Sunya science and tech

SCIENCE &
TECHNOLOGY
PRELIMS STATIC REVISION NOTES
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PART - 1
INDEX
TECHNOLOGY ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 1
CHAPTER 1 SPACE TECHNOLOGY ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 1
CHAPTER 2 BIOTECHNOLOGY ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 32
CHAPTER 3 INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY, COMPUTERS, TELECOM AND ELECTRONICS ------------------------------ 44
CHAPTER 4 HEALTH -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 68
CHAPTER 5 DISEASES ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 76
CHAPTER 6 HEALTH IN NEWS -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 83
CHAPTER 7 DEFENCE ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 108
CHAPTER 8 NANOTECHNOLOGY-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 128
CHAPTER 9 ROBOTICS --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 134
CHAPTER 10 INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY RIGHTS------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 136
CHAPTER 11 ASTRONOMY --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 143
CHAPTER 12 INDIA’S POLICY IN FIELD OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY -------------------------------------------------- 153
SCIENCE ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 113

CHAPTER 1 BIOLOGY ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 155
CHAPTER 2 CHEMISTRY ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 197
CHAPTER 3 PHYSICS ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 213
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Technology
(Revision Notes)
SPACE TECHNOLOGY
1. Introduction: India has been a significant global player in space science and technological(S&T)
developments. It has formally coordinated its various organizations related to space programme in 1972 by
constituting the space commission and the Development of Space (DOS).
Milestones in Indian Space Journey
• 1962: The Indian National Committee for Space Research formed under leadership of
Vikram Sarabhai and physicist Ramkrishna Ramanathan.
• 1963: Launch of a sounding rocket from Thumba Equatorial Rocket Launching Station in
Kerala.
• 1969: Establishment of Indian Space Research Organization (ISRO)
• 1975: India’s first satellite, Aryabhata was launched from a Soviet Kosmos-3M rocket from
Kapustin Yar in Soviet Union. It was designed and built in India
• 1979: Bhaskara-1, the first experimental remote sensing satellite which was built in India was
launched.
• 1980: Satellite Launch Vehicle (SLV)-3, India’s first experimental satellite launch vehicle,
takes off with Rohini Satellite RS-D2.
• 1982: INSAT 1-A is launched.
• 2008: Launch of Chandrayaan-1.
• 2013: Launch of Mangalyaan, the Mars Orbiter Mission.
• 2016: IRNSS system placed in Orbit
• 2019: Chandrayaan-2 launched using GSLV MK-III
• 2022: Plans to take humans to space with Gaganyaan.
2. Satellite Orbits
• Orbit: An orbit is a regular, repeating path that one object takes around another object or center of
gravity. Orbiting objects, which are called satellites, include planets, moons, asteroids, and manmade
devices.
• Types
o Elliptical orbit/Eccentric orbit: Vary in speed and have eccentricity between zero to one. When
the satellite is in the part of its orbit closest to the Earth, it moves faster because the Earth’s
gravitational pull is stronger.
o Circular orbit: The Circular orbits have an eccentricity of 0. The orbital path of satellites in these
circular orbits is also affected by the satellite’s altitude – its height above the Earth.
• Low Earth Orbit (LEO)
o It is an orbit around earth with an altitude between 160-2000kms.
o The satellites placed in LEO can have a tilted plane.
o All human space flights have taken place in LEO with the exception of manned Lunar flight
of the Apollo program.
o Characteristics: Low orbital period - The Round-Trip Time for radio signals is considerably less and
lower radiation levels + LEO satellite tries to ensure a high elevation for every spot on Earth, thus
provides a high-quality communication link.
o Applications: Communication satellites; Satellite imaging; Earth monitoring satellites. The
International Space Station (ISS) uses LEO; It is used by remote sensing satellites.
o Advantages: Lower path loss-> use of smaller terminal becomes possible + Propagation delay is
very low (10ms).
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Technology
(Revision Notes)
o Disadvantages: Mismatch of orbital period of satellite and Earth results in consideration of Doppler
effect + It requires large number of satellites for whole coverage + High probability of handover
during a call + Failed satellites required to be replaced regularly because of their lower lifetimes.
• Medium Earth Orbit
o It is also known as Intermediate Circular Orbit
o Height: 2000 km to 3,5786 kms; orbital range from 2 to 24 hours.
o Satellite speed is lower when compared to LEO.
o Most common altitude is approximately 20,200 km, which yields an orbital period of 12 hours as used
for examples by GPS.
o Navigation satellites and number of artificial satellites are placed in MEO.
o Global Positioning System (GPS) is placed in MEO (20200 Km)
o Communication satellites too can be placed here.
o Advantages: Provides medium propagation delay (80 ms) + It can cover large area, thus requires
less handover.
o Disadvantages: Doppler effect; medium visibility of satellite leads to low probability of handover
during call.
• High Earth Orbit
o Those satellites we send across the Earth orbit beyond 35,786 km are called as High Earth orbit.
o Examples: Chandrayaan 1 and 2; Mangalyaaan and Aditya mission.
• Geosynchronous Orbit
o It is a satellite orbit around the earth with an orbital period that matches Earth's rotation period on
its axis, irrespective of inclination.
o A person on a point on Earth, will see a satellite in this orbit in the same place in the sky at the same
time of the day, every day.
o Requirements: Circular Orbit of Height 35786 km. At this height an orbital period of satellite is
equal to earth’s rotation period; Direction of revolution of satellite should be same as direction of
rotation of earth.
• Geostationary Orbit
o A geosynchronous orbit around Earth at 35,786 km above the equator thus appears stationary as seen
from Earth.
o Requirements: Geosynchronous requirements; The equatorial plane of earth must be co-planer with
the orbital plane of the satellite revolution (i.e., angle of inclination of orbit to equator is 0 degrees).

Technology
(Revision Notes)
o It makes satellites placed in it appear ‘Stationary’. [Reason – They have an orbital period that is the
same as the earth’s rotation period. Hence, thesatellite/spacecraft returns to the same point in the sky
at the same time each day.].
o Advantages: Covers most of inhabited portion of entire Earth excluding only the area near North
pole and South Pole + Interference effects are easy to predict owing to stable geometric relationship
+ Time between launch and deployment operation is relatively small of order of weeks + Less
expenses on tracking activities + Higher life span of satellites.
o Disadvantages: Requires line of sight communication paths between terrestrial antenna and the
satellites + Long path length introduces delays + Satellite costlier to install in GEO in view of the
greater altitude + It can only be above equator and therefore poles can't be covered.
o Note: Every geostationary orbit is a geosynchronous orbit but not the other way around. A satellite
will be geostationary if the revolution of satellite is West to East with respect to rotation of the earth.
o Communication satellites are often placed in GEO.
o ISRO’s INSAT is placed in GEO.
• Geostationary Transfer Orbit (GTO)

o This idea was propounded by W. Hohmann in 1925.
o The orbits are used by the satellites to travel from one orbit to another.
o GTO provides satellites a halt [intermediate step] before they can be placed in their destination orbit.
This way, it uses relatively less energy from built- in motors.
o It is highly elliptical earth orbit with an apogee of 42,164 km, or 35786 km above sea level.
• Sun-synchronous Orbit
o A sun-synchronous orbit is one that lies in a plane that maintains a fixed angle with respect to the
Earth-sun direction.
o It combines altitude and inclination in such a way that an object on that orbit ascends or descends
over any given point of the Earth’s surface at the same local mean solar time.
o The satellite passes over a given location on Earth every time at the same local solar time. Thus, it
guarantees the same illumination condition, which varies only with seasons.
o The orbit is Quasi-polar in nature and so ensures coverage of the whole surface of the Earth
• Hohmann Transfer orbit
o Hohmann Transfer Orbit is a manoeuvre that was invented by a German scientist, Wolfgang
Hohmann, in 1925.
o It is considered to be the most fuel efficient way of transferring a satellite or a spacecraft from one
circular orbit to another.
o While travelling from Earth to any other destination such as the moon, Mars etc, a spacecraft doesn’t
directly move from point A to point B. The spacecraft has to move in an orbit, hence, the spacecraft
must be inserted from the Earth’s orbit to the destination planet like the Mars’ orbit. The Hohmann
Transfer Orbit is how the spacecraft is transferred from one orbit to another.

Technology
(Revision Notes)
o Though fuel efficient, the Hohmann Transfer Orbit takes more time than other modes of orbital
transfer.
• Polar orbit and Sun- synchronousorbit (SSO)
o SSO satellites travel past earth from north to south instead of west to east.
o These pass roughly over the earth’s poles.
o The altitude can go as low as 200 K however, mostly the satellites areplaced between 600-800
km.
o SSO satellites always visit the same spot at the same local time as they aresun-synchronous. It is used
for imaging, spy, and weather satellites.
3. Institutional Setup
Name of Institution Description

Vikram Sarabhai Space • Lead centre of ISRO responsible for the design and development of
Centre (VSSC), launch vehicle technology.
Thiruvananthapuram • Major programmes include Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle (PSLV),
(Kerala) Geosynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle (GSLV) and Rohini
Sounding Rockets as well as development of Geosynchronous
Satellite Launch Vehicle (GSLV) Mk Ill, Reusable Launch Vehicles,
advanced technology vehicles, air- breathing propulsion and critical
technologies towards human
spaceflight.
Liquid Propulsion • Centre for design, development and realisation of liquidpropulsion
Systems Centre (LPSC), stages for ISRO's Launch Vehicles.
Valaimala and Bengaluru

Technology
(Revision Notes)
Satish Dhawan Space • Responsible for providing Launch Base Infrastructure for theIndian
Centre (SDSC) SHAR, Space Programme.
Nellore (AP) • Centre has two launch pads from where the rocket launching
operations of PSLV and GSLV are carried out.
• SDSC SHAR has a separate launch pad for launching sounding
rockets.
U R Rao Satellite Centre, • Formerly known as the ISRO Satellite Centre.
Bengaluru • Lead centre for building satellites and developing associated
satellite technologies.
ISRO PropulsionComplex • Equipped with the state-of-the-art facilities necessary for realising the
(IPRC),Mahendragiri cutting edge propulsion technology products for the Indian space
programme.
• Responsible for the supply of Storable Liquid Propellants for ISRO’s
launch vehicles and satellite programmes.
National Remote Sensing • Responsible for remote sensing satellite data acquisition and
Centre (NRSC), processing, data dissemination, aerial remote sensing and decision
Hyderabad support for disaster management.
ISRO Telemetry, Tracking • Major responsibility to provide tracking support for all thesatellite and
and CommandNetwork launch vehicle missions of ISRO.
(ISTRAC), Bengaluru • Mandated to provide space operations support for Deep Space
Missions of ISRO, undertake development of radar systems forlaunch
vehicle tracking and meteorological applications, establish and
operationalise the ground segment for IndianRegional Navigational
Satellite System, provide Search & Rescue and Disaster Management
Services and support space based services like telemedicine, Village
Resource Centre
(VRC) and tele-education.
Master Control Facility, • Monitors and controls all the Geostationary / Geosynchronous
Hasan (Karnataka) & satellites of ISRO, namely, INSAT, GSAT, Kalpana and IRNSS
Bhopal series of satellites.
Antrix CorporationLimited, • Wholly owned Government of India Company under the
Bengaluru administrative control of the Department of Space.
• Incorporated as a private limited company owned by Government of
India in September 1992 as a Marketing arm ofISRO for promotion
and commercial exploitation of space products, technical consultancy
services and transfer of technologies developed by ISRO.
• Another major objective is to facilitate development of space related
industrial capabilities in India.
• Engaged in providing space products and services to international
customers worldwide.
4. Doppler Effect

Technology
(Revision Notes)
• Doppler Effect refers to the change in wave frequency during the relative motion between a wave source
and its observer.
• It was discovered by Christian Johann Doppler who described it as the process of increase or decrease
of starlight that depends on the relative movement of the star.
5. Lagrange Points
• The locations in space where the combined gravitational pull of two large masses roughly balance each
other.
• Any small mass placed at that location will remains at constant distances relative to the large masses.
• There are five such points in Sun-Earth system -> L1, L2, L3, L4 and L5.
6. Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle (PSLV)

• It is the third-generation satellite launch vehicle of India launched in 1994.
• It was developed originally to launch Indian Remote Sensing (IRS) satellite into Sun synchronous orbit.
• Capabilities: Payload to Sun synchronous polar orbit - 1,860 Kg + Payload to Sub GTO- 1,425 Kg.
• It is an expandable system and was the first Indian Launch Vehicle to be equipped with Liquid Stage.
• Four stages: Solid and liquid propulsion alternatively.
o First stage- One of the largest solid-fuel rocket boosters in the world which carries 138 tonnes of
Hydroxyl terminated Polybutadiene (HTPB) bound propellant.
o Second stage- It can carry 41.5 tonnes of liquid propellant - unsymmetrical dimethyl hydrazine
(UDMH) as fuel and Nitrogen Tetroxide (N2O4) as oxidizer.
o Third Stage- Solid rocket motor which provides upper stages high thrust after the atmospheric phase
of launch.
o The fourth stage- It has twin-engine configuration using 2 tons of liquid propellant. Burning
Monomethylhydrazine (MMH) as fuel and mixed oxides of Nitrogen (MON) as oxidizers.
• PSLV is the most reliable rocket used by ISRO till date, with 52 of its 54 flights being successful.
• It successfully launched Chandrayaan-1(2008) and Mars Orbiter Spacecraft (2013).
7. PSLV C-54
• ISRO successfully launched the PSLV-C54/ EOS-06 mission with Oceansat-3 and eight nano
satellites in partnership with the Ministry of Earth Sciences (MoES).
• Nano Satellite-2 for Bhutan (INS-2B)
o It is a collaborative mission between India and Bhutan with two payloads.
o NanoMx, a multispectral optical imaging payload developed by Space Applications Centre (SAC).

Technology
(Revision Notes)
o It aims to provide high-resolution images to Bhutan for the management of the country’s natural
resources.
• Anand: It is a technology demonstrator for miniaturized electro-optical payload and all other sub-
systems like TTC, power, onboard computer.
• Astrocast: Technology demonstrator satellite for the Internet of Things (IoT) as the payload.
• Thymbolt Satellites: The Thybolt is a 0.5U spacecraft bus that includes a communication payload to
enable rapid technology demonstration and constellation development for multiple users from Dhruva
Space using their own Orbital Deployer with a minimum lifetime of 1 year.
• EOS-6
o It is the Oceansat series’ 3rd-generation satellite envisaged to observe ocean colour data, sea surface
temperature and wind vector data to use in oceanography and meteorological applications.
o It is a follow up to OceanSat-1or IRS-P4 and OceanSat-2 launched in 1999 and 2009,
respectively.
o Its objective is to ensure the data continuity of Ocean colour and wind vector data to sustain the
operational applications.
o It is the 1st major ocean satellite launched from India since start of UN Decade of Ocean Science for
Sustainable Development (UNDOSSD, 2021-2030).
o Payloads: Ocean Color Monitor (OCM-3) (improved accuracy in daily monitoring of
phytoplankton) + Sea Surface Temperature Monitor (SSTM) (forecasts ranging from fish
aggregation to cyclone genesis and movement) + Ku-Band scatterometer (SCAT-3) +
ARGOS (low-power communications including marine robotic floats and distress alert
devices useful for conducting effective search and rescue operations).
8. Geosynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle (GSLV)
• It is an expandable launch system operated by ISRO.
• Primarily developed to launch INSAT class of satellites into Geosynchronous Transfer Orbits.
• It is a three-stage vehicle, which can carry heavy satellites to greater depths in space.
• It can place 4,000-kilogram into GTO and 8,000 kgs of payloads into LEO.
9. GSLV MK III
• It is a three- stage heavy lift launch vehicle developed by ISRO.
• It uses two S200 solid rockets boosters to provide the huge amount of thrust required for lift off
• It can launch four tons class of satellites to Geosynchronous Transfer orbit (GTO) or about 8- 10 tons to
LEO.
• The indigenously developed Cryogenic Upper Stage (CUS), forms the third stage.
• A Cryogenic Stage (C25): The C25 is an improvement on CE-20 Cryogenic engine, India's largest
cryogenic engine, designed and developed by the Liquid Propulsion System Center. Fuel: LOx + LH2

Technology
(Revision Notes)
10. Satellite Launch Vehicle (SLV)

• It is the first rocket developed by ISRO in early 1970s.
• It was intended to reach a height of 400 kilometers and carry a payload of 40 kg.
• It was a four-stage rocket with all solid-propellant motors.
• It was followed by the Augmented Satellite Launch Vehicle or ASLV.
11. Augmented Satellite Launch Vehicle
• It was a small-lift launch vehicle five-stage solid-fuel rocket developed to place 150 kg satellites into Low Earth
Orbit (LEO).
• It could carry small satellites, weighing up to 150 kg, to lower earth orbits.
• ASLV operated till the early 1990s before PSLV came on the scene.
12. Small Satellite Launch Vehicle (SSLV)
• It is a rocket that is designed to orbit satellites weighing less than 500kg in LEO and 300 kg to Sun
Synchronous Orbit (SSO).
• It is a 3 stage Launch Vehicle configured with three Solid Propulsion Stages and liquid propulsion-based
Velocity Trimming Module (VTM) as a terminal stage.
• It offers cost-effective launch services for satellites up to 500 kg.
• Advantages of SSLV:
o Can be assembled within 72 hours by a team of just 5-6 people.
o It costs at least one-tenth of those currently in use.
o It can enable a space launch from India every week.
o It caters specifically to the small and micro satellites that constitute over 90% of all satellites being
launched these days.
13. Small Satellite Launch Vehicle (SSLV) D-1
• Recently, Indian Space Research Organisation(ISRO) has launched the first Small Satellite Launch
Vehicle(SSLV) from Sriharikota
• The vehicle carried an Earth Observation Satellite named EOS-02 and a co-passenger satellite, ‘Azaadi
SAT’ into low earth orbit. However, ISRO later announced that these satellites are no longer usable as
SSLV rocket placed these satellites in an elliptical orbit instead of a circular one.

Technology
(Revision Notes)
14. Sounding Rockets

• These are one or two stage solid propellant rockets used for probing upper atmospheric regions and for space
research.
• They also serve as easily affordable platforms to test or prove prototypes of new components.
15. Rohini RH-200
• Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) is preparing to achieve a remarkable feat — the 200th
successful launch of the Rohini RH-200 sounding rocket in a row
• Sounding rockets are usually one or two stage solid propellant rockets primarily intended for probing the
upper atmospheric regions using rocket-borne instrumentation. They also serve as platforms for testing
prototypes of new components or subsystems intended for use in launch vehicles and satellites
• The first sounding rocket to be launched from Thumba was the American Nike-Apache - on November
21, 1963
• RH-200 is a two-stage rocket capable of climbing to a height of 70 km bearing scientific payloads. The
first and second stages of RH-200 are powered by solid motors. It uses polyvinyl chloride (PVC)-based
propellant. The ‘200’ in the name denotes the diameter of the rocket in mm.
16. Solid Propellant Vs Liquid Propellant
17. Cryogenic Engine

• ISROs Propulsion Research Complex (IPRC) at Mahendragiri in Tamil Nadu’s Tirunelveli district has
successfully conducted the ‘Pressure Chamber Test’ of the cryogenic engine to be used in the Gaganyaan
programme.
• Cryogenics is the science that addresses the production and effects of very low temperatures.
• A cryogenic rocket engine is a rocket engine that uses a cryogenic fuel or oxidizer. Its fuel or oxidizer
(or both) are gases liquefied and stored at very low temperatures.
• Only six countries have developed their own cryogenic engines: the US, France/European Space Agency,
Russia, China, Japan, and India.
18. Ramjet
• It is a form of air-breathing jet engine that uses the vehicle’s forward motion to compress incoming air
for combustion without a rotating compressor.
• A ramjet-powered vehicle requires an assisted take-off like a rocket assist to accelerate it to a speed
where it begins to produce thrust.
• Ramjets work most efficiently at supersonic speeds around Mach 3 (three times the speed of sound) and
can operate up to speeds of Mach 6.
• However, the ramjet efficiency starts to drop when the vehicle reaches hypersonic speeds.
19. Scramjet

Technology
(Revision Notes)
• It is an improvement over the ramjet engine as it efficiently operates at hypersonic speeds and
allows supersonic combustion.
• Scramjet engine uses the oxygen from atmosphere to compress fuel, thus reducing the weight of rocket
and increasing the efficiency
• The scramjet engine is used only during the atmospheric phase of the rocket’s flight.
Ramjet Scramjet
• No turbines • Supersonic combustion ramjet.
• Fuel injected and ignited. • Combustion at supersonic velocities.
• Cannot propel aerial vehicle to supersonic • Hydrogen fuel used.
speeds. • It is a type of air breathing engine.
• It is a type of air breathing engine. • India is fourth country apart from USA, Russia
• Combustion chamber – where air is mixedwith and ESA to demonstrate this technology.
fuel and ignited – only works at • The combustion chamber is speciallydesigned
subsonic speeds. So, intake slows air to operate with supersonic
down, releasing some of its energy asshock airflow.
wave, but it reduces fuel efficiency.
20. Dual Mode Ramjet (DMRJ): It is a type of jet engine where a ramjet transforms into a scramjet over Mach
4-8 range, which means it can efficiently operate both in subsonic and supersonic combustion modes.
21. Rohini series
• It is a series of sounding rockets developed by ISRO for meteorological and atmospheric study.
• They are capable of carrying payloads of 2 to 200 kilograms between altitudes of 100 to 500 kms.
• The ISRO currently uses RH-200, RH-300, RH-300 Mk-II, RH-560 Mk-II and RH-560 Mk-III rockets,
which are launched from the Thumba Equatorial Rocket Launching (TERLS) in Thumba and the Satish
Dhawan Space Center in Sriharikota.
22. Earth Observation Satellites

Technology
(Revision Notes)
23. Navigation Satellites
24. Communication satellite

• It is an artificial satellite that is placed in earth's orbit for the purpose of sending and receiving
communication data between a source and destination.
• It allows radio, television and telephone transmissions to be sent live anywhere in the world.
• They use Microwaves and Radio waves for transmitting signals.
• INSAT and GSAT satellites along with EDUSAT, KALPANA-1, HAMSAT comes under this category.
• Mostly placed on the High-Earth Orbits (geo-stationary orbits).

Technology
(Revision Notes)
25. INSAT
• It is one of the largest domestic communication satellite system in Asia-Pacific region.
• It was established in 1983 with the launch of INSAT 1B.
• The system presently consists of the constellation of INSAT system consisting of around 20 operational
satellites.
• The system with more than 200 transponders in the C, extended C and Ku-bands provides services to
telecommunication, television broadcasting, weather forecasting, disaster warning and search and rescue
operations.
26. GSAT -7 (Rukmini)
• It is an advanced communication satellite built by ISRO.
• It was launched in 2013 for the Indian Navy to monitor the Indian Ocean Region and provide real-time
data to all the Indian submarines, warships and aircraft.
• GSAT-7A: It is an advanced military communications satellite launched by ISRO in 2018. The satellite
is currently being used by Indian Air Force (IAF) and Indian Army.
• GSAT-7B: The military-grade satellite will be a force multiplier in providing fail-safe communication
support. The GSAT 7B will primarily fulfil the communication needs of the Army.
27. GAGAN
• GAGAN is an Indian Space-based Augmented Navigation System, jointly developed by AAI and ISRO.
• It is the first such system developed for India and neighboring countries in the equatorial region.
• There are only four Space-Based augmentation systems available in the world
namely India (GAGAN), US (WAAS) Europe (EGNOS) and Japan (MSAS).
• It is used to provide lateral and vertical guidance as an aircraft approaches the runway for landing. Its
precision is especially useful at small airports.
• Main objectives: Provide Satellite-based Navigation services with accuracy and integrity required for
civil aviation applications and to provide better Air Traffic Management over Indian Airspace. It aids
during natural disasters like floods and earthquakes by sending messages to affected people.
• The GAGAN Signal-In-Space (SIS) is available through GSAT-8 and GSAT-10.
28. RISAT-2
• It was launched by the PSLV-C12 launch vehicle in 2009.
• It is a radar-imaging satellite that was India’s first “eye in the sky” to keep surveillance on the country’s
borders as part of anti-infiltration and anti-terrorist operations.
• It possessed day-night as well as all-weather monitoring capability.
29. EMISAT Satellite
• EMISAT is an all-weather and all terrain condition satellite, which will allow it to work through clouds,
rain, forest and coastal areas.
• It is aimed at electromagnetic spectrum measurement. It is an electronic intelligence satellite for DRDO.
• Manufacturer: ISRO
• Orbit Type: Sun-synchronous Polar orbit(SSPO)
30. Bhuvan ISRO: Bhuvan is the national geo-portal developed and hosted by ISRO comprising geospatial data,
services, and tools for analysis. It is used to find and access geographic information (geospatial information)
and associated geographic services (display, editing, analysis, etc.) via the Internet.
31. VEDAS: Visualisation of Earth observation Data and Archival System is an online geoprocessing platform
that uses optical, microwave, thermal, and hyperspectral EO data covering applications particularly meant
for academia, research and problem solving.
32. MOSDAC (Meteorological and Oceanographic Satellite Data Archival Centre) is a data repository for all
the meteorological missions of ISRO and deals with weather-related information, oceanography, and tropical
water cycles.

Technology
(Revision Notes)
33. INSAT Series

• It is a series of multipurpose Geo-Stationary Satelites launched by ISRO in the 1980s, is one of the largest
domestic communication satellite systems in the Asia-Pacific region.
• Providing Mobile satellite services besides providing VSAT service.
• The launch of EDUSAT, the India’s first thematic satellite dedicated exclusively for educational services.
• INSAT system is also providing meteorological services through Very High Resolution Radiometer and
ECD cameras on some of its aircraft.
• The satellites are handled from the INSAT Master Control Facility (MCF) at Hassan in Karnataka.
34. Indian Regional Navigation Satellite System (IRNSS), NavIC
• IRNSS is an independent regional navigation satellite system being developed by India.
• It is designed to provide accurate position information service to users in India as well as the region
extending up to 1500 km from its boundary, which is its primary service area.
• It will provide two types of services, namely, Standard Positioning Service (SPS) which is provided to
all the users and Restricted Service (RS), which is an encrypted service provided only to the authorised
users.
• Applications of IRNSS include terrestrial, Aerial and Marine Navigation, Disaster Management, Vehicle
tracking and fleet management, Integration with mobile phones, Precise Timing, Mapping and Geodetic
data capture and Visual and voice navigation for drivers.
• In addition to its primary function of providing PNT services, is also capable of broadcasting short
messages. This messaging service is being used for broadcasting safety-of-life alerts in areas with poor or
no communication, particularly in Ocean.
35. GSAT-24
• Recently, NSIL launched GSAT-24 in its first "demand-driven" communication satellite mission post
space sector reforms.
• It is a 24-Ku band communication satellite, launched to provide Pan India coverage to meet DTH
application needs.
• It is the first demand driven satellite, that has been configured by ISRP.
• It is owned, funded and operated by NSIL, for commercial user. It has been configured with the objective
of augmenting satellite based VSAT and DTH services in BSS Ku-band.
• It will provide a satellite based interactive educational services to classes employing DTH quality
broadcast.
36. POEM Platform
• The PSLV Orbital Experimental Module (POEM) is a platform to help perform in-orbit experiments
using the final, and otherwise discarded, stage of ISRO’s PSLV.
• It performs in-orbit scientific experiments using the spent PS4 stage as an orbital platform.
• It is the first time that the PS4 stage would orbit the earth as a stabilised platform.
• It navigates using four sun sensors, a magnetometer, gyros & NavIC.
• It carries dedicated control thrusters using Helium gas storage. It is enabled with a telecommand feature.
• POEM carries six payloads including two from Indian Space Start-ups M/s Digantara and M/s Dhruva
Space, enabled though IN-SPACe and NSIL.
37. AstroSat
• Launched on 28 September 2015 by ISRO into a near-Earth equatorial orbit.
• It is an UltraViolet Imaging Telescope (UVIT) capable of imaging in far and near-ultraviolet bands over
a wide field of view.
• It is multi-institute collaborative project, involving IUCAA, ISRO, Tata Institute of Fundamental
Research (Mumbai), Indian Institute of Astrophysics (Bengaluru), and Physical Research Laboratory
(Ahmedabad) and others.
38. Hubble Telescope

Technology
(Revision Notes)
• Space telescope launched by NASA in 1990.

• Built by the United States space agency NASA, with contributions from the European Space Agency.
• Only telescope designed to be serviced in space by astronauts.
• Hubble Space Telescope looks deep into space with cameras that can see across the entire optical
spectrum from infrared to ultraviolet.
39. Giant Meterwave Radio Telescope (GMRT)
• Agency: National Centre forRadio Astrophysics(NCRA)
• Radio telescope facility located near Pune.
• It is used for investigating a variety of radio astrophysical problems ranging from nearby Solar system
to the edge of observable Universe.
40. Devasthal FastOptical Telescope
• Agency: Aryabhatta ResearchInstitute of Observational Sciences (ARIES)
• Installed in Devasthal, Nainital in the centralHimalayan region.
• Observation of Dwarf Galaxies.
• Joint collaboration between Indian, Russianand Belgian scientists.
41. Thirty MeterTelescope (TMT)
• It is being installed at Mauna Kea in Hawaii.
• It is an international partnership between CalTech, Universities of California, Canada, Japan, China, and
India.
• It is a new class of extremely large telescopes that will allow us to see deeper into space and observe
cosmic objects with unprecedented sensitivity.
42. Square Kilometre Array Observatory(SKAO)
• It is a new intergovernmental organisation dedicated to radio astronomy and is headquartered in the
United Kingdom.
• Ten Countries: Australia, Canada, China, India, Italy, New Zealand, South Africa, Sweden, the
Netherlands and the UK.
• The telescope is proposed to be the largest radio telescope in the world.
• The core of the telescope will be based in Karoo desert in South Africa. One part of the telescope will be
built in Western Australia.
• The astronomers have used radio telescopes to detect radio waves emitted by different objects in the
universe and explore it.
43. James Webb Space Telescope
• It is the result of an international collaboration between NASA, the European Space Agency (ESA) and
the Canadian Space Agency which was launched in December 2021.
• It is the largest and most powerful infrared space telescope ever built.
• It will be able to see further into space to discover distant planets in far-off galaxies. It will examine
every phase of cosmic history: from the Big Bang to the formation of galaxies, stars, and planets to the
evolution of our own Solar System.
• The multipurpose observatory launched in December 2021 on an Ariane 5 rocket from Europe’s
Spaceport in French Guiana on the north-eastern coast of South America
• Recently, Telescope captured an image of a galaxy cluster called MACS0647, as well as distant galaxy
MACS0647-JD
• Webb vs Herschel Space Observator
o In 2009, European Space Agency launched an infrared telescope named Herschel Space Observatory
o Like Webb, it also orbits SunPrimary difference is the wavelength range: Webb goes from 0.6 to 28
microns, while Herschel covers 60 to 500 microns
o Also, Herschel’s mirror (3.5 metres in diameter) is smaller than Webb’s.

