Professional Documents
Culture Documents
ABSTRACT
This guide presents a brief summary of the research on
violence prevention and intervention and crisis response in schools. It tells
school communities: (1) what to look for--the early warning signs that relate
to violence and other troubling student behavior; and (2) what to do--the
action steps that school communities can take to prevent violence and other
troubling behaviors, to intervene and get help for troubled children, and to
respond to school violence when it occurs. Sections in this guide include:
(1) "Introduction," describing the rationale for the guide and suggesting how
it can be used by schools to develop a plan of action; (2) "Characteristics
of a School That Is Safe and Responsive to All Children," describing
characteristics of schools that support prevention, appropriate intervention,
and effective crisis response; (3) "Early Warning Signs," presenting early
warning signs of a troubled student, imminent warning signs, and the
principles that ensure these signs will not be misinterpreted (concludes with
a brief description of using the signs to shape intervention practices); (4)
"Getting Help for Troubled Children," describing what to do when intervening
early with students who are at risk for behavioral problems, when responding
with intensive interventions for individual children, and when providing a
foundation to prevent and reduce violent behavior; (5) "Developing a
Prevention and Response Plan," offering suggestions for such plans; (6)
"Responding to Crisis," describing what to do when intervening during a
crisis to ensure safety and when responding in the aftermath of crisis; (7)
"Conclusion"; and (8) "Methodology, Contributors and Research Support,"
describing the rigorous development and review process used in producing the
guide, and providing information about the project's World Wide Web site. A
final section lists resources that can be contacted for more information.
(AA)
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* Reproductions supplied by EDRS are the best that can be made *
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U.S. DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION
Office of Educational Research and Improvement
EDUCATIONAL RESOURCES INFORMATION
CENTER (ERIC)
This document has been reproduced as
received from the person or organization
originating it.
Minor changes have been made to
improve reproduction quality.
1.11.0.LELV 1.;31
The full text of this public domain publi- Email: David Summers@ed.gov The development of this guide was sup-
cation is available at the Department's Telephone: (202)205 -9043 ported by the Office of Special Education
home page at http://www.ed.gov/offices/ TDD: (202)205-5465 and Rehabilitation Services, Office of
OSERS/OSEP/earlywrn.html and in al- FIRS 1-800-877-8339, Special Education Programs, under the
ternate formats upon request. For more 8 a.m. 8 p.m., ET, M-F Individuals with Disabilities Education
information, please contact us at: Act (IDEA). Dissemination of the guide
This guide was produced by the Center was supported by the Office of Elemen-
U.S. Department of Education for Effective Collaboration and Practice tary and Secondary Education, Safe and
Special Education and Rehabilitative of the American Institutes for Research Drug-Free Schools Program.
Services in collaboration with the National Asso-
Room 3131 Mary E. Switzer Building ciation of School Psychologists, under a Dwyer, K., Osher, D., and Warger, C.
Washington, D.C. 20202-2524 cooperative agreement with the U.S. De- (1998). Early warning, timely response:
partment of Education, Office of Special A guide to safe schools. Washington, DC:
Education and Rehabilitative Services, U.S. Department of Education.
http://www.ed.gov/offices/OSERS/OSEP/ Office of Special Education Programs
earlywrn.html (grant# H237T60005). August 1998
On June 13, after the tragic loss of life and injuries at Thurston High School in Springfield,
Oregon, President Clinton directed the Department of Education and the Department of Justice to
develop an early warning guide to help "adults reach out to troubled children quickly and
effectively." This guide responds to that Presidential request. It is our sincere hope that this
guide will provide you with the practical help needed to keep every child in your school out of
harm's way.
America's schools are among the safest places to be on a day-to-day basis, due to the strong
commitment of educators, parents, and communities to their children. Nevertheless, last year's
tragic and sudden acts of violence in our nation's schools remind us that no community can be
complacent in its efforts to make its schools even safer. An effective and safe school is the vital
center of every community whether it is in a large urban area or a small rural community.
Central to this guide are the key insights that keeping children safe is a community-wide effort
and that effective schools create environments where children and young people truly feel
connected. This is why our common goal must be to reconnect with every child and particularly
with those young people who are isolated and troubled.
This guide should be seen as part of an overall effort to make sure that every school in this nation
has a comprehensive violence prevention plan in place. We also caution you to recognize that
over labeling and using this guide to stigmatize children in a cursory way that leads to over-
reaction is harmful. The guidelines in this report are based on research and the positive
experiences of schools around the country where the value and potential of each and every child
is cherished and where good practices have produced, and continue to produce, successful
students and communities.
We are grateful to the many experts, agencies, and associations in education, law enforcement,
juvenile justice, mental health, and other social services that worked closely with us to make sure
that this report is available for the start of school this fall. We hope that you and your students
and staff, as well as parents and the community, will benefit from this information.
Sincerely,
Our mission is to ensure equal access to education and to promote educational excellence throughout the Nation.
Executive Summary
Early Warning,
Timely Response
A Guide to Safe Schools
ii
iii
signs that, when viewed in con- works. This section offers sug-
text, can signal a troubled child. gestions for developing such
Educators and parentsand in plans.
some cases, studentscan use Section 6: Responding to Cri-
several significant principles to sis. Effective and safe schools
ensure that the early warning are well prepared for any poten-
signs are not misinterpreted. tial crisis or violent act. This
This section presents early section describes what to do
warning signs, imminent warn- when intervening during a cri-
ing signs, and the principles sis to ensure safety and when
that ensure these signs will not responding in the aftermath. of
be misinterpreted. It concludes crisis. The principles that un-
with a brief description of us- derlie effective crisis response
ing the early warning signs to are included.
shape intervention practices.
