Seminar QM Eng-7

Quantum Mechanics - Seminar notes
March 18, 2018

2
Table of Contents
1 Background Mathematical Concepts 5

1.1 Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.1.1 Complex Numbers - Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.1.2 Vector spaces - Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.1.3 Linear operators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.1.4 Scalar Product . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.1.5 Linear Operators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.1.6 Basis of a vector space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.1.7 Matrix form of operators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.1.8 Convention . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.1.9 Eigenvectors and Eigenvalues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.1.10 Pre-Hilbert Spaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
1.1.11 Inadequacy of pre-Hilbert spaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
1.1.12 Dual space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
1.1.13 Riesz Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
1.2 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
1.3 Dirac Notation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
1.3.1 Properties of Hermitian Conjugation . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
1.3.2 Commutators, Compatible observables . . . . . . . . . . . 18
1.3.3 Exercises-I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
1.3.4 Exercises-II . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
1.3.5 Supplementary exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
1.4 Dirac Delta Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
1.4.1 Examples of parameterized δα functions . . . . . . . . . . 22
1.4.2 The Fourier transform of the Dirac Delta Function . . . . 24
1.4.3 The Delta function in the two dimensional case . . . . . . 24
1.4.4 The Delta function in the three dimensional case . . . . . 25
2 The Principles of QM 27
2.1 Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
2.1.1 The superposition principle [postulate I] . . . . . . . . . . 27
2.1.2 The Observables postulate [postulate II] . . . . . . . . . . 27
2.1.3 The Measurement postulate [postulate III] . . . . . . . . . 29
2.2 Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
3
4 TABLE OF CONTENTS
Chapter 1
Background Mathematical
Concepts
1.1 Theory
1.1.1 Complex Numbers - Review
The set of complex numbers C contains elements of the form:
z = (a, b),
where a, b are two real numbers, a, b ∈ R. They referred to as the real part and,
respectively, the imaginary part of z:
a = Re(z), b = Im(z) .
On the set of complex numbers C we define two operations:
1. ”+” : C × C → C gives the addition of two complex numbers, whose result
is a complex number, defined as:
• z1 +z2 = (a1 , b1 )+(a2 , b2 ) ≡ (a1 + a2 , b1 + b2 ) ∈ C
2. ”·” : C × C → C gives the multiplication of two complex numbers, whose
result is a complex number, defined as:
• z1 ·z2 = (a1 , b1 )·(a2 , b2 ) ≡ (a1 a2 − b1 b2 , a1 b2 + a2 b1 ) ∈ C .
The set of complex numbers together with the addition operation ”+” and
the multiplication operation ”·” is said to have the mathematical structure of a
field, denoted by (C, +, ·).
Imporant note: If just the addition would have been defined, then (C, +)
would have been actually just (R2 , +). It is the particular ”·” multiplication
operation that entitles C to be called ”the set of complex numbers”.
5
6 CHAPTER 1. BACKGROUND MATHEMATICAL CONCEPTS
Additionaly, for any complex number z we can define the following:

1. the absolute
√ value of z, which is a real, non-negative number:
|z| ≡ a2 + b2 .
2. the complex conjugate of z: z ∗ ≡ (a, −b).
Who is ”i”?
In practice, it is extremely useful to define the ”imaginary unit” by i = (0, 1),
thus:
• Re(i) = 0
• Im(i) = 1.
Using the above definition of the multiplication of complex numbers ”·”, we

recover the well know result:
i2 = i·i = (0, 1)·(0, 1) = (−1, 0)
With i, any complex number may be written as:
z ≡ a + ib
When using complex numbers in this form,

• all usual rules of addition and multiplication are valid as in the case of
real numbers;
• the only thing to be careful about is always setting i2 = −1.

The complex conjugate becomes z ∗ = a − ib.
Some examples:
• z1 · z2 = (a1 + ib1 ) · (a2 + ib2 ) = a1 a2 + ia1 b2 + ib1 a2 + i2 b1 b2 =

a1 a2 − b1 b2 + i(a1 b2 + b1 a2 )
1 1 a − ib a − ib a b
• = = = 2 2
= 2 2
−i 2
z a + ib (a + ib)(a − ib) a +b a +b a + b2
1.1. THEORY 7
1.1.2 Vector spaces - Review

Let K be a field (for example the complex field K = (C, +, ·)) and V a set of
elements on which we define two operations:
1. ”+” : V × V → V (addition of two vectors, whose result is another vector)
2. ”·” : K × V → V (multiplication of a vector by a scalar, whose result is

another vector).
Definition: (V, +, ·) = vector space over the field K (the notation is V /K) if:
• V is an abelian group with respect to the addition operation, that is:
ψ+φ = φ+ψ, ∀ ψ, φ ∈ V
(ψ+φ)+χ = ψ+(φ+χ), ∀ ψ, φ, χ ∈ V
∃ 0V ∈ V such that: ψ+0V = 0V +ψ = ψ , ∀ ψ ∈ V
∀ ψ ∈ V, ∃ − ψ such that: ψ+(−ψ) = (−ψ)+ψ = 0
• the multiplication of vectors by scalars satisfies:
(a+b)·ψ = a·ψ+b·ψ, ∀ ψ ∈ V and ∀ a, b ∈ K

(a·b)·ψ = a·(b·ψ), ∀ ψ ∈ V and ∀ a, b ∈ K
a·(ψ+φ) = a·ψ+a·φ, ∀ ψ, φ ∈ V and a ∈ K
∃ 1 ∈ K such that: 1·ψ = ψ, ∀ψ∈V
1.1.3 Linear operators

Let V be a vector space over the field K.
Definition: the map f : V → V is called a linear operator if:
f (a·ψ+b·φ) = a·f (ψ)+b·f (φ), ∀ a, b ∈ K, ∀ ψ, φ ∈ V
1.1.4 Scalar Product

