equilateral triangle can be used for representing the MDs. The pure
component, binary mixture, and mixtures of three components are
represented by vertices, sides and central or centroid point of the tri­
angle. The change in each property due to variation of mixture’s
composition is denoted by a response surface drawn above the triangle.
So, the surface’s representation can be done through a triangular dia­
gram of contour lines (Montgomery, 2017).
In recent years, many MDs have been introduced with broad appli­
cation in science, engineering, and industry. The most commons are
simplex lattice design (SLD), simplex-centroid design, simplex axial
design, and extreme vertex design. The SLD is one of the most widely
used MD and found application in the FtFF. This method was used for
developing formulation of biscuit (Candriasih et al., 2019) and blend for
cookies using the dried moringa powder as fortificant (Tessera et al.,
2015). The MDs can play an important role in formulation development
in the FtFF of staple food.
6.1.2. Linear programming problem
Linear programming (LP) is a technique used for making a required
formulation with a target of achieving minimum or maximum amount of
quality attributes or nutrients based on requirement. This formulation
technique is generally used when the demand is to have minimum set
quality parameters in the fortified food product (Agrahar-Murugkar,
2020; Thakur et al., 2021; Vishwakarma et al., 2020). For example,
according to the Food & Agriculture Organization, recommended di­
etary allowance (RDA) for all age groups of men and postmenopausal
women is 8 mg/day, and if our objective is to cover this iron demand
from natural fortificants mostly. So, here, this demand will be the
minimum limit in LP.
This way of designing formulation is a great tool to convert precise
nutrient constraints into food combinations meticulously. This tech­
nique solves the equations on matching diet to nutritional and other
additional constraints. The satisfaction of several constraints resulted in
optimal solutions (Dooren, 2018). In relation to FtFF, the model input
data required for linear programming are the quantity of targeted nu­
trients in the selected food where goals are minimum content of these
nutrients in optimum food combination. The selection of food depends
on the list of commonly consumed foods, amounts of food consumed per
day, and minimum & a maximum frequency of consumption per food in
the target population based on the 24 h dietary recall method. The
amount of targeted nutrients is generally decided on the source of
requirement data, such as WHO/FAO, European Food Safety Authority
or Institute of Medicine and other such government regulatory author­
ities. At last, the LP provides an optimum food combination obeying the
minimum set constraints for targeted nutrients (Borgonjen-van den Berg
et al., 2021).
In FtFF, the LP technique had been used for obtaining a minimum of
10 g of protein and 200 mg of calcium in a day for satisfying 25% of the
Recommended Dietary Allowance of Indian children (7–9 y) by applying
a combination of foods like refined wheat flour, malted finger-millets,
oil-seeds, spices and herbs (Agrahar-Murugkar, 2020). Moreover, the
Development Initiatives 2018 (2018) discussed about the Fill the
Nutrient Gap analysis, which used the LP to produce a cost-effective
nutritious diet for different target groups.
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6.2. Processing technology in FtFF
The selection of suitable process technology is essential for FtFF of
food products. The combination of time, temperature, mode of heat
transfer, and physical interaction are different among various technol­
ogies. These phenomena affect the nutritional properties of food-to-food
fortified products (Hooda & Jood, 2005; Kaur et al., 2018). In the
literature survey, extrusion, baking, blending, and home level technol­
ogy were widely applied in FtFF.