Technology
(Revision Notes)
44. AZAADISAT
• ISRO undertook the maiden flight of its newly developed Small Satellite Launch Vehicle Developmental
Flight1 (SSLV-D) carrying ‘AzaadiSAT.
• It comprises 75 payloads. These payloads have been built by 750 young girl students from 75 rural
government schools of India.
• It also comprises a solid-state PIN diode-based radiation counter that will measure the ionising radiation in its
orbit, as well as a long-range transponder.
45. Space Situational Awareness Observatory
• It is India’s first commercial space situational awareness observatory will be set up in the Garhwal region
of Uttarakhand.
• It will be set up by Digantara, a Bengaluru-based space sector start-up.
• It will be able to reduce the potential for collisions between satellites and other spacecraft. It will track any
activity in space including that of space debris and military satellites hovering over the region.
46. Vikram-S
• It is India’s first Privately developed single-stage sub-orbital launch vehicle developed by
Hyderabad-based Skyroot Aerospace with support from ISRO and IN-SPACe.
• The skyroot has named the mission as ‘Prarambh’ (the beginning) since it is the 1st mission for the
company.
• The engine used in the launch vehicle - Kalam-80, is named after former president Dr. A P J Abdul
Kalam.
• It will carry 3 payloads, including a 2.5-kilogram payload that has been developed by students
from several countries, including India, under the aegis of SpaceKidzIndia.
47. New Shephard
• Jeff Bezos’s space company called Blue Origin concluded the online auction for the first seat on New
Shephard.
• It is a rocket system designed to take astronauts and research payloads past the Karman line.
• It aims to provide easier and more cost-effective access to space meant for purposes such as academic
research, corporate technology development and entrepreneurial ventures among others.
• It will also allow space tourists to experience microgravity by taking them 100 km above the Earth.
48. Shenzhou-12
• Recently, a Chinese spaceship “Shenzhou-12” carrying a three-person crew docked with China’s new
space station module Tiangong space station.
• The crew will spend three months on the Tianhe module, which is orbiting at some 340 km to 380 km
above the earth. Tianhe core is the first module of Chinese space station, Tiangong.
• China is the third country after the former Soviet Union and the United States to carry out a manned
mission on its own.
• It will help test technologies related to long-term astronaut-stays and health care, the recycling and life
support system etc.
49. GAIA Space Mission
• It is an astronomical observatory mission launched in 2013 by the European Space Agency (ESA).
• Its objective is to create the most accurate 3D map of the Milky Way by surveying 1% or one billion of
the galaxy's 100 billion stars.
• It spotted large scale tsunami, called starquakes, which changes the shape of stars.
50. Aditya L1
• Aditya-L1 is a spacecraft mission to study the Sun.
• It will be launched using the Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle (PSLV) XL with 7 payloads (instruments)
on board.

Technology
(Revision Notes)
• Objective: Aditya L1 will study the Sun’s corona (Visible and Near infrared rays), Sun's photosphere
(soft and hard X-ray), chromosphere (Ultra Violet), solar emissions, solar winds and flares, and Coronal
Mass Ejections (CMEs), and will carry out round-the-clock imaging of the Sun.
• It will be built in collaboration between ISRO and various Indian research institutes.
51. Netra Project
• NETRA project is an early warning system in space to detect debris and other hazards to Indian satellites.
• Under NETRA, the ISRO plans to put up many observational facilities: connected radars, telescopes,
data processing units and a control centre.
• It can spot, track and catalogue objects as small as 10 cm, up to a range of 3,400 km and equal to a space
orbit of around 2,000 km.
• NETRA’s ultimate objective is to capture the GEO, or geostationary orbit, scene at 36,000 km where
communication satellites operate.
52. Mission Shakti
• DRDO successfully conducted an Anti-Satellite (A-SAT) missile test ‘Mission Shakti’ from Dr APJ
Abdul Kalam Island in Odisha on 27th March 2019.
• Mission Shakti is a joint programme of DRDO and ISRO.
• As part of the mission, an anti-satellite (A-SAT) weapon was launched.
• India’s interceptor missile used in the ASAT test has the capability to neutralise satellites up to 1,000 km
in space.
• India is only the 4th country to acquire such a specialised and modern capability, and entire effort is
indigenous. Till now, only the US, Russia and China had the capability to hit a live target in space.
53. Indian Data Relay satellite system (IDRSS)

• It will be a set of satellites that will track, send and receive information from other Indian Satellites.
• The IDRSS is planned to track and be constantly in touch with Indian satellites, in particular those in
low-earth orbits which have limited coverage of earth.
• These weigh around 2000 kg and will be placed in geostationary orbits which are at a distance of 36000
km.
• It will track and establish a continuous connection with Indian satellites especially those which are in the
low-earth orbits which have limited coverage of earth.
54. Danuri Lunar Orbiter
• South Korea launched its first exploratory space mission outside of Earth's orbit known as Korea
Pathfinder Lunar Orbiter (KPLO), officially named ‘Danuri’.

Technology
(Revision Notes)
• It is a joint mission between Korea Aerospace Research Institute (KARI) and NASA.
• It is the first space exploration mission by the Republic of Korea (ROK).
55. Parker Solar Probe
• It is a NASA space probe that was launched in 2018 with the purpose of observing the Sun’s outer corona.
• It will use Venus’ gravity during seven flybys over roughly seven years to progressively push its orbit
closer to the sun in order to unravel the mysteries of the sun’s atmosphere.
• The spacecraft will pass through the sun’s atmosphere as near to our star’s surface as 3.9 million miles,
far within Mercury’s orbit and more than seven times closer than any previous probe.
• By February 2022, it became the first spacecraft to travel through the Sun’s outer atmosphere- ‘Corona’,
and sampled particles and magnetic fields there.
56. Artemis accords
• The founding members of the Artemis Accords are Australia, Canada, Italy, Japan, Luxembourg, United
Arab Emirates, United Kingdom, and the US.
• The Accords ensures that space exploration is conducted in a safe, sustainable and transparent manner
and in full compliance with international law.
57. Hayabusa-2
• Hayabusa2 is an asteroid sample-return mission operated by the Japanese state space agency JAXA.
• It was launched on 3 December 2014 and rendezvoused in space with near-Earth asteroid 162173 Ryugu
on 27 June 2018.
• It carried multiple science payloads for remote sensing and sampling, and four small rovers to investigate
the asteroid surface and analyze the environmental and geological context of the samples collected.
58. Artemis-1 Lunar mission
• Artemis I is an uncrewed mission of NASA. It will test the agency’s Space Launch System (SLS) rocket
and Orion crew capsule.
• It is only a lunar Orbiter mission even though, unlike most Orbiter missions, it has a return-to-Earth
target.
59. Rashid Rover
• It is the first unmanned spacecraft mission to Moon from the UAE, which will be launched from Kennedy
Space Centre in Florida in 2024.
• The rover will land in Lacus Somniorum, also known as the "Lake of Dreams", close to the lunar equator.
• It is designed to study Moon's plasma and will attempt to explain why Moon dust is so sticky.
• If it becomes successful, it will be the smallest rover to land on Moon, weighing approximately 10 kg
with its payload.
• If successful in 2024, the UAE could become the fourth nation to land a spacecraft on the moon after the
USA, the former Soviet Union and China.
60. Dark Sky Reserve
• The DST has announced the setting up of India’s 1st dark sky reserve at Hanle in Ladakh. Dark Sky
reserve is a public or private land with a distinguished nocturnal environment and starry nights that has
been developed responsibly to prevent light pollution.
• According to the IDSA, these reserves consist of a core area meeting minimum criteria for sky quality
and natural darkness, and a peripheral area that supports dark sky preservation in the core.
• World's 1st International Dark Sky Reserve is Mont-Megantic, located in Canada.
61. Vyomitra
• Vyommitra is a female-looking spacefaring humanoid robot being developed by ISRO to function on-
board the Gaganyaan, a crewed orbital spacecraft.
• ISRO’s Vyommitra is also being called a half-humanoid since she will only have a head, two hands and
a torso, and will not have lower limbs.
62. International Space station (ISS)

Technology
(Revision Notes)
• It is a space station, or a habitable artificial satellite, in low Earth orbit.

• The space station flies at an average altitude of 400 kilometers above Earth.
• It circles the globe every 90 min. at a speed of about 28,000 kph.
• It circles the Earth in roughly 92 minutes and completes 15.5 orbits per day.
• The ISS serves as a microgravity and space environment research laboratory in which crew members
conduct experiments in biology, human biology, physics, astronomy, meteorology, and other fields.
• Joint project between five participating space agencies: NASA (United States), Roscosmos (Russia),
JAXA (Japan), ESA (Europe), and CSA (Canada)
• Its ownership and use has been established by intergovernmental treaties and agreements.
63. News Space India Limited (NSIL)
• Constituted under the Companies Act, 2013 it is a wholly owned Government of India company, under
the administrative control of Department of Space (DOS).
• It is the commercial arm of ISRO with the primary responsibility of enabling Indian industries to take up
high technology space related activities and for promotion and commercial exploitation of products and
services emanating from space programme.
• Objective: NSIL’s main objective is to scale up industry participation in Indian space programmes.
• Capital: NSIL is provided an authorised share capital worth Rs.100 crore and initial paid up capital of
Rs.10 crores.
• It is a completely Government owned undertaking / CPSE which comes under administrative control of
the Department of Space (DOS).
• The major business areas of NSIL include:
o Production of Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle (PSLV) and Small Satellite Launch Vehicle (SSLV)
through industry;
o Production and marketing of space-based services, including launch services and space-based
applications like transponder leasing, remote sensing and mission support services;
o Building of Satellites (both Communication and Earth Observation) as per user requirements.
o Transfer of technology developed by ISRO centres/ units and constituent institutions of Dept. of
Space;
o Marketing spin off technologies and products/ services emanating out of ISRO activities
64. IN-SPACE
• IN-SPACe is an autonomous and single window nodal agency in the Department of Space for the
promotion, encouragement and regulation of space activities of both government and private entities.
• It will act as a single-point interface between ISRO, and everyone who wants to participate in space-
related activities, or use India’s space resources.
• It will hand-hold, promote and guide the private industries in space activities through encouraging
policies and a friendly regulatory environment.
65. LOFTID Mission
• NASA has completed the technology demonstration of its Low-Earth Orbit Flight Test of an Inflatable
Decelerator(LOFTID) mission.
• It is a partnership between NASA’s Space Technology Mission Directorate and United Launch Alliance
(ULA)
• Aim: To demonstrate a Hypersonic Inflatable Aerodynamic Decelerator (HIAD) or aeroshell technology
that could one day help land humans on Mars
• A HIAD device will have an inflatable structure that is capable of holding its shape against drag forces.
It will also have a protective flexible thermal protection system that will protect it from the heat generated
during re-entry.

Technology
(Revision Notes)
66. SARAS 3 Telescope

• SARAS stands for Shaped Antenna measurement of the background Radio Spectrum 3 (SARAS)
telescope.
• It is an indigenously designed and built at Raman Research Institute and was deployed over
Dandiganahalli Lake and Sharavathi backwaters, located in Northern Karnataka, in early 2020.
• SARAS 3 had improved the understanding of astrophysics of Cosmic Dawn by telling astronomers that
less than 3% of the gaseous matter within early galaxies was converted into stars.
• (Cosmic Dawn = It is the period from about 50 million years to one billion years after the Big Bang when
the first stars, black holes, and galaxies in the Universe formed)
67. Earth Surface Mineral Dust Source Investigation (EMIT) Mission
• NASA Earth Surface Mineral Dust Source Investigation instrument, often known as EMIT, has assisted
United States’ NASA scientists in detecting methane in the Earth’s atmosphere.
• Earth Surface Mineral Dust Source Investigation (EMIT) is an Earth Ventures-Instrument (EVI-4)
Mission to map the mineral composition of arid dust source regions via imaging spectroscopy in the
visible and short-wave infrared range.
• EMIT was installed on the International Space Station in July 2022. Since then, it has been mapping the
chemical composition of dust throughout the Earth’s deserts. It can focus on areas as small as a football
ground.
68. Gaia BH1
• A black hole about 10 times more massive than our sun lurks just 1,560 light-years from Earth, a new
study reports. That's about twice as close as the previous proximity champ.
• Astronomers have discovered the closest known black hole to Earth, initially identified using Gaia Space
Telescope.
• It is located in the constellation Ophiuchus, the serpent-bearer
• Gaia BH1 resides in a binary system whose other member is a sunlike star.
69. Gaia Space Telescope
• The European Space Agency launched Gaia Space Telescope in 2013
• It measures the precise positions, speeds and trajectories of about 2 billion of the brightest stars in the
Milky Way Galaxy
• The telescope will be active till 2025)
70. Coronal holes
• Coronal holes are regions on the sun’s surface from where fast solar wind gushes out into space
• Because they contain little solar material, they have lower temperatures and thus appear much darker
than their surroundings
• The holes are not a unique phenomenon, appearing throughout the sun’s approximately 11-year solar
cycle
• These coronal holes can cause a solar storm on Earth as they release a complex stream of solar winds
• These fast solar wind streams interact with earth’s magnetic field and creates geomagnetic storm (GMS).
• GMS is a disturbance in earth’s magnetosphere, which is the area around the planet controlled by its
magnetic field
• Recently, NASA’s Solar Dynamics observatory observed the phenomenon of coronal holes in ultraviolet
light as these are typically invisible to our eyes.
71. CE20 Cryogenic Engine
• CE20 cryogenic engine is indigenously developed for LVM3
• The CE-20 engine would be the uppermost (third and final) engine on the LVM3 rocket
• A 3D printed LOX and LH2 turbine exhaust casings were also inducted in the engine for the first time.

Technology
(Revision Notes)
72. Mengtian Module

• China launched the final component — the Mengtian module — of its permanent space station from
Hainan, the country’s southernmost island province
• Mengtian (literal meaning: Dreaming of the Heaven) was sent to the earth’s lower orbit, over 380
kilometres above the surface, aboard the Long March-5B Y4 carrier rocket
• Mengtian is the second of the two modules that will house science labs for carrying out experiments. The
other lab module Wentian was sent earlier this year.
73. Beidou Satellite System
• It is a Chinese Satellite Navigation System
• The system uses a network of satellites and can provide positional accuracies of under ten meters (GPS
provides positioning accuracies of under 2.2 meters)
• China initiated BeiDou in 1994 with aims to integrate its application in different sectors, including
fishery, agriculture, special care, mass-market applications, forestry and public security
• BeiDou offers services including accurate positioning, navigation and timing as well as short message
communication
• The BDS now has a “constellation” of 30 satellites in orbit and began its international outreach once the
set-up was finished in 2018.
74. Ghaem 100 = Iran + It is a three-stage, solid fuel launcher that will be able to place satellites weighing 80
kg in an orbit 500 km above the Earth’s surface.
75. Enceladus
• Enceladus is the sixth-largest moon of Saturn. It is about a tenth of that of Saturn’s largest moon, Titan
• It is rich in dissolved phosphorus, an essential ingredient for life
• Recently scientists have discovered that beneath its icy surface are oceans, or subsurface oceans as they
are called
• The spacecraft Cassini, which orbited Saturn for nearly 13 years, discovered Enceladus's subsurface
liquid water
• From the cracks of the moon's icy surface, plumes of ice grains and water vapour erupted into space. The
plume contains almost all the basic requirements of life
76. GRB221009A
• A gamma ray burst originated in the constellation Sagitta, called GRB221009A about 2.4 billion light
years away is being called “the BOAT” – the brightest of all time – and is so powerful it has even affected
Earth’s atmosphere
• Related scientific phenomenon are:
o Supernova: It is the violent explosion of a dying star + There are several sorts of supernova
explosions, but all may generate more energy in a few seconds than our sun does in its whole lifetime
+ As a star burns through its fuel and begins to cool, the outward forces of pressure drop. When the
pressure drops low enough in a massive star, gravity suddenly takes over and the star collapses in
just seconds. This collapse produces the explosion we call a supernova.
o Gamma-ray Bursts: Gamma-ray bursts (GRBs) are short-lived bursts of gamma-ray light, the most
energetic form of light. Lasting anywhere from a few milliseconds to several minutes, GRBs shine
hundreds of times brighter than a typical supernova and about a million trillion times as bright as the
Sun + A gamma-ray burst will emit the same amount of energy as a supernova, caused when a star
collapses and explodes, but in seconds or minutes rather than weeks + When a GRB erupts, it is
briefly the brightest source of cosmic gamma-ray photons in the observable Universe. They are
associated with the deaths of massive stars in supernovas; though not every supernova produces a
gamma-ray burst.
77. Tidal Disruption Events (TDES)
• TDE refers to an event when a black hole violently rips apart stars that gets too close

Technology
(Revision Notes)
• When a star comes close to a black hole, gravitational forces will stretch or “spaghettify” star
• Then, elongated material spirals around black hole, gets heated up, and creates a flash that can be detected
by us millions of light years away
78. Solar Eclipse
• A solar eclipse happens during the New Moon when the Moon moves between Earth and the Sun to cast
a shadow on the Earth blocking the rays of Sun
• Sometimes when the Moon orbits the Earth, the Moon moves between the Sun and Earth. When this
happens, the Moon blocks the light of the Sun from reaching Earth. This causes an eclipse of the Sun, or
a solar eclipse. During a solar eclipse, the Moon casts a shadow onto Earth
• We can observe up to 5 solar eclipses per year
• There are three kinds of solar eclipses Total, partial, and annular along with rare hybrid that is a
combination of an annular and a total eclipse
79. Lunar Eclipse
• Also known as the eclipse of the moon, it occurs when the earth comes in between the sun and the moon.
As a result, the earth blocks the light of the sun from reaching the moon’s surface and casts its shadow
on the moon
• It occurs on a full moon day. We can observe up to 3 lunar eclipses per year
• It is advised that one should not look at the sun directly during the solar eclipse as it can permanently
damage the eyes. However, it is safe to view the lunar eclipse directly)
80. LVM3-M2/OneWeb India-1 Mission
• Lift vehicle–GSLV MkIII — renamed for this mission as Launch Vehicle Mark-3 (LVM3-M2). The
GSLV MkIII is a three-stage rocket with the first stage fired by solid fuel, the second by liquid fuel and
the third is the cryogenic engine
• LVM3 rocket (earlier called the Geosynchronous Launch Vehicle Mark III or GSLV-MK3) can carry up
to 8 tonnes into low earth orbit (LEO-up to 1,200 km above the Earth)
• LVM3-M2 is the dedicated commercial satellite mission of New Space India Limited (NSIL), a Central
Public Sector Enterprise (CPSE) under the Department of Space, Government of India -> The heaviest
rocket of ISRO, the LVM3-M2/OneWeb India-1, with 36 satellites on board
• This is the first Indian rocket with a six tonne payload
• With this launch, LVM3 is making its entry into the “global commercial launch service market”. This
mission is being undertaken as part of the commercial arrangement entered into between NSIL and
Network Access Associates Limited (m/s OneWeb Ltd), a U.K.-based company
• OneWeb: OneWeb is a joint venture between India’s Bharti Enterprises and the U.K. government + This
is OneWeb’s 14th launch, bringing the constellation to 462 satellites. This launch represents more than
70% of its planned 648 Low Earth Orbit (LEO) satellite fleet that will deliver high-speed, low-latency
connectivity worldwide + With only four more launches to go, OneWeb remains on track to activate
global coverage in 2023)
81. India’s 1st Indigenous Overhauser (OVH) Magnetometer
• Indian scientists have developed an indigenous Overhauser Magnetometer, one of the most accurate
magnetometers extensively used by all magnetic observatories around the world
• It is developed by the Indian Institute of Geomagnetism (IIG), an autonomous research institution under
DST, Government of India
• It is installed at the Alibag Magnetic Observatory (MO) and has the potential to reduce India’s reliance
on commercial OVH magnetometers for geomagnetic field measurements
• It accurately reproduced the geomagnetic diurnal variations accurately and precisely showed the
signatures of various space weather events such as geomagnetic storms, sudden impulses, etc
• A magnetometer is a device that measures the magnetic field or magnetic dipole moment.

Technology
(Revision Notes)
82. Mars Orbiter Mission (MOM)

• India is the only country to be successful in making its spacecraft orbit Mars in its very first attempt.
• India is the first Asian country and ISRO is the fourth space agency to send a satellite to Mars.
• First interplanetary mission realized by India and first Indian spacecraft to incorporate full scale onboard
autonomy to overcome the long distances and the communication gaps due to non-visibility periods.
• First Indian spacecraft to successfully survive Van Allen belt crossing 39 times.
• First Indian spacecraft to escape the Sphere of Influence of Earth and orbit Sun.
• Most economical interplanetary mission in the world -> realised with a budget of Rs 450 crores.
• 1st interplanetary mission of ISRO, launched in 2013 by PSLV-C25 and got inserted into Martian orbit
in 2014 in its 1st attempt
• The mission made India the first Asian country, and the fourth in the world after Roscosmos (Russia),
NASA (US), and the European Space Agency (EU), to get to the planet
• Its scientific objectives include exploration of Mars surface features, morphology, mineralogy and
Martian atmosphere by indigenous scientific instruments
• Five payloads of MoM were: Mars Colour Camera; Lyman alpha photometer; Thermal infrared imaging
spectrometer; Mars exospheric neutral composition analyser and Methane sensor
• MoM helped prepare a Martian Atlas based on the images provided by the orbiter
• Phobos & Deimos, the two moons of Mars, were also imaged from close distances by the Mars Colour
Camera
• It made a finding that dust storms on the Mars can rise up to hundreds of kilometers
• Albedo map of Mars has been prepared using MOM will be useful to study the surface properties of
Mars
• Recently, India's Mars Orbiter Mission (MOM) spacecraft has lost communication with the ground
stations, bringing an end to its life after eight long years
• The spacecraft is tracked by the Indian Deep Space Network (IDSN), located near Bengaluru and
complemented by NASA-JPL's Deep Space Network
• Other Mars Mission:
• Perseverance: 2021 + NASA, USA
• Hope Mission: 2021 + United Arab Emirates(UAE)
• Tianwen 1: 2021 + China
• Mars Moons Exploration (MMX) Mission: 2024 + Japan
83. Zhurong Rover
• It is China’s first Mars rover aboard the Tianwen-1 probe that arrived in Mars orbit in February 2020
• The rover is part of Chinese space plans that include launching a crewed orbital station and landing a
human on the moon
• It is named after a traditional fire god. The rover’s title fits with the Chinese name for Mars i.e. “Huo
Xing” or fire star
• The top candidate for the landing site is Utopia Planitia, a rock-strewn plain where the U.S. lander
Viking 2 touched down in 1976
84. Global Astrometric Interferometer for Astrophysics(GAIA)
• GAIA is a space observatory of the European Space Agency (ESA), launched in 2013 and expected to
operate until 2025
• The spacecraft is designed for astrometry: measuring the positions, distances and motions of stars with
unprecedented precision
• The mission aims to construct by far the largest and most precise 3D space catalog ever made, totalling
approximately 1 billion astronomical objects, mainly stars, but also planets, comets, asteroids and
quasars, among others
• GAIA’s predecessor was ESA’s Hipparcos mission
Technology
(Revision Notes)
• The spacecraft is strategically stationed 1.5 million km from the Earth, in the opposite direction of the
sun, in an orbit around the gravitational parking point in space called the Lagrange 2 or L2
• Recently, the 3rd dataset released by the European Space Agency’s star-mapping GAIA probe, covering
almost 1.8 billion stars in the Milky Way galaxy, has revealed an unexpected phenomena called
‘starquakes’, which are similar to earthquake like movements but on the surface of stars.
• Recently, Global Astrometric Interferometer for Astrophysics (GAIA) spacecraft and Hubble Space
Telescope instruments as well as other observatories on earth were used to observe black hole phenomena
for the very first time, named "Powehi", meaning embellished dark source of unending creation.
85. Tarantula Nebula
• Recently, NASA’s James Webb telescope has captured the stunning image of the Tarantula Nebula in
detail
• The Tarantula Nebula (or the 30 Doradus) is a stellar nursery situated in the Large Magellanic Cloud
galaxy 161,000 light years away. It is the largest and the brightest star-forming region in the Local group
that includes our Milky Way galaxy
• The Tarantula Nebula has a cavity that has been hollowed out by the radiation emitted by a cluster of
young stars. The powerful winds emitted by the young stars have blown away all but densest areas of
the nebula, giving it the appearance of a burrowing tarantula’s home. The densest part of the nebula form
pillars of dust and gives birth to massive protostars (very young stars). These protostars emerge from
their “dusty cocoons” and help shape the nebula.
86. Einstein Ring
• The Einstein Ring is created when the light from a galaxy or star passes by a massive object en route to
the Earth
• The Einstein ring is also known as the Chwolson ring
• Due to the effects of gravitation (called gravitational lensing), the light is diverted, which makes it seem
to come from different places. If the light source, lens, and observer are all in perfect alignment, the light
appears as a ring
• The first example of an “Einstein Ring” was discovered in 1988
• Recently, The Mid-Infrared Instrument (MIRI) of The James Webb Telescope discovered an Einstein
Ring formed from the light of a distant galaxy SPT-S J041839-4751.8, which is around 12 billion light-
years away from earth, which also makes it one of the oldest galaxies in the universe.
87. Qimingxing-50, or Morning Star-50
• China’s first fully solar-powered unmanned aerial vehicle, Qimingxing-50, or Morning Star-50, has
successfully completed its maiden test flight with all onboard systems functioning optimally
• The drone is a large machine powered entirely by solar panels with a wingspan of 164-ft
• It can operate without a break for months, even years. It is capable of carrying out satellite-like functions.
88. Mars Oxygen In-Situ Resource Utilization Experiment (MOXIE)
• It was sent by Massachusetts Institute of Technology with NASA’s Perseverence rover + It has produced
oxygen at Mars with components from the planet’s atmosphere + MOXIE is also called “Mechanical
Tree
• MOXIE makes oxygen like a tree does, it inhales carbon dioxide and exhales oxygen.
89. NASA’s Sonification Project
• Sonification is the use of non-speech audio to convey information or perceptualize data. Nasa did so for
Cosmic Cliffs in the Carina Nebula
• NASA is translating the images and data obtained using James Web Space Telescope into Sound
• Carina Nebula: Nebula is a cloud of gas and dust in outer space, building material for stars and planets.
It is located in the Carina–Sagittarius Arm of the Milky Way galaxy. The nebula is approximately 8,500
light-years from Earth
90. DART Mission

Technology
(Revision Notes)
• NASA + Double Asteroid Redirection Test (DART) is the first-ever mission dedicated to investigating
and demonstrating one method of asteroid deflection by changing an asteroid’s motion in space through
kinetic impact
• DART is a low-cost spacecraft, weighing around 610 kg at launch and 550 kg during impact
• It also carries about 10 kg of xenon which will be used to demonstrate the agency’s new thrusters called
NASA Evolutionary Xenon Thruster–Commercial (NEXT-C) in space.
• DART’s target is the binary, near-Earth asteroid system Didymos and the smaller size Dimorphous,
which orbits Didymos.
91. India’s First Ever Dark Sky Reserve
• In a first -of -its -kind initiative, the Department of Science & Technology (DST) has announced the
setting up of India's first dark sky reserve at Hanle in Ladakh in the next three months
• Located at: Hanle in Ladakh as a part of Changthang Wildlife Sanctuary
• Hanle is best suited for the project as it is located in Ladakh’s cold desert region with clear sky and dry
weather conditions throughout the year and away from human disturbance
• It is to be Developed by Ladakh administration and will work with Ladakh Autonomous Hill
Development Council(LAHDC) and the Indian Institute of Astrophysics (IIA) for developing this reserve
• The reserve will boost Astro tourism in India and will be one of the world’s highest-located sites for
optical, infrared, and gamma-ray telescopes
• Dark Sky Reserve = A Dark Sky Reserve is a designation given to a place that has policies in place to
ensure that a tract of land or region has minimal artificial light interference + The International Dark Sky
Association is a U.S.-based non-profit that designates places as International Dark Sky Places, Parks,
Sanctuaries and Reserves depending on the criteria they meet. Several such reserves exist around the
world but none so far in India.
• Hanle, Ladakh = It is about 4,500 metres above sea level and it hosts telescopes + It is regarded as one
of the world’s most optimal sites for astronomical observations + The Himalayan Chandra Telescope
(HCT), High Energy Gamma Ray telescope (HAGAR), the Major Atmospheric Cherenkov Experiment
Telescope (MACE) and GROWTH-India are prominent telescopes located at the Hanle observatory.
92. Inflatable Aerodynamic Decelerator (IAD)
• Recently, Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) just declared that it has successfully demonstrated
the new technology with Inflatable Aerodynamic Decelerator (IAD)
• As its name suggests, the IAD serves to decelerate an object plunging down through the atmosphere. An
inflatable envelope and an inflatant (anything that inflates the envelope, like air or helium) make up the
inflatable aerodynamic decelerator. While entering the atmosphere, it inflates like a balloon and
decelerates the lander
• It was designed, developed and successfully test-flown by ISRO's Vikram Sarabhai Space Centre
(VSSC) on a Rohini-300 (RH300 Mk II) sounding rocket from the Thumba Equatorial Rocket Launching
Station (TERLS)
• IAD is made of Kevlar fabric coated with polychloroprene
• Kevlar Fabric
o Kevlar is an organic fiber in the aromatic polyamide (aramid) family that combines high strength
with light weight, and comfort with protection
o Kevlar is five times stronger than steel on an equal weight basis and provides reliable performance
and solid strength
o DuPont discovered Kevlar in 1965
o Kevlar fibers are based on poly-paraphenylene terephthalamide, a rigid molecule that makes it easier
to realize a fully extended, or straight, chain configuration
o unusual properties makes Kevlar useful for a broad range of applications, such as ballistic vests, cut-
resistant gloves and blast and flame barriers
o applications range from sports gear to puncture resistant bike tyres to lighter boats and sails
Technology
(Revision Notes)
93. Nova V1280 Scorpii