Section 4: Getting Help for Section 7: Conclusion. This
Troubled Children. Effective section summarizes the guide.
interventions for improving the Section 8: Methodology, Con-
behavior of troubled children tributors, and Research Sup-
are well documented in the re- port. This guide synthesizes an
search literature. This section extensive knowledge base on
presents research- and expert- violence and violence preven-
based principles that should tion. This section describes the
provide the foundation for all rigorous development and re-
intervention development. It view process that was used. It
describes what to do when in- also provides information
tervening early with students about the project's Web site.
who are at risk for behavioral A final section lists resources that
problems, when responding can be contacted for more infor-
with intensive interventions for mation.
individual children, and when
providing a foundation to pre- The information in this guide is
vent and reduce violent behav- not intended as a comprehensive
ior. prevention, intervention, and re-
sponse planschool communities
Section 5: Developing a Pre- could do everything recom-
vention and Response Plan. mended and still experience vio-
Effective schools create a vio- lence. Rather, the intent is to pro-
lence prevention and response vide school communities with re-
plan and form a team that can liable and practical information
ensure it is implemented. They about what they can do to be pre-
use approaches and strategies pared and to reduce the likelihood
based on research about what of violence.
Contents
A Letter
A Executive Summary ii
A Responding to Crisis 27
Principles Underlying Crisis Response 27
Intervening During a Crisis To Ensure Safety 27
Responding in the Aftermath of Crisis 28
A Conclusion 31
2
Section 2: What To Look For
Characteristics of a
School That Is Safe and
Responsive to All Children
Well functioning schools foster Involve families in meaningful
learning, safety, and socially ap- ways. Students whose families
propriate behaviors. They have a are involved in their growth in
strong academic focus and sup- and outside of school are more
port students in achieving high likely to experience school suc-
standards, foster positive relation- cess and less likely to become
ships between school staff and involved in antisocial activities.
students, and promote meaning- School communities must
ful parental and community in- make parents feel welcome in
volvement. Most prevention pro- school, address barriers to their
grams in effective schools address participation, and keep fainilies
multiple factors and recognize positively engaged in their
that safety and order are related children's education. Effective
to children's social, emotional, schools also support families in
and academic development. expressing concerns about their
Effective prevention, intervention,
childrenand they support
families in getting the help they
and crisis response strategies op- need to address behaviors that
erate best in school communities cause concern.
that:
Focus on academic achieve- Develop links to the commu-
nity. Everyone must be commit-
ment. Effective schools convey
the attitude that all children ted to improving schools.
can achieve academically and Schools that have close ties to
families, support services, com-
behave appropriately, while at munity police, the faith-based
the same time appreciating in- community, and the commu-
dividual differences. Adequate nity at large can benefit from
resources and programs help many valuable resources. When
ensure that expectations are these links are weak, the risk
met. Expectations are commu- of school violence is heightened
nicated clearly, with the under-
standing that meeting such ex- and the opportunity to serve
children who are at risk for vio-
pectations is a responsibility of
the student, the school, and the
lence or who may be affected
by it is decreased.
home. Students who do not re-
ceive the support they need are Emphasize positive relation-
less likely to behave in socially ships among students and
desirable ways. staff. Research shows that a
positive relationship with an orientation, physical appear-
adult who is available to pro- ance, or some other factor
vide support when nee,led is both by staff and by peers. Stu-
one of the most critical factors dents who have been treated
in preventing student violence. unfairly may become scape-
Students often look to adults in goats and/or targets of violence.
the school community for guid- In some cases, victims may re-
ance, support, and direction. act in aggressive ways. Effective
Some children need help over- schools communicate to stu-
coming feelings of isolation and dents and the greater commu-
support in developing connec- nity that all children are valued
tions to others. Effective and respected. There is a delib-
schools make sure that oppor- erate and systematic effortfor
tunities exist for adults to spend example, displaying children's
quality, personal time with chil- artwork, posting academic
dren. Effective schools also fos- work prominently throughout
ter positive student interper- the building, respecting stu-
sonal relationsthey encour- dents' diversityto establish a
"I just recently got out of age students to help each other climate that demonstrates care
the hospital. I was a victim and to feel comfortable assist- and a sense of community.
of a shooting at my school.
I've been teaching for 20 ing others in getting help when
needed. Create ways for students to
years and I never thought share their concerns. It has
it could happen at my been found that peers often are
school. Some of the kids Discuss safety issues openly.
knew about it before it hap- Children come to school with the most likely group to know
pened, but they didn't want
many different perceptions in advance about potential
to say anythingthey have school violence. Schools must
a code of honor and they and misconceptionsabout create ways for students to
did not want to tattle tale. death, violence, and the use of safely report such troubling be-
But someone has to stand weapons. Schools can reduce
up, someone has to take a the risk of violence by teaching
haviors that may lead to dan-
stand because, if you don't,
children about the dangers of gerous situations. And students
then somebody else is go- who report potential school vio-
ing to get hurt." firearms, as well as appropriate
strategies for dealing with feel- lence must be protected. It is
Gregory Carter, Teacher,
ings, expressing anger in appro- important for schools to sup-
Richmond, VA
priate ways, and resolving con- port and foster positive rela-
flicts. Schools also should teach
tionships between students and
children that they are respon- adults so students will feel safe
sible for their actions and that providing information about a
potentially dangerous situation.
the choices they make have
consequences for which they Help children feel safe express-
will be held accountable. ing their feelings. It is very im-
portant that children feel safe
Treat students with equal re- when expressing their needs,
spect. A major source of con- fears, and anxieties to school
flict in many schools is the per- staff. When they do not have
ceived or real problem of bias access to caring adults, feelings
and unfair treatment of stu- of isolation, rejection, and dis-
dents because of ethnicity, gen- appointment are more likely to
der, race, social class, religion, occur, increasing the probabil-
disability, nationality, sexual ity of acting-out behaviors.