Definition: the map h·, ·i : V × V → K is called a scalar product if:
• hψ, φi = hφ, ψi∗ , ∀ ψ, φ ∈ V
• hψ, φ+χi = hψ, φi+hψ, χi, ∀ ψ, φ, χ ∈ V
• hψ, a·φi = a·hψ, φi, ∀ ψ, φ ∈ V and ∀ a ∈ K
• hψ, ψi ≥ 0, ∀ ψ ∈ V ; hψ, ψi = 0 ⇐⇒ ψ = 0V
Solved exercise1 : Prove that a scalar which multiplies a vector on the left side
of the scalar product, gets out of the scalar product with a complex conjugation,
that is ha·ξ, ϕi = a∗ ·hξ, ϕi.
ha·ξ, ϕi = hϕ, a·ξi∗
∗
= (a·hϕ, ξi)
= a∗ ·hϕ, ξi∗
= a∗ ·hξ, ϕi
Solved exercise2 : Prove that the scalar product is linear also in the left
component, that is: hψ+φ, χi = hψ, χi+hφ, χi, ∀ ψ, φ, χ ∈ V
hψ+φ, χi = hχ, ψ+φi∗
∗
= (hχ, ψi+hχ, φi)
= hχ, ψi∗ +hχ, φi∗
= hψ, χi+hφ, χi
Exercise3 : Using the previous two exercises, prove that:
ha1 ·ξ1 +a2 ·ξ2 +a3 ·ξ3 , ϕi = a∗1 ·hξ1 , ϕi+a∗2 ·hξ2 , ϕi+a∗3 ·hξ3 , ϕi
NOTATION: We denote a sum of vectors by:

X
ψn = ψ1 +ψ2 +ψ3 +...
n
• Example: The following is also a sum of vectors,

X
cn ·ψn = c1 ·ψ1 +c2 ·ψ2 +c3 ·ψ3 +...
n
NOTATION: We denote a sum of scalars by:

X
an = a1 +a2 +a3 +...
n
• Example: The following is also a sum of scalars,

X
hψn , φn i = hψ1 , φ1 i+hψ2 , φ2 i+hψ3 , φ3 i+...
n
Exercise4 : Show that:

X X
hψ, cn ·φn i = cn ·hψ, φn i
n n
and that: X X
h cn ·ψn , φi = c∗n ·hψn , φi
n n
1.1. THEORY 9
1.1.5 Linear Operators

By definition, a linear operator A is a map that assigns to any vector another

vector, and has the linearity property:
• A:V →V
• A(a·ψ+b·φ) = a·Aψ+b·Aφ, ∀ ψ, φ ∈ V and ∀ a, b ∈ K
The addition of two operators, denoted by ”+”, satisfies:
(A1 +A2 )(ψ) = A1 ψ+A2 ψ, ∀ψ∈V .
Hermitian Operators
Let
• A : V → V be a linear operator and
• h·, ·i : V × V → K be a scalar product.
Definition: The operator A† is called the adjoint A if:
hψ, Aφi = hA† ψ, φi, ∀ ψ, φ ∈ V .
The operator A is called Hermitian if:
A = A†
1.1.6 Basis of a vector space

Let V be a vector space over the field K. Let {ψ1 , ψ2 , ..., ψn } be a set of vectors
of V , where n = dim V .
Definition: {ψ1 , ψ2 , ..., ψn } is a basis of V if:
• ∀ a1 , a2 , ..., an ∈ K:
a1 ·ψ1 +a2 ·ψ2 + · · · +an ·ψn = 0V ⇐⇒ a1 = a2 = · · · = an = 0
• ∀ ψ ∈ V, ∃ b1 , b2 , ...bn ∈ K such that:
ψ = b1 ·ψ1 +b2 ·ψ2 +...+bn ·ψn

1.1.7 Matrix form of operators

Let Â : V → V be a linear operator and {ψ1 , ψ2 , ..., ψn } a basis in V . We can
associate to the operator Â the matrix:
 
a11 ··· a1n
A =  ... .. ..
 
. . 
an1 ··· ann
where:
Â(ψ1 ) = a11 ·ψ1 +a12 ·ψ2 +...+a1n ψn

..
.
Â(ψn ) = an1 ·ψ1 +an2 ·ψ2 +...+ann ψn
OBSERVATION1 The matrix values depend on the chosen basis!
OBSERVATION2 The matrix of the adjoint of Â is found by transposing

and complex conjugating the matrix of Â : A† = (AT )∗ .
1.1.8 Convention
We choose the convention:
Â = Operator
A = The matrix associated to the operator Â
1.1.9 Eigenvectors and Eigenvalues

Let V be a vector space over the field K and Â : V → V a linear operator. Let
ψ ∈ V be a vector and λ ∈ K a scalar.
If:
Âψ = λ·ψ
Then λ = eigenvalue and ψ = eigenvector.
Let
 there be a basis of V inwhich the operator Â has the associated matrix
a11 ··· a1n
 .. . .. ..
A= . .

.
an1 ··· ann
Let us define:
∆ = det(λI − A)
If:
∆ = 0 ⇐⇒ det(λI − A) = 0
then λ = the eigenvalues of the operator Â
1.1. THEORY 11
OBSERVATION:
• If Â is a Hermitian operator, there is a unitary matrix U (U † = U −1 ) such
that U −1 AU = diagonal matrix.
• U is the matrix of eigenvectors of A.
1.1.10 Pre-Hilbert Spaces

A vector space V endowed with a scalar product h·, ·i is called a pre-Hilbert space.
Definition: the norm of a vector in a pre-Hilbert space is:

p
||ψ|| = hψ, ψi.
Definition: The map || · || : V → R≥0 is called a norm if:

• ||ψ|| ≥ 0, ∀ ψ ∈ V , ||ψ|| = 0 ⇐⇒ ψ = 0V
• ||a·ψ|| = |a|||ψ||, ∀ a ∈ K, ∀ ψ ∈ V
• ||ψ+φ|| ≤ ||ψ|| + ||φ||, ∀ ψ, φ ∈ V .
1.1.11 Inadequacy of pre-Hilbert spaces

Why are pre-Hilbert spaces not enough for the description of quantum mechan-
ics?
• They are adequate in the finite dimensional case.

• Problems appear in the infinite dimensional case.
Problem 1: Vectors with infinite norm:
Let V = RN .
• dim V =?
• Write down a basis of V . Can any vector in V be written as a finite linear
combination of basis vectors?
• Let v = (1, 1, . . . , 1, . . . ) ∈ V . What is the norm of v?
Problem 2: Sequences converging to a limit outside the space.
Let V = be a subspace of RN made out of vectors with a finite number of

zero components.
• dim V =?
• Write down a basis of V . Can any vector in V be written as a finite linear

combination of basis vectors?
• Let there be the sequence:
x(1) = (1, 0, 0, . . . ),

1
x(2) = 1, , 0, . . . ,
2
..
.

(n) 1 1
x = 1, , . . . , n−1 , . . . .
2 2
Also, let the vector x = 21k k∈N∗ . Does the sequence x(n) converge to x?