• Scientists from SN Bose Centre for Basic Science (SNBCBS) observed the imploding novae called Nova
V1280 Scorpii and found that a thick dust formed around it after a month and lasted for about 250 days
• A nova is an astronomical occurrence in which a powerful explosion temporarily increases the brightness
of a star by hundreds to millions of times before gradually dimming over the course of weeks or months.
94. Jupiter
• It is the 5th planet from our Sun and is also the largest planet in solar system.
• It has several rings, but unlike Saturn, Jupiter’s rings are very faint and made of dust, not ice.
• It has the shortest day in the solar system (takes only about 10 hours)
• Jupiter has 79 moons (Saturn has maximum at 82) and its four largest moons – Io, Europa, Ganymede,
and Callisto
• It has big storms like Great Red Spot, which has been going for hundreds of years. Recently, three smaller
ovals merged to form Little Red Spot, about half the size of great red spot
• Jupiter's magnetic field also causes spectacular aurorae at the planet's poles. Auroras are caused by
interaction of energetic particles of solar wind with atoms of upper atmosphere.
95. Exo-Moons
• Recently, Indian scientists at Indian Institute of Astrophysics have developed a model to trace habitable
exo-moons with James Webb Space Telescope
• they are natural satellites that revolve around exo planets; so far 5000 of these have been discovered exo-
moons still remained untraced.
96. Chanddler Wobble
• The change in the spin of Earth on its axis
• The American astronomer Seth Carlo Chandler discovered the wobble in the late 1800s
• It affects the ability to map the exact location of a star using Earth Based Telescopes
• Reason for the wobble is considered to be the tides in the liquid core of the Earth
• Affects the celestial navigation, since the latitude does change over a period of 14 months
• It does not impact the magnetic north pole navigation using a magnetic compass.
97. Astrobee
• Astrobee is NASA’s new free-flying robotic system
• Astrobee also consists of a system that serves as a research platform that can be outfitted and programmed
to conduct microgravity experiments. Thus, it will help to learn more about how robotics can benefit
astronauts in space
• The three free-flying robots are named Honey, Queen, and Bumble. The robots are shaped like cubes
12.5 inches wide.
98. Artemis 1
• Artemis– Acceleration, Reconnection, Turbulence and Electrodynamics of Moon’s Interaction with the
Sun
• It is NASA’s next mission to the Moon
• It aims to measure what happens when the Sun’s radiation hits our rocky moon, where there is no
magnetic field to protect it
• It is an uncrewed space mission where the spacecraft will launch on an SLS rocket + The primary
operating goal of the mission is to assure a safe crew module entry, descent, splashdown, and recovery
• SLS and Orion under Artemis I will be launched from the Kennedy Space Centre in Florida, U.S. in the
summer of 2022
• The mission will end with the Orion spacecraft’s ability to return safely to the earth
• Artemis I, formerly Exploration Mission-1, will be the first integrated flight test of NASA’s Deep Space
Exploration Systems:

Technology
(Revision Notes)
• Orion spacecraft: Orion spacecraft is going to remain in space without docking to a space station, longer
than any ship for astronauts has ever done before.
• Space Launch System (SLS) rocket: It is the most powerful rocket in the world — and travels 2,80,000
miles from the earth for over four to six weeks during the course of the mission.
• Newly upgraded Exploration Ground Systems at Kennedy Space Centre in Cape Canaveral, Florida.
99. Long March 5B
• Long March 5 or Chang Zheng 5 is a Chinese heavy-lift launch system developed by the China Academy
of Launch Vehicle Technology (CALT)
• It is the first Chinese launch vehicle designed from the ground up to focus on non-hypergolic liquid
rocket propellants
• The maximum payload capacities of the base variant are ~25,000 kilograms to Low Earth Orbit and
~14,000 kilograms to Geosynchronous Transfer Orbit.
100. Pentaquarks and Tetraquarks
• Large Hadron Collider beauty (LHCb) experiment has observed three new particles at European
Organisation for Nuclear Research (CERN)
• Quarks are elementary particles that usually combine in groups of twos and threes to form hadrons such
as protons and neutrons that make up atomic nuclei
• come in six “flavours”: up, down, charm, strange, top, and bottom
• They can also combine into four-quark and fivequark particles, called tetraquarks and pentaquarks
• They will help physicists better understand how quarks bind together into composite particles.
101. LUX-ZEPLIN (LZ)
• One of the most sensitive dark matter detector experiments named LUX-ZEPLIN (LZ) in the U.S.A, has
been used for finding evidence of dark matter in the universe
• All interactions in the universe are a result of four fundamental forces acting on particles — strong
nuclear force, weak nuclear force, electromagnetic force and gravitation
• Dark matter is particles that do not have a charge — which means they do not interact through
electromagnetic interactions. Dark matter is elusive because: Gravitational force is extremely weak. A
particle that interacts so weakly becomes rather elusive to detect
• Please Note: Dark energy is a hypothetical form of energy that exerts a negative, repulsive pressure,
behaving like the opposite of gravity. It is causing the rate of expansion of our universe to accelerate
over time, rather than to slow down. That’s contrary to what one might expect from a universe that began
in the Big Bang
• Difference between Dark Matter and Dark Energy:-
Dark Matter Dark Energy
Single largest constituent of universe. Second largest constituent of universe (26.8%)
(68.3%)
Tend to drive the universe apart Tend to drive together
No interaction with normal matter Interacts with normal matter by
Gravity(gravitational lensing)
Can be thought of as 5th Fundamental force Dark matter is not antimatter or black holes
102. IS4OM
• ISRO System for Safe and Sustainable Space Operations & Management (IS4OM)
• ISRO launches the world’s first facility to track space debris, and safeguard assets
• IS4OM is ISRO’s holistic approach to ensure the safety of space assets and sustaining the utilization of outer
space for national development.
103. Sagittarius A*
• It is a bright and very compact astronomical radio source at the Galactic Center of the Milky Way
• Sun orbits Sagittarius A* in more than 200 million years

Technology
(Revision Notes)
• Reinhard Genzel and Andrea Ghez were awarded the 2020 Nobel Prize in Physics for their discovery that Sgr
A* is a supermassive compact object, for which a black hole is the only currently known explanation
• Sagittarius A* is the second black hole whose photographs have been captured by the Event Horizon
Telescope project (In 2019, astronomers captured the first ever photograph of a black hole M87, which was
in a distant galaxy called Messier 87)
• Before it, Event Horizon Telescope has captured the just outside region of a black hole, located 55 million
light-years from Earth, at the center of a galaxy named Messier 87. The image shows a photon (light quantum)
can orbit the black hole without falling in. This is called the ‘last photon ring’
• Please Note: Event Horizon Telescope (EHT) is an international collaboration (of observatories) capturing
images of black holes using a virtual Earth-sized telescope.
104. Amalthea
• The moon Amalthea is one of Jupiter’s 53 named satellites; it was the first to be discovered after the four
Galilean moons, and it is the fifth-largest overall
• In terms of proximity to Jupiter, Amalthea is the planet’s third moon — it takes just 12 hours to make a full
orbit
• Amalthea is tidally locked to Jupiter in synchronous rotation — it always aligns with the planet along its long
axis
• According to recent findings, Amalthea appears to radiate out more heat than it receives from the sun, which
NASA suggests may be due to Jupiter’s magnetic field or from tidal stresses.
105. W bosons
• The W boson was first seen in 1983 at CERN located in the Franco-Swiss border
• Unlike the photon, which is massless, the W bosons are quite massive, which results in the force they mediate
— the weak force — being very short ranged
• Unlike the photon, which is electrically neutral, the W-plus bosons and W-minus bosons are both massive
and charged
• By exchanging such W bosons, a neutron can change into a proton, for example. This is what happens in beta
decay, a radioactive interaction that takes place in the sun
• Thus, the W boson facilitates the interactions that make the sun burn and produce energy
106. Wormholes
• Wormholes were first theorized in 1916, though that wasn't what they were called at the time
• While reviewing another physicist's solution to the equations in Albert Einstein's theory of general relativity,
Austrian physicist Ludwig Flamm realized another solution was possible. He described a "white hole," a
theoretical time reversal of a black hole. Entrances to both black and white holes could be connected by a
space-time conduit.
• The wormhole theory postulates that a theoretical passage through space-time could create shortcuts for long
journeys across the universe
• Wormholes are predicted by the theory of general relativity.
107. Lunar eclipse ‘Blood moon’
• During a total lunar eclipse, the Moon usually turns a deep, dark red because it is illuminated by light that has
passed through the Earth’s atmosphere and has been bent back towards the Moon by refraction.
• A total lunar eclipse occurs when the Moon and the Sun are on exact opposite sides of Earth
• The red colour is because of the way light travels through the Earth’s atmosphere. Sunlight is made of several
colours and they all have different wavelengths
108. Plants in the Moon's Soil
• Scientists have for the first time successfully grown plants in the Moon's soil
• This lunar soil, also called regolith, was brought to Earth from the Moon by the Apollo-era astronauts
• Researchers have grown the hardy and well-studied Arabidopsis thaliana in the nutrient-poor lunar regolith
• Arabidopsis thaliana, native to Eurasia and Africa, is a relative of mustard greens and other cruciferous
vegetables like broccoli, cauliflower, and Brussels sprouts

Technology
(Revision Notes)
• The breakthrough will open the doors to harvest crops on the Moon in the future which will help in extended
stay of humans on the moon.
109. EVTOLs
• An electric vertical take-off and landing (eVTOL) aircraft is a variety of VTOL (vertical take-off and landing)
aircraft that uses electric power to hover, take off, and land vertically
• This technology came about thanks to major advances in electric propulsion (motors, batteries, fuel cells,
electronic controllers) and the growing need for new vehicles for urban air mobility (air taxi)
• Examples are being developed by aircraft companies such as Boeing, Airbus, Embraer, Honda, Toyota,
Hyundai and NASA.
110. Stratospheric Observatory for Infrared Astronomy (SOFIA) Mission
• NASA is planning to shut down SOFIA telescope that found water on Moon
• SOFIA is a 2.7-meter infrared telescope inside Boeing airplane, flying at an altitude around 40k feet above
the surface.
• SOFIA is joint collaboration between NASA and German Space Agency (DLR)
• It has been collecting data to understand star birth and death and formation of new solar systems
• It is designed to observe cosmic objects in far infrared wavelengths
• In 2019, SOFIA discovered helium hydride — first molecule formed in Universe almost 14 billion years ago.
111. Chandrayaan-3 Mission
• Chandrayaan-3 is a planned third lunar exploration mission by the ISRO
• Following Chandrayaan-2, where a last-minute glitch in the soft landing guidance software led to the failure
of the lander's soft landing attempt after a successful orbital insertion, another lunar mission for demonstrating
soft landing was proposed
• Chandrayaan-3 will be a mission repeat of Chandrayaan-2 but will only include a lander and rover similar to
that of Chandrayaan-2. It will not have an orbiter
• The spacecraft is planned to be launched in 2023 + Rocket: GSLV Mark III
112. HS200
• Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) successfully Tests Solid Rocket Booster HS200 for Gaganyaan
Programme
• The successful test of the HS200 booster is a milestone towards India’s human spaceflight mission
‘Gaganyaan’
• The HS200 is the world’s second largest operational booster using solid propellants
• It is the 'human-rated' version of the S200 rocket boosters used on the Geosynchronous Satellite Launch
Vehicle Mk-III (GSLV Mk-III), also called the LVM3.
113. Meteorites
• A meteorite is a solid piece of debris from an object, such as a comet, asteroid, or meteoroid, that originates
in outer space and survives its passage through the atmosphere to reach the surface of a planet or moon.
114. Astrosat
• It is the first dedicated Indian astronomy mission aimed at studying celestial sources in X-ray, optical and UV
spectral bands simultaneously.
• It is India’s first multi-wavelength space telescope which has five telescopes.
• It was launched in 2015 by ISRO into a near-Earth equatorial orbit.
• It is a multi-institute collaborative project, involving IUCAA, ISRO, Tata Institute of Fundamental
Research (Mumbai), Indian Institute of Astrophysics (Bengaluru), and Physical Research Laboratory
(Ahmedabad), among others.
• The payloads cover the energy bands of Ultraviolet (Near and Far), limited optical and X-ray regime (0.3 keV
to 100keV).
• It has a lift-off mass of about 1513 kg was launched into a 650 km orbit inclined at an angle of 6 degrees to
the equator by PSLV-C30

Technology
(Revision Notes)
• Objectives: To understand high energy processes in binary star systems containing neutron stars and black
holes + Estimate magnetic fields of neutron stars + Study star birth regions and high energy processes in star
systems lying beyond our galaxy + Detect new briefly bright X-ray sources in the sky.
115. Event Horizon
• There is a region of space beyond the black hole called the event horizon. This is a "point of no return",
beyond which it is impossible to escape the gravitational effects of the black hole.
116. Event Horizon Telescope
• It is a large telescope array consisting of a global network of radio telescopes.
• It is a group of 8 radio telescopes used to detect radio waves from space located in different parts of the world.
• The collaboration draws on a wide range of expertise and includes over 200 scientists and engineers working
with telescopes around the world.
117. Gravitational Singularity
• It is a condition in which gravity is so intense that spacetime itself breaks down catastrophically.
• Singularities were first predicated as a result of Einstein’s Theory of General Relativity, which resulted in the
theoretical existence of black holes.
118. Gravitational Waves
• These are invisible ripples in space that form when a star explodes in a supernova; two big stars orbit each
other and two black holes merge.
• They travel at the speed of light (1,86,000 miles per second) and squeeze and stretch anything in their path.
• These were proposed by Albert Einstein in his General Theory of Relativity, over a century ago.
• the first gravitational wave was actually detected by LIGO only in 2015.
119. Voyager-2
• It is a space probe launched by NASA in 1977 to study the outer planets and interstellar space beyond the
Sun's heliosphere
• It is the only spacecraft to have visited all four gas giant planets, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune
• It was the fourth of five spacecraft to achieve the solar escape velocity, which allowed it to leave the Solar
System
• It fulfilled its primary mission of visiting the Jovian system in 1979, the Saturnian system in 1981, Uranian
system in 1986, and the Neptunian system in 1989
• It remains in contact with Earth through the NASA Deep Space Network
• Their five-year lifespans have stretched to 41 years, making Voyager 2 NASA’s longest running mission
• It is the only probe ever to study Neptune and Uranus during planetary flybys
• It discovered 16 moons and various phenomena like Neptune’s mysteriously transient Great Dark Spot, the
cracks in Europa’s ice shell, and ring features at every planet.
120. New horizons
• It is an interplanetary space probe that was launched by NASA in 2006 as a part of NASA's New Frontiers
program
• It is the first spacecraft which successfully fly by the dwarf planet Pluto, for its exploration in the Kuiper Belt
• The goal of the mission is to understand the formation of the Plutonian system, the Kuiper belt, and the
transformation of the early Solar System
• In 2015, it flew above the surface of Pluto, making it the first spacecraft to explore the dwarf planet
• The spacecraft collected data on the atmospheres, surfaces, interiors of Pluto and its moon (Charon)
• It became the first explorer to fly past the mysterious object called Ultima Thule which is located 4 billion
miles from Earth
• The mission first close-up image of the surface revealed that surface is youngest ever found in the solar
system, falsifying previous theories that Pluto made up of ice and rock.

Technology
(Revision Notes)
121. Evolved LISA (e-LISA)

• Laser Interferometer Space Antenna (LISA) is a mission led by the European Space Agency to detect and
accurately measure gravitational waves - tiny ripples in the fabric of space-time - from astronomical sources
• It aims to measure gravitational waves directly by using laser interferometry
• It involves scientists from eight European countries ‒ Denmark, France, Germany, Italy, The Netherlands,
Spain, Switzerland, and the UK ‒ as well as the support of several US-based ones
• LISA concept has a constellation of three spacecraft arranged in an equilateral triangle with sides 2.5 million
km long, flying along an Earth-like heliocentric orbit
• It consists of a “Mother” and two “Daughter” spacecrafts which will orbit the Sun in a triangular configuration
• The interferometer will be capable of detecting gravitational waves at frequencies in the range of 0.1 mHz to
1 Hz.
122. eLISA (Evolved Laser Interferometer Space Antenna)
• It is a mission aiming at exploring the Gravitational Universe from space for the first time.
• It involves scientists from eight European countries ‒ Denmark, France, Germany, Italy, The Netherlands,
Spain, Switzerland, and the UK ‒ as well as the support of several US-based ones.
• It is designed with orbits that allow the three satellites to maintain their near-equilateral triangular
configuration.
• eLISA’s primary objective is the detection and examination of gravitational waves emitted by the super-
massive black holes that reside in the centres of many galaxies.
• In addition, it will measure the signals of thousands of compact binary star systems in the Milky Way.
123. LISA Pathfinder
• Formerly called Small Missions for Advanced Research in Technology-2 (SMART-2), it is an ESA spacecraft
launched in 2015. It has begun orbiting a point called Earth-sun L1, roughly 930,000 miles from Earth in the
sun’s direction
• It involves European space companies and research institutes from France, Germany, Italy, The Netherlands,
Spain, Switzerland, UK, and the US space agency NASA
• Primary goal is to test current technology by flying around an identical pair of 1.8-inch (46 millimeter) cubes
made of a gold-platinum alloy
• It also carries a NASA experiment called the ST-7 Disturbance Reduction System which combines novel
“electrospray” thrusters with drag-free control software provided by Goddard on a dedicated computer
• It has tested technologies needed for the Laser Interferometer Space Antenna (LISA), an ESA gravitational
wave observatory planned to be launched in 2034.
124. Laser Interferometer Gravitational Wave Observatory (LIGO) project
• It is a massive observatory for detecting cosmic gravitational waves and for carrying out experiments.
• Its objective is to use gravitational-wave observations in astronomical studies.
• The project operates three gravitational-wave (GW) detectors. Two are at Hanford, Washington, north-
western US, and one is at Livingston in Louisiana, south-eastern US.
Technology
(Revision Notes)
• The proposed LIGO India project aims to move one advanced LIGO detector from Hanford to India.
• LIGO India Project is piloted by Department of Atomic Energy (DAE) and Department of Science and
Technology (DST).
125. Cassini-Huygens
• It was the fourth space probe to visit Saturn.
• It was launched with two elements- Cassini orbiter and Huygens probe.
• Cassini is a probe developed by NASA, and Huygens is a lander developed by ESA.
• Cassini-Huygens was launched onboard the launch vehicle Titan IVB/Centaur.
• It was launched from Cape Canaveral, Florida, USA.
• Objective: Determine dynamic behavior of rings of Saturn and atmosphere of Saturn at cloud level.
126. Space Liability Convention of 1972:
• It defines responsibility in case a space object causes harm.
• The treaty says that “a launching State shall be absolutely liable to pay compensation for damage caused by
its space objects on the surface of the earth or to aircraft, and liable for damage due to its faults in space.
• The Convention also provides for procedures for the settlement of claims for damages.”
127. Space Debris
• Space debris consist of spent rocket stages, dead satellites, fragments of space objects and debris resulting
from Anti-satellite (ASAT) System (ASAT).
• Kessler Syndrome- Idea proposed by NASA scientist Donald Kessler in 1978 + It states that if there was
too much space junk in orbit, it could result in a chain reaction where more and more objects collide and
create new space junk in the process, to the point where Earth's orbit becomes unusable.
• Project NETRA- It is an early warning system in space to detect debris and other hazards to Indian satellites.
Once operational, it will give India its own capability in Space Situational Awareness (SSA) like the other
space powers.
128. New Shephard
• It is a rocket system meant to take tourists to space successfully built by Blue Origin.
• It offers flights to space over 100 km above the Earth and accommodation for payloads.
• It is a fully reusable, vertical takeoff and vertical landing space vehicle.
• It is a rocket system that has been designed to take astronauts and research payloads past the Karman line –
the internationally recognised boundary of space.
129. Messenger
• MESSENGER is a NASA’s robotic spacecraft that orbited the planet Mercury between 2011 and 2015.
• Aim: Study the geology, magnetic field and chemical composition of the mercury.
• The MESSENGER mission has shared more than 10 terabytes of Mercury science data. It includes nearly
300,000 images, millions of spectra and numerous map products.

Technology
(Revision Notes)
BIOTECHNOLOGY
1. Introduction: Biotechnology is the use of biological systems found in organisms or the use of the living
organisms themselves to make technological advances and adapt those technologies to various fields.
2. Basic Terminologies
• Gene: It is basic physical and functional unit of hereditary which contains the code for a molecule that
has a function. Genes are located on DNA. It is a part of DNA in a cell that controls physical
development, behaviour, etc. of an individual plant/animal & is passed on from its parents.
• Genome: It is the complete set of genes or genetic material present in a cell or organisms. It consists
of genes, which contain the DNA, and chromosomes, which carry all of the information needed to
fully characterise the creature, a blueprint in layman's terms.
• Genomic Organization: Linear order of DNA elements and their division into chromosomes.
• Chromosomes: Chromosomes are thread-like structures or the long molecule of DNA is found in the
nucleus. These contain genes and aid in character inheritance or transmission from parents to
offspring. Only after the cell splits can the chromosomes be seen. In living beings, a gene is a unit of
heredity. It regulates the transmission of a hereditary trait from parents to offspring.
• Chromosomal Aberrations: A chromosomal abnormality, or chromosomal aberration, is a disorder
characterized by a morphological or numerical alteration in single or multiple chromosomes, affecting
autosomes, sex chromosomes, or both.
3. Plant Cell Vs Animal Cell

Technology
(Revision Notes)
4. Structure of Cell
5. Nucleus
• It is a double-membraned organelle that contains the genetic material and other instructions required
for cellular processes.
• It is exclusively found in eukaryotic cells and is also one of the largest organelles.
• Thread-like, dense structures known as chromatins are found within the nucleus containing proteins
and DNA.
• It is responsible for storing the cell’s hereditary material or the DNA.
• It is responsible for coordinating many of the important cellular activities such as protein synthesis,
cell division, growth and a host of other important functions.
6. Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA)
• DNA is an organic chemical that contains genetic information and instructions for protein synthesis.
It is the hereditary material in humans and almost all other organisms.
• Most DNA is located in the cell nucleus, but a small amount of DNA can also be found in the
mitochondria.
• The length of the DNA is usually defined as number of nucleotides (or a pair of nucleotides referred
to as base pairs) present in it.
• DNA bases pair up with each other, A with T and C with G, to form units called base pairs.
7. Ribonucleic Acid (RNA)
• RNA stands for ribonucleic acid. It is a molecule with long chain of nucleotides.
• Unlike double-stranded DNA, RNA is a single-stranded molecule in many of its biological roles and
has a much shorter chain of nucleotides.
• The main job of RNA is to transfer the genetic code needed for the creation of proteins from the
nucleus to the ribosome.

Technology
(Revision Notes)

Technology
(Revision Notes)
8. Somatic Cell
• Somatic cells are diploid cells, which has two pairs of chromosomes, one received from each parent.
• Any cell other than germ cells, gametocytes and undifferentiated stem cells are known as somatic
cells.
• Unlike germ cells, somatic cells are not capable of producing offspring; instead they form all internal
organs and tissues and contributed significantly to their functionalities.
9. Stem cell
• Stem cells are special cells that can make copies of themselves and change into the many different
kinds of cells that the body needs.
• They have two unique properties that enable them to do this- They can divide over and over again to
produce new cells. As they divide, they can change into the other types of cell that make up the body.
• Types of Stem Cells
o Embryonic Stem Cells: They supply new cells for an embryo as it grows and develops into a
baby. These stem cells are said to be pluripotent-> can change into any cell in the body.
o Adult Stem Cells: They supply new cells as an organism grows and to replace cells that get
damaged. They are multipotent-> they can only change into some cells in the body, not any cell.
o Induced Pluripotent Stem Cells: ‘Induced’ means that they are made in the lab by taking
normal adult cells, like skin or blood cells, and reprogramming them to become stem cells. Just
like embryonic stem cells, they are pluripotent so they can develop into any cell type.
10. Transcriptome: Transcriptome is the set of all messenger RNA molecules in one cell or a population of
cells. As transcriptome includes all mRNA transcripts in the cell, the transcriptome reflects the genes that
are being actively expressed at any given time.
11. Prokaryotes and Eukaryotes: There are two types of living organisms: eukaryotes and prokaryotes. The
cellular structure of an organism defines which category it belongs to. In this post, we'll go through the
definitions of prokaryotes and eukaryotes, as well as the differences between them.
• Prokaryotes: They are unicellular organisms that lack membrane-bound structures, the most
noteworthy of which is the nucleus. Prokaryotic cells tend to be small, simple cells, measuringaround
0.1-5 μm in diameter. Example: Bacteria and archaea are the two types of prokaryotes.
• Eukaryotes: Eukaryotes are organisms whose cells have a nucleus and other organelles enclosed by a
plasma membrane. Organelles are internal structures responsible for a variety offunctions, such as
energy production and protein synthesis. Example: Animals, plants, fungi, algae and protozoans are
all eukaryotes.
Similarities between both:

• Cell Membrane A lipid bilayer is an arrangement of phospholipids and proteins found in botheukaryotic and
prokaryotic cells that serves as a selective barrier between the cell's internal and exterior environments.
• Genetic Information: Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) is used by both eukaryotic and prokaryotic cells to
store genetic information. It is required to govern and instruct cell function by generating RNA through
transcription and then translating it into proteins.
• Ribosomes: Ribosomes aid in the translation of RNA and the production of protein, both of which are
necessary for the survival of eukaryotic and prokaryotic cells.
• Cytoplasm: The cytoplasm, of which cytosol is the principal component, is the medium in which the cell's
biological events take place. The cytoplasm, which includes the cytoskeleton and genetic material in
prokaryotes, encompasses everything within the plasma membrane.
Differences between Prokaryotes and Eukaryotes
Prokaryotes Eukaryotes
Cell Structure Unicellular Mostly Multicellular
Cell Size Small Large

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DNA Linear Circular

Cell Organelles Absent Present
Type Simple Structure More Complex
Nucleus Absent Present
12. Genetic Engineering: It is a process that uses laboratory-based technologies to alter the DNA makeup of an
organism. This may involve changing a single base pair (A-T or C-G), deleting a region of DNA, or adding
a new segment of DNA. The various techniques of Generic engineering are:
• DNA/RNA extraction: The DNA/RNA is isolated and extraction from cells, this can be done by
breaking open the cells using enzymes to destroy macromolecules that are not needed.
• PCR (Polymerase Chain Reaction): The techniques that amplify a single segment of DNA into a
thousand copies within a short period. Desired DNA amplified through recurrent replication process.
• Enzymes: Restriction Endonucleases, DNA Ligase, DNA Polymerase.
• Gel Electrophoresis: Gel electrophoresis is the technique that separates molecules according to their
size using charge in the electric field.
• Hybridization, Southern and Northern Blotting and Molecular Cloning
13. Gene Editing: It is a type of genetic engineering in which DNA is inserted, deleted, modified or replaced in
the genome of a living organism.
14. T Cells
• T cells are a type of white blood cells. They are part of immune system and develop from
hematopoietic stem cells (blood stem cells) present in bone marrow.
• They help protect bodyfrom infection and may help fight cancer.
• They are also known as “Killer T-cells” and are cytotoxic.
15. Human Genome Project
• Human Genome Project is an international collaboration between 1990 and 2003, containing
information from a region of the human genome known as the euchromatin. The project aimed to
determine the sequence of the human genome within 15 years.
• By 2000 (well ahead of schedule) a working draft of the human genome was announced.
• This was followed by regular updates and refinements and today we all have access to a human
“reference genome sequence”.
16. India Genome Project
• Taking inspiration from the Human Genome Project, the Department of Biotechnology (DBT)

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initiated the ambitious Genome India Project” (GIP) in 2020.