6.2.1. Extrusion
Extrusion cooking is a high-temperature short time process having
commercial importance in food and feed industries due to its faster
processing time, producing low-cost food products, possible production
of oil-free puffed products, etc (Okafor & Ugwu, 2014; Sisodia & Sadana,
2016). In general, extruded products are high in calories and fat, with
low protein and fiber, leading to a perception of unhealthy foods among
consumers. The base material of these products are cereals such as corn,
rice, and wheat with some added species for taste. However, due to the
increased demand for healthy foods, food technologists are shifting
focus to formulate nutrient-enriched products. The easiest and popular
means to make fast food items more nutritious is to fortify them with
protein, vitamins, minerals, etc (Poornakala et al., 2020). However, the
use of chemical-based fortificants may ultimately be questioned by
consumers in the future. Thus, the FtFF of extruded products with the
investigated fortificants can facilitate nutrition with additional proper­
ties like antioxidants, dietary fiber, polyphenols, etc. However, the effect
of extruder conditions like barrel temperature, screw speed & feed screw
speed and raw ingredient composition like fat and feed moisture content
on the extrudate quality under FtFF was needed to be explored for long-
term application (Dalbhagat et al., 2019). The literature survey revealed
more loss of functional properties in food to food fortified products after
extrusion than their nutritional quality (Table 4). This loss may be due to
high-temperature heat treatment inside the extruder, resulting in un­
desirable effects like losses of heat-labile bioactive compounds, oxida­
tion of lipids, destruction, or reduction in the availability of amino acids,
etc (Ramchiary & Das, 2020). Similar results of the loss of antioxidant
capacity and phenolic content in herb fortified snacks were noticed by
Limsangouan et al. (2010) after extrusion processing. Thus, this effect of
change in these properties during extrusion must be considered during
food formulation under FtFF if the target contains this property.
In the case of the nutritional aspect, very little change in iron, zinc,
calcium, and phosphorus was observed in fortified pasta after extrusion
by Jalgaonkar et al. (2018). However, a significant decrease (p < 0.05)
in protein, fat, and calorific value of chickpea fortified corn extrudate
was found out after extrusion at 180 ◦ C die temperature, 250 rpm barrel
screw speed, and 160 rpm feed screw speed. Though, no significant
change in crude fiber, ash, and carbohydrate was noticed in the study,
even at higher fortification levels (Hegazy et al., 2017). So, the extrusion
processing leads to starch gelatinization, protein denaturation, forma­
tion of lipid-protein complexes, the embeddedness of fiber in the starch
matrix, and much more complex interaction, which leads to changes in
the nutritional properties of extrudates (Dalbhagat et al., 2019).
6.2.2. Baking
Baking is an excellent process technology for producing Ready-to-Eat
food items like biscuits, cookies, and bread. Various baked items were
fortified using natural fortificants like moringa, GCS, amaranth, defatted
coconut, and fenugreek flour under FtFF (Candriasih et al., 2019;
Nathiya & Vigasini, 2014; Sanz-Penella et al., 2013). Notable
improvement of iron, zinc, calcium, β-carotene, protein, and poly­
phenols in food-to-food fortified food was observed through the baking
process, as shown in Table 4. This improvement may be due to the
release of protein-bound minerals like calcium, magnesium, zinc, and
iron via softening the food matrix at high temperatures (Agrahar-Mur­
ugkar, 2020). This high temperature also destroys some hydrolyzable
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Table 4
Effect of process technology on nutritional and other properties of food-to-food fortified food products.
Natural fortificant Product type Processing condition Nutritional properties Additional properties References

Fortified Control Fortified Control

Extrusion
Dried Moringa wheat Barrel temperature-70 ◦ C, feed 6.12%↓Fe, 5.61%↓Fe, 5.71%↓AA, 6.33%↓AA, Jalgaonkar et al.
powder (3–8%) semolina-pearl screw speed-10 rpm, screw speed 5.94%↓Zn, 5.46%↓Zn, 6.51%↓TF, 5.71%↓TF, (2018)
millet pasta − 120 rpm, die temperature-50 ◦ C 6.16%↓Ca, 5.45%↓Ca, 6.41%↓TC, 5.02%↓AOA after
6.48%↓P after 4.21%↓P 5.95%↓AOA after cooking
cooking after cooking cooking
Amaranth flour Semolina pasta 34 %MC dough, 5 min kneading, NF NF 17–27%↓TPC, 3.46%↓TPC, Cárdenas-
(35–70%) extrusion, drying at 80 ◦ C for 4 hr NS − 6%↓DPPH, 20%↓DPPH, 15%↓ Hernández et al.