Is x an element of V ?
Problem 3: Unbounded operators
Let V be the space of square integrable functions, defined on [1, ∞). Also,
let there be the operator Q̂ : V → V defined by Q̂f (x) = xf (x).
1
Consider the function g(x) = . What is the norm of the vector Q̂g(x)?
x
Does the vector Q̂g(x) belong to the space V ?
In the infinite dimensional case the pre-Hilbert space is insufficient for the
description of Quantum Mechanics because it is not:
• separable (There are vectors which cannot be written as a finite sum of

basis vectors: problem 1).
• complete (There are sequences of vectors that do not converge to an ele-

ment of the space: problem 2).
• dense (The vector obtained from the action of an operator on a vector of

the space may not belong to the space: problem 3).
1.1.12 Dual space

Let V be a vector space over the field K. In this section we define the space of
linear functionals V ∗ as the dual space of V.
By definition, a linear functional is a map that assigns a scalar to each vector,

and has the linearity property:
• F :V →K
• F (a·ψ+b·φ) = a·F (ψ)+b·F (φ), ∀ ψ, φ ∈ V and ∀ a, b ∈ K

1.1. THEORY 13
The addition of two linear functionals, denoted by ”+”, satisfies:
(F1 +F2 )(ψ) = F1 (ψ)+F2 (ψ)
induces a structure of linear vector space V ∗ , named dual space.
Exercise: Show that:

!
X X
F cn ·φn = cn ·F (φn ) (1.1)
n n
1.1.13 Riesz Theorem

There is a one-to-one correspondence between the linear functionals of the dual
space and the vectors of the vector space V, such that all linear functionals have
the following form:
F (ψ) = hφ, ψi, ∀ψ∈V
where F ∈ V ∗ and φ ∈ V form a unique pair of ”twin” elements as proven below.
Notation: The previous equation may be written as ”F (.) = hφ, .i”, as we

understand that we may plug in ∀ ψ ∈ V in the free slots on the left and right
hand side.
Proof of Riesz theorem:
1. Given a vector φ ∈ V , its associated unique ”twin” functional Fφ ∈ V ∗ is

simply defined by:
Fφ (.) ≡ hφ, .i
Because the scalar product is a linear map, then Fφ is also linear.
2. Given a functional F ∈ V ∗ , we need to find its associated unique ”twin”

vector φF ∈ V , which satisfies:
hφF , .i = F (.)
We construct φF in the following way:
(a) let {ψn } be an orthonormal basis of V , with hψn , ψm i = δmn .

(b) we ”pull out of a hat” the expression:
∗ ∗ ∗
φF = [F (ψ1 )] ·ψ1 + [F (ψ2 )] ·ψ2 + · · · + [F (ψn )] ·ψn + · · ·
∗
X
≡ [F (ψn )] ·ψn
n
We now just need to prove that with this definition of φF , we have that
hφF , χi = F (χ), for ∀ χ ∈ V .
We start from hφF , χi, and use the properties of the scalar product:
∗
X
hφF , χi = h [F (ψn )] ·ψn , χi
n
X
= F (ψn )·hψn , χi
n
P
Note: we may expand χ in the basis {ψn } as χ = n cn ·ψn . Using
this, together with the properties of the scalar product and those of linear
functionals, we obtain:
X X
hφF , χi = F (ψn )·hψn , cm ·ψm i
n m
X X
= F (ψn )· cm ·hψn , ψm i
n m
X X
= F (ψn )· cm · δmn
n m
X
= F (ψn )·cn
n
X
= cn ·F (ψn )
n
X
= F( cn ·ψn )
n
= F (χ)
1.2 Exercises
1. The conjugate of a complex number z = a + ib, a, b ∈ R is denoted by z ∗
and is defined as z ∗ = a − ib. Show that:
(a) zz ∗ = |z|2
(b) z + z ∗ ∈ R
(c) (z1 + z2 )∗ = z1∗ + z2∗
(d) (z1 z2 )∗ = z1∗ z2∗
(e) |z1 z2 | = |z1 ||z2 |
2. Calculate:
5
1+i
1−i
1.2. EXERCISES 15
3. Let V be the space of infinitely differentiable functions in one variable.

Prove that differentiation is a linear operator.
4. Let V = Cn be the space of n-dimensional complex vectors a = (a1 , a2 , ...an )
where ai ∈ C, ∀ i ∈ 1, n. Show that:
n
X
ha, bi = a∗i bi
i=1
is a scalar product for the space V .

5. If Â si B̂ are operators, show that:
(a) (Â† )† = Â
(b) (ÂB̂)† = B̂ † Â†
(c) Â + Â† , i(Â − Â† ) and ÂÂ† are self-adjoint (Hermitian) operators.
6. Show that the eigenvalues of a Hermitian operator are real.
7. Show that the eigenvectors corresponding to different eigenvalues of the
same hermitian operator T̂ are orthogonal.
8. Let V be the space of nonzero square integrable continuous complex func-
tions in one variable. For every pair of functions, f, g, define:
Z ∞
hf, gi = f ∗ (x)g(x)dx .
−∞
Show that with this definition V is an inner product space.
9. Find the eigenvectors and eigenvalues of the matrix:

0 1
A=
1 0
================================================
10. Let V be a vector space.
(a) Show that if hv, ui = hv, wi, ∀ v ∈ V , then u = w.

(b) Show that if hT̂ v, ui = hŜv, ui, ∀ u, v ∈ V where T̂ , Ŝ are 2 linear
operators, then Ŝ = T̂ .
11. Let A and B be two Hermitian matrices. Show that they may be simul-
taneously diagonalized (by the same matrix U ) if and only if AB = BA.
12. Show that the absolute value of the eigenvalues of a unitary operator is 1.
13. Show that the sum and the product of two linear operators are also linear
operators.
1.3 Dirac Notation

We introduce a notation where vectors are represented as
|ψi ∈ H. (1.2)
Anything of the form |...i will be named a ket vector, or simply a ket.
Because of the Riesz theorem, to each vector |ψi ∈ H there corresponds a

unique (”twin”) linear functional which we shall denote as:
hψ| ∈ H∗ . (1.3)
Anything of the form h...| will be named a bra vector, or simply a bra.
We shall denote this one-to-one correspondence between bras and kets as

|ψi ↔ hψ| or hψ| ↔ |ψi. (1.4)
Using this notation, we may form the complete bracket (as in ”bracket”=”bra”+”ket”)
expression:
hψ|φi ∈ C. (1.5)
This can be defined in two ways that are equivalent due to Riesz theorem:
• as the linear functional hψ| applied on the vector |φi, that is hψ|φi =
hψ|(|φi).
• as the scalar product of hψ|’s twin, |ψi, and |φi, that is hψ|φi = h(|ψi), (|φi)i.
We will also encounter many expressions of the form:
hψ|Â|φi ∈ C. (1.6)
where Â is an operator. The Dirac notation allows for the previous expression
to also be read in two equivalent ways:

• the bra hψ| acting on the vector Â|φi, that is: hψ|Â|φi = hψ| Â|φi

• the bra hψ|Â acting on the vector |φi, that is: hψ|Â|φi = hψ|Â |φi
Thus, within the Dirac notation is natural to extend the action of operators
and also let them act on bras (functionals). The rule is that there should be
the correspondence:
hψ|Â ↔ Â† |ψi (1.7)
such that:
D E D E
hψ|Â |φi = Â† |ψi , |φi = |ψi, Â|φi = hψ| Â|φi (1.8)
Note:
• Operators always act on kets from the left, like Â|φi.
• Operators always act on bras from the right, like hψ|Â.
1.3. DIRAC NOTATION 17
1.3.1 Properties of Hermitian Conjugation

We might need a general set of rules that make the calculations easier when
trying to find, for example, the twin functional, of the vector |aÂψi:
|aÂψi = aÂ|ψi ↔ haÂψ| = a∗ hψ|Â† (1.9)

To this purpose, is useful to define the Hermitian conjugate, or adjoint, of:
• a complex numbers as just the complex number conjugated: a† ≡ a∗ .
• an operator Â as its adjoint Â† , that satisfies:
hψ|Â† |φi = hφ|A|ψi∗ (1.10)
• a ket |ψi as the corresponding bra hψ|: (|ψi)† ≡ hψ|;

• a bra hψ| as the corresponding ket |ψi: (hψ|)† ≡ |ψi.
To obtain the Hermitian conjugate of any expression you must:

• cyclically reverse the order of the factors.
• replace scalars by their complex conjugates;
• replace bras by the corresponding kets and vice-versa;
• replace operators by their adjoints.
Some properties:
(Â† )† = Â
(aÂ)† = a∗ Â†
(Ân )† = (Â† )n
(1.11)
(Â + B̂ + Ĉ + D̂)† = Â† + B̂ † + Ĉ † + D̂†
(ÂB̂ Ĉ D̂)† = D̂† Ĉ † B̂ † Â†
(|ψihφ|)† = |φihψ|
Using these rules, one may find, as expected:
ÂB̂ Ĉ D̂|ψi ↔ (ÂB̂ Ĉ D̂|ψi)† = hψ|D̂† Ĉ † B̂ † Â† (1.12)
Hermitian and anti-Hermitian operators

An operator Â is defined to be Hermitian if it Â = Â† or equivalently
hψ|Â|φi = hφ|A|ψi∗ .
An operator B̂ is defined to be anti-Hermitian if B̂ = −B̂ † or equivalently
hψ|B̂|φi = −hφ|B|ψi∗ .
1.3.2 Commutators, Compatible observables

The commutator of two operators Â, B̂ is another operator defined as:
[Â, B̂] ≡ ÂB̂ − B̂ Â

The anti-commutator of two operators Â, B̂ is another operator defined as:
{Â, B̂} = ÂB̂ + B̂ Â
We say that two operators Â, B̂ commute [Â, B̂] = 0, that is ÂB̂ = B̂ Â.
Th: Two operators commute if and only if they have a common basis of eigen-
vectors.
• A complete set of observables is the set of operators {Â, B̂, Ĉ, ...} for which
any pair of operators commutes and the basis of common eigenvectors is
unique.
• Two observables are called compatible if the commutator of their associ-
ated operators vanishes.
• Measuring an observable B which is compatible with A after first doing a
measurement of A, leaves the system as it was after the first measurement
(that of A).
Properties of the commutator:
•
[A, B] = −[B, A] (1.13)
[A, B + C] = [A, B] + [A, C] (1.14)
† † †
[A, B] = [B , A ] (1.15)
[A, BC] = [A, B]C + B[A, C] (1.16)
[AB, C] = A[B, C] + [A, C]B (1.17)
• Jacobi identity:
[A, [B, C]] = [B, [C, A]] + [C, [A, B]] = 0 (1.18)
• Distributivity
n−1
X
n
[A, B ] = B j [A, B]B n−j−1 (1.19)
j=0
n−1
X
[An , B] = An−j−1 [A, B]Aj (1.20)
j=0
• Scalar commutativity: for ∀α ∈ C:

[A, α] = 0 (1.21)
1.3.3 Exercises-I
1. Let |ψi and |ξi two states in the Hilbert space H
|ψi = 3i|φ1 i − 7i|φ2 i

|ξi = −|φ1 i + 2i|φ2 i
where
hφ1 |φ2 i = hφ2 |φ1 i = 0

hφ1 |φ1 i = hφ2 |φ2 i = 1
(a) Calculate |ψ + ξi, hψ + ξ|

(b) Calculate hψ|ξi, hξ|ψi
(c) Calculate hψ|ψi, hξ|ξi
(d) Show that |ψi and |ξi verify the Schwartz inequality |hψ|ξi|2 ≤
hψ|ψihξ|ξi
(e) Show that |ψi and p |ξi verify the triangle inequality ||ψ + ξ|| ≤ ||ψ|| +
||ξ||, where ||ψ|| = hψ|ψi
Pn
2. Let |φ1 i, |φP
2 i, . . . , |φn i be an othonormal basis and let |ψi = i=1 ci |φi i
n
and |ξi = i=1 di |φi i. Calculate
(a) hψ|ξi
(b) hψ|ψi
3. Let |φ1 i, |φ2 i, . . . , |φn i be an orthonormal basis and
|ψ1 i = 2i|φ1 i + |φ2 i − a|φ3 i + 4|φ4 i

|ψ2 i = 3|φ1 i − i|φ2 i + 5|φ3 i − |φ4 i
Find a, such that |ψ1 i and |ψ2 i are orthogonal.
4. Let |ψi and |ξi be two states in the Hilbert space H
|ψi = −3i|φ1 i + (2 + i)|φ2 i + 4|φ3 i

|ξi = 2|φ1 i + i|φ2 i + (2 − 3i)|φ3 i
where |φ1 i, |φ2 i, |φ3 i is an orthonormal basis.
(a) Write down |ψi, |ξi, hψ|, hξ| in matrix form;

(b) Calculate hψ|ξi, hξ|φi using the matrix form.
(c) Express the outer products |ψihξ|, |ξihψ| in matrix form.
1.3.4 Exercises-II
H.1 Let |ψi and |ξi two states in the Hilbert space H
|ψi = −3i|φ1 i + (2 + i)|φ2 i + 4|φ3 i

|ξi = 2|φ1 i + i|φ2 i + (2 − 3i)|φ3 i
where |φ1 i, |φ2 i, |φ3 i is an orthonormal basis.