4
5
Have in place a system for re- tively examine circumstances
ferring children who are sus- that are potentially dangerous
pected of being abused or ne- for students and staff and situ-
glected. The referral system ations where members of the
must be appropriate and reflect school community feel threat-
federal and state guidelines. ened or intimidated. Safe
schools continually assess
Offer extended day programs progress by identifying prob-
for children. School-based be- lems and collecting information
fore- and after-school programs regarding progress toward solu-
can be effective in reducing vio- tions. Moreover, effective
lence. Effective programs are schools share this information
well supervised and provide with students, families, and the
children with support and a community at large.
range of options, such as coun-
seling, tutoring, mentoring, cul- Support students in making
tural arts, community service, the transition to adult life and
clubs, access to computers, and the workplace. Youth need as-
help with homework. sistance in planning their future
and in developing skills that
Promote good citizenship and will result in success. For ex- "We must avoid fragmenta-
tion in implementing pro-
character. In addition to their ample, schools can provide stu- grams. The concepts in pre-
academic mission, schools dents with community service venting and responding to
must help students become opportunities, work-study pro- violence must be integrated
good citizens. First, schools grams, and apprenticeships into effective school reform,
stand for the civic values set that help connect them to car- including socially and aca-
forth in our Constitution and demically supportive in-
ing adults in the community. struction and caring, a wel-
Bill of Rights (patriotism; free- These relationships, when es- coming atmosphere, and
dom of religion, speech, and tablished early, foster in youth providing good options for
press; equal protection/nondis- a sense of hope and security for recreation and enrich-
crimination; and due process/ the future. ment."
fairness). Schools also reinforce Howard Adelman, Professor
and promote the shared values Research has demonstrated re- of Psychology, University of
peatedly that school communities California, Los Angeles
of their local communities,
such as honesty, kindness, re- can do a great deal to prevent vio-
sponsibility, and respect for lence. Having in place a safe and
others. Schools should ac- responsive foundation helps all
knowledge that parents are the childrenand it enables school
primary moral educators of communities to provide more ef-
their children and work in part- ficient and effective services to
nership with them. students who need more support.
The next step is to learn the early
Identify problems and assess warning signs of a child who is
progress toward solutions. troubled, so that effective inter-
Schools must openly and objec- ventions can be provided.
Section 3: What To Look For
6
La)
7
relationships with children and social environment. In fact, for
youthgetting to know them well those children who are at risk
enough to be aware of their needs, for aggression and violence,
feelings, attitudes, and behavior certain environments or situa-
patterns. Educators and parents tions can set it off. Some chil-
together can review school dren may act out if stress be-
records for patterns of behavior or comes too great, if they lack
sudden changes in behavior. positive coping skills, and if
they have learned to react with
Unfortunately, there is a real dan- aggression.
ger that early warning signs will
be misinterpreted. Educators and Avoid stereotypes. Stereotypes
parentsand in some cases, stu- can interfere withand even
dentscan ensure that the early harmthe school community's
warning signs are not misinter- ability to identify and help chil-
preted by using several significant dren. It is important to be aware
principles to better understand of false cuesincluding race,
them. These principles include: socio-economic status, cogni-
Do no harm. There are certain
tive or academic ability, or
physical appearance. In fact,
risks associated with using such stereotypes can unfairly
early warning signs to identify harm children, especially when "When doing consultation
children who are troubled. First the school community acts with school staff and fami-
and foremost, the intent should lies, we advise them to
upon them. think of the early warning
be to get help for a child early.
View warning signs within a signs within a context. We
The early warning signs should encourage them to look for
not to be used as rationale to developmental context. Chil- combinations of warning
exclude, isolate, or punish a dren and youth at different lev- signs that might tell us the
child. Nor should they be used els of development have vary- student's behavior is chang-
as a checklist for formally iden- ing social and emotional capa- ing and becoming more
bilities. They may express their problematic."
tifying, mislabeling, or stereo-
typing children. Formal disabil- needs differently in elementary, Deborah Crockett, School
Psychologist, Atlanta, GA
ity identification under federal middle, and high school. The
law requires individualized point is to know what is devel-
evaluation by qualified profes- opmentally typical behavior, so
sionals. In addition, all referrals that behaviors are not misinter-
to outside agencies based on preted.
the early warning signs must be Understand that children typi-
kept confidential and must be cally exhibit multiple warning
done with parental consent (ex- signs. It is common for children
cept referrals for suspected who are troubled to exhibit
child abuse or neglect). multiple signs. Research con-
Understand violence and ag- firms that most children who
gression within a context. Vio- are troubled and at risk for ag-
lence is contextual. Violent and gression exhibit more than one
aggressive behavior as an ex- warning sign, repeatedly, and
pression of emotion may have with increasing intensity over
many antecedent factorsfac- time. Thus, it is important not
tors that exist within the to overreact to single signs,
school, the home, and the larger words, or actions.
Early Warning should make diagnoses in consul-
Signs tation with the child's parents or
It is not always possible to predict guardian.
behavior that will lead to violence. The following early warning signs
However, educators and par- are presented with the following
entsand sometimes students qualifications: They are not
can recognize certain early warn- equally significant and they are
ing signs. In some situations and not presented in order of serious-
for some youth, different combi- ness. The early warning signs in-
nations of events, behaviors, and clude:
emotions may lead to aggressive
rage or violent behavior toward Social withdrawal. In some
self or others. A good rule of situations, gradual and eventu-
thumb is to assume that these ally complete withdrawal from
warning signs, especially when social contacts can be an im-
they are presented in combina- portant indicator of a troubled
tion, indicate a need for further child. The withdrawal often
analysis to determine an appropri- stems from feelings of depres-
ate intervention. sion, rejection, persecution,
unworthiness, and lack of con-
We know from research that most fidence.