4.7–47%↓FRAP, FRAP, 37.5%↓ (2016)
25–54%↓ORAC ORAC after
after cooking cooking

Baking
Fenugreek seed flour Wheat biscuits Baking at 160 ◦ C for 20 min 28–45%↑Ca, NF 22%↑ NF Mahmoud et al.
(5–10%) 1–6.5%↑Fe, Polyphenols, (2012)
10–40%↑Zn, 15–23%↑Phytic
10%↑bc, acid
13–32-53%↑P
90–95%↓Vit-C,
Dried basil powder Wheat cookies Baking at 175 ◦ C for 25 min 2.3%↓Fe NF ↓rancidity NF Akbar et al.
(14–18%) (2020)
Amaranth flour Wheat bread Baking at 220 ◦ C for 24 min 142–185%↑Ca, NF 81–87%↓crude NF Emire & Arega
(5–15%) 67–82%↑Fe, fiber, (2012)
2.3–7.5%↓Zn, 1.8–16.5%↓
20–27%↓P phytate

Blending
Soaked cum dried Buffalo yogurt Stirring-15 min, heating-90 ◦ C-5 6.8–11%↑Ca, 15.1%↑Ca, 14–30%↓TPC, 50%↓TPC, Dhawi et al.
seed powder of min, cooling-42 ◦ C, 2% culture + 10.1–10.3%↑ 9%↑Fe, 9–23%↓AOA 20%↓AOA (2020)
moringa 42 ◦ C, storage Fe, 27%↑Zn,
(0.1–0.5%) 35–40%↑Zn, 208%↓K
11.92%↑K after storage
after storage

Home-based processing
Garden cress seed Little millet Oven drying-60 ◦ C, cooling, 13%↓Ca, 22%↑Ca, 38%↑crude fiber 40%↑crude fiber Kotagi et al.
flour (5%) flakes gelatinization-24psi for 20 min, 28%↓Zn, 29%↓Zn, (2013);
cooling, pressed within 0.25 mm 8.5%↓P 17%↓P
gap

AA = Ascorbic acid, AOA = antioxidant activity, bc = beta-carotene, Ca = Calcium, DPPH = 1,1-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl assay value, Fe = Iron, FRAP = ferric
reducing antioxidant power, ORAC = oxygen radical absorbance capacity, P = Protein, TC = Total Carotenoids, TF = Total flavonoids, TPC = Total phenolic com­
pound, Zn = Zinc, percentage values given in nutritional and functional properties showed the difference of respective property of processed food from raw material, ↓
denotes decrease, ↑ denotes increase.

phenols, which liberates insoluble conjugated bound phenolics, thus
increasing extractable phenolic content or, in other words, TPC (Shori
et al., 2020). Similar results were noticed by Sanz-Penella et al. (2013) in
amaranth flour fortified bread at 10–40% fortification level. They found
a significant increase in microelements like copper, manganese, zinc,
and iron but a minor increment in calcium, magnesium, phosphorus,
and potassium.
In case of carotenoids, the retention during baking was about 69% in
sweet potatoes (Lockyer et al., 2018). Further, baking process can
reduce antinutritional factors like phytate content by about 16% in
amaranth fortified wheat bread (Emire & Arega, 2012). The enhance­
ment in shelf life was noticed in the study of Akbar et al. (2020) after
baking due to decreased rancidity in basil fortified wheat cookies.
Agrahar-Murugkar (2020) discussed enhancing micro- nutrient
bioavailability through combining baking with nutrient-rich food com­
ponents. Thus, baking has potential application in improving nutrient
availability, decreasing antinutritional factors, and enhancing the shelf
life of food-to-food fortified foods. However, during formulation, the
degree of destruction of functional properties must be taken into account
for FtFF baked products.