(a) Calculate |ψ + ξi, hψ + ξ|
(b) Calculate hψ|ξi, hξ|ψi
(c) Calculate hψ|ψi, hξ|ξi
(d) Show that |ψi and |ξi verify the Schwartz inequality |hψ|ξi|2 ≤ hψ|ψihξ|ξi
(e) Show that |ψi and p |ξi verify the triangle inequality ||ψ + ξ|| ≤ ||ψ|| +
||ξ||, where ||ψ|| = hψ|ψi
H.2 Let |ψi and |ξi be two states in the Hilbert space H
|ψi = (2 − i)|φ1 i + 2|φ2 i + a|φ3 i − i|φ4 i

|ξi = N (|φ1 i + (i + 1)|φ2 i − |φ3 i)
where |φ1 i, |φ2 i, |φ3 i, |φ4 i is and orthonormal basis. Calculate:

(a) N =?, such that hξ|ξi = 1.
(b) a =?, such that hψ|ξi = 0.
H.3 Show that the matrices:
2 1
A=
1 2
 
1 1 −1
B= 1
 1 1
0 0 2
assume a diagonal form in the bases of their eigenvectors.
1.3.5 Supplementary exercises

1. Photons may exist in the either of the following two states, corresponding
to left circular polarization (|Li) and right circular polarization (|Ri):
1
|Li = √ (|~xi − i|~y i)
2
(1.22)
1
|Ri = √ (|~xi + i|~y i)
2
(a) Show that these two states are orthogonal knowing that |~xi and |~y i
are orthogonal.
(b) Let there be a state of arbitrary polarization |ψi = a|~xi + b|~y i. Find
out a0 , b0 such that |ψi = a0 |Li + b0 |Ri
(c) Consider the operators
Ô0 = (|LihL| + |RihR|)

1
Ô1 = (|LihR| + |RihL|)
2
i
Ô2 = (|LihR| − |RihL|)
2
1
Ô3 = (|RihR| − |LihL|)
2
Show that Ôi Ôj = −Ôj Ôi = 2i ijk Ôk

(d) Let there be the polarization filter |ψihψ|, where |ψi was computed
previously. Can it be written as a linear combination of the Ôi op-
erators ? (This would mean that, similarly with the polarization
ket having an expansion in the basis of polarization states, also any
operator may be written as a linear combination of basis operators)
1.4 Dirac Delta Function

Let δα (x) be a set of functions parameterized by the real parameter α, and let
f (x) be a ”well behaved” (continuous, differentiable) test function:
Z ∞
lim f (x)δα (x)dx = f (0) (1.23)
α→0 −∞
Z −
lim f (x)δα (x)dx = 0 (1.24)
α→0 −∞
Z ∞
lim f (x)δα (x)dx = 0 (1.25)
α→0
The Dirac ”Delta” function is defined as:

Z ∞ Z ∞
f (x)δ(x)dx ≡ lim f (x)δα (x)dx = f (0) (1.26)
−∞ α→0 −∞
or, locally:
δ(x) ≡ lim δα (x)
α→0
The Dirac Delta function may be seen as the derivative of the Heaviside θ(x)
function:
d
(θ(x)) = δ(x) (1.27)
dx
0, x < 0
where: θ(x) = {
1, x ≥ 0
Let x0 ∈ R be a specific point. Then the following relations are valid:
Z ∞
f (x)δ(x − x0 )dx = f (x0 )
−∞
R∞ f (0) 0 ∈ [a, b]
−∞
f (x)δ(x − x0 )dx = {
0 0 6∈ [a, b]
Z ∞
δ(x − x0 )dx = 1
−∞
1.4.1 Examples of parameterized δα functions

1. The impulse function:
1/α x ∈ (−α/2, α/2)

δα (x) = {
0 x 6∈ (−α/2, α/2)
Z ∞
x α/2
lim δα (x)dx = lim | =1
α→ 0 −∞ α→ 0 α −α/2
1.4. DIRAC DELTA FUNCTION 23
2. The Lorentz function:

1 α
δα (x) = (1.28)
π x2 + α 2
Z ∞ Z ∞
2 α 2 x 2π
lim δα (x)dc = lim = lim tan−1 ( )|∞ = =1
α→ 0 −∞ π α→ 0 0 x2 + α 2 π α→ 0 α 0 π2
3. The negative argument exponential function:

1 − |x|
δα (x) = e α (1.29)
2α
Z ∞ Z 0
1 x x
lim δα (x) = lim ( e− α dx + e α dx) =
α→ 0 α→ 0 2α 0 −∞
1 x x 1
lim (−αe− α |∞ α 0
0 + αe |−∞ ) = lim (−0 + α + α − 0) = 1
α→ 0 2α α→ 0 2α
4. The Gaussian function:

1 x2
δα (x) = √ e− α 2 (1.30)
α π
∞
1 √ 2
Z
lim δα (x)dx = lim √ α π=1 (1.31)
α→ 0 −∞ α→ 0 α π
5. The sinc function: π

sin( α x)
δα (x) = (1.32)
πx
∞ ∞ π
sin( α x) π
Z Z
1 1
lim δα (x)dx = lim π d( x) = π = 1 (1.33)
α→ 0 −∞ π α→ 0 −∞ ( α x) α π
6. The sinc function squared:
α sin2 ( αx )
δα (x) = (1.34)
π x2
∞ ∞
sin2 ( αx ) x
Z Z
1 1
lim δα (x)dx = lim d( ) = π = 1 (1.35)
α→ 0 −∞ π α→ 0 −∞ ( αx )2 α π
Other identities involving the Dirac delta function:

1
1. δ(cx) = δ(x).
|c|
2. δ(−x) = δ(x).
P δ(x − xi )
3. δ(g(x)) = i , where xi are simple zeroes of g, i.e. g(xi ) = 0
|g 0 (xi )|
and g 0 (xi ) 6= 0.
4. xδ(x − x0 ) = x0 δ(x − x0 ) and g(x)δ(x − x0 ) = g(x0 )δ(x − x0 )
5. xδ 0 (x) = −δ(x)
1.4.2 The Fourier transform of the Dirac Delta Function