Use the Signs children who become violent to-
Responsibly ward self or others feel rejected Excessive feelings of isolation
None of these signs alone and psychologically victimized. In and being alone. Research has
is sufficient for predicting most cases, children exhibit ag- shown that the majority of chil-
aggression and violence. gressive behavior early in life and, dren who are isolated arid ap-
Moreover, it is inappropri- if not provided support, will con- pear to be friendless are not vio-
ateand potentially harm- tinue a progressive developmen- lent. In fact, these feelings are
fulto use the early warn- sometimes characteristic of
ing signs as a checklist tal pattern toward severe aggres-
against which to match in- sion or violence. However, re- children and youth who may be
dividual children. search also shows that when chil- troubled, withdrawn, or have
dren have a positive, meaningful internal issues that hinder de-
connection to an adultwhether velopment of social affiliations.
it be at home, in school, or in the However, research also has
communitythe potential for vio- shown that in some cases feel-
lence is reduced significantly. ings of isolation and not hav-
ing friends are associated with
None of these signs alone is suffi- children who behave aggres-
cient for predicting aggression and sively and violently.
violence. Moreover, it is inappro-
priateand potentially harmful Excessive feelings of rejection.
to use the early warning signs as In the process of growing up,
a checklist against which to match and in the course of adolescent
individual children. Rather, the development, many young
early warning signs are offered people experience emotionally
only as an aid in identifying and painful rejection. Children who
referring children who may need are troubled often are isolated
help. School communities must from their mentally healthy
ensure that staff and students only peers. Their responses to rejec-
use the early warning signs for tion will depend on many back-
identification and referral pur- ground factors. Without sup-
posesonly trained professionals port, they may be at risk of ex-
a
9
pressing their emotional dis- and youth often express their
tress in negative waysinclud- thoughts, feelings, desires, and
ing violence. Some aggressive intentions in their drawings
children who are rejected by and in stories, poetry, and other
non-aggressive peers seek out written expressive forms. Many
aggressive friends who, in turn, children produce work about
reinforce their violent tenden- violent themes that for the most
cies. part is harmless when taken in
context. However, an overrep-
Being a victim of violence. Chil- resentation of violence in writ-
dren who are victims of vio- ings and drawings that is di-
lenceincluding physical or rected at specific individuals
sexual abusein the commu- (family members, peers, other
nity, at school, or at home are adults) consistently over time,
sometimes at risk themselves of may signal emotional problems
becoming violent toward them-
and the potential for violence.
selves or others. Because there is a real danger
Feelings of being picked on and in misdiagnosing such a sign,
persecuted. The youth who it is important to seek the guid-
feels constantly picked on, ance of a qualified profes-
teased, bullied, singled but for sionalsuch as a school psy-
ridicule, and humiliated at chologist, counselor, or other
home or at school may initially mental health specialistto
withdraw socially. If not given determine its meaning.
adequate support in addressing
these feelings, some children Uncontrolled anger. Everyone
may vent them in inappropri- gets angry; anger is a natural
ate waysincluding possible emotion. However, anger that
aggression or violence. is expressed frequently and in-
tensely in response to minor ir-
Low school interest and poor ritants may signal potential vio-
academic performance. Poor lent behavior toward self or oth-
school achievement can be the ers.
result of many factors. It is im-
portant to consider whether Patterns of impulsive and
there is a drastic change in per- chronic hitting, intimidating,
formance and/or poor perfor- and bullying behaviors. Chil-
mance becomes a chronic con- dren often engage in acts of
dition that limits the child's shoving and mild aggression.
capacity to learn. In some situ- However, some mildly aggres-
ationssuch as when the low sive behaviors such as constant
achiever feels frustrated, un- hitting and bullying of others
worthy, chastised, and deni- that occur early in children's
gratedacting out and aggres- lives, if left unattended, might
sive behaviors may occur. It is later escalate into more serious
important to assess the emo- behaviors.
tional and cognitive reasons for
the academic performance History of discipline problems.
Chronic behavior and disciplin-
change to determine the true ary problems both in school
nature of the problem. and at home may suggest that
Expression of violence in writ- underlying emotional needs are
ings and drawings. Children not being met. These unmet
fl P,
needs may be manifested in act- toward others based on racial,
ing out and aggressive behav- ethnic, religious, language, gen-
iors. These problems may set der, sexual orientation, ability,
the stage for the child to vio- and physical appearance
late norms and rules, defy au- when coupled with other fac-
thority, disengage from school, torsmay lead to violent as-
and engage in aggressive behav- saults against those who are
iors with other children and perceived to be different. Mem-
adults. bership in hate groups or the
Past history of violent and ag- willingness to victimize indi-
gressive behavior. Unless pro- viduals with disabilities or
vided with support and coun- health problems also should be
seling, a youth who has a his- treated as early warning signs.
tory of aggressive or violent Drug use and alcohol use.
behavior is likely to repeat Apart from being unhealthy be-
those behaviors. Aggressive haviors, drug use and alcohol
and violent acts may be di- use reduces self-control and ex-
rected toward other individu- poses children and youth to vio-
als, be expressed in cruelty to lence, either as perpetrators, as
animals, or include fire setting. victims, or both.
Youth who show an early pat-
tern of antisocial behavior fre- Affiliation with gangs. Gangs
quently and across multiple set- that support anti-social values
tings are particularly at risk for and behaviorsincluding ex-
future aggressive and antisocial tortion, intimidation, and acts
behavior. Similarly, youth who of violence toward other stu-
engage in overt behaviors such dentscause fear and stress
as bullying, generalized aggres- among other students. Youth
sion and defiance, and covert who are influenced by these
behaviors such as stealing, van- groupsthose who emulate
dalism, lying, cheating, and fire and copy their behavior, as well
setting also are at risk for more as those who become affiliated
serious aggressive behavior. Re- with themmay adopt these
search suggests that age of on- values and act in violent or ag-
set may be a key factor in inter- gressive ways in certain situa-
preting early warning signs. For tions. Gang-related violence
example, children who engage and turf battles are common
in aggression and drug abuse at occurrences tied to the use of
an early age (before age 12) are drugs that often result in injury
more likely to show violence and/or death.
later on than are children who
begin such behavior at an older Inappropriate access to, pos-
age. In the presence of such session of and use of firearms.
signs it is important to review Children and youth who inap-
the child's history with behav- propriately possess or have ac-
ioral experts and seek parents' cess to firearms can have an
increased risk for violence. Re-
observations and insights.
search shows that such young-
Intolerance for differences and sters also have a higher prob-
prejudicial attitudes. All chil- ability of becoming victims.
dren have likes and dislikes. Families can reduce inappropri-
However, an intense prejudice ate access and use by restrict-
10
11
ing, monitoring, and supervis- Imminent warning signs may in-
ing children's access to firearms clude:
and other weapons. Children
who have a history of aggres- Serious physical fighting with
sion, impulsiveness, or other peers or family members.
emotional problems should not Severe destruction of property.
have access to firearms and
other weapons. Severe rage for seemingly mi-
nor reasons.