6.2.3. Blending
Blending is the most common process for incorporating natural for­
tificants into raw ingredients for producing fortified premix (Abioye &
Aka, 2015; Kumar et al., 2020; Zahra et al., 2020). It is even a preferred
technology for fortifying natural fortificants in beverages for producing
tasty health drinks (Rana & Kaur, 2016; Thakur et al., 2021). The
blending process can be as simple as agitation (Mohite et al., 2012) and a
combination of stirring, heating, and cooling (Dhawi et al., 2020). This
process interacts with fiber and phytochemical nutrients of natural
fortificants, which tends to improve nutritional properties, as discussed
in Table 4.
6.2.4. Home-based processing
The home-based fortification utilized local technology like pressing,
mixing, cutting, frying, baking, etc., where FtFF can be applied using
natural fortificants at a small scale (Bailey et al., 2015; Macharia-Mutie
et al., 2012; Rana & Kaur, 2016). The combination of various processing
steps led to changes in nutritional properties in food-to-food fortified
food (Elgaml et al., 2018; Kotagi et al., 2013; Mohite et al., 2012).
Limited literature was found in regard of home-based processing under
FtFF.

13
S. Vishwakarma et al.
7. Effect of FtFF on the food quality
The raw ingredients used in FtFF improve the micronutrient content
and affect other characteristics of the developed product. This section
briefly discussed the effect of substituting natural fortificants on water
absorption, color, textural and sensory properties of fortified food.
7.1. Water absorption capacity/swelling capacity
Water absorption capacity (WAC) /swelling capacity is important for
the consistency of the product. The large water absorption capacity in­
dicates that the flour is suitable for food formulation such as bakery
products, dough, sausages, etc (Makinde & Eyitayo, 2019). Abioye &
Aka (2015) found a decrease in swelling capacity due to an increase in
the moringa leaf substitution (15% w/w) in maize-ogi. On the contrary,
Makinde & Eyitayo (2019) reported an increase in WAC with coconut
flour, which might be due to the rise in amylose leaching, solubility, and
loss in starch crystallinity. Emire & Arega (2012) found that substituting
5 to 30% amaranth in wheat flour significantly increased the water
absorption (50.9–56.7%) and dough quality. Besides carbohydrates,
variation in WAC could also be observed due to protein as it contains
hydrophilic groups that can participate in this process (Makinde &
Eyitayo, 2019).
7.2. Colour
Colour is an important property of a product that decides the pref­
erence of the consumers. The product’s color generally depends on the
ingredients used in the food formulation (Dalbhagat et al., 2019; Dhull
et al., 2020). The addition of moringa oleifera leaves altered the color of
Halloumi cheese to yellowish, greenish, and brown (Elgaml et al., 2018).
The change in color of semolina-pearl millet pasta to green with moringa
leaves powder was experienced by Jalgaonkar et al. (2018). This was
due to the different color pigments present in the ingredients. Srivastava
et al. (2010) showed that the addition of virgin CM decreased the L*
value and increased the a* and b* value of the biscuit. The addition of
basil leaves in crackers significantly changed the color from green to
dark green due to the chlorophyll contents of basil. Further substitution
causes the darker green color of the crackers (Pratama et al., 2018). The
similar effect of basil on biscuit color is corroborated by Ningsih et al.
(2020). The color of the basil fortified product varies from yellowish-
green to darker green due to chlorophyll pigments based on the sub­
stitution level.
In addition to ingredients, the process operations also affect the color
of the product. Dhull et al. (2020) found the addition of debittered
fenugreek flour (5–20%) darken the rusk. This can be due to either flour
ingredients or Maillard reactions that occurred in baking via reactions
between reducing sugar and amino acids. Lemos et al. (2012) found the
darker color of the cheese bread upon addition of amaranth flour
(10–20%). Similar results were reported by Shori et al. (2020) for
spearmint extract fortified bread. Therefore, it is essential to know the
ingredients and the possible color change of the product in the pro­
cessing. This would help in selecting these ingredients as a natural
colorant in addition to fortificant in the food formulations.