• It aims to collect 10,000 genetic samples from citizens across India, to build a reference
genome.
• Gene Mapping project involves 20 leading institutions of the country with the Centre for Brain
Research of Indian Institute of Science (IISc) Bangalore as the nodal point.
17. IndiGen
• The CSIR initiated the IndiGen Genome Project in 2019. The CSIR-Institute of Genomics and
Integrative Biology (IGIB) in New Delhi and the CSIR-Centre for Cellular and Molecular Biology
(CCMB) in Hyderabad collaborated on the project.
• The genetic data of these 10,000 people would be subjected to whole-genome sequencing and
subsequent data analysis.
18. Important Applications of Genomics
• Pharmacogenomics: Pharmacogenomics is the study of the role of the genome in drug response. Its
name reflects its combining of pharmacology and genomics. Pharmacogenomics analyzes how the
genetic makeup of an individual affects their response to drugs.
o Example: People infected with HIV are tested for a genetic variant that makes them morelikely to
have a bad reaction to the drug.
• Gene Therapy: Gene therapy involves altering the genes inside your body's cells in an effortto treat or
stop disease.
o Example: A small group of patients with advanced Parkinson's disease were treated with a
retroviral vector to introduce three genes into cells in a small area of the brain. After treatment, all
of the patients in the trial had improved muscle control.
• Gene Doping: Gene doping is an outgrowth of gene therapy. However, instead of injecting DNA into
a person's body for the purpose of restoring some function related to a damaged or missing gene, as in
gene therapy, gene doping involves inserting DNA for the purpose of enhancing athletic performance.
o Example: Insulin-like growth factor 1 is a protein involved in the mediation of the growthhormone.
Administration of IGF-1 to mice has resulted in more muscle growth and quickermuscle and nerve
regeneration.
o Issues: Can cause heart issues and cancer. It is also banned by the World Anti-Doping Agency.
• Genome Editing: Genome editing (also called gene editing) is a group of technologies that give
scientists the ability to change an organism's DNA. These technologies allow genetic material to be
added, removed, or altered
Techniques:
o Restriction Enzymes: Restriction enzymes recognize specific patterns of nucleotide sequences
and cut at that site, presenting an opportunity to insert new DNA material atthat location.
o Zinc Finger Nucleases (ZFNs): Increased Recognition Potential of sequencing
o TALENs Gene Editing: They are structurally similar to ZFNs. Both methods use theFokl
nuclease to cut DNA and require dimerization to function
o CRISPR-Cas9 Gene Editing: CRISPR is a two-component system consisting of a guide RNA
and a Cas9 nuclease. The Cas9 nuclease cuts the DNA within the ~20 nucleotide region defined
by the guide RNA. With CRISPR, scientists can customize their guide RNAs, and algorithms
have been developed to assess chances of off-targeteffects
• Synthetic Genome: Synthetic genome is a synthetically built genome whose formationinvolves
either genetic modification on pre-existing life forms or artificial gene synthesis to create new DNA or
entire lifeforms.
o Example: Synthetic genomics techniques have been used to reconstruct viruses including polio

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virus or the virus of the 1918 influenza pandemic [12], to introduce genome-wide changes for
designing vaccine.
• Gene Patent: A gene patent is the exclusive rights to a specific sequence of DNA (a gene) given by a
government to the individual, organization, or corporation who claims to have firstidentified the gene.
19. Genetically Modified Crops: These are crops whose DNA has been altered are known as GM crops. This
genetic modification of crops can add or remove certain characteristics from the plant and thus can bring
many advantages.
20. BT Cotton
• Bt cotton is the only transgenic crop that has been approved by the Government of India for
commercial cultivation.
• It has been genetically modified to produce an insecticide to combat the cotton bollworm, a common
pest.
• Bt cotton was created by genetically altering the cotton genome to express a microbial protein from
the bacterium Bacillus thuringiensis.
• But it has raised concerns like increased water consumption, and emergence of pesticide resistant
pests, and increased use of insecticide for controlling pests like sucking pests.
21. BT Brinjal
• Transgenic Brinjal created by inserting a crystal protein gene (Cry1Ac) from the soil bacterium
Bacillus thuringiensis into the genome of various brinjal cultivar.
• It gives resistance against lepidopteron insects in particular the Brinjal fruit and shoot border (BFSB),
the most common pest which affects 30-50% of the Brinjal crops.
• The crop also cleared the GEAC’s biosafety test in 2009.
• But, government yielded to anti-GM activists and declared a moratorium in 2010 on the crop.
However, some cases of illegal BT Brinjal cultivation was observed in the state of Punjab and
Haryana.
22. GM Mustard DMH-11
• DMH (Dhara Mustard Hybrid)-11 is genetically modified variety of mustard developed by Centre for
Genetic Manipulation of Crop Plants at Delhi University. It was part-funded by Department of
Biotechnology, Ministry of Science and Technology.
• It is Herbicide Tolerant (HT) crop.
• It is developed by using three genes viz., barnase, barstar and bar from Bacillus amyloliquefaciens;
Barnase and Barstar allow for cross-pollination and hybridization in mustard, which is largely a self-
pollinating plant because of its individual flowers containing both female and male reproductive
organs.
o Barnase-> It confers male sterility to a plant in which it is inserted.
o Barstar -> restore the fertility to produce fertile hybrid plants and seeds.
o The third gene bar synthesize an enzyme called PAT, which is responsible for tolerance
to glufosinate in the plant.
• Advantages
o Local crop developers can easily develop different varieties of hybrid mustard, like GM
cotton, and confer traits like pest resistance and potentially improving yield.
o India’s dependence on edible oil imports makes it necessary to harness GM-mustard.
23. Bollgard II technology: It contains a superior double-gene technology - Cry1Ac and Cry 2Ab which
provides protection against bollworms and Spodoptera caterpillar, leading to better boll retention, maximum
yield, lower pesticides costs, and protection against insect resistance.
24. Bollgard II Roundup Ready Flex (BG-II RRF)

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• After Delhi University’s transgenic hybrid mustard, India’s biotechnology regulator is set to
recommend the “environmental release” of a genetically modified (GM) cotton of German
multinational company Bayer AG that allows farmers to spray the herbicide glyphosate
• Glyphosate is a herbicide and crop desiccant. It is used to kill weeds, especially annual broadleaf
weeds and grasses. It has been majorly used in tea plantations to control herbicides. It is also used on
non-crop areas to control unwanted growth
• BG-II RRF cotton had already undergone biosafety research and field trials by 2012-13
• It is made by German multinational company Bayer AG
• This transgenic cotton contains three alien genes,
o Cry1Ac and Cry2Ab: Isolated from a soil bacterium, Bacillus thuringiensis or Bt
o Coded for proteins toxic to the Pink bollworm, spotted bollworm and tobacco caterpillar insect pests.
o Cp4-epsps: Isolated from soil bacterium, Agrobacterium tumafaciens
o Its incorporation into cotton makes the crop “tolerant” to glyphosate
o NOTE: Glyphostae cannot be applied on normal cotton, as the chemical does not distinguish between
the crops and weeds.
25. Bt Rubber
• A Rubber Board research farm on the outskirts of Guwahati now sports the world’s first genetically
modified (GM) rubber plant tailored for the climatic conditions in the Northeast.
• The GM rubber has additional copies of the gene MnSOD, or manganese-containing superoxide
dismutase, inserted in the plant, which is expected to tide over the severe cold conditions during
winter — a major factor affecting the growth of young rubber plants in the region.
• The plant was developed at the Kerala-based Rubber Research Institute of India (RRII).
26. Genome Sequencing: Genome refers to an organism’s complete set of DNA, including all of its genes.
Genome sequencing refers to figuring out the order of the DNA nucleotides, or bases, in a genome.
27. DNA Fingerprinting: DNA fingerprinting is a laboratory technique used to establish a link between
biological evidence anda suspect in a criminal investigation. A DNA sample taken from a crime scene is
compared with a DNA sample from a suspect.
• Uses of DNA Fingerprinting:
• Crime Solving: Connecting a person to the place of crime through the collection of biological
material like hair, skin cells, saliva which can be used to extract DNA
• Tracing Children: Children can be traced back to their parents by using a DNA match on all
kidnapped and lost children unable to track their parents.
• Identification of Dead: Dead bodies can be identified by extracting DNA from them and
matching them potential relatives.
• Database: It can also be used to maintain a database of convicts and those with criminal historyfor
easier tracking of any future crimes they commit.
28. RNAi Technology
• RNAi is a gene silencing technology that inhibits protein synthesis in target cells using double-
stranded RNA.
• RNAi technologies are now known to formulate drugs capable of reducing cholesterol levels by half.
• The technology also finds immense importance in treating acute viral infections like acquired
immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS), because of the well-studied life cycle and pattern of gene
expression of the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV).
29. Golden rice: It is a genetically modified variety of rice developed by the Philippines-based International
Rice Research Institute (IRRI). This variety of rice is claimed to be able to fight vitamin A deficiency. The
presence of beta-carotene pigment is the reason for its golden colour.
30. Gene Therapy: Gene therapy is the introduction, removal or change in genetic material (typically means
DNA and RNA) in the cells of a patient to treat an inherited or developed disease. Gene therapy replaces a

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faulty gene or adds a new gene in an attempt to cure disease or improve human body’s ability to fight disease.
31. Earth Bio Genome Project: It is an initiative that aims to sequence and catalog the genomes of all of Earth's
currently described eukaryotic species over a period of ten years. The initiative would produce an open DNA
database of biological information that provides a platform for scientific research and supports environmental
and conservation initiatives.
32. BPaL
• BPaL is a 6-month, all-oral, three-drug regimen that is used to treat people with highly drug-resistant
forms of TB
• BPaL is a combination of three newer antibiotics, namely bedaquiline, pretomanid and linezolid
• TB Alliance's BPaL regimen to reduce TB treatment time from 18 months to 6 months and reported
success rate of 90% can be crucial in the fight against TB
33. MADS27
• Researchers led by the National Centre of Biological Sciences, Tata Institute of Fundamental
Research, Bengaluru (NCBS-TIFR), have found a new pathway that regulates nitrate absorption in
plants
• The gene transcription factor MADS27, which regulates nitrate absorption, root development and
stress tolerance, is activated by the microRNA, miR444, therefore offering a new way to control these
properties of the plant
• This ‘miR444’ can be used to increase nitrate absorption, enhance root development and help the
plant to tolerate more stress
• Transcription factors are proteins involved in the process of converting, or transcribing, DNA into
RNA. Transcription factors include a wide number of proteins, excluding RNA polymerase, that
initiate and regulate the transcription of genes.
34. Biotech Startup Expo 2022
• The expo is being organised by the Department of Biotechnology and Biotechnology Industry
Research Assistance Council (BIRAC) to mark the completion of ten years of BIRAC
• It will provide a common platform to connect investors, entrepreneurs, scientists, researchers, industry
leaders, manufacturers, bio-incubators, regulators and government officials
• Theme: 'Biotech Startup Innovations: Towards AatmaNirbhar Bharat'
• India is among the top 12 destinations for biotechnology globally and 3rd largest biotechnology
destination in the Asia Pacific region
• The country is also the world’s third-largest producer of recombinant Hepatitis B vaccine and second-
largest producer of BT cotton (genetically modified pest resistant plant cotton).
35. CRISPR-Cas9
• CRISPR (Clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats) is a family of DNA sequences
found in the genomes of prokaryotic organisms such as bacteria and archaea
• CRISPR gene editing is a genetic engineering technique in molecular biology by which the genomes
of living organisms may be modified. By delivering the Cas9 nuclease complexed with a synthetic
guide RNA (gRNA) into a cell, the cell's genome can be cut at a desired location, allowing existing
genes to be removed and/or new ones added in vivo
• The technique is considered highly significant in biotechnology and medicine as it allows for the
genomes to be edited in vivo with extremely high precision, cheaply, and with ease
• The development of the technique earned Jennifer Doudna and Emmanuelle Charpentier the Nobel
Prize in Chemistry in 2020.

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36. Pusa Narendra Kalanamak 1638 and Pusa Narendra Kalanamak 1652
• Recently, Indian Agriculture Research Institute (IARI) has successfully developed two dwarf varieties of
Kalanamak rice
• New varieties aimed to deal with the problem of lodging
• The yield of the new varieties is double that of the traditional variety
• It derives its name from black husk
• It’s recorded in the GI application that Lord Budhha gifted Kalanamak paddy to the people of Sravasti so
that they remembered him by its fragrance
• Lodging -> Kalanamak Rice has been prone to lodging which is also one main reason for its low yield.
Lodging is a condition in which the top of the plant becomes heavy because of grain formation, the stem
becomes weak, and the plant falls to the ground
• It is grown in 11 districts of the Terai region of north-eastern Uttar Pradesh and in Nepal)
37. BioRRAP Portal
• Recently a Single National Portal named Biological Research Regulatory Approval Portal (BioRRAP) for
Biotechresearchers and Start-Ups was launched.
• It is developed by the Department of Biotechnology, Ministry of Science and Technology.
• This portal provides a single route to direct the applicant to regulatory agencies providing requisite
Approval relevant to the biological research.
• This portal is dedicated only for research related activities and not for product development.
• The Portal will also allow stakeholders to see the approvals accorded against a particular application
through a unique BioRRAP ID.
38. Biolarvicides
• A larvicide derived from or consisting of organisms, such as Bacillus thuringiensis israelensis or
Agmenellum quadruplicatum.
• Biolarvicides based on mosquitocidal toxins of certain strains of Bacillus sphaericus are highly effective
against mosquito larvae at very low doses and safe to other non-target organisms.
• Spinosad is a biolarvicide that is naturally produced and acts by killing the larvae of insects. It works by
overexciting the nervous system of target insect or their larvae.
39. Bioinformatics
• It is the application of information technology to the study of living things, usually at the molecular level.
• It involves the use of computers to collect, organize and use biological information to answer questions in
fields like evolutionary biology.
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• Applications: Sequence analysis to determine those genes which encode regulatory sequences or peptides
by using the information of sequencing, for Prediction of secondary, tertiary or quaternary structures of
proteins, Genome Annotation, drug discovery and diagnosis and disease management.
• India was the first country in the world to establish Biotechnology Information System (BTIS) network in
1987 to create an infrastructure that enables it to harness, biotechnology through the application of
Bioinformatics.
40. Biotech Pride Guidelines
• “Biotech-PRIDE (Promotion of Research and Innovation through Data Exchange) Guidelines” developed
by Department of Biotechnology (DBT), Ministry of Science and Technology were released recently.
• They have been formulated in conformity with the principles of National Data Sharing and accessibility
Policy 2012, for enabling the sharing, access and storage of biological data.
• Under the guidelines, it is the responsibility of the data-generator/ producer/submitter to deposit data in an
appropriate database in the notified Data Repository.
• These Guidelines will be implemented through Indian Biological Data Centre (IBDC) at Regional Center
for Biotechnology supported by DBT.
41. Bio-Toilets
• These are developed for passenger coaches jointly by Indian Railways and DRDO.
• In this, human waste is collected in bio digester tanks below the toilets and is decomposed by anaerobic
microbial inoculum.
• By the process of hydrolysis, acetogenesis, acidogenesis and methanogenesis, the anaerobic bacteria
convert human faecal matter into water and small amount of gases (including methane).
• Bio Digester disposes human waste in 100% eco-friendly manner and generates color less, odorless water
and inflammable Methane- Gas for cooking, water heating & room heating etc. as a by-product.
42. Genetic Engineering Appraisal Committee
• The Genetic Engineering Appraisal Committee (GEAC) functions in the Ministry of Environment, Forest
and Climate Change (MoEF&CC).
• As per Rules, 1989, it is responsible for appraisal of activities involving large scale use of hazardous
microorganisms and recombinants in research and industrial production from the environmental angle.
• The committee is also responsible for appraisal of proposals relating to release of genetically engineered
(GE) organisms and products into the enviornment including experimental field trials.
• GEAC is chaired by the Special Secretary/Additional Secretary of MoEF&CC and co-chaired by a
representative from the Department of Biotechnology (DBT).
43. Assisted Reproductive Technologies
• Assisted reproductive technology (ART) is used to treat infertility. It includes fertility treatments that
handle both eggs and sperm.
• It works by removing eggs from the ovaries. The eggs are then mixed with sperm to make embryos. The
embryos are then put back in the parent's body. In vitro fertilization (IVF) is themost common and effective
type of ART.
• In vitro fertilization (IVF) is the technique of letting fertilization of the male and female gametes(sperm
and egg) occur outside the female body.
44. Mitochondrial replacement therapy is the replacement of mitochondria in one or more cells to prevent or
ameliorate disease. MRT originated as a special form of IVF in which some or all of the future baby's
mitochondrial DNA comes from a third party.
45. DNA Technology (Regulation) Bill, 2019
• It allows the use of the technology to establish the identity of persons in matters of crime, parentage dispute,
emigration or immigration and transplantation of human organs.
• Establishment of national and regional DNA data banks and each databank will maintain crime scene index,
suspects’ or undertrials’ index and offenders’ index separately.

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• It also talks of a DNA Regulatory Board that would advise the Centre and state governments on issues such
as setting up of DNA laboratories and databanks.
46. Three parent baby
• Three-parent babies are human offspring produced from the genetic material of one man and two women
through the use of assisted reproductive technologies, specifically mitochondrial manipulation (or
replacement) technologies and three-person in vitro fertilization (IVF).
• The procedure is also known as 'Maternal Spindle Transfer,' and it involves inserting maternal DNA into a
donor woman's egg, which is subsequently fertilised with the father's sperm. The approach was created to
aid existing IVF procedures for mothers who suffer from mitochondrial disorders.
47. Artificial womb

• Artificial wombs are mechanisms that are used to grow an embryo outside of the body of a female.
• This technology could bring hope to parents who before could not have children.
• It could also open the door for mothers to choose to have their babies outside their bodies, to avoid the
stress of childbirth.

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INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY, COMPUTERS, TELECOM AND

ELECTRONICS
1. Generations of Wireless Communication Technologies
• 1G was launched in the 1980s and worked on analog radio signals and supported only voice calls
• 2G was launched in the 1990s which uses digital radio signals and supported both voice and data
transmission with a bandwidth of 64 Kbps
• 3G was launched in the 2000s with a speed of 1 Mbps to 2 Mbps and it has the ability to transmit
telephone signals including digitised voice, video calls and conferencing
• 4G was launched in 2009 with a peak speed of 100 Mbps to 1 Gbps and it also enables 3D virtualreality.
• 5G: 5G is wireless communication technology based on third-generation partnership project (3GPP). It
is next generation mobile networks technology after 4G LTE networks. It mainly works in 3 bands,
namely low, mid and high-frequency spectrum. Its advantages include instantaneous connectivity which
is 20 times faster than 4G, reduced latency, higher speeds (100 Gigabits/sec), greater network stability,
device intelligence.
2. India’s First 5G Testbed
• The Prime Minister inaugurated the country's first 5G testbed. The testbed has been set up at a cost of
around ₹220 crores.
• In the absence of a 5G testbed, start-ups and other industry players were required to go abroad to test and
validate their products for installation in a 5G network
• It will enable start-ups and industry players to test and validate their products locally and reduce
dependence on foreign facilities
• The 5G testbed has been developed as a multi-institute collaborative project by eight institutes led by IIT
Madras
• The other institutes that participated in the project are IIT Delhi, IIT Hyderabad, IIT Bombay, IIT
Kanpur, IISc Bangalore, Society for Applied Microwave Electronics Engineering & Research
(SAMEER) and Centre of Excellence in Wireless Technology (CEWiT).
3. LTE Vs VoLTE:
• VoLTE is a technology update to the LTE protocol used by mobile phone networks. It allows voice calls
to be ‘packaged’ and carried through LTE networks -> This would mean 4G data accessibility even
during calls.
• LTE: Infrastructure of telecom players only allows transmission of data while voice calls are routed to
their older 2G or 3G networks. LTE is commonly marketed as 4G LTE.
4. E2EE Encryption
• End-to-end encryption (E2EE) is a method of secure communication that prevents third parties from
accessing data while it's transferred from one end system or device to another.

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• In E2EE, the data is encrypted on the sender's system or device, and only the intended recipient can
decrypt it. As it travels to its destination, the message cannot be read or tampered with by an internet
service provider (ISP), application service provider, hacker or any other entity or service.
• Many popular messaging service providers use end-to-end encryption, including Facebook, WhatsApp
and Zoom.
5. Super Computers
• Supercomputer is a computer that performs at or near the highest operational rate for computers. It is
used for scientific and engineering applications that handle large scale databases, perform large amounts
of computation. Its processing speed is measured in quadrillion floating point operations per second, also
known as petaflops or PFLOPS.
• PARAM Porul
o PARAM PORUL is a state-of-the-art supercomputer set up at NIT Tiruchirappalli.It is established
under Phase 2 of the National Supercomputing Mission (NSM)
o The system is based on Direct Contact Liquid Cooling technology to obtain a high-power usage
effectiveness and thereby reducing the operational cost.
o It is equipped with a mix of CPU nodes, GPU nodes, high memory nodes, high throughput storage and high-
performance InfiniBand interconnect.
• PARAM Ananta
o The Centre for Development of Advanced Computing (C-DAC) and the IIT Gandhinagar have
jointly unveiled a new supercomputer called Param Ananta.
o It is capable of offering peak performance of 838 teraflops.
o It offers IIT Gandhinagar with increased capacity for research projects in various fields, including
machine learning, data science, computational fluid dynamics, bioengineering etc.
• PARAM Shivay: It is the first supercomputer assembled indigenously, was installed in IIT (BHU),
followed by PARAM Shakti, PARAM Brahma, PARAM Yukti, PARAM Sanganak at IIT-Kharagpur
IISER, Pune, JNCASR, Bengaluru and IIT Kanpur respectively.
6. Internet of Things (IoT)
• IoT is a computing concept that describes the idea of everyday physical objects being connected to the
internet and being able to identify themselves to other devices.
• It is being used to create smart infrastructure in various verticals such as Power, Automotive, Safety &
Surveillance, Remote Health Management, Agriculture, Smart Homes, using connected devices.

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7. Big Data: Big data is a term that describes the large volume of data – both structured and unstructured beyond
the ability of commonly used software tools to capture, curate, manage, and process data within a tolerable
elapsed time.
8. Cloud Computing
• It is a type of internet-based computing that provides various applications like infrastructure, on-demand
self-service, rapid elasticity, etc.
• It is the distribution of computer services such as servers, storage, databases, networking, software,
analytics, and intelligence through the Internet (“the cloud”) to enable quicker innovation, more flexible
resource allocation, and cost savings.
• Clouds may be private to a single business (private or internal clouds) or public to several companies
(public clouds)
9. Edge Computing
• Edge computing is the practice of processing data near the edge of the network, where the data is being
generated instead of centralized data processing warehouses.
• It brings computing and data storage to the devices where it is being gathered rather than relying on
central location.

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10. Augmented Reality Vs Virtual Reality
11. BAR Code and QR Code

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12. 3D Printing/Additive Manufacturing

• It is a process of making three dimensional solid objects from a digital file which is achieved by laying
down successive layers of material until the object is created.
• 3-D printed food restaurant was set up in Netherlands.
• In USA, 3D printed bionic ear was generated via 3D printing of a cell-seeded hydrogel matrix in the
anatomic geometry of a human ear.
• Industrial 3D printers have opened new paths at each stage of production of motor vehicles -> functional
prototyping phases, design, and tooling production to parts manufacturing.
• Also used in reconstructive surgery to help repair damaged tissue for example in cases of birth defects
or traumatic injuries to severe burns or disease.
• Process of 3D Printing
13. World Wide Web(www) = It is the primary tool used by billions of people to share, read, and write
information to interact with other people via internet + Different web versions are:
• Web 1.0 is often referred to as the “read-only” Internet made of static web-pages that only allowed
for passive engagement.
• Web 2.0 (or read and write internet) made the internet a lot more interactive. Users were now able
to communicate with servers and other users leading to the creation of the social web.
• Web 3.0 (a “read-write-execute” web), built leveraging the blockchain technology, will be driven
by Artificial Intelligence (AI) and machine learning where machines will be able to interpret
information like humans.

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• Web 4.0 services will be autonomous, proactive, self-learning, collaborative, and content generating
agents. Fully mature semantic (logical) and reasoning technologies, as well as AI are the foundation.
• Web 5.0: Former Twitter CEO recently announced his vision for Web 5.0 that is aimed at “building
an extra decentralized web that puts you in control of your data and identity”. Web 5.0 will see
applications able to interpret information on more complex levels, emotionally as well as logically.
14. Web 3.0
• Web 3.0 is the next version of the internet, where services will run on blockchain.
• It will be permission less and democratic -> people will control their own data and will be able to move
around from social media to email using a single personalized account.
• All data will be interconnected in a decentralized way.
• It is operated by users collectively rather than a corporation.
• Features: Ubiquity, Semantic Web, Artificial Intelligence and 3D Graphics.
15. Radio Waves

• The radio spectrum (also known as Radio Frequency or RF) is a part of the electromagnetic spectrum
• Radio waves have the longest wavelengths in the electromagnetic spectrum. These were discovered by
Heinrich Hertz in the late 1880s
• RF bands spread in the range between 30 kHz and 300 GHz (alternative point of view offers coverage 3
KHz – 300 GHz)
• To prevent interference between different users, the generation and transmission of radio frequency
bands is strictly regulated by national laws, coordinated by an international body, the International
Telecommunication Union (ITU).
16. 5G trials
• Department of Telecommunications (DoT) has given permissions to Telecom ServiceProviders (TSPs)
for conducting trials for use and applications of 5G technology
• This formally leaves out Chinese companies like Huawei and ZTE from the 5G race in India
• In the initial phase,these trials will be for 6 months, including a 2 month period for procurement and
setting up of theequipment
• TSPs will be required to test their set up in urban areas, semi-urban areas as well as rural areas

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• TSPs will be provided with experimental spectrum in various bands, such as the mid-band of 3.2 GHz to
3.67 GHz, the millimeter wave band of 24.25 GHz to 28.5 GHz, and others
• The TSPs are encouraged to conduct trials using 5Gi technology in addition to the already known5G
Technology.
17. 5Gi Technology
• It was advocated by India and it is approved by International Telecommunications Union (ITU) - the
United Nations specialized agency for information and communication technologies – ICTs.
• The 5Gi technology has been developed by IIT Madras, Centre ofExcellence in Wireless Technology
(CEWiT) and IIT Hyderabad
• It facilitates much larger reachof the 5G towers and Radio networks
18. Artificial Intelligence (AI)
• It refers to the ability of machines to perform cognitive tasks like thinking, perceiving, learning, problem
solving and decision making
• It includes technologies like machine learning, pattern recognition, big data, neural networks, self-
algorithms etc.
• Major applications of AI are disease diagnosis, Text to speech conversation, Wireless transmission of
electrical energy, create meaningful short stories and songs, Online shopping and advertising, digital
personal assistants, machine translations, smart homes and cities, self-driving vehicles, fighting cyber
threats, analyse large quantities of health data and discover patterns that could lead to new discoveries in
medicine and ways to improve individual diagnostics.
19. AI chips
• AI chips are the ones that are made with specific architecture and are integrated with Artificial
Intelligence (AI) acceleration to assist in deep learning-based applications
• Deep learning or Active Neural Network (ANN) or Deep Neural Network (DNN) is a division under
machine learning and also comes under the AI framework
• It includes a series of computer algorithms that result in activity and brain structure. Deep learning new
capabilities through training from existing data
• Deep learning has the ability to apply these capabilities learned during the training phase and make
predictions about unseen data
• The different types of AI chips include Application-Specific Integrated Circuits (ASICs), Field-
Programmable Gate Arrays (FPGAs) and Central Processing Units (CPUs) which are designed for
different applications
• One of the major firms, Nvidia recently unveiled its H100 GPU (graphics processing unit), which is said
to be the world’s largest and most powerful AI accelerators and the makers claim that it can sustain traffic
equivalent to the entire world’s internet traffic.
20. Fake Buster
• It is a ‘Deepfake’ detection tool developed by the Indian Institute of Technology, Ropar and Monash
University (Australia)
• ‘Deepfakes’ are real time mimicked visuals (videos) in videocalling platforms through spoofing tools
based on transfer of facial expressions that are manipulated using artificial intelligence
• They can even be used during online examinations and job interviews
• It can identify imposters attending virtual conference without anybody’s knowledge
• It works in both online and offline modes
• It is independent of video conferencing solutions like Zoom, Skype, etc
21. Visible Light Communication technology
• It is a data communications variant which uses visible light between 400 and 800 THz (780–375 nm).
VLC is a subset of optical wireless communications technologies which is a short-range communication

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• The technology uses fluorescent lamps to transmit signals at 10 kbit/s, or LEDs for up to 500 Mbit/s over
short distances
• It is a preferred communication technique because of its high bandwidth and immunity to interference
from electromagnetic sources
• It can transmit large amounts of data faster than Bluetooth and has no electromagnetic interference.
22. Blockchain technology

• It is a decentralized, distributed, and oftentimes public, digital ledger consisting of records called blocks
that is used to record transactions across many computers so that any involved block cannot be altered
retroactively, without the alteration of all subsequent blocks
• It allows the participants to verify and audit transactions independently
• It is open, permissionless, or public-> applications can be added to the network without the approval or
trust of others, using the blockchain as a transport layer.

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23. Public Key Infrastructure

• It is a technology for authenticating devices and users in the digital world
• The basic idea is to have one or more trusted parties digitally sign documents certifying that a particular
cryptographic key belongs to a particular user or device
• The users can exchange data or money in a secured way through the Internet by using a pair of
cryptographic keys
• PKI govern encryption keys through the issuance of digital certificates and their management therefore
verifying the owner of the private key
• The Reserve Bank of India has been promoting Public Key Infrastructure (PKI)-based mode of
transactions
• SSL certificates on websites are one of the most common examples of PKI
24. Digital Signature
• It is a type of electronic signature which ensures that an electronic document is authentic.
• It gives the information about the creator of the document and ensures that the document has not been altered
or tampered after its creation by that person.
• Digital Signatures provide Authentication, Privacy, Non repudiation and Integrity in the virtual
world.
• IT Act 2000 in India gives legal validity to electronic transactions that are digitally signed.
• Applications: Secure messaging, online banking applications, online workflow applications, e-
tendering, supply chain management etc.
25. Light Emitting Diodes (LEDs)
• LEDs are extremely energy efficient relative to every other commercially available lighting technology.
• Reasons: They waste very little energy in the form of infrared radiation, and they emit light directionally (over
180 degrees versus 360 degrees which means there are far fewer losses from the need to redirect or reflect
light)
• Advantages include very high light quality and very low maintenance costs and hassle. The up-front costs of
an LED lighting project are typically greater than most of the alternatives.