Serious threats of violence. Idle
threats are a common response Detailed threats of lethal vio-
to frustration. Alternatively, lence.
one of the most reliable indica- Possession and/or use of fire-
tors that a youth is likely to arms and other weapons.
commit a dangerous act toward Know the Law
self or others is a detailed and Other self-injurious behaviors The Gun Free Schools Act
specific threat to use violence. or threats of suicide. requires that each state re-
Recent incidents across the ceiving federal funds under
When warning signs indicate that the Elementary and Sec-
country clearly indicate that ondary Education Act
threats to commit violence danger is imminent, safety must
always be the first and foremost (ESEA) must have put in
against oneself or others should effect, by October 1995, a
be taken very seriously. Steps consideration. Action must be state law requiring local
must be taken to understand taken immediately. Immediate in- educational agencies to ex-
the nature of these threats and tervention by school authorities pel from school for a period
and possibly law enforcement of- of not less than one year a
to prevent them from being car- student who is determined
ried out. ficers is needed when a child: to have brought a firearm to
Has presented a detailed plan school.
12
Section 4: What To Do
16
17
2
upon careful assessment of stu- laws, and use guidelines set by
dent problems, where community the state department of educa-
members help set measurable tion.
goals and objectives, where re- Closing school campuses dur-
search-based prevention and in- ing lunch periods.
tervention approaches are used,
and where evaluations are con- Adopting a school policy on
ducted regularly to ensure that the uniforms.
programs are meeting stated Arranging supervision at criti-
goals. Effective and safe schools cal times (for example, in hall-
are also places where teachers and ways between classes) and hav-
staff have access to qualified con- ing a plan to deploy supervisory
sultants who can help them ad- staff to areas where incidents
dress behavioral and academic are likely to occur.
barriers to learning.
Prohibiting students from con-
Effective schools ensure that the gregating in areas where they
physical environment of the are likely to engage in rule-
school is safe, and that schoolwide breaking or intimidating and
policies are in place to support aggressive behaviors.
responsible behaviors.
"The police are a school's Having adults visibly present
greatest community asset throughout the school building.
when effectively preventing
Characteristics of a Safe This includes encouraging par-
and responding to school Physical Environment ents to visit the school.
violence. Building a rela- Prevention starts by making sure
tionship with law enforce- Staggering dismissal times and
ment strengthens the the school campus is a safe and lunch periods.
school's ability to ensure caring place. Effective and safe
safety." schools communicate a strong Monitoring the surrounding
Gil Kerlikowske sense of security. Experts suggest school groundsincluding
former Police Commissioner that school officials can enhance landscaping, parking lots, and
Buffalo, NY physical safety by: bus stops.
Supervising access to the build- Coordinating with local police
ing and grounds. to ensure that there are safe
Reducing class size and school routes to and from school.
size.
In addition to targeting areas for
Adjusting scheduling to mini- increased safety measures,
mize time in the hallways or in schools also should identify safe
potentially dangerous loca- areas where staff and children
tions. Traffic flow patterns can should go in the event of a crisis.
be modified to limit potential The physical condition of the
for conflicts or altercations. school building also has an impact
Conducting a building safety on student attitude, behavior, and
audit in consultation with motivation to achieve. Typically,
school security personnel and/ there tend to be more incidents of
or law enforcement experts. fighting and violence in school
Effective schools adhere to fed- buildings that are dirty, too cold
eral, state, and local nondis- or too hot, filled with graffiti, in
crimination and public safety need of repair, or unsanitary.
20
21
Characteristics of consequences that can accom-
Schoolwide Policies that modate student differences on
Support Responsible a case-by-case basis when nec-
Behavior essary. (If one already exists,
The opportunities for inappropri- review and modify it if neces-
ate behaviors that precipitate vio- sary.) Be sure to include a de-
lence are greater in a disorderly scription of school anti-harass-
and undisciplined school climate. ment and anti-violence policies "Everyone follows the same
and due process rights. discipline plan. Everyone
A growing number of schools are including the lunch room
discovering that the most effective Ensure that the cultural values workers and custodians
way to reduce suspensions, expul- and educational goals of the works as a team. There are
sions, office referrals, and other community are reflected in the always times when children
forget the rules. But there
similar actionsstrategies that do rules. These values should be is immediate intervention
not result in making schools expressed in a statement that by faculty and staff, and
saferis to emphasize a proactive precedes the schoolwide disci- even other children. The re-
approach to discipline. plinary policy. sponsibility is on the stu-
dents."
Effective schools are implement- Include school staff, students, Anna Allred, Parent
ing schoolwide campaigns that and families in the develop- Lakeland, FL
establish high expectations and ment, discussion, and imple-
provide support for socially appro- mentation of fair rules. Provide
priate behavior. They reinforce schoolwide and classroom sup-
positive behavior and highlight port to implement these rules.
sanctions against aggressive be- Strategies that have been found
havior. All staff, parents, students, to support students include
and community members are in- class discussions, schoolwide
formed about problem behavior, assemblies, student govern-
what they can do to counteract it, ment, and participation on dis-
and how they can reinforce and cipline teams. In addition, peer
reward positive behavior. In turn, mediation and conflict resolu-
the entire school community tion have been implemented
makes a commitment to behaving widely in schools to promote a
responsibly. climate of nonviolence.