7.3. Textural properties
Textural properties are important while developing any product as it
acts as a marker of sensory attributes. The incorporation of debittered
fenugreek flour (0–20%) significantly increased the hardness of the
wheat rusk due to the interaction of gluten, starch, and fiber (Dhull
et al., 2020). Borneo & Aguirre (2008) found higher hardness and lower
adhesiveness in raw amaranth leaves fortified pasta than the spinach
leaves fortified pasta. This might be due to the higher fiber and protein
content of amaranth leaves powder fortified pasta. Similar outcomes
were presented by Lemos et al. (2012) for amaranth fortified cheese
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Food Research International 156 (2022) 111186
bread.
On the contrary, the whole amaranth flour substitution for bread
preparation did not significantly differ in hardness (Sanz-Penella et al.,
2013). The addition of moringa oleifera leaves powder and moringa
oleifera leaves extract (1–6%) made soft to semi-hard curd in the
manufacture of Halloumi cheese. The increase in hardness, chewiness,
gumminess, cohesiveness, and springiness was found in moringa forti­
fied cheese, which may be due to decreased dry matter content and
moisture content (Elgaml et al., 2018). Jalgaonkar et al. (2018) found a
decrease in the firmness of wheat semolina-pearl millet pasta upon
adding moringa leaves powder (3–8%), suggesting a weakening of the
protein network. Similar outcomes were discussed by Kaur et al. (2018)
for tulsi powder (1–5%) fortified wheat and chickpea snacks. The addi­
tion of basil significantly reduced the hardness and increased the
crispness of the cracker. This was due to the fiber content of basil that
damaged the compactness of the starch structure, making the cracker
less hard and crisper (Pratama et al., 2018).
7.4. Sensory attributes
Ingredients play a key role in enhancing the quality of the product in
terms of appearance, color, texture, taste, and overall acceptability. The
higher level of addition of natural fortificants is decided by sensory
evaluation (Shori et al., 2020). Abioye & Aka (2015) stated that the 10%
moringa leaves substitution in maize-ogi produced acceptable color,
taste, mouthfeel, appeal, flavor, and general acceptability. On the con­
trary, the 15% substitution was suitable for nutritional enrichment. In
case of fortified bread, increase in spearmint aqueous extract lowered
the sensory score and acceptability due to the pungent taste of spearmint
(Shori et al., 2020).
The high substitution level (20%) of debittered fenugreek flour made
the rusk dark in color, bitter and hard in texture (Dhull et al., 2020). In
another study, the addition of fenugreek flour (2 and 5%) on wheat
bread showed the highest acceptability; however, considering the health
benefits of bioactive compounds and the overall effect on quality, the 5%
fenugreek flour level was selected (Man et al., 2019). Similar results
were presented by Cárdenas-Hernández et al. (2016) for amaranth for­
tified pasta, Emire & Arega (2012) for amaranth fortified bread and
Srivastava et al. (2010) for virgin CM fortified biscuits. Jalgaonkar et al.
(2018) stated that the pasta fortified with 5% and 8% moringa leaf
powder was unacceptable due to its strong leafy flavor and bitter taste. A
study reported by Borneo & Aguirre (2008) on the pasta fortified with
spinach and amaranth green leaves powder showed no significant dif­
ference in color, aroma, taste, texture, and overall acceptability. A study
by Pratama et al. (2018) showed a significant distinct smell of basil to
the cracker, and panelists preferred crackers with less basil smell.
Therefore, it is evident that an increase in natural fortificant signifi­
cantly affects the color, flavor, taste, and texture. Most of the time, the
compromise over the nutritional enrichment has to be done due to
adverse effects on the sensory attributes.
8. Future trends
A range of foods like thyme, basil, spearmint, marjoram, moringa,
fenugreek, amaranth, garden cress, and defatted CM has shown poten­
tial to be used as natural fortificants for fortifying less nutritious foods.