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26. Organic Light Emitting Diodes (OLEDs)

• A major advantage of OLED over LCD is that it is lightweight and has flexible plastic substrates.
• Flexible Organic Light Emitting Diodes (FOLED) fabricated on flexible plastic substates can be bent or rolled
while operating.
• OLEDs can be printed onto almost any substrate with inkjet printer technology.
• OLED has no backlighting function -> can be used for making transparent displays.
• If a substrate like polyethylene terephthalate (PET) can be used, the displays may be produced inexpensively.
27. Differences between Sodium vapor bulbs and LEDs

• Sodium vapor bulbs contain metals that are evaporated into inert gas within the glass casing while LEDs
are a solid state technology.
• Both LEDs and sodium vapor lights emit electromagnetic radiation across a small portion of the visible
light spectrum, however, LEDs waste much less energy producing waste heat and they also provide an
incredibly better variety of high color rendering index options to the user.
28. Quantum Computing
• Quantum computers harness the unique behaviour of quantum mechanicsand apply it to computing
• Quantum computing use qubits as its the basic unit of information
• A quantum computer has three primary parts: An area that houses the qubits, A method for transferring
signals to the qubits and A classical computer to run a program and send instructions
• Qubits are typically subatomic particles such as electrons or photons, while a bit represents a stream of
electrical or optical pulses representing 1s or 0s.
• While bits can hold only a position of 0or 1, qubits can hold a superposition of all possible states +
some of the Quantum terms are:
• Superposition: In superposition, quantum particles are a combination of all possible states. They

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fluctuate until they are observed and measured

• Entanglement: It is the ability of quantum particles to correlate their measurement results witheach
other. When qubits are entangled, they form a single system and influence each other
29. Quantum Supremacy
• It was coined in the year 2011 by John Preskill, Professor of Theoretical Physics at the California Institute of
Technology.
• Quantum supremacy refers to a problem-solving process by the quantum computer that cannot be solved by
a classical computer in its normal lifetime.
• Quantum computation uses quantum bits (qubits).
• Quantum bit (Qubit): A quantum bit (qubit) is the smallest unit of quantum information, which is the
quantum analog of the regular computer bit, used in the field of quantum computing. Superposition means
that each qubit can represent both a ‘1’ and a ‘0’ at the same time.
30. Quantum Network
• Quantum networks also known as the quantum internet is an internet network that makes use of the properties
of photons to transmit data
• Quantum networks facilitate the transmission of information in the form of quantum bits, also called qubits,
between physically separated quantum processors
• Quantum networks work in a similar way to classical networks
• Indian Institute of Technology, Madras (IIT-Madras) and International Business Machines (IBM) have
cooperated to improve quantum computing research and talent development in India.
31. Quantum Key Distribution
• QKD is a technique that allows for secure distribution of keys to be used for encrypting and decrypting
messages
• It is recently achieved by Micius (also known as the Quantum Experiments at Space Scale), World's first
quantum-enabled satellite
• Micius was launched by China in 2016 + In QKD, security is achieved through the laws of quantum physics.
Two such most important laws are Superposition and Entanglement
• Superposition means that each quantum bit (basic unit of information in a quantum computer) can represent
both a 1 and a 0 at the same time
• In quantum entanglement, subatomic particles become “entangled” (linked) in such a way that any change in
one disturbs the other even if both are at opposite ends of the universe + Recently, satellite Micius has sent
light particles to Earth to establish the world’s most secure communication link.
32. Quantum Internet
• Quantum internet is an idea based on the theoretical use of quantum computers to construct a new kind
of network
• In contrast to the traditional internet which operates through the use of binary signals (represented by 0’s
or 1’s) in data packets, the quantum internet would utilize quantum bits, or qubits, to encode information
as 0’s, 1’s, or both at the same time.
33. Cloud Services: It is the delivery of computing services including servers, storage, databases, networking,
software, analytics, and intelligence over the Internet (“the cloud”) to offer faster innovation, flexible
resources, and economies of scale.

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34. Wireless communication technologies
35. Short range communication devices/technologies

• Short Range Devices (SRD) are radio devices that offer a low risk of interference with other radio
services, usually because their transmitted power, and their range is low.
• Examples: Access control (including door and gate openers); Alarms and movement detectors; CCTVs;
Cordless audio devices, including wireless microphones; Local Area Networks; Metering devices;
Remote control; Radio frequency identification (RFID); Road Transport Telematics and Telemetry.
36. Wi-Fi
• Wi-Fi, or Wireless Fidelity, is a wireless networking technology that gives internet access to devices like
desktop computers, laptops, mobile phones, smart TVs etc
• It uses radio frequencies, or radio waves, in frequency bands 2.4GHz to 5GHz to communicate between
devices
• Public Wi-Fi: These are the Wi-FI hotspots at public places such as airports, coffee shops, hotels etc.-
allowing internet access for free
• Risks associated with public Wi-Fi- Theft of Personal Information, Man-in-the-Middle attacks (form of
eavesdropping), Malware distribution, malicious hotspots etc.
37. Long Distance WiFi
• Long-range Wi-Fi is used for low-cost, unregulated point-to-point computer network connections, as an
alternative to other fixed wireless, cellular networks or satellite Internet access
• In this technology, there is no loss of transmission + high-speed internetcould be provided even up to
100 km without any transmission loss
• The biggest advantage of this technology is its low cost
• It works on 5GHz frequency
38. Long-Term Evolution (LTE)-based Mobile Train Radio Communication
• Recently, the Union Cabinet approved the allotment of 5 MHz spectrum in the 700 MHz frequencyband
to the Indian Railways for improving its communication and signalling systems
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• The Railways currently relies on optical fibre for its communication network but with the allocation of
fresh spectrum, it will be able to use high-speed radio on a real-time basis + With this spectrum, the
railways will introduce Long-Term Evolution (LTE)-based Mobile Train Radio Communication
(MTRC) on its routes
• LTE is a fourth-generation (4G) wireless standard that provides increased network capacity and speed
for cellphones and other cellular devices comparedwith third-generation (3G) technology
39. Satellite Phones
• A satellite phone is a telephone that has the ability to connect to orbiting satellites. Similar to terrestrial
mobile phones, they can connect to voice and short messaging service as well as low bandwidth Internet
access
• Satellite phones can connect from anywhere asthey are directly connected to satellites
• Satellite phones can connect from anywhere as they are directly connected to satellites
• The first satellite phone was launched by Motorola about 30 yearsago, in 1989.
• The satellite phone was invented to overcome the limitations of the classic GSM mobile phone: to be
able to communicate by phone in any isolated area of the planet, on land andsea, where there are no
terrestrial antennas
40. Internet of Things (IoT)
• It is a seamless connected network of embedded objects/ devices, withidentifiers, in which Machine to
Machine (M2M) communication without any human interventionis possible
• it includes any object or thing that can be connected to an Internet network, from factory equipment and
cars to mobile devices and smart watches. Phones, Tablets and PCs are notincluded as part of IoT
• It specifically come to mean connected things that are equipped with sensors, software, and other
technologies.
41. Narrowband IoT
• NB-loT is a wireless communication standard for the internet of things.
• It is a Low Power Wide Area (LPWA) technology that was developed to enable wide range of new internet
of things devices.
• It mainly improves the power consumption of the devices, spectrum efficiency and system capacity. Under
this technology battery life of more than 10 years can be achieved in devices.
• Applications: Connected cities (smart waste, smart parking etc), Connected agriculture (crop/animal/soil
monitoring etc).

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42. Global Positioning System (GPS)

• Global Positioning System (GPS) is a satellite-basednavigation system that consists of 24 orbiting
satellites, each of which makes two circuits around the Earth every 24 hours.
• These satellites transmit three bits of information – the satellite’s number,its position in space, and the
time the information is sent.
• These signals are picked up by the GPSreceiver, which uses this information to calculate the distance
between it and the GPS satellites
• With signals from three or more satellites, a GPS receiver can triangulate its location on the ground(i.e.
longitude and latitude) from the known position of the satellites. With four or more satellites,a GPS
receiver can determine a 3D position (i.e. latitude, longitude, and elevation)
43. Fake Buster

• ‘Deepfake’ detection tool developed by the Indian Institute of Technology, Roparand Monash University
(Australia)
• ‘Deepfakes’ are real time mimicked visuals (videos) in video-calling platforms through spoofing tools
based on transfer of facial expressions that are manipulated using artificial intelligence
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• They can even be used during online examinations andjob interviews

• it can identify imposters attending virtual conference without anybody’s knowledge
• it works in both online and offline modes
• It is independent of video conferencingsolutions like Zoom, Skype, etc.
44. ePoS Devices/Technolog
• EPOS stands for Electronic Point of Sale digital system and is a computerised system used in shops,
restaurants and other retail outlets. Essentially it’s an electronicway of letting people pay for goods or
services
• EPOS systems comprise of computer hardware,peripherals and software perfectly suited to a point of
sales environment. For example, some of the most common components to an EPOS system are cash
draws, chip and pin, customer displays,keyboards, printers and weighing scales
• The most important thing about EPOS systems is that they can be tailored to your individual and specific
business needs
• It can be used for – Recordingsales, Updating stock levels, providing accurate pricing information,
enable fast and efficient customer service and Keeping track of sales and taxes.
45. Open-RAN Architecture
• Open-RAN is not a technology, but rather an ongoing shift in mobilenetwork architecture that allows
networks to be built using subcomponents from a variety of vendors
• O-RAN has an open, multi-vendor architecture for deploying mobile networks, as opposed to the single-
vendor proprietary architecture
• O-RAN uses software to make hardware manufactured by different companies work together
• The key concept of Open RAN is “opening” the protocols and interfaces between the various
subcomponents (radios, hardware and software) in the RAN
• Radio Access Network (RAN): It is the part of a telecommunications system that connects individual
devices to other parts of a network through radio connections
• Recently, Telecom Regulatory Authority of India (TRAI) Chairman said that use of Open-RAN (Radio
Access Network) and software defined telecom networks will open new opportunities for Indian entities
to enter into the network equipment market
46. OneWeb
• It is a global communications company that aims to deliver broadband satellite Internet around the world
through its fleet of LEO satellites
• The launch roll-out of the satellites is facilitated by French company Arianespace using Russian-made
Soyuz rockets
47. Card Tokenisation
• refers to replacement of actual card details with an alternate code called the“token”, which shall be unique
for a combination of card, token requestor
• Tokenization, when applied to data security, is the process of substituting a sensitive data element with a
non-sensitive equivalent, referred to as a token, that has no extrinsic or exploitable meaning or value
• With effect from 1 January 2022, no entity in the card transaction/payment chain, other than the card
issuers and/or card networks, shall store the actual card data
48. Malware: software designed to perform unwanted illegal act via computer network + software with
malicious intent + can be classified based on how they get executed, how they spread, and/orwhat they do:
49. Virus: program that can infect other programs by modifying them to include possible evolved copyof itself.
50. Worms: Disseminated through computer networks, unlike viruses, computer worms are maliciousprograms
that copy themselves from system to system, rather than infiltrating legitimate files.
51. Trojans: Program that generally impairs security of system. used to create back-doors (program that allows
outside access into secure network) on computers belonging to secure network so that hacker can have access
to secure network.

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52. Spyware: Invades a computer and, as its name implies, monitors a user’s activities without consent.Spywares
are usually forwarded through unsuspecting e-mails with bonafide e-mail i.ds. Spyware continues to infect
millions of computers globally.
53. Ransomware Evil, REvil or Sodinokibi
• a ransomware-as-a-service (RaaS) operation has emerged as one of the world’s most notorious and latest
ransomware operators
• This criminal group provides adaptable encryptors and decryptors, infrastructure and services for
negotiation communications, and a leak site for publishing stolen data when victims don’t pay the ransom
demand.
54. Pegasus Attack
• Pegasus is a spyware doveloped and licensed by an Israeli company, NSO Group.
• It can be used to infiltrate smartphone that run on both iOS and Android operating systems, and turn
them into surveillance devices
• Pegasus’s method of attack is called zero-clickattacks, which do not require any action by the user the
spyware can hack a device simply by givinga missed WhatsApp call
• it will alter call log so that the user has no knowledge of what happened
• It can also he installes manually on a device or over a wireless transceiver
• If it fails to connect with it command-and-control server for more than 60 days, it self- destructs and
removes all traces
• If it detected that is was installed on the wrong device or simcard, it will self-destruct
• the Israelicompany NSO Group has said it sells pegagus only to government agencies to fight terrorism
andother serious operate the spyware licensed to its clients.
55. Zero-day Vulnerability
• refers to a security flaw which has not been publicly disclosedand for which a software patch or remediation
technique is not available
• Considering that attempts at exploiting Log4Shell were observed at least a week prior to it being publicly
disclosed,it could be said that it was a 0day vulnerability, however, only for a very brief period
56. Decoherence: The interaction of qubits with their environment in ways that cause their quantum behavior to
decay and ultimately disappear is called decoherence. Their quantum stateis extremely fragile
57. Quantum Entanglement
• When two objects, say two particles of light, also called photons, arein an entangled state, any changes
made to the state of one, for example, its spin, are reflected in the other particle, however far they move
from each other without breaking the entanglement. If developed, this property can be used to transmit
a message at a very high level of secrecy from onepoint to another
• In 2020, China demonstrated quantum communications technology using the satellite Micius, by
conducting a secret conference between two ground stations about 1120 km apart. They used the
satellite not to transmit the entire communication, but to simultaneously senda pair of secret keys to the
two ground stations. Each secret key is one of two strings of the entangled photons. Albert Einstein
dismissed this idea as a ‘spooky action’
58. Ham Radios
• Amateur radio, also called ham radio, is a non-commercial two-way radiocommunications. They use
many frequency bands across the radio spectrum + HAM operators employ high frequency signals to
connect with other operators. The technology comes handy whenmobile connectivity is down
• HAM radio is a real-time communication network. This is much like wireless communication which is
quick and transparent
• According to the Indian Wireless Telegraphs (Amateur Service) Amendment Rules, 1984, ‘Amateur
service’ means a service of selftraining intercommunications and technical investigation carried on by
Amateurs that is, by personsduly authorized under these rules interested in radio technique solely

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with a personal aim and without pecuniary interest.

• It is a non-commercial radio communication service.
59. Blackfrog Technology
• A start-up, Blackfrog Technologies, supported by the Department of Biotechnology’s (DBT)
Biotechnology Industry Research Assistance Council (BIRAC) has developed a portable, battery-
operated medical-grade refrigeration device, Emvolio, which is revolutionising the last-mile delivery
of vaccines at remote locations
• Emvólio has a 2-litre capacity, enabling it to carry 30-50 vials, the standard for a daylong immunization
campaign
• The device also includes continuous temperature monitoring, location tracking, state-of-charge
indication.
60. Digital Certificate Vs Digital Signature
61. Wearable Devices

• Wearable technology is a category of electronic devices that can be worn as accessories, embedded in
clothing, implanted in the user's body, or even tattooed on the skin
• Apart from commercial uses, wearable technology is being incorporated into navigation systems,
advanced textiles, and healthcare.

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62. Internet Protocol: It specifies the technical format of packets and the addressing scheme for computers to
communicate over a network.
63. Virtual Private Network

• It is an internet tool that masks a person’s actual Internet Protocol (IP) address, so the online actions are
virtually untraceable.
• It provides online privacy and anonymity by creating a private network from a public internet connection.
• Establish secure and encrypted connections to provide greater privacy than even a secured Wi-Fi hotspot.
• A parliamentary standing committee on Home Affairs has urged the central government to block Virtual
Private Networks (VPNs) in India.

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• Protocols of VPN: IPsec (IP security), PPTP (Point to Point Tunneling Protocol), L2TP (Layer 2
Tunneling Protocol), SSL (Secure Sockets Layer) and TLS (Transport Layer Security)
64. Near Field Communication (NFC) Technology

• Near field communication (NFC) is the set of protocols that enables electronic devices to establish radio
communication with each other by touching the devices together or bringing them into proximity to a
distance of typically 10cm or less.
65. Bluebugging
• It is a form of hacking that lets attackers access a device through its discoverable Bluetooth connection
• Once a device or phone is bluebugged, a hacker can listen to the calls, read and send messages and steal
and modify contacts
• There are 3 main Bluetooth cyber-attack types: Bluebugging, Bluejacking and Bluesnarfing.
66. Global Partnership on AI (GPAI)

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• Launched in, 2020, GPAI is an international and multistakeholder initiative to guide the responsible
development and use of artificial intelligence consistent with human rights, fundamental freedoms, and
shared democratic values
• The alliance will look to bridge the gap between theory and practice by supporting advanced research
and applied activities on AI-related priorities
• At present, GPAI has twenty-five member states including the US, the UK, EU, Australia, Canada,
France, Germany, etc.
• India joined the group as a founding member in 2020
• Membership in GPAI is open to all countries, including emerging and developing countries
• Its secretariat is hosted at the Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD)
• Recently, India to take over the Chair of Global Partnership on AI (GPAI) from France.
67. Semi-Automated Offside Technology (SAOT)
• SAOT is a support tool for the video match officials and the on-field officials to help them make faster,
more reproducible and more accurate offside decisions
• Being used by Federation Internationale de Football Association (FIFA)
• There are two parts to the technology — a sensor inside the match ball that is held using suspension
technology, and existing tracking tools that are part of the Video Assistant Referee (VAR) system.
68. Proof-of-Stake (PoS) Technology
• Related to Blockchain technology + Proof-of-Work (PoW) and Proof-of-Stake (PoS) are protocols
intended to validate transactions and keep the blockchain network decentralized and secure
• Proof-of-Work (PoW): It is a mechanism bitcoin uses to regulate the creation of blocks and the integrity
of the network through the process of mining + PoW consumes more energy since it allows all miners
on a network to try and validate a transaction.
• Proof-of-Stake (PoS): PoS is an alternative consensus mechanism that delegates control of the network
to the owners of a given token + PoS replaces miners with validators and rewards only the top
stakeholders, resulting in less energy consumption.
• Please Note: Recently, Ethereum switched to Merge software. Ethereum is a decentralised blockchain
platform. Ethereum is one of the most used platforms by developers to build decentralised apps (dApps),
smart contracts, and even crypto tokens. Merge is a software upgrade, aimed at slashing energy
consumption, to the way transactions are validated on Ethereum blockchain.
69. Facial Recognition Technology
• It is an algorithm-based biometric technology, uses distinctive features on the face to identify and
distinguish an individual
• It has 2 purposes: 1:1 and 1:n identification + 1:1 verification of identity wherein the facial map is
obtained for the purpose of matching it against the person’s photograph on a database to authenticate
their identity
• 1:n identification of identity wherein the facial map is obtained from a photograph or video and then
matched against the entire database to identify the person in the photograph or video
• Law enforcement agencies such as the Delhi Police usually procure FRT for 1:n identification.
70. Software-as-a-Services (SaaS)
• Also known as “On-Demand Software”. It is a software distribution model in which services are hosted
by a cloud service provider
• Users do not need to install any software on their devices to access these services + Outlook, Hotmail or
Yahoo! Mail are form of SaaS
• Application: file sharing, email, calendars, customer retention management and human resources +
Benefits: easy to implement, easy to update and debug and can be less expensive, Multiple device
support

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• Drawbacks: Data security, speed of delivery and lack of control + India is the 3rd largest SaaS ecosystem
globally, after the USA and China + The number of SaaS companies in India have more than doubled in
2021 as compared to 2019.
71. Direct-to-mobile Broadcasting
• The technology is based on the convergence of broadband and broadcast, using which mobile phones
can receive terrestrial digital TV
• It would be similar to how people listen to FM radio on their phones, where a receiver within the phone
can tap into radio frequencies
• Using D2M, multimedia content can also be beamed to phones directly. It can possibly be used to directly
broadcast content related to citizen-centric information and can be further used to counter fake news,
issue emergency alerts and offer assistance in disaster management, among other things
• For consumers, a technology like this would mean that they would be able to access multimedia content
from Video on Demand (VoD) or Over The Top (OTT) content platforms without having to exhaust their
mobile data, and more importantly, at a nominal rate
• The technology will also allow people from rural areas, with limited or no internet access, to watch video
content
• The Department of Telecommunications (DoT), in association with public service broadcaster Prasar
Bharat, is exploring the feasibility of a Direct-To-Mobile’ (D2M) technology
72. Open-RAN Architecture
• Open-RAN is not a technology, but rather an ongoing shift in mobile network architecture that allows
networks to be built using subcomponents from a variety of vendors
• O-RAN has an open, multi-vendor architecture for deploying mobile networks, as opposed to the single-
vendor proprietary architecture
• O-RAN uses software to make hardware manufactured by different companies work together
• The key concept of Open RAN is “opening” the protocols and interfaces between the various
subcomponents (radios, hardware and software) in the RAN
• Radio Access Network (RAN): It is the part of a telecommunications system that connects individual
devices to other parts of a network through radio connections. Recently, Telecom Regulatory Authority
of India (TRAI) Chairman said that use of Open-RAN (Radio Access Network) and software defined
telecom networks will open new opportunities for Indian entities to enter into the network equipment
market
73. Radio Frequency Identification (RFID)
• It’s a wireless tracking system that consists of tags and readers + Short Range technology.
• Radio waves are used to communicate information/identity of objects or people to nearby readers –
devices that can be hand-held or built into fixed positions like poles or buildings. The tags can carry
encrypted information, serial numbers and short descriptions
• RFID tags use an integrated circuit and an antenna to communicate with a reader using radio waves at
several different frequencies – low frequency (LF), high frequency (HF), and ultra-high frequency
(UHF).
• The message sent back by the tag in form or radio waves is translated into data and analysed by the host
computer system
• Unlike Barcodes, RFIDs do not require direct line of sight to identify objects. They have a bigger range.
74. Virtual Private Network (VPN)
• VPN is an encrypted connection over the Internet from a device to a network in real time
• Traffic on the virtual network is sent securely by establishing an encrypted connection across the Internet
known as a tunnel
• The encrypted connection helps ensure that sensitive data is safely transmitted and traffic remains private
as it travels

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• This prevents unauthorized people from eavesdropping on the traffic and allows the user to conduct work
remotely
• Recently, Central government has asked virtual private network (VPN) companies to keep a record of
their logs of customer information as directed by Indian Computer Emergency Response Team (CERT-
In).
75. D2M Technology
• The Department of Telecommunications (DoT) and India’s public service broadcaster Prasar Bharati are
exploring the feasibility of a Direct-To-Mobile’ (D2M) technology.
• The technology based on the convergence of broadband and broadcast, using which mobile phones
can receive terrestrial digital TV.
• The technology will allow people from rural areas, with limited or no internet access, to watch video
content. They would be able to access multimedia content from Video on Demand (VoD) or Over the
Top (OTT) content platforms without having to exhaust their mobile data, and more importantly, at a
nominal rate
• The DoT has set up a committee to study the feasibility of a spectrum band for offering broadcast
services directly to users’ smartphones.
76. ChatGPT
• ChatGPT is a prototype dialogue-based AI chatbot capable of understanding natural human language and
generating impressively detailed human-like written text.
• It can answer “follow-up questions”, and can also “admit its mistakes, challenge incorrect premises, and reject
inappropriate requests.”
• It is based on the company’s GPT 3.5 series of language learning models (LLM).
• It is trained using a machine learning technique called Reinforcement Learning from Human Feedback
(RLHF),
• It can simulate dialogue, answer follow-up questions, admit mistakes, challenge incorrect premises and reject
inappropriate requests.
• It could be used in real-world applications such as digital marketing, online content creation, answering
customer service queries or as some users have found, even to help debug code.
• Limitations: OpenAI claims ChatGPT will occasionally produce inaccurate information and that its
knowledge is restricted to global events that occurred before 2021.
77. eSIM technology
• Apple Inc., an American multinational technology company, has come up without a physical SIM slot or
an eSIM in order to access mobile networks.
• An eSIM is an embedded SIM, essentially the same hardware of a regular SIM card chip, but now a
permanently embedded part of the motherboard of a watch or smartphone.

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78. National AI Portal

• It is a joint initiative by the Ministry of Electronics and IT (MeitY), National e-Governance Division
(NeGD) and NASSCOM (National Association of Software and Services Companies).
• The portal focuses on creating and nurturing a unified AI ecosystem in the country to drive excellence
and leadership in knowledge creation to develop an AI-ready robust workforce for the future and use AI
to foster economic growth.
79. Non-Fungible Tokens
• These are unique digital items stored on a blockchain, the same network that runs cryptocurrencies.
• Anything digital – images, videos, music, online version of various articles – can be converted into an
NFT and monetised.
• Trading of NFTs has no legal backing yet. This lack of regulation means NFTs are prone to price
manipulation.
80. Dark Web; Deep Web; Surface Web

• Deep Web: It refers to unindexed sites which are unsearchable; in most cases, this is because those sites
are protected by passwords. Part of the WWW (World Wide Web) which is not indexed by a search
engine like Google is Deep Web and it about 500-600 times larger than the surface web.
• Surface Web: It is that portion of the World Wide Web that is readily available to the general public and
searchable with standard web search engines.
• Dark Web: The darknet is a part of the internet that cannot be accessed through traditional search
engines like Google nor is it accessible by normal browsers like chrome or safari. It uses non-standard
communication protocols which make it inaccessible to internet service providers (ISPs) or government
authorities.

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81. Metaverse
• A Metaverse is a form of “extended reality”. This “extended reality” may be a combination of augmented,
virtual and mixed reality.
• It will be a digital reality that will combine aspects of social media, online gaming, and other things
allowing users to interact virtually for work, meetings or gaming through VR headsets, AR glasses and
smartphones.
82. Starlink
• Starlink is a SpaceX project to build a broadband network with a cluster of orbiting spacecraft that could
eventually number thousands.
• It is done by a constellation of low earth orbit satellites. It will be deployed in the altitude band of 350
km to 1,200 km in the Low Earth Orbit (LEO). The LEO extends up to 2,000 km above the Earth’s
surface.
• It will result in reduced latency between sender and receiver as the satellites are placed in LEO.
83. Net Neutrality: Net neutrality is the principle that Internet service providers (ISP) and governments
regulating the Internet should treat all data on the Internet the same and should not discriminate or charge
differentially.

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HEALTH
1. Introduction: WHO defines health as ‘a state of complete physical, mental and social wellbeing and not
merely the absence of disease or infirmity’ + Determinants of good healthare access to health services, an
individual’s lifestyle choices; personal, family and social relationships.
2. Primary, Secondary and Tertiary Healthcare
• Primary Healthcare: It is usually the general physician; first point of care.
• Secondary Healthcare: It is generally a hospital or advanced diagnostic clinic.
• Tertiary Healthcare: Specialty clinics focusing on a particular type of problems +Examples include Cardiac
centre, Diabetic centres etc.
3. Constitutional Provisions: Constitution provides for responsibility of state in ensuring basicnutrition, public
health, special provisions for disabled persons and other health standards described under Articles 39, 41, 42
and 47 in the DPSP + Public health comes under the StateList.
4. Important Statistics related to Health sector
• National Family Health Survey -5 (NFHS): Ministry of Health and Family Welfare (MoHFW) designated
International Institute for Population Sciences(IIPS) Mumbai, as the nodal agency for providing technical
guidance for the survey + Funding provided by USAID, the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation, UNICEF,
UNFPA, and MoHFW + Important Findings of the survey are:
o Sex ratio: 1,020 women for 1000 men in the country in 2019-2021-> highest sexratio for any NFHS survey
and since the first modern census conducted in 1881.
o Sex Ratio at Birth: For the first time in India, there were 1,020 adult women per1,000 men between 2019-
21.
o Total Fertility Rate (TFR): TFR was 2 in 2019-2021, just below the replacement fertility rate of 2.1; In rural
areas, the TFR is 2.1; In urban areas, TFR had gone belowthe replacement fertility rate.
o Institutional Births: Increased from 79% to 89% at all-India Level + It is 100% inPuducherry and
Tamil Nadu and more than 90% in 7 States/UTs out of 12 Phase IIStates/UTs.
o Life Expectancy: Life expectancy is 69.4 years in 2014-18 which is an increase of
0.4 years from 2013-17; Lowest in Chattisgarh and Highest in Kerala and Delhi +Females live
longer than males.