The Fourier transform of a one-variable function φ(x) is defined by:
Z ∞
1 i
φ̃(p) = √ φ(x) e− ~ px dx (1.36)
2π~ −∞
The inverse Fourier transform is defined by:

Z ∞
1 i
φ(x) = √ φ̃(p) e ~ px dp (1.37)
2π~ −∞
The Fourier transform of the Dirac Delta Function δ(x − x0 ) may be written
as:
Z ∞
1 i 1 i
δ̃x0 (p) = √ δ(x − x0 )e− x px dx = √ e− ~ px0 (1.38)
2π~ −∞ 2π~
1
For x0 = 0 we have δ̄0 (p) = √
.
2π~
By applying the inverse Fourier transform to δ̃x0 (p) we find the original
function δ(x − x0 ) as:
Z ∞ Z ∞
1 i 1 i
δ(x − x0 ) = √ δ̃x0 (p) e ~ px dp = e ~ p(x−x0 ) dp (1.39)
2π~ −∞ 2π~ −∞
p
We may define the wave-number as k = . The Delta function becomes:
~
Z ∞
1
δ(x − x0 ) = eik(x−x0 ) dx (1.40)
2π −∞
Z ∞
1
z = x − x0 ⇒ δ(z) = eikz dk (1.41)
2π −∞
1.4.3 The Delta function in the two dimensional case

Using Cartesian coordinates we may define the Delta function in the two di-
mensional case as:
1.4. DIRAC DELTA FUNCTION 25
0, x2 + y 2 =
6 0
δ 2 (x, y) = {
∞, x2 + y 2 = 0
By integrating the Delta function over the two dimensional space we obtain:
Z ∞ Z ∞
dx dy δ 2 (x, y) = 1 (1.42)
−∞ −∞
δ(x)
The identitaty δ(cx) = (valid for the one dimensional case) becomes, for
|c|
the two dimensional case:
1 2
δ 2 (ax, by) = δ (x, y) (1.43)
|ab|
The two-variable Delta function can be decomposed in a product of one-
variable Delta functions:
δ 2 (x, y) = δ(x)δ(y) (1.44)
Using polar coordinates (r, θ), the two dimensional Delta function assumes
the form:
δ(r)
δ 2 (r, θ) = (1.45)
πr
Exercise: Check that the normalization condition holds:
Z ∞ Z 2π
dr r dθ δ 2 (r, θ) = 1
0 0
1.4.4 The Delta function in the three dimensional case

In the three dimensional case, using Cartesian coordinates, we have:
0, x2 + y 2 + z 2 =
6 0
δ 3 (x, y, z) = δ 3 (~x) = {
∞, x2 + y 2 + z 2 = 0
By integrating the Delta function over the three dimensional space we obtain:
Z ∞ Z ∞ Z ∞
dx dy dz δ 3 (x, y, z) = 1 (1.46)
−∞ −∞ −∞
The three-variable Delta function can be decomposed in a product of one-

variable Delta functions:
δ 3 (x, y, z) = δ(x)δ(y)δ(z) (1.47)
For cylindrical coordinates (r, θ, z) one obtains the expression:

δ(r)δ(z)
δ 3 (r, θ, z) = (1.48)
πr
For spherical coordinates (r, θ, φ) one obtains the expression:
δ(r)
δ 3 (r, θ, φ) = (1.49)
2πr2
On may also use a vectorial notation to write:
δ(~r − ~r0 ) = δ(x − x0 )δ(y − y 0 )δ(z − z 0 ) (1.50)
Upon integration over the three dimensional space R3 with a well behaved
test function f (~r), we obtain:
Z
δ(~r − r~0 )f (~r)d3~r = f (r~0 ) (1.51)
R3
In the particular case f (~r) = 1:

Z
δ(~r − r~0 )d3~r = 1 (1.52)
R3
The wave-vector ~k may be defined as:
~k = (kx , ky , kz ) = ( px , py , pz ) (1.53)
~ ~ ~
By taking into account the decomposition of the 3D delta function into a
product of 1D delta functions, and also the integral representation of the 1D
delta function deduced previously, we may write:
Z Z
1 3~ i~ r −r~0 ) 1 1 ~0
δ(~r − r~0 ) = 3
d k e k(~
= 3
d3 p e ~ p~(~r−r ) (1.54)
(2π) R3 (2π~) R3
Chapter 2
The Principles of QM
2.1 Theory
2.1.1 The superposition principle [postulate I]
• The states of a quantum system are represented by vectors |ψi of a Hilbert
space H.
• To each quantum system we associate a Hilbert space H that contains all
its possible states.
• The state vector associated to a system’s state contains all the information
available on that system.
2.1.2 The Observables postulate [postulate II]

• Physical quantities (observables) are represented in QM by linear Hermitian
operators.
• The possible values obtained as a result of measuring an observable A are
among the eigenvalues of the associated operator Â.
27
28 CHAPTER 2. THE PRINCIPLES OF QM
The spectral theorem for Hermitian operators
I. For each Hermitian operator Â : H → H (where H is a finite-dimensional inner

product space), there is the set of eigenvectors {|φi i} that obey the equation:
Â|φi i = λi |φi i
PN
such that we may expand ∀|ψi ∈ H as |ψi = i ci |φi i.
The expansion coefficients are ci = hφi |ψi, i.e. {|φi i} form an orthonormal basis
of H.
As a consequence, we get the spectral resolution of the identity operator and
that of the operator Â:
X X
Iˆ = |φi ihφi | , Â = λi |φi ihφi |
i i
In the case of infinite dimensional spaces, the above theorem is not true
in general: although there are countably infinite orthogonal bases, a Hermi-
tian operator does not necessarely have a countably infinite set of eigenvectors.
However, the following theorem can be proven:
II. There are spaces for which the generalization of the spectral decomposition
of the finite dimensional case may be proven for all Hermitian operators used in
QM:
XN Z
|ψi = hφi |ψi|φi i + |φihφ|ψidφ
i
The precise mathematical form of this generalized spectral decomposition

theorem is complicated, and physicists resort to using ”pseudo-eigenvectors”,
that is, objects that formally satisfy the eigenvalue equation but are not ele-
ments of H.
For example, see the Lecture notes regarding the eigenstates of the position
operator:
The ket |xi represents a state for which the position of the particle is localized
exactly at the point x, on the real axis. In QM it is impossible to realize such
a state physically.
The mathematical property ”|xi is not an element of the Hilbert space”
corresponds to the physical property ”|xi is not a realizable physical state”.
The physically realizable states are always represented by ”true” vectors
belonging to the Hilbert space, that is the normalized kets, i.e. vectors of norm
one.
The generalized normalization condition hx|x0 i = δ(x − x0 ) implies that the
norm of the pseudo-eigenvector |xi is hx|xi = δ(x − x) = δ(0) = ∞.
2.1. THEORY 29
2.1.3 The Measurement postulate [postulate III]