These fortificants, after fortification in foods, improve multiple nutrients
like iron, zinc, protein, fiber, potassium, calcium, vitamin A and B
complexes. Additionally, properties like antioxidants, TPC, and flavo­
noids were found to be enhanced due to FtFF from listed fortificants.
However, the following points should be considered for further research
and developments in FtFF.
None of the aforementioned natural fortificants contains vitamin B12
and vitamin D; thus, some other potential natural fortificants should be
examined.
Very limited research was focused on choosing more than one
S. Vishwakarma et al.
natural fortificants for FtFF in regard to improving multiple function­
alities like micronutrient content, antioxidants, flavonoids, etc. The LP
and MD should be looked at in designing and finalizing multiple for­
tificants used for FtFF of food.
Almost no study has been found that improves sensory attributes of
FtFF food products. Achieving desired micronutrient content without
losing an acceptable sensory score is the biggest challenge in the field of
FtFF.
Very little investigation was carried out on the efficacy of food-to-
food fortified staple food on improving the nutrient status of a large
group of populations. These studies are necessary for making guidelines
against the application of FtFF in the nation.
More investigation should be done on applying FtFF on ready-to-eat,
ready-to-cook, and ready-to-serve food segments like chocolates, ice-
cream, noodles, pasta, pizza, burger, flakes, health drinks, and other
fast foods. Because these segments are quite deficient in micronutrients
and are being consumed on a frequent basis in today’s lifestyle.
Adopting novel technologies for fortification like spraying, coating,
dusting, encapsulation, and homogenization was lacking in FtFF. These
technologies have the potential to facilitate nutritious fortified foods
with minimum processing steps and cost.
The bioavailability of natural fortificants in the presence of anti­
nutritional content is a big concern during the formulation of raw in­
gredients in FtFF. Detailed studies should be conducted on removing
antinutritional factors to improve the bioavailability of micronutrients.
9. Conclusion
The MNM is a rapidly growing problem nowadays presently being
tackled through four main ways: viz. dietary diversification, bio-
fortification, micronutrient supplementation, and food fortification.
Among them, supplementation and food fortification are the most
effective way of doing so. However, using a synthetic form of micro­
nutrients and growing awareness of people towards natural foods have
made researchers and scientists think about alternative methods for
increasing micronutrient intake. Therefore, the most emerging area for
tackling micronutrient malnutrition is the FtFF approach. The review
was focused on understanding the effect of potential natural fortificants
like thyme, basil, spearmint, marjoram, fenugreek, moringa, amaranth,
garden cress, and defatted CM on food products. The first six fortificants
are rich in iron, folate, zinc, protein, calcium, fiber, antioxidants, and the
remaining are highly rich in vitamin A, protein, and potassium. These
micronutrient-dense foods are incorporated in many food products such
as biscuits, cookies, noodles, bread, pasta, ladoo, namakpara, dhokla,
cheese, health drinks, yogurt, extruded snacks, and flakes, and so on.
Few of the natural fortificants even led to a significant increase in Hb,
RBC, and WBC levels, stating the potential of these natural fortified
foods to combat iron deficiency anemia and other micronutrient
malnutrition among children and women.
Moreover, fortified foods have shown increased nutritional content
such as antioxidant, phenolic compounds, and antibacterial properties.
However, several studies reported changes in the textural, taste, and
color attributes of the food vehicle upon the addition of these for­
tificants. Thus, an optimum combination of fortificants and their levels
must be chosen in FtFF based on micro-and macronutrient quantity,
bioavailability, antinutritional, antioxidants, antimicrobial, and sensory
attributes. Formulations methods like MD and LP can define optimum
fortificant combination and its levels. Strategic research in developing
macro and micronutrient-rich food formulation using the FtFF would be
an effective approach to alleviate malnutrition among the affected
population.
Declaration of Competing Interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
15
Food Research International 156 (2022) 111186
the work reported in this paper.
Acknowledgments
The authors acknowledge the Ministry of Education, Government of
India, New Delhi, India, to provide a Ph.D. fellowship.
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