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• Healthcare Expenditure: Expenditure on health sector increased from ` 2.73 lakh crorein 2019-20
(pre-COVID-19) to 4.72 lakh crore in 2021-22 (BE), an increase of nearly 73percent.
• Central and State Governments’ budgeted expenditure on health sector reached 2.1percent of GDP in
2021-22, against 1.3 percent in 2019-20.
5. Government Initiatives/Schemes/Policies related to Health
• National Health Policy, 2017: It proposes to raise public healthcare expenditure to 2.5%of GDP in a
time bound manner with more than 2/3rd resources towards primary health care + It establishes new
bodies which are National healthcare standard organization, National health information network and
National digital health authority + It assigns specific quantitative targets for various indicators:
o Life Expectancy: Increase Life Expectancy from 67.5 to 70 years by 2025.
o Total Fertility rate (TFR): Reduce TFR to 2.1 national and subnational level by2025.
o Mortality rate of children: Reduce mortality rate of children under 5 years of age to23 (per 1000)
by 2025.
o Infant Mortality rate: Reduce IMR rate to 28 by 2019.
o Neo-natal mortality: Reduce neonatal mortality to 16 and still birth rate to a ‘singledigit’ by 2025.
o Increasing number of beds: Aims to ensure 2 beds per 1000 population distributedto enable access
within golden hour.
• National Health Mission: It was revamped amid COVID-19 + Ministry of Health and Family welfare
+ It is a centrally sponsored mission + The thrust of the mission is on establishing a fully functional,
community-owned, decentralized health delivery systemwith inter-sectoral convergence at all levels.
o The Union Cabinet approved launch of National Urban Heath Mission, with NationalRural Health
Mission (NRHM) being other sub-mission of National health mission- The Centre- State funding

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pattern is 60: 40 for all states w.e.f FY 2015-16 except all North-Eastern states and other hilly states
for which centre-state funding pattern is 90:10.
• Ayushman Bharat: Recently, the Union Cabinet approved the countrywide implementation of the
Ayushman Bharat Digital mission with budgetary allocation of Rs.1600 crore for five years + The
scheme was announced in Budget 2018-19 which is an umbrella scheme consisting of creation of
1,50,000 Health and wellness centre and PM Jan Arogya yojana which provides health protection cover
to poor and vulnerable families for secondary and tertiary healthcare is fully funded by central
government + It is the world’s largest health insurance scheme fully financed by the government + It
provides cover of 5 lakhs per family per year, for secondary and tertiary care hospitalization across
public and private empaneled hospitals in India + It provides cashless access to health care services for
the beneficiary at the point of service + National Health Authority (NHA) is the nodal agency
responsible for the nationwide roll-out and implementation of the AB-PMJAY scheme + All families
listed in SECC database will be covered, families already covered under Rashtriya Swasthya Bima
yojana but are not part of the SECC are also covered + Over 10.74 crore vulnerable entitled families
(approximately 50 crore beneficiaries) will be eligible for these benefits
+ It is a centrally-sponsored scheme.
o Eligibility: No restrictions on family size, age or gender, all pre–existing conditionsare covered
from day one, hospitals cannot deny treatment, it covers up to 3 days of pre-hospitalization and
15day post-hospitalization expenses such as diagnostics and medicines, Public hospitals are
reimbursed for the healthcare services at par with theprivate hospitals.
o PM Aarogya Mitra (PMAM): It creates a cadre of certified frontline health serviceprofessionals
called PMAMs who will be primary point of facilitation for beneficiaries to avail the treatment at
hospital and thus act as support system to streamline health service delivery.
• Ayushman Bharat Health Infrastructure Mission: It is one of the largest Pan-India schemes for
strengthening healthcare infrastructure across the country + Under it, a national institution for one
health, four new national institutes for virology, a regional research platform for WHO (World Health
Organization) South East Asia Region, nine biosafety level-III laboratories, and five new regional
national centres for disease controlwill be set up.
• Ayushman Bharat Digital Mission (ABDM): It aims to provide digital health IDs for all Indian
citizens to help hospitals, insurance firms, and citizens access health records electronically when
required + National Health Authority (NHA) under the Ministry of Health and Family Welfare is the
implementing agency + It has been launched with a total outlay of Rs1,600 crores for five years +
Recently, Budget announced that an openplatform, for the National Digital Health Ecosystem will be
rolled out + Features of the Mission are:
o Health ID: It will be issued for every citizen that will also work as their health account which
contains details of every test, every disease, the doctors visited, the medicines taken and the
diagnosis + It is voluntary and free of cost + If a person wants to be part of the ABDM, she must

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create a health ID, which is a randomly generated 14-digit number + It can be obtained by self-
registration on the portal orABMD Health Records app + It will be used for 3 purposes - unique
identification, authentication, and threading of the beneficiary’s health records, only with their
informed consent.
o Healthcare Professionals Registry: It is a comprehensive repository of all healthcareprofessionals
involved in delivery of healthcare services across both modern and traditional systems of medicine.
o Health Facility Registry (HFR): It is a comprehensive repository of health facilitiesof the nation
across different systems of medicine + Includes both public and private health facilities including
hospitals, clinics, diagnostic laboratories and imaging centers, pharmacies, etc.
o ABHA Mobile App(PHR): It is an electronic record of health-related information onan individual
that conforms to nationally recognized interoperability standards and that can be drawn from
multiple sources while being managed, shared, and controlledby the individual + It is a simple self-
declared username, which the beneficiary is required to sign into a Health Information Exchange
and Consent Manager (HIE-CM) [An HIE-CM is an application that enables sharing and linking of
personal healthrecords for a user].
o Ayushman Bharat Digital Mission Sandbox: It will act as a framework for technology and
product testing which helps organisations, including private playersintending to be a part of the
national digital health ecosystem become a Health Information Provider or Health Information
User.
• National Tele Mental Health Programme: To better the access to quality mental healthcounselling
and care services+ It will include a network of 23 tele-mental health centres of excellence, with
NIMHANS being the nodal centre and International Institute of Information Technology-Bangalore
(IIITB) providing technology support.
• National digital health ecosystem: It would consist of digital registries of health providers and health
facilities, unique health identity and universal access to health facilities + It will provide a unique ID to
every Indian citizen; rolled out under AyushmanBharat Digital Mission (ABDM).
• Mission Shakti: Under Ministry of Women and Child Development + It envisages a unified citizen-
centric lifecycle support for women through integrated care, safety, protection, rehabilitation and
empowerment to unshackle women as they progress through various stages of their life + It has two sub
schemes ‘Sambal’ -> for safety and security of women and “Samarthya” -> for empowerment of
women; consisting of existing schemes of Ujjwala, SwadharGreh and Working Women Hostel. + A
new component of Nari Adalats has been added as women’s collectives to promote and facilitate
alternative dispute resolution and gender justice + National Creche Scheme and the Pradhan Mantri
Matru VandanaYojana (PMMVY) are also subsumed in ‘Samarthya’.
• Mission Vatsalya: Its objective is to ensure a healthy and happy childhood for every child in India + It
focuses on Service delivery structures, Institutional care/services, Non-institutional community-based
care, Child Protection Services and Child Welfare Services etc.
• Saksham Anganwadi: These are a new generation anganwadis that have better infrastructure and
audio-visual aids, powered by clean energy and providing improved environment for early child
development + 2 lakh anganwadis will be upgraded under theScheme + Anganwadi services, Poshan
Abhiyan, scheme for adolescent girls, and national creche scheme falls under Saksham Anganwadi and
Poshan 2.0 + Outlay for Saksham Anganwadi & Poshan 2.0 in 2022-23 Budget Estimate is Rs. 20,263
crores + The scheme will introduce upgraded facilities like smart teaching, smart learning, crèche
facilities, etc.
• Poshan 2.0: Ministry for Women and Child Development + It is an Integrated Nutrition Support
Programme that seeks to address the challenges of malnutrition in children, adolescent girls, pregnant
women and lactating mothers through a strategic shift in nutrition content and delivery + It was
announced in Union Budget 2021-22 by merging supplementary nutrition programmes and the
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POSHAN Abhiyaan + It will seek to optimize the quality and delivery of food under the Supplementary
Nutrition Program.
• Poshan Tracker: Ministry of Women and Child Development (MoWCD) + Poshan Tracker, known
as the ICDS-CAS (Integrated Child Development Services-Common Application Software) in its
earlier avatar, was set up with the aim of tracking and improving various services delivered at
anganwadis and to ensure nutritional management of beneficiaries + This real-time monitoring system
is one of the key pillarsof Poshan Abhiyan or Nutrition Mission.
• Pradhan Mantri Swastha Suraksha Yojana (PMSSY): Ministry of Health and Familywelfare + It
was announced in 2003; which envisages setting up of six AIIMS type hospitals + Objective is to correct
the regional imbalance in availability of affordable/reliable tertiary level healthcare in the country and
augment facilities for quality medical education particularly in under-served or backward states.
• e- Sanjeevani: It is the first-ever online OPD (outpatient) consultation service offered by the
government of India to citizens + It was started in 2019 by Ministry of Health and Family Welfare + It
aims to provide healthcare services to patients in their homes + The eSanjeevani OPD portal and system
has been developed by the Centre for Development of Advanced Computing (C-DAC) in Mohali +
Andhra Pradesh topped the list of States in using the Centre’s integrated telemedicine service,
eSanjeevani, recording 1.3 crore teleconsultations—which is 43.7% of the total three crore
consultations in the country. Karnataka, West Bengal and Tamil Nadu followed Andhra Pradesh in the
ranking.
• PM Swatshya Suraksha Nidhi: It is a non-lapsable reserve fund for Health in the PublicAccount +
Proceeds of share of health in the Health and Education Cess will be credited into PMSSN +
Administration and maintenance of the PMSSN is entrusted to Ministry ofHealth & Family Welfare;
and in any financial year, the expenditure on such schemes of the MoHFW would be initially incurred
from the PMSSN and thereafter, from Gross Budgetary Support (GBS) + Accruals into the PMSSN
will be utilized for the flagship schemes of the Ministry of Health & Family Welfare namely,
o Ayushman Bharat - Pradhan Mantri Jan Arogya Yojana (AB-PMJAY)
o Ayushman Bharat - Health and Wellness Centres (AB-HWCs)
o National Health Mission
o Pradhan Mantri Swasthya Suraksha Yojana (PMSSY)
o Emergency & disaster preparedness and responses during health emergencies
o Any future programme/scheme that targets to achieve progress towards SDGs and thetargets set out
in the National Health Policy (NHP) 2017.
• e-VIN (Electronic Vaccine Intelligence Network): It is an indigenously developed technology system
in India that digitizes vaccine stocks and monitors the temperature of the cold chain through a
smartphone application + It is being implemented under National Health Mission (NHM) + It supports
Universal Immunization Programme by providing real-time information on vaccine stocks and flows,
and storage temperatures across all cold chain points in these states + The technological innovation is
implementedby the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) + It strengthen the evidence base
for improved policy-making in vaccine delivery, procurement and planning for new antigens in India.
• National Rural Health Mission (NRHM): Its objective is to provide accessible, affordable, quality
health care to rural population especially the vulnerable groups + Initiatives under NRHM are
Accredited social health activists (ASHA), Janani Shishu Suraksha Karyakram, Janani Suraksha yojana,
Rashtriya Bal Swasthya Karyakram and Mother and child health wings and National mobile medical
units, RMNCH + A (Reproductive maternal new born child and adolescent health), free drugs and
diagnosticservice and mainstreaming AYUSH + Cities and towns with populations below 50,000 will
continue to be covered under NRHM.
• National Urban Health Mission (NUHM): It envisages to meet health care needs of the urban
population with the focus on urban poor, by making available to them essential primary health care

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services and reducing their out of pocket expenses for treatment + It focus on need based city specific
urban health care system to meet the diverse health careneeds of the urban poor and other vulnerable
sections + The support is being provided byAsian Development Bank (ADB) based on progress related
to certain indicators + NUHM would cover all State capitals, district headquarters and cities/towns with
a population of more than 50000. It would primarily focus on slum dwellers and other marginalized
groups + Centre-state funding pattern will be 75:25 for all the States except North-Eastern states
including Sikkim and other special category states of Jammu & Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh and
Uttarakhand, for whom the centre-state funding pattern will be 90:10.
• Janani Suraksha Yojana: Ministry of Health and Family welfare + It is a centrally sponsored scheme
under National Health Mission + Aimed at safe motherhood intervention + It is being implemented with
the objective of reducing maternal and neonatal mortality by promoting institutional delivery among
poor pregnant women + It is a centrally sponsored scheme, which integrates cash assistance with
delivery and post- delivery care + The scheme focuses on poor pregnant woman with a special
dispensationfor states that have low institutional delivery rates, namely, the states of Uttar Pradesh,
Uttarakhand, Bihar, Jharkhand, Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Assam, Rajasthan, Orissa, and Jammu
and Kashmir.
o Eligible pregnant women entitled for cash assistance irrespective of the age of a mother and number
of children giving birth in a government or accredited privatehealth facility.
o BPL pregnant women who prefer to deliver at home entitled to cash assistance of Rs500 per delivery
regardless of age of pregnant women and number of children.
• Janani Shishu Suraksha Karyakram: It has been launched with the objective to eliminate out of
pocket expenses for both pregnant women and sick infants accessing public health institution for
treatment + It is estimated to benefit more than 1 crore pregnant women access public health institutions
every year in both urban and rural areas.
o Entitlements for Pregnant Women under JSSK:
§ Free and zero expense Delivery and Caesarean Section.
§ Free Drugs and Consumables.
§ Free Essential Diagnistics (Blood,Urine tests and Ultra sonography etc.)
§ Free Diet during stay in the health institutions (up to 3 days for normal deliveryand 7 days for
caesarean section)
§ Free Provision of Blood.
§ Free Transport from Home to Health institutions.
§ Free Transport between facilities in case of referral.
§ Drop Back from institutions to home after 48 hrs stay.
§ Exemption from all kinds of User charges.
• Pradhan Mantri Surakshit Matritva Abhiyan (PMSMA): Ministry of Health and Family Welfare +
It aims to provide free health check-ups to pregnant women at government health centers and hospitals
+ It provide pregnant ladies free ante-natal services (ANC) and required treatment for free on 9th of
every month + It is applicable only for the pregnant women in their pregnancy period of 3 to 6 months
+ It will provide all kinds of medical check-ups completely free to pregnant women at medical centres,
government and private hospitals and private clinics across the country; tests will includeblood pressure,
sugar level, weight, haemoglobin test, blood test and screening + Womenwill be marked differently
using different colour stickers based on their health problems -
> Red Sticker for Serious patients, Blue Sticker for High blood pressure and YellowSticker for other
diseases.
• Pradhan Mantri Matritva Vandana Yojana: Ministry of Health and Family welfare + Conditional
cash transfer scheme applicable to pregnant and lactating mothers of ages 19 above for up to 2 living

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children + All women are eligible if they have not already received paid leave and maternity benefits
from their employers in private or governmentsector + Rs 6000 provided to each beneficiary through
Anganwadi centres + Funding: 60:40 by centre and states; conditional cash transfer scheme would be
in DBT mode.
• Universal Immunization program: Ministry of Health and Family welfare + It is a central sector
scheme which provide free of cost vaccines to all children against 12 vaccine-preventable diseases -
Diphtheria, Whooping cough, tetanus, polio, tuberculosis, hepatitis B, meningitis and pneumonia,
Haemophilus influenzae type B infections, Japanese encephalitis (JE), rotavirus vaccine, pneumococcal
conjugate vaccine (PCV)and measles-rubella (MR).
o BCG (Bacillus Calmette- Guerin) vaccine: Given to infants to protect them from tubercular
meningitis and disseminated TB.
o OPV (Oral Polio vaccine): It protects children from poliomyelitis.
o Hepatitis B vaccine: Protects from Hepatitis B viral infection.
o Pentavalent vaccine: It is a combined vaccine to protect children from- Diptheria, Tetanus,
Pertussis, Haemophilus influenza type b infection and Hepatitis B.
o Rotavirus vaccine against rotavirus diarrhea.
o PCV (Pneumococcal conjugate vaccine) against bacterium streptococcuspneumonia.
o FIPV (Fractional Inactivated Poliomyelitis vaccine) to boost protection againstpoliomyelitis.
o Measles/MR Vaccine to protect children from measles; in some states combinedvaccine of Measles
and Rubella given to children.
o JE (Japanese encephalitis) vaccine
o DPT booster: Protects children from Diptheria, Tetanus and Pertussis.
o Tetanus and adult diphtheria (Td) vaccine: To limit waning immunity againstdiphtheria in older
age groups.
• Mission Indradhanush: To ensure full immunization with all available vaccines underUIP for children
up to two years of age and pregnant women + Launched in 2014 and aims at increasing full
immunization coverage to children to 90%.
• Intensified Mission Indradhanush: It was launched in October 2017 with greater focuswas given on
urban areas which were one of the gaps of Mission Indradhanush + It is focused to improve
immunisation coverage in select districts and cities to ensure full immunisation to more than 90% by
December 2018 instead of 2020.
• IMI 4.0: It will ensure that Routine Immunization (RI) services reach unvaccinated and partially
vaccinated children and pregnant women + Children up to two years will be covered in this drive +
Three rounds of IMI 4.0 will be conducted in 416 districts, including 75 districts identified for Azadi
ka Amrit Mahotsav across 33 States/UTs + These districts have been identified based on vaccination
coverage as per the latest National Family Health Survey-5 report, Health Management Information
System (HMIS) data and burden of vaccine-preventable diseases.
• Free Drugs service initiative: Union budget 2014-15 announced two key initiatives i.e. Free Drug
Service and Free Diagnosis Service would be taken up on priority to move towards “Health for All” +
Under this support is provided for the provision of essential drugs free of cost in public health facilities.
The support is not only for drugs but also forvarious components necessary for effective implementation
of Free Drug Service Initiative viz. strengthening/setting up robust systems of procurement, quality
assurance, IT backed supply-chain management systems like Drugs and Vaccines Distribution
Management Systems (DVDMS) developed by CDAC, warehousing, training etc.
• LaQshya: It aims to improve quality of care in labour room and maternity operationtheatres to ensure
that pregnant women receive respectful and quality care during delivery and immediate postpartum.
• National quality assurance program: The standards are internally accredited by ISQua (International
society for quality in healthcare) + Under its ambit to ensure delivery of bench-marked quality and safe
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care to children at Public health, a new initiative called “MusQan” was launched-> It is to reduce child
mortality and morbidity and improve nutrition status, growth and early childhood development of
children through provision ofrespectful and dignified care to newborns and children.
• Har Ghar Dastak: The central government had recently launched a month-long “Har Ghar Dastak”
campaign to ensure no person is left behind in the vaccination + It aims at awareness, mobilization and
vaccination of all eligible beneficiaries with 1st dose and alldue beneficiaries with 2nd dose of COVID-
19 vaccines through House-to-House visits inall States/UTs.
• Mission Parivar Vikas: The main objective initiative is to bring down the Total FertilityRate (TFR) to
2.1 by the year 2025 + The strategic focus will be on improving access to contraceptives through
delivering assured services, dovetailing with new promotional schemes, ensuring commodity security,
building capacity (service providers), creating anenabling environment along with close monitoring and
implementation.
• Healthy states progressive India: NITI Aayog released the fourth edition of the State Health Index
for 2019–20. The report, titled “Healthy States, Progressive India”, ranks states and UTs on their year-
on-year incremental performance in health outcomes as wellas their overall status + The report has been
developed by NITI Aayog, with technical assistance from the World Bank, and in close consultation
with the Ministry of Health and Family Welfare (MoHFW) + The states and UTs ranked in 3 categories-
Larger states, smaller states and UTs + Health index is weighted composite index , which for larger
states, is based on indicators in three domains-> Health outcomes (70%), Governance and Information
(12%) and key inputs and processes (18%).

SCIENCE &
TECHNOLOGY

PART - 2
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DISEASES
1. Introduction: The disease is a condition of disturbed functioning of the body caused by infection, defective
diet, heredity and environment + It may be response to Environmental (malnutrition or climate), Specific
infective agents (protozoans, fungi, etc), Inherent defects of the organism (genetic anomalies) and
combination of these factors.
2. Diseases due to Nutritional Deficiencies
Disease Deficiency of Sources

Rickets Vitamin D Dairy products, fish and
sunlight etc.
Pellagra Vitamin B3 Tuna, peanuts,
mushrooms, chickenetc.
Scurvy Vitamin C Citrus fruits like

oranges, Broccoli etc.
Beri-Beri Vitamin B1 or Thiamin Meat, eggs, dried beans
etc.
Night Blindness Vitamin A Natural food sources like
(Xerophthalmia) carrots, green and leafy
vegetables.
Goitre Iodine Iodised salt and
saltwater fish are richsources.
Anaemia Iron Squashes, nuts, tofu, bran etc

are the rich sources of iron for
the
body.
Reduced tendon flexes, Vitamin E Wheat germ oil is the
cerebrospinal symptoms richest source.
3. Types of Diseases
• Protozoan Diseases: These are parasitic diseases caused by organisms formerlyclassified in the
Kingdom Protozoa + Usually contracted by either an insect vector or by contact with an infected
substance or surface.
o Malaria: It is caused by a parasite called Plasmodium, which is transmitted via the bites of infected
mosquitoes + It releases a toxic substance called ‘hemozoin’, which causes fever. The sporozoite is
the infectious stage + The affected organs are RBC and Liver + Symptoms include fever, headache
and vomiting and usually appear between 10-15 days after the mosquito bite + It is the largest
parasite killer in the world + Key interventions to control malaria include effective treatment with
artemisinin based combination therapies and Quinin is also used in treatment of malaria which is
made from cinchona tree + El Salvador has become the first countryin Central America and third
in all Americas to get malaria-free certificate from

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WHO + Four kinds of malaria parasites are Plasmodium falciparum, P. vivax, P.ovale and P.
malariae.
o Pyorrhea: Also known as periodontitis, is a multifactorial disease that directly affectsoral gums
and the bone + Parasite is Entamoeba Gingivelis + Major symptoms are bleeding from gums,
painful chewing, bad breath and Pus between teeth and gums + The chances of Pyorrhea increase
if one has diabetes + Types of Pyorrhea:
- Chronic Pyorrhea: It is caused by gradual plaque buildup, which then causes gum recession
and bone deterioration + It mostly affect adults; Children too canbe prone to Chronic Pyorrhea
if dental hygiene is neglected.
- Aggressive Pyorrhea: It is a hereditary type of Pyorrhea + If left untreated, willcause rapid
progression of bone loss, eventually causing tooth loss or a fracture.
- Necrotizing Pyorrhea: It involves the death of supporting bone, gum tissue and tooth
ligaments caused by lack of blood supply, which eventually results in severeinfection + It
mostly affects people who have a weak immune system, which maybe due to HIV infection or
cancer treatment.
o Sleeping sickness: Affected organ is Brain + Parasite is Trypanasoma + The fly bite develops into
a red sore and the person soon experiences fever, muscle and joint ache,swelling in the lymph
glands, irritation and headache + In advanced stages, it attacks the central nervous system and bring
changes in personality and alteration in the biological clock.
o Diarrhoea: It affects intenstine; parasite is Entamoba Histolytica + Symptoms include blood loss
+ It is a symptom of infections caused by a host of bacterial, viraland parasitic organisms, most of
which are spread by faeces-contaminated water + Water contaminated with human and animal
faeces is of particular concern + The most severe threat posed by diarrhoea is dehydration, which
occurs when lost water and electrolytes are not replaced + It should be treated with ORS, nutrient-
rich foodsand zinc supplemental treatment shortens diarrhoea duration and improves outcomes
+ Vaccine is known as rotavirus vaccine.
o Kala Azar: It is the second largest parasitic killer + Affected organ is bone marrow +Parasite is
Leismania Donovani; vector is female sand fly + Symptoms include high fever + It is one of the
most neglected tropical disease + The parasite migrates to internal organs such as liver, spleen and
if left untreated will result in the death of the host + It only infects humans and humans are
considered as the only reservoir of the parasite + India accounts for almost half of the cases of Kala
azar in the world; Bihar has more than 70% cases of Kala Azar.
o Post Kala Azar Dermal Leishmaniasis: Complication of Kala azar-> protozoan invades the skin
cells + It is not life threatening but can act as a source for Kala azarinfection to others.
o Amoebiasis or Amoebic dysentery: It gets transmitted by contaminated food orwater + It invades
intestinal mucosa and spreads to other parts like liver + The infected stage is trophozoites.
o Trichomoniasis: It is a sexually transmitted disease which destroys epithelial cells and cytotoxic
substances are released. Vaginal pH increases and the number of leukocytes also increases in
response to the toxic substance released by the pathogen.
o Giardiasis: It gets transmitted by contaminated food or water + Mucosal damage isrelated to the
mucosal inflammation and release of lectin or proteinases.
• Bacterial Diseases: It include any type of illness caused by bacteria. Bacteria are a type of
microorganism, which are tiny forms of life that can only be seen with a microscope.
o Tetanus: It is a bacterial infection also known as lockjaw which causes stiffness in various muscles
present in different parts of the body. It affects the nervous system +It is caused by Clostridium
Tetani + Symptoms include high fever, jaw cramming, headache etc.
o Cholera: It is an acute diarrhoeal infection caused by ingestion of food or water contaminated with
bacterium Vibrio Cholerae + Key symptoms are diarrhoea and dehydration, rarely shock and
seizures may occur in severe cases + It affects both adults and children and can kill within hours if
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untreated + Only humans are known to be affected by the bacteria + The treatment includes
rehydration fluids and antibiotics; zinc supplements are given for children + Cholera vaccines are
given bymouth and provide reasonable protection for about six months.
o Typhoid: It is caused by the highly contagious Salmonella Typhi bacteria which can spread through
contaminated food or water + It mainly affects the intestine + Symptoms are prolonged fever,
headache, nausea, loss of appetite, and constipation +Infection passes through food and drinking
water and is more prevalent in places where handwashing is less frequent.
o Diptheria: It is a bacterial infection which affects the respiratory tube + It spreads through person
to person contacts or through objects that have bacteria on them + Bacteria called Corynebacterium
diphteriae + Symptoms include suffocation, sneeze,cough etc.
o Tuberculosis/White plague: It is an infectious bacterial disease caused by bacillus Mycobacterium
tuberculosis which commonly affects the lungs + It is spread in air when sick people with
pulmonary TB expel bacteria + Most effective first-line anti- TB drug is rifampicin +
Recommended treatment for new cases of drug-susceptible TB is a six month regimen of four first
line drugs- rifampicin, isoniazid, ethambutol and pyrazinamide + Treatment for MDR-TB requires
more expensive and more toxicdrugs.
o Pneumonia: It is an acute respiratory infection of the lungs caused by bacteria calledStreptococcus
pneumoniae + It doesn’t have one single cause -> can develop from either bacteria, viruses or fungi
in the air + It can spread through coughing or sneezing + Easily preventable with vaccines-> three
doses of Pneumococcal Conjugate Vaccine (PCV) is recommended to prevent it.
o Leprosy/Hansen’s disease: It is a chronic infectious disease caused by Mycobacterium leprae + It
mainly affects the skin, peripheral nerves, mucosal surfaces of upper respiratory tract and eyes + It
is one of the oldest diseases in recorded history and under the list of Neglected Tropical diseases of
WHO + It is spread mainly by breathing airborne droplets from the affected individuals +
Symptoms include red patches on the skin, numbness in arms, hands, and legs, Muscle Weakness
and excessive weight loss + It usually takes about 3-5 years for symptoms to appear after coming
into contact with Leprosy causing bacteria + India,Indonesia and Brazil constitute around 841% of
the cases with India contributing to more than 50% of the cases + It is curable with the combination
of drugs known as Multi-Drug Therapy (MDT).
o Plague: It is a disease caused by the bacteria Yersinia pestis, which is found in animals, particularly
rodents + It can be transmitted to humans through infected animals and fleas + If left untreated,
pneumonic and bubonic plague can lead to septicemic plague. A person infected by septicemic
plague may also notice their skinturning black + Parasite is Pasleurella pesties + Symptoms include
very high fever and muscular eruption.
o Whooping cough/Pertussis: A bacterial infection that primarily affects the nose and throat. It
usually affects the respiratory tract of infants less than 2 years old + Parasiteis Hemophilis pertussis
+ Symptom is continuous coughing, and runny eyes.
o Anthrax: It is caused by a bacterium called Bacillus anthracis; occurs naturally in both animals and
humans in many parts of the world, including Asia, southern Europe, sub-Sahelian Africa and parts
of Australia + People get infected with anthraxwhen spores get into the body + Symptoms include
black sore, headaches, fever, breathing difficulties, vomiting of blood, diarrhea.
o Meningitis: It is an inflammation of the meninges, membranes that cover the brain and spinal cord
+ It is usually caused by a viral infection but can also be bacterial or fungal + Bacterial meningitis
is rare, but is usually serious and can be life-threateningif not treated right away + Several vaccines
protect against meningitis, including meningococcal, Haemophilus influenzae type b and
pneumococcal vaccines.
o Sexually transmitted diseases
- Gonorrhea: It is an infection transmitted sexually which can affect both men and women + It
is more common in women than in men + It is caused by bacteria whichis called Neisseria

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Gonorrhoeae + It is highly contagious and spreads through the actof sexual contact- vaginal,
anal or oral.
- Syphilis: It is a systemic disease caused by the spirochete bacterium, Treponema pallidum + It
is usually a sexually transmitted disease, but it is occasionally acquiredby direct nonsexual
contact with an infected person, and it can also be acquired by anunborn fetus through infection
in the mother + It mainly affects the urinary path + Symptoms include wounds.
o Trachoma: It is caused by the infection due to the bacterium Chlamydia trachomatis
+ It spreads through personal contact (via hands, clothes or bedding). It also transmitsby flies that
contact the discharge from an infected person’s eyes or nose + Repeated infections in childhood
lead to scarring of the inner side of the upper eyelids. This will result in the inward turning of the
eyelid margin-> condition known as trachomatous trichiasis.
• Viral Diseases: A viral disease is any illness or health condition caused by a virus.
o Human Immunodeficiency virus/AIDS: It targets the immune system and weakens people’s
surveillance and defense systems against infections and some types of cancers + Attacks CD4, a
type of White Blood Cell (T cells) in the body’s immune system; after entering the body, HIV
multiplies itself and destroys CD4 cells, thus severely damaging the human immune system + The
most advanced of HIV infectionis Acquired Immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS) which can take
from 2-15 years to develop depending on the individual + Transmitted via exchange of body fluids
such as blood, breast milk, semen from the infected individuals + It can be suppressed by
combination ART consisting of 3 or more ARV drugs-> It does not cure HIV infection but controls
viral replication and allow individual immune system to strengthen and regain capacity to fight off
infection.
o Ebola virus: It is transmitted to people from wild animals and spreads in the human population
through human to human transmission + It first appeared in 1976 in Nzara, Sudan and Yambuku,
Democratic republic of Congo + The virus family Filoviridae includes the Ebola genus + Fruit bats
of the Pteropodidae family are natural Ebola virus hosts + It is introduced into the human population
through close contact with the blood, secretions, organs or other bodily fluids of infected animals
such as fruit bats, chimpanzees, gorillas, monkeys, forest antelope or porcupines found ill or dead
or in the rainforest + It spreads via direct contact (through broken skin or mucous membranes) with
Blood or body fluids of a person who is sick with orhas died from Ebola + Symptoms include Fever,
Fatigue, Muscle pain, Headache, Sore throat, Vomiting, Diarrhoea, Symptoms of impaired kidney
and liver function, in some cases, both internal and external bleeding + Diagnosis methods->
ELISA (antibody-capture enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay) and RT-PCR assay, etc + The
Ervebo vaccine has been shown to be effective in protecting people from the species Zaire
ebolavirus + No licensed vaccines are available yet, several vaccines tested are showing the
potential.
o Polio: It is a highly infectious disease which invades the nervous system + Virus is transmitted by
person to person and spread mainly through faecal-oral routes + Symptoms are fever, fatigue,
headache and vomiting + It mainly affects children under five years of age + In rare cases, polio
infection causes permanent loss of muscle function (paralysis) + There is no cure for polio; it can
only be prevented + Three different strains of Polio virus are Wild Poliovirus type 1 (WPV1), Wild
Poliovirus type 2 (WPV2)- Eradicated in 1999 and Wild Poliovirus type 3 (WPV3)-Eradicated +
India received polio-free certification by the WHO in 2014, after threeyears of zero cases.
- Oral Polio Vaccine (OPV): It is given orally as a birth dose for institutional deliveries, then
primary three doses at 6, 10 and 14 weeks and one booster dose at16-24 months of age + It is
given for Type 1 and Type 2 polio virus.
- Injectable Polio Vaccine (IPV): It is given through injection by a trained healthworker + It is
not a live vaccines and thus carries no risk of vaccine associated paralysis + It is given to for
Type 2 virus strain.