Let there be a physical observable A whose associated operator Â obeys the
eigenvalues-eigenvectors equation:
Â|ai i = ai |ai i (2.1)
The Measurement postulate states that:

• When carrying out the measurement operation of an observable A the state
of the system will collapse in an uncontrollable way into one of the eigen-
states of Â. The result of the measurement is the corresponding eigenvalue.
• For a measurement, the probability to obtain a given eigenvalue ai of Â

is given by the absolute value squared of the scalar product between the
initial state, say |ψi, and the final state |ai i corresponding to the specific
eigenvalue ai :
probability to obtain ai = |hai |ψi|2 .
The statements of the measurement postulate are to be understood in the
context of measurements performed on an ensemble of identical physical sys-
tems, as follows:
• Consider an ensemble consisting of a large number Ntot of perfectly iden-

tical physical systems. Let the state of each system be |ψi.
Note: The ensemble may be spatial (all copies of the system exist at the
same time) or temporal (the copies are generated sequentially, one after
another).
• A measurement of the observable A is performed on each of the individual

systems. Various results are obtained, for example:
the first copy of the system gives a3 ;

the second copy of the system gives a5 ;
the third copy of the system gives a1 ;
the fourth copy of the system gives a1 ;
the fifth copy of the system gives a2 ;
..
.
the 856th copy of the system gives a6 ;
..
.
Note: According to the Measurement Postulate, it is impossible to predict

which result will be obtained in each individual measurement.
A hystogram containing the results may be constructed as in Fig. (2.1b).
(a) The apparatus.

(b) The hystogram
Figure 2.1: Consider an ensemble consisting of particles that undergo a scat-

tering experiment. Each particle is subjected to the same preparation method
consisting of acceleration and collimation in the apparatus shown schematically
on the left. It scatters off the target through some angle θ, and is finally de-
tected by one of the detectors. A single measurement consists in the detection
of the particle and hence the determination of the angle of scatter θ. For the
whole ensemble of particles, a hystogram of results may be constructed, where
the width of each rectangle on the right figure is the (finite) angular resolution
of the detector.
• However, if Ntot is very large, the relative frequencies of the various pos-
sible outcomes of the individual measurements usually approach a stable
limit.
In the limit of very large Ntot , it thus makes sense to define the probabil-
ities for each outcome:
Nai
Pexp (ai ) ≡ lim ,
Ntot →∞ Ntot
where Nai is the number of times ai was the outcome of the measurement.
• The Measurement Postulate actually makes the correspondence between

what is theoretically calculated within the framework of Quantum Me-
chanics and the actual experimental results:
Nai
|hai |ψi|2 = lim (2.2)
| {z } Ntot →∞ Ntot
QM
| {z }
experiment
2.1. THEORY 31
• At each measurement, the state of each copy of the system will collapse to
the eigenstate of Â corresponding to the obtained eigenvalue. In agreement
with the above example, we have that:
the state of the first copy of the system collapses to |a3 i;
the state of the second copy of the system collapses to |a5 i;
the state of the third copy of the system collapses to |a1 i;
the state of the fourth copy of the system collapses to |a1 i;
the state of the fifth copy of the system collapses to |a2 i;
..
.
the state of the 856th copy of the system collapses to |a6 i;
..
.
• Combining the Observables and the Measurement postulates, we may see
already at this level why physical observables need to be represented by
Hermitian operators:
the results of measurements always have real values, as are the eigen-
values of Hermitian operators.
if a second measurement of the same observable is performed on a
system, the result will always be the same as the first measurement.
Say, for example, that the state of a copy of the system has collapsed
to |a5 i after the first measurement on this copy. Thus |a5 i is the
initial state for the second measurement.
Now, according to the Observables postulate, the associated operator
Â is Hermitian, and thus its eigenvectors corresponding to different
eigenvalues are orthogonal. Hence for any ai 6= a5 , hai |a5 i = 0. Thus
the probability for collapse to another eigenstate with a different
eigenvalue is zero.
Also, the scalar product that gives the transition from |a5 i → |a5 i is
ha5 |a5 i = 1. The state will remain in the same state |a5 i.
• The expectation value of the operator Â associated to the observable A

on the state |ψi (hψ|ψi = 1) is defined as:
hÂiψ ≡ hψ|Â|ψi
!
X
= hψ|Â |ai ihai |ψi
i
X
= hψ|Â|ai ihai |ψi
i
X (2.3)
= hψ|ai |ai ihai |ψi
i
X
= ai hψ|ai ihai |ψi
i
X
= ai |hai |ψi|2
i
The average value of the observable A determined experimentally is:

X X Nai
hAiexp = ai · Pexp (ai ) = ai lim (2.4)
i i
Ntot →∞ Ntot
Again, the Measurement postulate ensures the precise correspondence be-

tween these two quantities:
hÂiψ = hAiexp (2.5)

| {z } | {z }
QM experiment
2.2. PROBLEMS 33
2.2 Problems
1. A system is in the initial state |ψi expressed in terms of the orthonormal
basis vectors |φi i, i = 1, 5:
√ √ √
|ψi = N (|φ1 i + 2|φ2 i + 2|φ3 i + 3|φ4 i + 5|φ5 i).
The states |φi i are the eigenvectors of the Hamiltonian operator Ĥ, such
that Ĥ|φn i = nε|φn i, with a parameter having the dimensions of energy.
(a) Find out N such that |ψi is normalized to unity.
(b) If we measure the energy on a large number of identical systems,
each in the state |ψi, what values would we obtain and with what
probabilities?
(c) What is the obtained average energy of the system for the state |ψi?
2. Let ε ∈ R+ . The initial state of the system is hψ| = N ∗ (1 + i, 1 + i, 1).
The Hamiltonian operator has the representation:
 
0 i 0
Ĥ = ε  −i 0 0 
0 0 −1
(a) Is Ĥ Hermitic?
(b) Find out N such that |ψi is normalized to unity.
(c) If we measure the energy on a large number of identical systems,
probabilities?
(d) What is the obtained average energy of the system for the state |ψi?
3. Let there be a physical system whose associated Hilbert space H is two

dimensional. Let |ψ1 i and |ψ2 i be an orthonormal basis in H. Now, define:
1
|φ1 i = √ (|ψ1 i + |ψ2 i)
2
1
|φ2 i = √ (|ψ1 i − |ψ2 i)
2
An operator P̂ is represented in the |ψi i basis as:

1 ε
P̂ = .
ε 1
Find the expression of this operator in the |φi i basis.