"It is necessary to provide
Effective and safe schools develop Be sure consequences are com- training and support to
and consistently enforce mensurate with the offense, staff. We have provided
inservices on behavior man-
schoolwide rules that are clear, and that rules are written and agement systems that are
broad-based, and fair. Rules and applied in a nondiscriminatory effective in regular class-
disciplinary procedures are devel- manner and accommodate cul- room settings. These in-
oped collaboratively by represen- tural diversity. services have been of great
tatives of the total educational benefit. Numerous schools
community. They are communi- Make sure that if a negative throughout our district
consequence (such as with- presently use stop and
cated clearly to all partiesbut drawing privileges) is used, it think, conflict resolution,
most important, they are followed and peer mediation."
consistently by everyone. is combined with positive strat-
egies for teaching socially ap- Denise Conrad, Teacher
Toledo, OH
School communities that have propriate behaviors and with
undertaken schoolwide ap- strategies that address any ex-
proaches do the following things: ternal factors that might have
Develop a schoolwide disciplin- caused the behavior.
ary policy that includes a code Include a zero tolerance state-
of conduct, specific rules and ment for illegal possession of
25
weapons, alcohol, or drugs. help children eliminate negative
Provide services and support behaviors and replace them with
for students who have been sus- positive ones. Active sharing of
pended and/or expelled. information and a quick, effective
response by the school commu-
Recognizing the warning signs nity will ensure that the school is
and responding with comprehen- safer and the child is less troubled
sive interventions allows us to and can learn.
22
Section 5: What To Do
Developing a Prevention
and Response Plan
Effective schools create a violence build a foundation that is re-
prevention and response plan and sponsive to all children and
form a team that can ensure it is enhances the effectiveness of
implemented. They use ap- interventions.
proaches and strategies based on
research about what works. Descriptions of intervention
strategies the school commu-
Creating the nity can use to help troubled
Violence children. These include early
Prevention and interventions for students who
Response Plan are at risk of behavioral prob-
lems, and more intensive, indi-
A sound violence prevention and vidualized interventions and
response plan reflects the com- resources for students with se-
mon and the unique needs of edu- vere behavioral problems or
cators, students, families, and the mental health needs.
greater community. The plan out-
lines how all individuals in the A crisis intervention plan that
school communityadministra- includes immediate responses
tors, teachers, parents, students, for imminent warning signs and
bus drivers, support staffwill be violent behavior, as well as a
prepared to spot the behavioral contingency plan to be used in
and emotional signs that indicate the aftermath of a tragedy.
a child is troubled, and what they The plan must be consistent with
will need to do. The plan also de- federal, state, and local laws. It
tails how school and community also should have the support of
resources can be used to create families and the local school
safe environments and to manage board.
responses to acute threats and
incidents of violence. Recommendations in this guide
will prove most meaningful when
An effective written plan includes: the entire school community is
Descriptions of the early warn- involved in developing and imple-
ing signs of potentially violent menting the plan. In addition, ev-
behavior and procedures for eryone should be provided with
identifying children who ex- relevant training and support on
hibit these signs. a regular basis. Finally, there
should be a clearly delineated
Descriptions of effective pre- mechanism for monitoring and
vention practices the school assessing violence prevention ef-
community has undertaken to forts.
23
30
Forming the tral office administrator, security
Prevention and officer, and youth officer or com-
Response Team munity police team member.
It can be helpful to establish a The core team also should coor-
school-based team to oversee the dinate with any school advisory
preparation and implementation boards already in place. For ex-
of the prevention and response ample, most effective schools have
plan. This does not need to be a developed an advisory board of
Our district initiated a new team; however, a designated parents and community leaders
safety task force involving core group should be entrusted that meets regularly with school
parents. students, teachers, with this important responsibility. administrators. While these advi-
support staff, administra- sory groups generally offer advice
tors, and community mem- The core team should ensure that and support, that role can be ex-
bers to enhance our plan for every member of the greater panded to bringing resources re-
safety and crisis manage- school community accepts and
ment. It works." lated to violence prevention and
adopts the violence prevention intervention into the school.
Richard E. Berry, and response plan. This buy-in is
Superintendent, Houston, TX
essential if all members of the Consider involving a variety of
school community are expected to community leaders and parents
feel comfortable sharing concerns when building the violence pre-
about children who appear vention and response team:
troubled. Too often, caring indi- Parent group leaders, such as
viduals remain silent because they PTA officers.
have no way to express their con-
cerns. Law enforcement personnel.
Typically, the core team includes Attorneys, judges, and proba-
the building administrator, gen- tion officers.
eral and special education teach-
ers, parent (s), and a pupil support Clergy and other representa-
services representative (a school tives of the faith community.
psychologist, social worker, or Media representatives.
counselor), school resource of-
ficer, and a safe and drug-free Violence prevention group rep-
schools program coordinator. If no resentatives.
We need to give attention school psychologist or mental
to the segment of the popu- Mental health and child welfare
lation that includes bus health professional is available to personnel.
drivers. secretaries. and caf- the staff, involve someone from an
eteria workers. They are a outside mental health agency. Physicians and nurses.
very important yet often Other individuals may be added
overlooked group of people to the team depending on the task. Family agency and family re-
who can provide support to
For example, when undertaking source center staff.
children."
schoolwide prevention planning, Business leaders.
Betty Stockton
School Psychologist the team might be expanded to
Jonesboro, AR include students, representatives Recreation, cultural, and arts
of community agencies and orga- organizations staff.
nizations, the school nurse, Youth workers and volunteers.
school board members, and sup-
port staff (secretaries, bus drivers, Local officials, including school
and custodians). Similarly, crisis board members and represen-
response planning can be en- tatives from special commis-
hanced with the presence of a cen- sions.
24
25
Has my school taken steps to ensure that all staff, students, and families:
Understand the principles underlying the identification of early warning signs?