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o Influenza/Flu: It is an acute viral infection of the respiratory tract considered to be one of the life-
threatening infectious diseases + It can be transmitted by direct contactwith infected individuals, via
contaminated objects and by inhalation of virus-laden aerosols + Infectivity of influenza virus particles
depends on the pH, temperature and salinity of the water, as well as the UV irradiation + Influenza type
A viruses are known to infect people, birds, pigs, horses, whales, seals and other animals, but wild birds
represent the natural hosts for these viruses + Influenza B viruses are responsible the same spectrum of
disease as influenza A and, influenza B viruses do not cause pandemics + Influenza C viruses cause a
mild respiratory illness and are notthought to cause epidemics.
o Dengue: Also known as break bone fever; it is a mosquito borne tropical disease caused by dengue
virus (flavivirus) + Dengue hemorrhagic fever is a specific syndrome which affect children under 10
years of age + Symptoms include severe joint and muscle pain, swollen lymph nodes, headache and
rash + It is contracted by bite of a striped Aedes aeqgypti mosquito + It cannot spread from person to
person directly + There is no specific medicine or antibiotic to treat dengue + Paracetamol is
recommended instead of nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) for fever reduction and pain
relief in dengue due to an increased risk of bleeding from NSAID use + It is classified as a neglected
tropical disease + Insectivorous fishes like Gambusia and Guppies can check spread of mosquito-borne
diseases like malaria and dengue + World Mosquito program has used mosquitoes infected with
wolbachia bacteria to successfully control dengue.
o Chickenpox: This is an infectious disease caused by the Varicella-zoster virus. It isvery contagious
and spreads by inhaling infected droplets + Symptoms include Lesions then blister, fill with pus, itching
and fever.
o Smallpox: It is a contagious disease, caused by the Variola Virus (VARV) + It transmits through the
droplets released from coughing, sneezing, and face to facecontact with an infected person + The first
effective vaccine was discovered
by Edward Jenner in 1796.
o Zika virus: It is a member of Flaviviridae virus family and Flavivirus genus, transmitted by daytime-
active Aedes mosquitoes such as A. aegypti, A. Africanus etc
+ It is transmitted by day-time active mosquitoes in genus Aedes + It is transmitted among humans via
sexual contacts and can cross placenta, affecting an unborn foetus
+ Common symptoms include mild headaches, maculopapular rash, malaise andconjunctivitis.
o Japanese Encephalitis: It is a viral fever which affects the brains and is considered dangerous for
children + Symptoms include sudden onset of fever, vomiting, headache and seizures + Humans are
dead-end hosts because they do not develop high enough concentration of JE virus in their bloodstream
+ It is transmitted by biteof Culex tritaeniorhynchus and Culex vishnui mosquitoes + There is no
antiviral treatment for patients with JE. Treatment, available, is supportive to relieve symptoms and
stabilise the patient.
o West Nile virus: It is a member of the flavivirus genus and belongs to the Japanese encephalitis

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antigenic complex of the family Flaviviridae + It is commonly found in Africa, Europe, the Middle
East, North America and West Asia + It is spread by infected mosquitoes. It spreads from birds to
humans with the bite of an infected Culex mosquito. It can lead to a fatal neurological disease in humans
+ The symptoms include a fever, headache, body aches, skin rash, and swollen lymph
glands. They can last a few days to several weeks, and usually go away on their own.
o H1N1 Virus: It is a highly contagious respiratory disease in pigs caused by one of several swine
influenza A viruses + Symptoms are cough, fever, soar throat , stuffy orrunny nose, headache, body
ache etc + Antiviral drugs are the mainstay of clinical treatment of swine influenza and can make the
illness milder and enable the patient tofeel better faster.
o Hepatitis: It is an inflammatory condition of liver + It is commonly caused by viralinfections but there

can be other causes too + Hepatitis A and E are self-limiting diseases (i.e. go away on their own) and
require no specific antiviral medications + For Hepatitis B and C, effective medications are available.

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o Rabies virus: It is a zoonotic viral disease caused by the Rabies virus, of the Lyssavirus genus, within
the family Rhabdoviridae + The most common reservoir ofthe virus is the domestic/street dog especially
in South Asia and Africa + It spreads by the bite of a rabid animal that leads to the deposition of the
saliva and the virus inthe wound + The incubation period varies from 4 days to 2 years or sometimes
even more + Symptoms include Fever, Headache, Nausea and Vomiting.
• Fungal Diseases
o Ashtma: It is a long-term chronic lung disorder which affects the lungs and the way that we breathe. It
is a non-communicable disease. It is caused due to inflammation inthe airways, causes chest tightness,
coughing, breathlessness, and can range in severity from mild to life-threatening + It can be caused due
to allergic reactions fromdust, smoke, fumes, pollen grains, grass, chemical irritants in the workplace,
air pollution etc. + Currently, there is no cure for Asthma disease but symptoms can be controlled via
treatment + Symptoms include Wheezing, breathlessness, coughing etc.
o Athletes Foot: It is a contagious fungal infection also commonly known as “Tinea Pedis” which affects
the upper part of the skin on the foot + It is caused by a fungus called Trichophyton + This infection
happens under the condition when the skin is moist and warm such as the foot inside the shoes +
Symptoms include upper layer ofthe skin on the foot between the toes can look reddish, become itchy
or one may feel stinging or burning sensation + It can be treated with antifungal medications like
Miconazole, Tolnaftate and Clotrimazole.
o Scabies: Scabies is a skin disease caused by a parasite named Sarcoptes scabie tiny insect about 0.3
mm long called a mite + It is a contagious skin condition caused by the mite Sarcoptes scabiei which
burrows into the skin and causes severe itching + It is transmitted by direct skin-to- skin contact or
indirectly by contact with contaminated material (fomites) + It was declared a neglected skin disease
by the World Health Organization (WHO) in 2009.
o Ringworm: It is caused by fungus that live on dead tissues like skin, hair and nail + A red patch that
may itch often turns into a raised ring-shaped patch of skin over time + It is highly contagious and can
be transmitted by skin to skin contact or contactwith pets.
o Jock Itch: It is a common infection that is caused by a fungus called Tinea which thrives in warm moist
areas of the body which means it can affect genitals, inner thighs and buttocks + Symptoms include
itching, chafing or burning in the groin orthighs.
o Black Fungus (Mucormycosis): It is a serious but rare fungal infection caused by a group of molds
called mucormycetes. These molds are present naturally in the environment + It mainly affects people
who have health problems or take medicines that lower the body’s ability to fight germs and sickness +
Symptoms of the disease are face numbness, nose obstructions on one side, swelling in the eyes, or pain
+ Treatment of this infection is possible with antifungal medicine.

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HEALTH IN NEWS
1. Mycobacterium Leprae = Leprosy, also known as Hansen’s disease, is a chronic infectious disease caused by
Mycobacterium leprae and Mycobacterium lepromatosis + Leprosy is also one of the neglected tropical diseases
+ India was officially declared to have eliminated leprosy in 2005, yet India still accounts for the largest number
of leprosy affected people in the world (60 percent) + Affected Organs: Skin, the peripheral nerves, mucosal
surfaces of the upper respiratory tract and the eyes. Leprosy is known to occur at all ages + Leprosy is curable
(by multi drug therapy) and early treatment averts most disabilities + It is transmitted via droplets, from the nose
and mouth.
2. m-pox = Monkeypox, which was named in 1970 because the virus that causes the disease was first discovered
in captive monkeys in 1958, does not have much to do with monkeys + The most likely reservoir for the virus
are rodents + WHO announced that it would start using the term “mpox” for monkeypox as the name was racist
and stigmatizing + Assigning names to new and, in some cases, existing diseases is the responsibility of the
global body under the International Classification of Diseases (ICD) and the WHO Family of International Health
Related Classifications through a consultative process which includes WHO Member States.
Some Bacteria in news = 5 Bacteria types claimed 6.8 Lakh lives in India in 2019
• E. Coli: It is commonly found in the lower intestine of warm-blooded organisms. Most types of E. coli are
harmless or cause relatively brief diarrhea. But a few strains, can cause severe stomach cramps, bloody
diarrhea and vomiting.
• Streptococcus pneumoniae is the most common cause of middle ear infections, sepsis (blood infection) in
children and pneumonia in immunocompromised individuals and the elderly.
• Klebsiella can cause different types of healthcare-associated infections, including pneumonia, bloodstream
infections, wound or surgical site infections, and meningitis
• Aureus is the leading cause of skin and soft tissue infections such as abscesses (boils), furuncles, and
cellulitis
• Acinetobacter baumannii can cause infections in the blood, urinary tract, and lungs (pneumonia), or in
wounds in other parts of the body
3. Lycopene = belonging to the carotenoids, is a tetraterpene compound abundantly found in tomato and tomato-
based products + It is fundamentally recognized as a potent antioxidant and a non-pro-vitamin A carotenoid +
Tomato and tomato-based products are the major dietary sources of lycopene and account for approximately 80%
of the consumption of lycopene in western countries + It is also present in a high amount in watermelon, guava,
pink grapefruit, rosehips, papaya, and apricot + Uses of Lycopene - Anti-cancer, anti-diabetic, anti oxidative,
against dermatologist disease + Recently, A team of researchers from the Institute of Nano Science and
Technology (INST), Mohali, has developed a nano-biosensor for detecting ‘lycopene’, a phytochemical with
high commercial value.
4. Xenotransplantation = Xenotransplantation is any procedure that involves the transplantation, implantation or
infusion into a human recipient of either (a) live cells, tissues, or organs from a nonhuman animal source, or (b)
human body fluids, cells, tissues or organs that have had ex vivo contact with live nonhuman animal cells, tissues
or organs + In 2021, surgeons at New York University Langone Health transplanted kidneys from the same line
of genetically modified pigs into two legally dead people with no discernible brain function. The organs were
not rejected, and functioned normally while the deceased recipients were sustained on ventilators + However,
generally, One of the biggest obstacles to transplantation is organ rejection.
5. Fungal Priority Pathogen List (FPPL) = World Health Organization has drawn up the 1st ever list of fungal
pathogens posing the greatest threat to human health, warning that some strains are increasingly drug resistant

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and becoming more widespread + 1st Ever List released by WHO + Precedence similar to Bacterial Priority
Pathogens List established by WHO in 2017 + Fungal infections -> They are more resistant to treatments,
becoming a public health concern worldwide. Fungal infections often strike people who are already severely ill,
like cancer or tuberculosis patients, HIV/AIDS, organ transplants, chronic respiratory disease, and rates jumped
among hospitalized COVID-19 patients during the pandemic.
• Fungi: Are microorganisms characterized by a substance in their cell walls called chitin + Some fungi, like
many types of mushrooms, are edible + Other types of fungi, like aspergillus, can be extremely dangerous
and lead to life-threatening diseases + Some common types of fungal infection include: Athlete’s foot, Jock
itch, Ringworm, Yeast infection, Onychomycosis, or a fungal infection of the nail.
• CSA6: It is a gene identified in Candida albicans (fungal species) infamous for causing high rates of
morbidity and mortality under certain immuno-compromised conditions such as AIDS or during cancer
treatment + This gene can prevent the fungal infection Candidiasis which often affects intensive-care Unit
(ICU) patients, cancer patients and patients receiving immunosuppressive therapy.
6. Endogenous Retroviruses or Ancient Viral DNA = Previous studies have shown that fragments of ancient viral
DNA — called endogenous retroviruses — in the genomes of mice, chickens, cats and sheep provide immunity
against modern viruses that originate outside the body by blocking them from entering host cells + Endogenous
retroviruses account for about 8% of the human genome. Retroviruses introduce their RNA into a host cell, which
is converted to DNA and integrated into the host’s genome. The cell then makes more virus + Typically,
retroviruses infect cells that don’t pass from one generation to the next, but some infect germ cells, such as an
egg or sperm, which opens the door for retroviral DNA to pass from parent to offspring.
7. Bird Flu or Avian influenza [H5N1] = Caused by avian flu Type A viruses + Found naturally in wild aquatic
birds and can infect domestic poultry as well as other bird and animal species + Human infections happen when
sufficient quantity of bird flu virus enters a person’s nose, eyes or mouth, or through inhalation -> H5N1 is a
known threat to humans as well + Low pathogenic avian influenza (LPAI) A viruses - Causes mild or no disease.
Highly pathogenic avian influenza (HPAI) A viruses - Causes severe infection that leads to high mortality + The
World Organization for Animal Health, which collaborates with the WHO and the FAO, says HPAI virus strains
H5N1, H5N2, H5N8. H7N8 have been identified in recent outbreaks, indicating active circulation.
8. Salmonella = Salmonellosis is an infection with a bacteria called Salmonella + Salmonella live in the intestinal
tracts of animals, including birds + Salmonella Typhimurium can be transferred to humans through raw or
undercooked infected food including meat and eggs + Thorough cooking kills Salmonella + Symptoms in cattle
are watery to bloody diarrhea, a drop in milk production, pyrexia, anorexia, dehydration and depression +
Symptoms in humans consist of diarrhea, fever, headache, nausea, abdominal pain, vomiting, and, less
frequently, blood in the stool + Other Strains of Salmonella
• Salmonella typhimurium ST313 -> an invasive non-typhoidal Salmonella serovar, causes bloodstream
infection in the malnourished and immunocompromised population of sub-Saharan Africa.
• Salmonella tphimurium DT104 -> Recent studies have reported the emergence of multi-drug resistant
(MDR) phenotype in Salmonella tphimurium DT104, which causes infection in humans and cattle.
9. Mastitis = Mastitis is an inflammation of breast tissue that sometimes involves an infection. The inflammation
results in breast pain, swelling, warmth and redness. You might also have fever and chills. Mastitis most
commonly affects women who are breast-feeding (lactation mastitis) + Bovine mastitis -> It is an inflammatory
response of the udder tissue in the mammary gland caused due to physical trauma or microorganism infections
+ It is considered the most common disease leading to economic loss in dairy industries due to reduced yield and
poor quality of milk + No vaccination is available against mastitis.
10. Lead = According to a recent report, India bears world’s highest health, economic burden due to lead poisoning
+ Lead (Pb) is a naturally occurring toxic metal found in the Earth’s crust. Other sources include: Mining,
smelting and refining industries as primary contributors while unorganized sectors (e.g. scrap dealers) as
secondary contributors + Uses: Household Products such as Cosmetic Products, Ayurveda medicines, circuit
boards and batteries, Potteries (e.g. utensils and glazed ceramic wares), water bodies etc + Large exposure affects

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brain development, especially in children and lowers IQ. Lead exposure makes the body susceptible to anaemia
as it prevents formation of haemoglobin.
11. Pyrophyllite = It is a phyllosilicate mineral composed of aluminium silicate hydroxide + Inhalation: High
concentrations may cause mechanical irritation and discomfort + Pneumoconiosis: In the absence of crystalline
silica, pyrophyllite can cause low-category pneumoconiosis + Uses of Pyrophyllite: As a filler in paper, plastic,
paint, insecticide, and pharmaceutical industries.
12. Curcumin = It is a yellow pigment found primarily in turmeric. It is a polyphenol with anti-inflammatory
properties and the ability to increase the amount of antioxidants that the body produces + Recent Research
revealed that Curcumin offers immunity in dairy cattle against infectious diseases including mastitis by
increasing complementary protein, Interferon, Immunoglobulin (IgM), lymphocytes and monocytes.
13. Medicinal Fungi = These are fungi that contain metabolites or can be induced to produce metabolites to develop
prescription drugs + Fungi when they are induced produce chemical compounds which are not essential but
enhance the fungus’ ability to survive are called secondary metabolites. Cordycepin, a secondary metabolite
produced by Cordyceps species of fungus, is known to have antitumor properties + Medicinal fungi belongs to
two taxonomic divisions namely, Basidiomycota - Mushrooms belong to this. Example - The consumable button
mushroom and Ascomycota -– They are generally not mushrooms. Example – Fungi Isaria cicadae and Shiraia
bambusicola are used in traditional Chinese medicine.
14. Oral Rehydration Solution (ORS) = The Lancet called that ORS is the most important medical discovery of
the 20th century + Diarrhoea was among the leading causes of child deaths in developing countries in the twentieth
century + In 2002, Dr Dilip Mahalanabis along with Dr Nathaniel F Pierce was awarded the Pollin Prize by
Columbia University (considered the equivalent of Nobel in peadiatrics) + Oral rehydration salts (ORS) are a
mixture of electrolytes (salts) and carbohydrates (in the form of sugar) dissolved in water. They are used to
replace salts and water that the body loses when you have dehydration caused by gastroenteritis, diarrhoea or
vomiting. The electrolytes are potassium and sodium + These components maximize fluid absorption in the
gastrointestinal tract.
15. Recombinations = Genetic mutations are the drivers of evolution of organisms. Not all mutations are functional.
However, the ones with a functional advantage tend to emerge over time than those without. However, viruses
rarely could evolve by exchanging large fragments of the genome called recombination + Recombination events
are rare and occur when two viruses or lineages co-infect a cell + Recombinations result in viruses that have a
mixed genome, each part of the mix derived from the parent genomes which recombined. While most
recombinations result in a dysfunctional genome, in rare occurrences, they can bring together the best of two
viruses with significant functional advantages resulting in their emergence.
16. Legionellosis Disease = Legionellosis is a “pneumonia-like illness that varies in severity from mild febrile illness
to a serious and sometimes fatal form of pneumonia,” according to the WHO + The disease typically spreads via
inhalation of contaminated aerosols from contaminated water + Direct human-to-human transmission of this
disease has not yet been reported, according to the WHO + There is concern that it could contribute to the spread
of these highly disease-causing strains by linking modern man-made water systems through human
transmission.”
17. Rabies = It is a zoonotic viral disease + It is caused by the Rabies virus, of the Lyssavirus genus, within the
family Rhabdoviridae + It is a Ribonucleic Acid (RNA) virus that is present in the saliva of a rabid animal (dog,
cat, monkey, etc) + Rabies is 100% fatal but 100% vaccine-preventable + In developed nations like the USA,
animals that transmit rabies are bats, foxes, raccoons, and skunks.Most mammals can carry the virus and hence
can cause the disease.It spreads by the bite of a rabid animal that leads to the deposition of the saliva and the
virus in the wound + The incubation period varies from 4 days to 2 years or sometimes even more.
18. Iodide (KI) Tablets = or anti-radiation pills, are known to provide some protection in cases of radiation exposure
+ They contain non-radioactive iodine and can help block absorption, and subsequent concentration, of
radioactive iodine in the thyroid gland + Recently, With fears of a nuclear disaster at Ukraine’s Zaporizhzhya

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power plant growing, the European Union has decided to pre-emptively supply 5.5 million anti-radiation pills to
be distributed among residents in the vicinity + (Zaporizhzhya Power Plant = Ukraine)
19. BPaL = BPaL is a 6-month, all-oral, three-drug regimen that is used to treat people with highly drug-resistant
forms of TB + BPaL is a combination of three newer antibiotics, namely bedaquiline, pretomanid and linezolid
+ TB Alliance's BPaL regimen to reduce TB treatment time from 18 months to 6 months and reported success
rate of 90% can be crucial in the fight against TB
20. Cervavac Vaccine = Recently developed, India’s first indigenously developed quadrivalent human
papillomavirus (qHPV) vaccine for the prevention of cervical cancer + Cervavac was developed by the Pune-
based Serum Institute of India in coordination with the Government of India’s Department of Biotechnology
(DBT) + HPV vaccines are given in two doses and the antibodies that develop after both are administered can
last up to six or seven years. Unlike Covid vaccines, booster shots may not be required for the cervical cancer
vaccine + Until now, the HPV vaccines available in India were produced by foreign manufacturers at an
approximate cost of Rs 2,000 to Rs 3,500 per dose. Cervavac is likely to be significantly cheaper, slated to cost
approximately Rs. 200 to 400 + Despite being largely preventable, cervical cancer is the 4th most common cancer
among women globally, according to the WHO. India accounts for about a 5th of the global burden of cervical
cancer.
21. iNCOVACC = India’s first intranasal vaccine for COVID-19 + India’s first nasal COVID-19 vaccine, developed
by Bharat Biotech with technology in-licensed from Washington University-St Louis, has been approved for
primary immunisation in those 18 and above + It has been approved for primary immunisation, meaning it can
be given to the unimmunised to protect against Covid-19 + Bharat Biotech’s ChAd36-SARS-CoV-S COVID-19
(Chimpanzee Adenovirus Vectored) is India’s first intranasal vaccine that will be delivered through the nose
instead of a shot in the arm. Product name is iNCOVACC.
22. CAR-T Cell Therapy = Chimeric Antigen Receptor T-cell (CAR-T) therapy + It is a way to get immune cells
called T cells (a type of white blood cell) to fight cancer by editing them in the lab so they can find and destroy
cancer cells + T cells are taken from the patient's blood and are changed in the lab by adding a gene for a manmade
receptor (called CAR). This helps them better identify specific cancer cell antigens. The CAR T cells are then
given back to the patient + IIT Bombay and Tata Memorial Hospital, Mumbai in collaborated to conduct early
phase pilot clinical trial of “first in India” CAR-T therapy + CAR-T cells were designed and manufactured at
Bioscience and Bioengineering (BSBE) department of IIT Bombay and is partly supported by BIRAC-PACE
scheme + development of CAR-T cell technology for diseases including acute lymphocytic leukemia, multiple
myeloma, glioblastoma, hepatocellular carcinoma and type-2 diabetes is supported through DBT.
23. National List of Essential Medicines (NLEM) 2022 = As per the World Health Organisation (WHO), Essential
Medicines are those that satisfy the priority health care needs of the population + The National List of Essential
Medicines was first compiled in 1996 and it was revised thrice earlier in 2003, 2011, and 2015 + 384 drugs find
place in the NLEM, 2022 with the addition of 34 drugs + Drugs listed under NLEM — also known as scheduled
drugs — will be cheaper because the National Pharmaceutical Pricing Authority (NPPA) caps medicine prices
and changes only based on wholesale price index-based inflation. Typically, once NLEM is released, the
department of pharmaceuticals under the ministry of chemicals and fertilisers adds them in the Drug Price Control
Order, after which NPPA fixes the price
24. Langya Virus = A new virus that can jump from animals to humans has been detected in China with 35 people
already infected. It has been called Langya henipavirus (LayV) - and has been found across two provinces in
eastern China.China's Shandong and Henan provinces have both reported cases of a novel Langya henipavirus
(LayV) + Langya Virus or LayV is an example of a Zoonotic Henipavirus + The virus is in the Henipavirus
family + Two species have been identified before; the Hendra virus - first detected in the Brisbane suburb of the
same name - and Nipah virus, both cause severe infections and are sometimes fatal + Henipaviruses belong to
the family of paramyxoviruses. They can cause severe illness in animals and humans and are classified as
biosafety level 4 (BSL4) (according to WHO) pathogens with case fatality rates between 40-75% + As of now
there are no licensed drugs or vaccines meant for humans.

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25. Tomato Flu = Tomato fever is a rare contagious disease of viral nature in humans whose origins are not yet
known. However, medical experts have opined that it might be an aftereffect of dengue or chikungunya + The
‘tomato flu’ is caused by Coxsackievirus A 16. It belongs to the Enterovirus family. The enteroviruses are an
ancient and important group of RNA viruses. Humans are the only hosts for the enteroviruses (NPEVs) + The
infectious disease is caused by intestinal viruses and is rare in adults as they usually have immune systems strong
enough to defend them from the virus + The flu is said to affect children below five years of age + The infection
has been named ‘tomato flu’ because of the red, painful blisters that appear on a patient’s body and gradually
enlarge to the size of a tomato + This flu is a self-limiting one and so far, there is no specific drug for its cure.
26. Southern Rice Black-Streaked Dwarf Virus(SRBSDV) = It is a viral disease that infects the paddy crops and
causes “dwarfing” of the plants + Apart from paddy it can also infect different weed species + First reported in
Southern China in 2001 + It is transmitted by white-backed plant hopper(WBPH) + Typhoons and strong
convection winds can enhance long-distance transmission of this virus + No corrective measure present for this
viral disease.
27. Chronic Fatigue Syndrome = Also known as myalgic encephalomyelitis (ME/CFS) + It is a disease that affects
the nervous system, the immune system and the body’s production of energy + Causes: still unknown, but the
potential triggers would include viral or bacterial infection, hormonal imbalances and genetic predispositions +
No specific test presents for the disease + Can affect anyone from children to adults of all ages. But it is more
common in women and people between 40 and 60 years old + Symptoms: lowered ability to do activities that
were performed before the illness, post-exertional malaise(PEM). Patients often describe it as a “crash” in
physical/mental energy following even minor activities like grocery shopping or brushing teeth + Treatment: not
specific yet.
28. Methamphetamine = It is a powerful, highly addictive stimulant drug that affects the central nervous system,
and is used to treat attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and narcolepsy, a sleep disorder + It is
chemically similar to amphetamine (central nervous stimulant) + Side Effects: Raises the amount of dopamine
(neurotransmitter and “feel good hormone”) in the brain; Can result in a cardiac arrest, stroke if consumed in an
excess quantity; Affects the cardiovascular system by triggering blood vessel spasms and life-threatening spikes
in blood pressure.
29. Lumpi pro-Vac = Lumpi-ProVac has been developed by the National Research Centre on Equines, Hisar,
Haryana, in collaboration with the Indian Veterinary Research Institute, Izatnagar (Bareilly) + It is a vaccine to
protect livestock from Lumpy Skin disease + The immunity induced by this vaccine usually persists for a
minimum period of one year + (Lumpy Skin Disease = Lumpy skin disease is an infectious viral disease of cattle,
which often occurs in epizootic form + The disease is characterised by the eruption of nodules in the skin, which
may cover the whole of the animal’s body + LSD is primarily a disease in cattle. It was reported for the first time
in India in 2019 from Odisha + In the initial years, the disease was mainly restricted to the eastern part of our
country. Later on, it rapidly spread to almost all the states in the country).
30. Monkeypox Vaccine = A task force headed by Dr. V.K. Paul, Member (Health), NITI Aayog has put out plans
to fund research in developing the crucial infrastructure required for preparing an indigenous vaccine + A
dedicated vaccine development would take well over a year due to several gaps in figuring out the ideal approach
+ India has reported 8 cases of Monkeypox till the first week of August 2022 + As per the experts, monkeypox
was unlikely to immediately require mass vaccination as the virus is structurally more stable compared with
SARS-CoV-2 + According to centre for disease control, a USA agency, two vaccines may be used for the
prevention of Monkeypox virus infection:
31. JYNNEOS (also known as Imvamune or Imvanex), licensed (or approved) by the U.S. Food and Drug
Administration (FDA) for the prevention of Monkeypox virus infection + Bavarian Nordic, a Denmark biotech
company has developed a smallpox vaccine, called ‘JYNNEOS’ + This vaccine has been tested for effectiveness
and safety in people against monkeypox in the lab, which has been approved by the U.S. Food and Drug
Administration

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32. ACAM2000, licensed (or approved) by FDA for use against smallpox and made available for use against
monkeypox under an Expanded Access Investigational New Drug application
33. Corbevex = Recently, the Union government approved ‘Corbevax’ by Biological E as a precaution dose against
COVID-19 for those above 18 who are fully vaccinated with either Covaxin or Covishield + 18 plus people can
get the dose 26 weeks after the administration of the second dose. It will be considered as a precaution dose +
Corbevax is still awaiting emergency use listing (EUL) by the World Health Organization + This approval is the
first time that a booster dose different from the one used for primary vaccination is to be allowed in India + The
approval is based on the recommendations made by the COVID-19 Working Group of the National Technical
Advisory Group on Immunization + (Corbevex Working: It is a “recombinant protein sub-unit” vaccine. It means
it is made up of a specific part of SARS-CoV-2 - the spike protein on the virus’s surface. The spike protein allows
the virus to enter the cells in the body so that it can replicate and cause disease. However, when this protein alone
is given to the body, it is not expected to be harmful as the rest of the virus is absent + The body is expected to
develop an immune response against the injected spike protein.Therefore, when the real virus attempts to infect
the body, it will already have an immune response ready that will make it unlikely for the person to fall severely
ill).
34. CSA6 = It is a gene identified in Candida albicans (fungal species) infamous for causing high rates of morbidity
and mortality under certain immuno-compromised conditions such as AIDS or during cancer treatment + This
gene can prevent the fungal infection Candidiasis which often affects intensive-care unit(ICU) patients, cancer
patients and patients receiving immunosuppressive therapy.
35. National Cancer Grid(NCG) = Established by Government of India in 2012 through the Department of Atomic
Energy and with the grant support of Tata Memorial Centre + It aimed to create a network of cancer centres,
research institutes, patient groups and charitable institutions across India + Recently NCG established the Koita
Centre for Digital Oncology (KCDO) to promote the use of digital technologies and tools to improve cancer care
across India.
36. African Swine Flu = It is a Contagious Hemorrhagic Viral Disease Affecting Domestic And Wild Pigs + It was
first detected in Africa in the 1920s + ASF is not a threat to human beings since it only spreads from animals to
other animals + The mortality is close to 100 percent, and since the fever has no cure, the only way to stop it
spreading is by culling the animals + ASF is a disease listed in the World Organisation for Animal Health (OIE)
Terrestrial Animal Health Code and thus, reported to the OIE.
37. Monkeypox = The World Health Organisation has declared the global monkeypox outbreak a “public health
emergency of international concern'' (PHEIC), one step below that of a ‘pandemic’ + It is a viral zoonotic disease
that occurs primarily in tropical rainforest areas of Central and West Africa and is occasionally exported to other
regions + It is caused by monkeypox virus, a member of orthodox genus in the family Poxviridae + This infection
was first discovered in 1958 + it typically presents clinically with fever, rash and swollen lymph nodes +
Transmission - mainly wild animals to humans. But human to human transmission is also possible + This virus
is transmitted from one person to another by contact with lesions, body fluids, respiratory droplets and
contamination such as bleeding + The Vaccinia vaccine used during the smallpox eradication programme was
also protective against monkeypox. A new third generation vaccinia vaccine has now been approved for
prevention of smallpox and monkeypox. Antiviral agents are also being developed.
38. Marburg Virus(MVD) = Marburg virus disease is a highly virulent disease that causes hemorrhagic fever +
Rousettus fruit bats are considered the natural hosts for the Marburg virus + it has a fatality ratio of up to 88% +
It is in the same family (a filovirus) as the virus that causes Ebola virus disease + Two large outbreaks that
occurred simultaneously in Marburg and Frankfurt in Germany, and in Belgrade, Serbia, in 1967, led to the initial
recognition of the disease. Due to its detection in Marburg, it got its name + The Marburg virus is transmitted to
people from fruit bats and spreads among humans through human-to-human transmission + There is no approved
antiviral treatment or vaccine for MVD as of now.
39. Epstein Barr Virus (EBV) = It's a cancer-causing virus, can infect the neuronal cells and drive various changes
in biomolecules such as fatty acids, carbohydrates, and protein components, leading to diseases of the central