4. Let Â be an operator and let its adjoint be Â† , such that [Â, Â† ] = 1̂.
(a) Compute [Â† Â, Â] si [Â† Â, Â† ]

(b) Let there be an orthonormal set of states indexed by the natural
numbers, {|1i, |2i, |3i, ...}, with hn|n0 i = δn,n0 .
We define
√ the action of these √ operators on a state |ni, with n ∈ N as
Â|ni = n|n − 1i Â† |ni = n + 1|n + 1i.
Compute ha|Â† Â|ai and ha|ÂÂ† |ai.
(c) Compute also ha|(Â + Â† )2 |ai and ha|(Â − Â† )2 |ai.
5. A system is in the initial state |ψi expressed in terms of the orthonormal

basis vectors |φi i, i = 1, 5 as:
√ √
|ψi = N ( 2|φ1 i + 3|φ2 i + |φ3 i + |φ4 i)
The states |φi i are the eigenvectors of the Hamiltonian operator Ĥ, such
that Ĥ|φn i = n2 ε0 |φn i, with a parameter having the dimensions of
energy.
(a) Find out N such that |ψi is normalized to unity.
(b) If we measure the energy on a large number of identical systems,
probabilities?
(c) What is the obtained average energy of the system for the state |ψi?
(d) Let there be a Hermitian operator Â whose action on |φn i is:
A|φn i = (n + 1)a0 |φn i,
where a0 > 0. If we measure the observable A on a large number of

identical systems, each in the state |ψi, what values would we obtain
and with what probabilities?
(e) Suppose we measure the energy and obtain 4ε0 . What happens if on
the resulting state we measure the observable A?

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Quantum Mechanics - Seminar notes

March 18, 2018

1 Background Mathematical Concepts 5

Additionaly, for any complex number z we can define the following:

Using the above definition of the multiplication of complex numbers ”·”, we

i2 = i·i = (0, 1)·(0, 1) = (−1, 0)

With i, any complex number may be written as:

When using complex numbers in this form,

• the only thing to be careful about is always setting i2 = −1.

• z1 · z2 = (a1 + ib1 ) · (a2 + ib2 ) = a1 a2 + ia1 b2 + ib1 a2 + i2 b1 b2 =

1.1.2 Vector spaces - Review

1. ”+” : V × V → V (addition of two vectors, whose result is another vector)

2. ”·” : K × V → V (multiplication of a vector by a scalar, whose result is

• V is an abelian group with respect to the addition operation, that is:

• the multiplication of vectors by scalars satisfies:

(a+b)·ψ = a·ψ+b·ψ, ∀ ψ ∈ V and ∀ a, b ∈ K

1.1.3 Linear operators

Definition: the map f : V → V is called a linear operator if:

f (a·ψ+b·φ) = a·f (ψ)+b·f (φ), ∀ a, b ∈ K, ∀ ψ, φ ∈ V

1.1.4 Scalar Product

Definition: the map h·, ·i : V × V → K is called a scalar product if:

• hψ, φi = hφ, ψi∗ , ∀ ψ, φ ∈ V

• hψ, φ+χi = hψ, φi+hψ, χi, ∀ ψ, φ, χ ∈ V

• hψ, a·φi = a·hψ, φi, ∀ ψ, φ ∈ V and ∀ a ∈ K

NOTATION: We denote a sum of vectors by:

• Example: The following is also a sum of vectors,

NOTATION: We denote a sum of scalars by:

• Example: The following is also a sum of scalars,

Exercise4 : Show that:

1.1.5 Linear Operators

By definition, a linear operator A is a map that assigns to any vector another

• A(a·ψ+b·φ) = a·Aψ+b·Aφ, ∀ ψ, φ ∈ V and ∀ a, b ∈ K

The addition of two operators, denoted by ”+”, satisfies:

(A1 +A2 )(ψ) = A1 ψ+A2 ψ, ∀ψ∈V .

• A : V → V be a linear operator and

• h·, ·i : V × V → K be a scalar product.

Definition: The operator A† is called the adjoint A if:

hψ, Aφi = hA† ψ, φi, ∀ ψ, φ ∈ V .

The operator A is called Hermitian if:

1.1.6 Basis of a vector space

Definition: {ψ1 , ψ2 , ..., ψn } is a basis of V if:

a1 ·ψ1 +a2 ·ψ2 + · · · +an ·ψn = 0V ⇐⇒ a1 = a2 = · · · = an = 0

• ∀ ψ ∈ V, ∃ b1 , b2 , ...bn ∈ K such that:

ψ = b1 ·ψ1 +b2 ·ψ2 +...+bn ·ψn

1.1.7 Matrix form of operators

Â(ψ1 ) = a11 ·ψ1 +a12 ·ψ2 +...+a1n ψn

OBSERVATION1 The matrix values depend on the chosen basis!

OBSERVATION2 The matrix of the adjoint of Â is found by transposing

1.1.9 Eigenvectors and Eigenvalues

1.1.10 Pre-Hilbert Spaces

Definition: the norm of a vector in a pre-Hilbert space is:

Definition: The map || · || : V → R≥0 is called a norm if:

1.1.11 Inadequacy of pre-Hilbert spaces

• They are adequate in the finite dimensional case.

Problem 1: Vectors with infinite norm:

Let V = be a subspace of RN made out of vectors with a finite number of

• Write down a basis of V . Can any vector in V be written as a finite linear

• Let there be the sequence:

Problem 3: Unbounded operators

• separable (There are vectors which cannot be written as a finite sum of

• complete (There are sequences of vectors that do not converge to an ele-

• dense (The vector obtained from the action of an operator on a vector of

1.1.12 Dual space

By definition, a linear functional is a map that assigns a scalar to each vector,

Show that Ôi Ôj = −Ôj Ôi = 2i ijk Ôk