Know how to identify and respond to imminent warning signs?
_Are able to identify early warning signs?
26 %.3)
.11)) ."-)
Section 6: What To Do
Responding to Crisis
Violence can happen at any time, situations to responding to a
anywhere. Effective and safe serious crisis.
schools are well prepared for any
potential crisis or violent act. Reference to district or state
procedures. Many states now
Crisis response is an important have recommended crisis inter-
component of a violence preven- vention manuals available to
tion and response plan. Two com- their local education agencies
ponents that should be addressed and schools.
in that plan are:
Involvement of community
Intervening during a crisis to agencies, including police, fire,
ensure safety. and rescue, as well as hospital,
Responding in the aftermath of health, social welfare, and men-
tragedy. tal health services. The faith
community, juvenile justice,
In addition to establishing a con- and related family support sys-
tingency plan, effective schools tems also have been success-
provide adequate preparation for fully included in such team
their core violence prevention and plans.
response team. The team not only
plans what to do when violence Provision for the core team to
strikes, but it also ensures that meet regularly to identify po-
staff and students know how to tentially troubled or violent stu-
behave. Students and staff feel dents and situations that may
secure because there is a well-con-
be dangerous.
ceived plan and everyone under- Effective school communities also
stands what to do or whom to ask have made a point to find out
for instructions. about federal, state, and local re-
sources that are available to help
during and after a crisis, and to
Principles secure their support and involve-
Underlying Crisis ment before a crisis occurs.
Response
As with other interventions, cri- Intervening During
sis intervention planning is built a Crisis To Ensure
on a foundation that is safe and Safety
responsive to children. Crisis Weapons used in or around
planning should include:
schools, bomb threats or explo-
Training for teachers and staff sions, and fights, as well as natu-
in a range of skillsfrom deal- ral disasters, accidents, and sui-
ing with escalating classroom cides call for immediate, planned
27
action, and long-term, post-crisis remind teachers and staff of
intervention. Planning for such their duties.
contingencies reduces chaos and Practice responding to the im-
trauma. Thus, the crisis response minent warning signs of vio-
part of the plan also must include lence. Make sure all adults in
contingency provisions. Such pro- the building have an under-
visions may include: standing of what they might do
Evacuation procedures and to prevent violence (e.g., being
other procedures to protect stu- observant, knowing when to
dents and staff from harm. It is get help, and modeling good
critical that schools identify problem solving, anger manage-
safe areas where students and ment, and/or conflict resolution
staff should go in a crisis. It also skills) and how they can safely
is important that schools prac- support each other.
tice having staff and students
evacuate the premises in an or- Responding in the
derly manner. Aftermath of Crisis
An effective, fool-proof com- Members of the crisis team should
munication system. Individuals understand natural stress reac-
must have designated roles and tions. They also should be famil-
responsibilities to prevent con- iar with how different individuals
fusion. might respond to death and loss,
"Early intervention and
quick response from our A process for securing immedi- including developmental consid-
school district team re- ate external support from law erations, religious beliefs, and cul-
sulted in no one getting tural values.
hurt." enforcement officials and other
relevant community agencies. Effective schools ensure a coordi-
Pamela Cain
Superintendent
Wirt County, WV
All provisions and procedures nated community response. Pro-
should be monitored and re- fessionals both within the school
viewed regularly by the core team. district and within the greater
community should be involved to
Just as staff should understand assist individuals who are at risk
and practice fire drill procedures for severe stress reactions.
routinely, they should practice re-
sponding to the presence of fire- Schools that have experienced
arms and other weapons, severe tragedy have included the follow-
threats of violence, hostage situa- ing provisions in their response
tions, and other acts of terror. plans:
School communities can provide Help parents understand
staff and students with such prac- children's reactions to vio-
tice in the following ways: lence. In the aftermath of trag-
Provide inservice training for edy, children may experience
all faculty and staff to explain unrealistic fears of the future,
the plan and exactly what to do have difficulty sleeping, become
in a crisis. Where appropriate, physically ill, and be easily dis-
include community police, tractedto name a few of the
youth workers, and other com- common symptoms.
munity members. Help teachers and other staff
Produce a written manual or deal with their reactions to the
small pamphlet or flip chart to crisis. Debriefing and grief
28
29
Call 911 and notify police/rescue first. Call the superintendent second.
Convene the crisis team to assess the situation and implement the crisis response procedures.
Implement evacuation and other procedures to protect students and staff from harm. Avoid
dismissing students to unknown care.
_Alert persons in charge of various information systems to prevent confusion and misinformation.
Notify parents.
Contact appropriate community agencies and the school district's public information office, if
appropriate.
30
Section 7
Conclusion
Crises involving sudden violence Procedures that encourage
in schools are traumatic in large staff, parents, and students to
measure because they are rare and share their concerns about chil-
unexpected. Everyone is touched dren who exhibit early warning
in some way. In the wake of such signs.
a crisis, members of the school
community are askedand ask Procedures for responding
themselveswhat could have quickly to concerns about
been done to prevent it. troubled children.
We know from the research that Adequate support in getting
schools can meet the challenge of help for troubled children.
"Coordinated school efforts
reducing violence. The school Everyone who cares about chil- can help. But the solution
community can be supported dren cares about ending violence. does not just rest in the
schools. Together we must
through: It is time to break the silence that develop solutions that are
too often characterizes even the community-wide and coor-
School board policies that ad- most well-meaning school com- dinated, that include
dress both prevention and in- munities. Research and expert- schools, families, courts,
tervention for troubled children based information is available for law enforcement, commu-
and youth. nity agencies, representa-
school communities to use in de- tives of the faith commu-
veloping and strengthening pro- nity, business, and the
Schoolwide violence preven- grams that can prevent crises. broader community"
tion and response plans that
School safety is everyone's job. Wilmer Cody, Kentucky
include the entire school com- Commissioner of Education
munity in their development Teachers, administrators, parents,
and implementation. community members, and stu-
dents all must commit to meeting
Training in recognizing the the challenge of getting help for
early warning signs of potential children who show signs of being
violent behavior. troubled.
31
Section 8
Methodology, Contributors,
and Research Support
This guide synthesizes an exten- David Osher, Project Director,
sive knowledge base on violence American Institutes for Research
and violence prevention. It in- The guide was developed in col-
cludes research from a variety of laboration with Cynthia Warger of
disciplines, as well as the experi- Warger, Eavy and Associates.
Also On The Web ence and effective practices of Each assertion in the guide is
teachers, school psychologists, backed by empirical data and/or
An annotated version of counselors, social workers, fam-
the guide with refer- expert consensus. Research refer-
ences to support each ily members, youth workers, and ences can be found on the
assertion as well as ref- youth. project's Web site at http://
erences to practical ma- vvww.air-dc.org/cecp/guide.
terials that can be em- Much of the research found in this
ployed to implement the guide was funded by federal of- The guide was conceptualized by
recommendations it fices whose senior staff were in- an interdisciplinary expert panel.
contains. volved in supporting and review- The writing team, led by Kevin P.
Additional resources ing this document. They include: Dwyer, included members of the
that can be employed to Office of Special Education Programs, expert panelGeorge Bear,
implement the recom-
mendations contained in
Office of Special Education and Re- Norris Haynes, Paul Kingery,
habilitative Services, U.S. Department Howard Knoff, Peter Sheras,
the guide. of Education.
Links to other Web sites Russell Skiba, Leslie Skinner, and
that provide useful and Safe and Drug-Free Schools Program, Betty Stocktonin addition to
Office of Elementary and Secondary David Osher and Cynthia Warger.
usable information. Education, U.S. Department of Edu-
English and Spanish ver- cation. The writing team drew upon the
sions of the guide that other expert panelists for guid-
Office of Juvenile Justice and Delin-
can be downloaded for quency Prevention and National Insti- ance and for resources.
dissemination. tute for Justice, U.S. Department of The first draft was reviewed for
Justice. accuracy by the entire expert
National Institute of Mental Health panel as well as staff from the fed-
and Center for Mental Health Ser- eral agencies. The federal review-
vices, U.S. Department of Health and ers are listed on the project's Web
Human Services.
site at http://www.air-dc.org/cecp/
The guide was produced by the guide.
Center for Effective Collaboration The second draft was reviewed by
and Practice of the American In- family members, teachers, princi-
stitutes for Research in collabora- pals, and youth, in addition to
tion with the National Associa- leaders of major national associa-
tion of School Psychologists. The tions. The expert panel reviewed
project was led by: the document again at this stage.
Kevin P. Dwyer, Principal Investigator, These reviewers are also listed on
National Association of School the project's Web site at http://
Psychologists www.air-dc.org/cecp/guide.
32
Expert Panel Members
A\ The expert panel included national experts from a variety of disciplines, as well
as principals, teachers, pupil personnel staff, families, and youth:
J. Randy Alton, Teacher Beatrix Hamburg, Professor Scott Poland
Montgomery County, MD Cornell Medical Center, NY Director, Psychological Services
Cyprus-Fairbanks ISD
George Bear, Professor Norris Haynes, Director Houston, TX
University of Delaware Yale University Child Study Center
Gale Porter, Director
Renee Brimfield, Principal DJ Ida, Director East Baltimore (MD) Mental Health
Montgomery County, MD Asian Pacific Development Center Partnership
Michael Bullis, Professor Denver, CO
Elsa Quiroga, Student
University of Oregon Yvonne Johnson, Parent University of California-Berkeley
Andrea Canter, Washington, D.C. Michael Rosenberg, Professor
Lead School Psychologist Gil Kerlikowske, Former Police John Hopkins University
Minneapolis, MN Commissioner Mary Schwab-Stone, Associate Professor
Gregory Carter, Teacher Buffalo, NY Yale University Child Study Center
Richmond, VA Paul Kingery, Director Peter Sheras, Associate Director
Deborah Crockett, School Hamilton Fish National Institute on Virginia Youth Violence Project
Psychologist School and Community Violence University of Virginia
Atlanta, GA Arlington, VA
Russell Skiba, Professor
Scott Decker, Professor Howard Knoff, Professor University of Indiana
University of Missouri-St. Louis University of South Florida Leslie Skinner, Assistant Professor
Maurice Elias, Professor Judith Lee Ladd, President Temple University
Rutgers University, NJ American School Counselors Jeff Sprague, Co-Director
Michael J. Furlong, Association Institute on Violence and Destructive
Associate Professor Arlington, VA Behavior, University of Oregon
University of CA-Santa Barbara Brenda Muhammad, Founder Betty Stockton, School Psychologist
Susan Gorin, Executive Director Mothers of Murdered Sons & Jonesboro, AR
National Association of School Daughters
Atlanta, GA Richard Verdugo, Senior Policy Analyst
Psychologists National Education Association
Bethesda, MD Ron Nelson, Associate Professor Washington, DC
Denise Gottfredson, Director Arizona State University Hill Walker, Co-Director
National Center for Justice Dennis Nowicki, Police Chief Institute on Violence and Destructive
University of Maryland Charlotte, NC Behavior, University of Oregon
0
Resources
U.S. Department of Education U.S. Department of Justice National Institute of Mental Health
hftp://www.ed.gov/ http://www.usdoj.gov/ hftp://www.nimh.nih.gov/
Center for Effective Collaboration National Association of School Center for Mental Health Services
and Practice Psychologists Knowledge Exchange Network
American Institutes for Research 4340 East West Highway
http://www.mentalhealth.orWindex.htm
1000 Thomas Jefferson St., NW Suite 402
Suite 400 Bethesda, MD 20814
Washington, D.C.
http:Mmw.naspweb.orgkenter.html
http://mm.air-dc.orgicecp/
NOTICE
REPRODUCTION BASIS
EFF-089 (9/97)