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nervous system as well as brain cancer + Has been found to be widely present in the human population + Usually
does not cause any harm, but gets reactivated inside the body in some unusual conditions like immunological
stress or immunocompetence. This may further lead to various complications like a type of blood cancer called
Burkitt’s lymphoma, stomach cancer, multiple sclerosis.
40. Human Papilloma Virus(HPV) = HPV is the most common viral infection of the reproductive tract + It is a
sexually transmitted virus that may cause cervical cancer + It is a type of cancer that occurs in the cells of the
cervix - the lower part of the uterus that connects to the vagina + Cervical cancer is the second most common
cancer of women in India despite being largely preventable + It can be eliminated if all prepubertal girls are given
HPV vaccination globally + Human papillomavirus (HPV) vaccine (Cervarix) protrcts against 2 cancer causing
strains HPV 16 and 18 + In India, cervical cancer accounted for 9.4% of all cancers and 18.3% (1,23,907) of new
cases in 2020.
41. Kala Azar = Known as Black fever, or Visceral Leishmaniasis a neglected tropical disease + is a protozoan
parasitic disease caused by called ‘leishmania donovani’ + spread by sandfly bites + Disease is linked to
malnutrition, population displacement, poor housing, a weak immune system and environmental changes + is a
treatable and curable disease + three types of leishmaniasis - Visceral leishmaniasis, which affects multiple
organs and is the most serious form of the disease , Cutaneous leishmaniasis, which causes skin sores and is the
most common form and Mucocutaneous leishmaniasis, which causes skin and mucosal lesions + endemic in
Bihar, Jharkhand, Uttar Pradesh and West Bengal + National Kala-Azar Elimination Programme with an aim to
eliminate this disease by 2015 but the deadline is missed + National Centre for Cell Science (NCCS), Pune have
found new biomolecules to fight drug resistance in Kala- azar.
42. Varroa = Varroa destructor is an external parasitic mite that attacks and feeds on the honey bees Apis cerana
and Apis mellifera. The disease caused by the mites is called varroosis. The Varroa mite can reproduce only in a
honey bee colony. It attaches to the body of the bee and weakens the bee by sucking fat bodies + Heavy
infestations with the varroa mite cause a range of maladies among European honey bees that weaken and reduce
populations, leading to colony death. The parasite does not affect smaller, stingless native bees + Recently,
Australia is racing to protect honey bees after the discovery of a mite that has ravaged hives around the world.
43. Athelia Rolfsii = Kerala Agricultural University has reported the emergence of a new fungal disease in
jackfruit(Artocarpus heterophyllus) + It is the first time that rot by the fungus Athelia rolfsii is being reported in
jackfruit in India + Athelia rolfsii is a corticioid fungus in the family Atheliaceae. It is a facultative plant pathogen
and is the causal agent of "southern blight" disease in crops + Disease caused by A. rolfsii occurs on a broad
range of crops and can be of economic importance in tropical and subtropical regions of the world.
44. Lumpy Skin Disease = It is caused by infection of cattle or buffalo with the poxvirus Lumpy skin disease virus
(LSDV) + The virus is one of three closely related species within the genus capripoxvirus, the other two species
being Sheeppox virus and Goatpox virus + The LSD virus easily spreads by blood-sucking insects like
mosquitoes, flies and ticks + LSD was first reported in Asia and the Pacific region in 2019 in north west China,
Bangladesh and India.
45. Oncolytic Viruses = Oncolytic viruses are a form of immunotherapy that uses viruses to infect and destroy
cancer cells in Oncolytic Virotherapy. They can kill cancer cells but leaves nearby healthy cells intact + The
modified virus works by entering cells and duplicating itself. After the infected cell bursts, releasing thousands
of new virus particles that act as antigens, it stimulates the immune system to attack nearby cancer cells.
46. Bacillus thuringiensis israelensis (Bti strain VCRC- B17) = It is a strain of bacteria that kills mosquito and
black fly larvae without harming other animals + It has been in use for decades for mosquito control + It naturally
occurs in soil+ When it is ingested by mosquito larvae, the bacterial toxins destroy their gut within 10-30 minutes
upon ingestion.
47. Mosquirix - Africa's 1st Malaria Vaccine = WHO endorsed it recently + It will start with Ghana, Kenya and
Malawi (that began pilot introduction in 2019) and then expand to other eligible endemic countries + Gavi, the
global vaccine alliance, announced $160 million in international support for the rollout of the first malaria vaccine
in Africa from 2022-2025 + RTS,S/AS01, trade name Mosquirix, is an injectable vaccine targeting P. falciparum,

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(Revision Notes)
the most prevalent malaria strain in Africa + It is made up of proteins found on the surface of the Plasmodium
falciparum parasites (PFP) + It aims to trigger the immune system to defend against first stages of malaria +
Also, gives protection against infection of lever with Hepatitis B virus + Malaria is a disease caused by
Plasmodium parasites spread by the bites if Anopheles mosquitoes + Malaria remains a primary cause of
childhood illness and death in sub-Saharan Africa
• Malaria in India = India accounted for 83% of estimated cases and about 82% of all malaria deaths in
WHO South East Asia Region + India launched the National Framework for Malaria Elimination
(NFME), 2016-2030 to eliminate malaria in a phased manner + Goal is to achieve zero indigenous cases
of Malaria by 2027 and sustain elimination by 2030
48. Shigella Bacteria = Shigella is a genus of bacteria that causes an infection called shigellosis. It is the second
leading cause of diarrhea (after Rotavirus) worldwide and the third leading cause of death in children less than 5
years old + Recently, An outbreak of shigella bacteria is believed to be the reason behind the recent incident of
suspected food poisoning in Kasaragod district, Kerala + Shigella is generally transmitted through contaminated
food or water, or through person-to-person contact + No vaccines are available for Shigella + The incubation
period of shigellosis is typically 1–4 days.
49. Tomato Flu = “Tomato flu” cases are being detected in Kerala + The flu that gets its name because of the red
blister it causes. Flu affects children below five years of age + Symptoms include rashes, skin irritation and
dehydration + This flu is a self-limiting one and there is no specific drug for this. This means that the symptoms
will resolve overtime on their own if supportive care is given. Like other cases of flu, tomato fever is also
contagious + “If someone is infected with this flu, they need to be kept in isolation as this could spread rapidly
from one person to another.
50. Monkeypox Virus = It is a viral zoonotic disease (transmission from animals to humans) and is identified as a
pox-like disease among monkeys hence it is named Monkeypox. It is endemic to Nigeria + It is caused by
monkeypox virus, a member of the Orthopoxvirus genus in the family Poxviridae + The natural host of the virus
remains undefined. But the disease has been reported in many animals + Animals known to be sources of
Monkeypox virus include monkeys and apes, a variety of rodents (including rats, mice, squirrels and prairie dogs)
and rabbits + It was first reported in 1958, in monkeys in the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC) and in
humans in 1970, also in the DRC + Infected people break out in a rash that looks a lot like chicken pox. But the
fever, malaise, and headache from Monkeypox are usually more severe than in chicken pox infection. In the early
stage of the disease, Monkeypox can be distinguished from smallpox because the lymph gland gets enlarged +
There is no specific treatment or vaccine available for Monkeypox infection.
51. Porcine Virus = Porcine circovirus (PCV) is a group of four single-stranded DNA viruses + It usually causes
disease in pigs.
52. Measles = Measles is a highly contagious, serious disease caused by a virus + Measles is caused by a virus in
the paramyxovirus family and it is normally passed through direct contact and through the air + The virus infects
the respiratory tract, then spreads throughout the body + Measles is a human disease and is not known to occur
in animals + Measles is one of the world’s most contagious diseases. It is spread by coughing and sneezing, close
personal contact or direct contact with infected nasal or throat secretions + No specific antiviral treatment exists
for measles virus.
53. Crimean-Congo Hemorrhagic Fever (CCHF) / Congo Fever = It is a viral disease + The CCHF virus is
typically spread by tick bites or contact with livestock carrying the disease + The virus can also spread between
people via body fluids + There are no FDA- or WHO-approved therapeutics for CCHF + The virus was first
observed in Crimea in the 1940s and was later identified as the same agent of what had been called Congo
Hemorrhagic Fever.
54. Hepatitis = Viruses known as "hepatotropic" (liver directed) viruses, such as A, B, C, D, and E, are usually to
blame for the hepatitis virus. Other viruses, such as the varicella virus that causes chicken pox, may also be
responsible. The virus that causes Covid-19, SARS-CoV-2, may also harm the liver. Other causes include drug
and alcohol abuse, fatty liver hepatitis, and an autoimmune condition in which the body produces antibodies that

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attack the liver (autoimmune hepatitis) + Hepatitis A and E are self-limiting (i.e., they go away on their own) and
do not require antiviral treatment + Hepatitis A and B vaccines are available, but Hepatitis C and D vaccines are
not + For Hepatitis E, a promising vaccine is in the works + Effective medications for Hepatitis B and C are
available + Antiviral medications can be used to treat chronic hepatitis B infection + Treatment can slow cirrhosis
progression, lower the risk of liver cancer, and improve long-term survival.
55. Thalassemia = It is a chronic blood disorder. It is a genetic disorder due to which a patient cannot make enough
hemoglobin found in Red Blood Cells (RBC’s). This leads to anemia and patients also require blood transfusions
every two to three weeks to survive + India is the thalassaemia capital of the world with 40 million carriers and
over 1,00,000 thalassaemia majors under blood transfusion every month + (Thalassemia Bal Sewa Yojana =
Recently, Union Health Minister launches 2nd phase of “Thalassemia Bal Sewa Yojna” + Launched in 2017, this
scheme is a Coal India CSR funded Hematopoietic Stem Cell Transplantation (HSCT) program + It aims to
provide a one-time cure opportunity for Haemoglobinopathies like Thalassaemia and Sickle Cell Disease for
patients who have a matched family donor)
56. Sickle Cell Anaemia = It is an inherited blood disease which is most common among people of African, Arabian
and Indian origin + It is a group of disorders that affects hemoglobin, the molecule in red blood cells that delivers
oxygen to cells throughout the body + People with this disease have atypical hemoglobin molecules called
hemoglobin S, which can distort red blood cells into a sickle, or crescent shape + This blocks blood flow and
oxygen from reaching all parts of the body.
57. Myopia = Myopia or Nearsightedness occurs when the eye loses its ability to focus on far-off objects as the
lenses do not possess a long focal length + Glasses for myopia are often created with a concave (curved inwards)
lens, which moves the focus of the light to help you see clearly + Recently, World Health Organization (WHO)
estimates that there were nearly two billion people with myopia in 2010 — a quarter of the human population.
By 2030, they project myopia prevalence to reach 3.3 billion people.
58. Retinoblastoma = It is the most common cancer in the eye (malignant tumor) in small children + It can occur in
one or both eyes and may be hereditary or sporadic + It can be life threatening as well as take away vision if not
treated timely and is detected by seeing White Reflex (WR).
59. Variants of SARS-CoV-2
Identification Emergence
WHO PANGO lineage First outbreak Designated VOC

label
Delta B.1.617.2 India 6 May 2021
Omicron B.1.1.529 South Africa 26 Nov 2021
Alpha B.1.1.7 United Kingdom 18 Dec 2020
Gamma P.1 (B.1.1.28.1) Brazil 15 Jan 2021
Beta B.1.351 South Africa 14 Jan 2021
60. Invisible Hunger and Vitamin D = There are various ramifications to hunger, and an important part of it is
micronutrient malnutrition. This is referred as Invisible Hunger + Vitamin D is a fat-soluble vitamin which is
naturally present in very few foods like fatty fish, and fish liver oils, beef liver, cheese, and egg yolks. It is also
produced endogenously when ultraviolet rays from sunlight strike the skin and trigger vitamin D synthesis. The

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sunlight triggers a chemical reaction to a cholesterol-based molecule, and converts it into calcidiol in the liver
and into calcitriol in the kidney + Effects of Vitamin D Deficiency:
• Rickets in children and osteomalacia (softening of bones) in adults.
• Bones can become thin, brittle, or misshapen (Effects of deficiency).
• Vitamin D deficiency can cause rickets in children and osteomalacia in adults.
• Bones can become thin, brittle, or misshapen (osteoporosis) Vitamin D.
61. ACE2 Enzyme = research has found that human enzyme ACE2 may be offering protection to women against
Covid-19 disease + It enables the novel coronavirus to infect the cell + It is a key in protecting against
cardiovascular, lung and kidney diseases + It is linked to X chromosome, thus women have twice as many active
genetic instructions to make ACE2 + Because of their chromosomes, women (XX chromosome) have two copies
of the ACE2 gene and men (XY chromosome) have only one copy + This makes female Covid-19 patients face
less severe disease complications and a lower risk of dying than male patients.
62. Anabolic Steroids = Anabolic steroids are essentially lab-made versions of the male hormone testosterone and
have a similar effect of increasing muscle mass as the natural hormone does. It also increases male characteristics
in a person, such as facial hair and a deeper voice + From two Tokyo Olympians being banned to Noida Police
seizing fake drugs and supplements worth Rs 2 crore, anabolic steroids have often been in news.
63. PK2 = Researchers at IIT Mandi have identified a drug molecule that can be used to treat diabetes + The
molecule, called PK2, is able to trigger the release of insulin by the pancreas, and can potentially be used as an
orally administered medicine for diabetes.
64. India Hypertension Control Initiative (IHCI) = Is a multipartner initiative involving the Indian Council of
Medical Research, WHO-India, Ministry of Health and Family Welfare, and State governments to improve blood
pressure control for people with hypertension + The project initiated in 26 districts in 2018 has expanded to more
than 100 districts by 2022 + More than two million patients were started on treatment and tracked to see whether
they achieved BP control.
65. India’s 1st Bridgital Autism Support Network = Tata Power Community Development Trust (TPCDT) has
partnered with the Centre for Autism and Other Disabilities Rehabilitation Research and Education (CADRRE),
a not-for-profit organisation based in Thiruvananthapuram, to launch “Pay Autention - a different mind is a gifted
mind”, India’s first bridgital autism support network + Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) / Autism is a
neurodevelopmental disorder characterized by challenges with social communication, and by restricted and
repetitive behaviors. Autism has been hypothesized to be associated with a combination of genetic and
environmental factors, with genetic factors thought to heavily predominate. Autism affects information
processing in the brain and how nerve cells and their synapses connect and organize. There is no 'treatment' for
autism as such.
66. Candida Auris: It is a deadly hospital pathogen for the first time identified in the Andamanand Nicobar Islands
+ It is a multi-drug resistant fungus which presents a serious global threat to human health + First identified in
2009 in Japan + It is mostly found in tropical marshes and marine environments, outside hospital environments.
DISEASES IN NEWS (Last Year)

1. Diatom test: Maharashtra Anti-Terrorism Squad (ATS) relied on a diatom tests for leads in the alleged murder
case of Mansukh Hiran + It helps in diagnosing the death caused by drowning. It tests diatoms in the body being
tested + If person is alive when he enters the water-> diatoms will enter the lungs when person inhales water
while drowning. These diatoms are then carried to different body parts by blood circulation + If a person is dead
when is thrown in the water-> no circulation and no transport of diatom cells to various organs [Diatoms: These
are photosynthesizing algae found in aquatic environment includingfresh and marine waters, soils, etc.] + It is

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reliable unless and until the deceased person has been drinking water from the same source of water before his
death.
2. New Bacterial strains: Researchers have discovered three new strains of bacteria on the International Space
Station + The bacterial strains belong to the family Methylobacteriaceae + The rod-shaped bacteria contain
genes which are involved in nitrogen fixation, plant growth and biocontrol activity against plant pathogens.
According to the researchers, bacteriamay hold the key to growing crops in space + The team of researchers
have proposed to call novel strain as Methylobacterium ajmalii, after Seyed Ajmal Khan, who is a professor at
the Annamalai University in Tamil Nadu.
3. Indian SARS- COV2 Genomic Consortia (INSACOG): It aims to monitor the genomic variations in the
SARS CoV-2 on a regular basis through multi-laboratory network + It comprises of 10 labs: NIBMG Kolkata,
ILS Bhubaneswar, NIV Pune, CCS Pune, CCMB Hyderabad, CDFD Hyderabad, InSTEM Bengaluru,
NIMHANS Bengaluru, IGIB Delhi and NCDC Delhi + It is a joint initiative of the Health Ministry, the
Department of Biotechnology (DBT), CSIR and the ICMR + National centre for disease control (NCDC) will
be nodal agency for maintaining database of all samples of new variants of public healthsignificance.
4. Lumpy skin disease: It has been infecting Indian bovines; which is an infectious viral disease of cattle and
bovine animals + It is caused by a poxvirus Lumpy skin disease virus (LSDV) + Clinical signs include general
malaise, ocular and nasal discharge. Fever and sudden decrease in milk production + It spread through
mosquitoes, flies and ticks, saliva and contaminated water and food + There is no treatment for virus, so
prevention by vaccination is most effective means of control + Secondary infections in skin may be treated with
Non- Steroidal anti-inflammatories (NSAIDs) and also antibiotics when appropriate.
5. Hunter Syndrome Mucopolysaccharidosis 2: It is a disorder where body cannot break down sugar that build
bones, skin, tendons and other tissue + These sugars can build up and damage the body + It is caused by
mutations of IDS gene that regulates production of iduronate 2- sulfatase enzyme + Lack of I2S enzyme activity
leads to accumulation of GAGswithin cells, specifically inside the lysosomes + MPS 2 is inherited in an X-
linked recessive pattern (occurs exclusively in males) + Females are generally unaffected carriers of this
condition.
6. Fragile X Syndrome: Fragile X syndrome is a genetic condition that causes a range of developmental problems
including learning disabilities and cognitive impairment + Usually, males are more severely affected by this
disorder than females + This is caused by changes ina gene called FMR1 which make an important protein
(FMRP). This protein is required for brain development + Spread of the disease: A mother who is a carrier has
a 50% chance of passing the mutated gene to her children, who will either be carriers or have FXS. Men who
are carriers do not pass the pre-mutation to their sons, but only daughters, who become carriers
7. Peter Pan Syndrome: People who develop behaviours of living life carefree, finding responsibilities
challenging in adulthood and basically, “never growing up” suffer from PeterPan Syndrome + affected people
have body of an adult but the mind of a child + can affect anyone, irrespective of gender, race or culture +
However, it appears to be more common among men + ‘Peter Pan Syndrome’ first appeared in 1983, in Dr Dan
Kiley’s book. He described it as a “social-psychological phenomenon”
8. Havana Syndrome: In late 2016, USA diplomats and other employees stationed in Havana (capital of Cuba)
reported feeling ill after hearing stran ge sounds and experiencing odd physical sensations + Recently, a report
by the National Academies of Sciences (NAS), USAhas found directed microwave radiation to be the plausible
cause of the Havana syndrome.
9. Spinal Muscular atrophy: The Government has decided to waive off some GST amount against the import of
gene therapy — Zolgensma which is required to treat a child sufferingfrom Spinal Muscular Atrophy + It is a
rare genetic disease caused by the loss of nerve cellsthat carry electrical signals from the brain to the muscles +
It mostly affects babies and children.
10. Zolgensma Gene therapy: It works by supplying a healthy copy of the faulty gene. It allowsnerve cells to then
start producing the needed protein. This halts the deterioration of the nervecells and allows the baby to grow
more normally.

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11. Epilepsy: It is a central nervous system (neurological) disorder in which brain activity becomes abnormal,
causing seizures or periods of unusual behaviour, sensations, and sometimes loss of awareness + Anyone can
develop epilepsy, but it’s more common inyoung children and older adults + There is no cure for epilepsy, but
the disorder can bemanaged with medications and other strategies.
12. Active pharmaceutical ingredients (APIs): It is a chemical compound which is the most important raw
material to produce a finished medicine + It produces the intended effects tocure the disease. For instance,
Paracetamol is the API for Crocin and it is the API paracetamol that gives relief from body ache and fever +
India is heavily import-dependent for APIs from China + India’s API imports stand at around $3.5 billion per
year and around70% or $2.5 billion, come from China.
13. Oxygen Enrichment Unit: Central Mechanical Engineering Research Institute(CMERI) develops an oxygen
enrichment unit(OEU) that could provide crucial support to COVID-19patients + It is a device that concentrates
the oxygen from the surrounding air + The concentrated Oxygen is delivered to the patients having respiratory
diseases through an oxygen mask or nasal cannula + It is useful in remote places, homes, or hospital-like
facilities for patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary diseases (COPD), chronic hypoxemia, and pulmonary
edema.
14. African Swine Fever: It is a highly contagious and fatal animal disease that infects domesticand wild pigs,
typically resulting in an acute form of hemorrhagic fever + It was first detected in Kenya, in 1909 and is later
found in regions of Asia, Europe and Africa + It is nota threat to human beings since it only spreads from
animals to other animals + Acute forms of ASF are characterized by high fever, anorexia, loss of appetite and
haemorrhages in the skin + There is no approved vaccine; animals are culled to prevent the spread of infection.
15. HGC019 Vaccine: Pune-based Gennova Biopharmaceuticals is making India's first mRNA vaccine known as
HGC019, in collaboration with US-based HDT Bio Corp + It has already demonstrated safety, immunogenicity,
neutralization antibody activity in the rodent and non-human primate models + The funding for clinical studies
awarded under the 'Mission CoVIDSuraksha’.
16. mRNA vaccines: They carry the molecular information to make the protein in the host usingthe synthetic RNA
of the virus. The host body produces the viral protein that is recognised bythe immune system, thereby enabling
the body to fight against the disease + These are considered safe as mRNA is non-infectious, non-integrating in
nature, and degraded by standard cellular mechanisms + They are highly efficacious because of their inherent
capability of being translated into proteins in the cell + Promising alternative to conventional vaccine approaches
because of their high potency, capacity for rapid development, and potential for low-cost manufacture and safe
administration + mRNA vaccines have elicited potent immunity against infectious disease targets in animal
models of influenza virus, Zika virus, rabies virus and others + Future mRNA vaccine technology may allow
for one vaccine to provide protection against multiple diseases, thus decreasing the number of shots neededfor
protection against common vaccine-preventable disease.

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17. Brucellosis: It is a bacterial disease that mainly infects cattle, swine, goats, sheep and dogs +Humans can get
infected if they come in direct contact with infected animals or by eating or drinking contaminated animal
products or by inhaling airborne agents + Most cases caused by ingesting unpasteurized milk or cheese from
infected goats or sheep + Symptoms include fever, sweats, malaise, anorexia, and headache and muscle pain +
Human to human transmission of the virus is rare + It is usually treated with antibiotics + The bacteria can be
transmitted via ingestion (eating), inhalation (breathing) and contact with an open wound + Itis endemic in India
causing huge economic losses to dairy industry due to Infertility, Abortion, Birth of weak off springs and
reduced productivity.
18. Virafin: It is used in treating people with chronic hepatitis B and C + DCGI granted emergency use approval
for pharma major Zydus Cadila’s antiviral drug ‘Virafin’, to treat moderate COVID-19 disease in adults + When
administered early on during COVID, Virafin will help patients recover faster and avoid much of the
complications; reduces viral load when given early on and can help in better disease management.
19. 2 Deoxy- D- glucose (2-DG): It is anti-COVID-19 therapeutic application of the drug developed by Institute of
Nuclear Medicine and Allied Sciences (INMAS), a lab of Defence Research and Development Organisation
(DRDO), in collaboration with Dr Reddy’s Laboratories (DRL), Hyderabad + Higher proportion of patients
treated with 2-DG showed RT-PCR negative conversion in COVID patients. The drug will be of immense
benefit to thepeople suffering from COVID-19 + The drug is used as an adjunct therapy. Adjunctive therapy is
administered along with primary treatment.
20. SAFE Strategy: WHO adopted in 1993; its mandate is to provide leadership and coordination of international
efforts in eliminating trachoma as a public health problem.
21. Classical Swine Fever/Hog cholera: It is a contagious viral disease of domestic and wild swine + It is caused
by a virus of the genus Pestivirus of the family Flaviviridae, which is closely related to the viruses that cause
bovine viral diarrhoea in cattle and border disease insheep + It is a disease listed by the OIE World Organisation
for Animal Health (OIE) Terrestrial Animal Health Code and must be reported to the OIE (OIE Terrestrial
Animal Health Code) + It is transmitted mainly through direct contact between healthy swineand those infected
with CSF virus. The virus is shed in saliva, nasal secretions, urine, and feces + The virus can survive in pork
and processed pork products for months when meat is refrigerated and for years when it is frozen + Pigs can
become infected by eating CSF- infected pork meat or products + It is found in Central and South America,
Europe, and Asia and parts of Africa. North America, Australia and New Zealand are currently free of the
disease + ICAR- Indian Veterinary research institute transferred the technology for CSF and Sheep Pox vaccines
to M/s Hester Biosciences through Agrinnovate India Limited; The new vaccine has been found to induce
protective immunity from 14th day of Vaccination till 18 months.
22. Sheep Pox Disease: It is a highly contagious viral disease of sheep caused by pox virus + Itis most severe of all
the animal pox diseases +The sheep pox virus is an aerosol, so it can betransmitted via contact with an infected
animal.
23. Mucormycosisor Black fungus: It is rare but serious fungal infection, is being detected frequently among
Covid-19 patients in some states + caused by group of moulds known as mucormycetes present naturally and
abundantly in environment + Sinuses or lungs of such individuals get affected after they inhale fungal spores
from air + It mainly affects people who are on medication for health problems that reduces their ability to fight
environmental pathogens and sickness + Vulnerable groups include those patients with diabetes mellitus,
cancer, or those who have had an organ transplant + Examples of fungi that most commonly cause
mucormycosis are: Rhizopus species, Mucor species, Rhizomucor species, Syncephalastrum species etc +
Mucormycosis isn’t contagious, so one can’t get it from an infected person. It can’t spread between people and
animals + Other type of fungal infectionsare:
• White Fungus or Candidiasis = caused by fungus called Candida + When fungusattacks private parts,
there is white colour discharge, thus the name white fungus
• Aspergillosis: caused by a common mould, Aspergillus
24. White fungus infection: It can be caused due to low immunity, or if people come in contact withthings that
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contain these moulds + it is affecting those coronavirus patients who are on oxygen support + It is the main
reason of Leucorrhoea in women - flow of a whitish, yellowish, or greenishdischarge from the vagina + Patients
of white fungus show Covid-like symptoms but test negative;the infection can be diagnosed through CT-Scan or
X-ray + can be prevented by sanitising the surroundings + It is more dangerous than black fungus or
mucormycosis
25. Kyasanur forest disease: KFD is caused by KFD virus, a member of virus family Flaviviridae + It was first
identified in 1957 when it was isolated from a sick monkey in Kyasanur Forest in Karanataka + Hard ticks
(Hemaphysalis spinigera) are the reservoir of KFD virus and once infected, remain so for life + Monkeys, shrews
and rodents are commonhosts of KFDV after being bitten by an infected tick + Infected tick bite or contact with
an infected animal (monkey, shrew etc.); no person to person transmission has been known so far + Symptoms
include chills, fever, headache, muscle pain, low RBCs and WBCs + There is no specific treatment ->
hospitalization and support therapy like hydration and usual precautions is important.
26. Yellow Fungus/ Mucor Septic: It is a fungal infection which generally does not occur in humans but occurs in
reptiles + Major causes are Poor Hygiene, High levels of humidity beyond the 30-40% range, Excess use of
steroids is also a possible reason in Covid-19 patients + Symptoms include laziness, loss of appetite, or no
appetite at all and weight loss; serious cases-> leakage of pus and slow healing of the open wound or necrosis
in which cellsin living tissue die prematurely.
27. Paediatric Inflammatory Multisystem Syndrome (PIMS-TS): It is also known as a multisystem
inflammatory syndrome in children (MIS-C) + It is a rare condition associatedwith SARS-CoV-2 infection that
was identified in 2020 + The symptoms include fever, rash,eye infection, and gastrointestinal symptoms + In
some rare cases, the condition can lead to multi-organ failure.
28. Inflammatory Bowel Disease: It is a group of intestinal disorders that cause prolonged inflammation of the
digestive tract + Ulcerative Colitis(UC) involves inflammation of thelarge intestine + Crohn’s disease can cause
inflammation in any part of the digestive tract. However, it mostly affects the tail end of the small intestine +
Major causes are Weak Immune System, Smoking, Ethnicity, Age and Environmental Factors among others +
Treatment include immunosuppressive drugs to control the inflammation.
29. Sickle cell disease: It is an inherited blood disease most common among people of African,Arabian and Indian
origin + It mainly affects hemoglobin, the molecule in red blood cells that delivers oxygen to cells throughout
the body + It can cause severe pain, referred to as sickle cell crises + Treatment include medication, blood
transfusions and rarely a bone- marrow transplant.
30. Delta plus variant: It has been formed due to a mutation in the Delta or B.1.617.2 variant + Delta Plus (AY.1)
is resistant to monoclonal antibodies cocktail + The mutation is in the spike protein of SARS-COV-2, which
helps the virus enter and infect the human cells + Symptoms include headaches, sore throats, runny noses, and
fever + It is more transmissible; this variant binds more easily to lung cells and is potentially resistant to
monoclonal antibodytherapy + Vaccine escape is possible if this variant evades the antibodies produced against
the surface spike protein by developing shape-changing mutations in that protein.

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31. Aducanumab: It is a new drug for the treatment of Alzheimer’s disease, approved by the USFood and Drug
Administration (FDA) + It is a monoclonal antibody drug which alters the course of Alzheimer disease by
slowing the deterioration of brain function by reducing the presence of amyloid-beta, a protein that forms
plaques in the brain.
32. Alzheimer’s disease: It is a progressive neurologic disorder which causes brain to shrink (atrophy) and brain
cells to die + It is the most common cause of dementia; caused by abnormal build-up of proteins in and around
brain cells + It mostly affects older adults, but itcan also affect people in their 30s or 40s + In India, it is estimated
that 5.3 million people (1 in 27) above the age of 60 have dementia in 2020.
33. Lymphatic Filariasis/Elephantiasis: It is a parasitic disease caused by infection with roundworms of
Filarioidea type + It impairs the lymphatic system and can lead to abnormal enlargement of the body parts,
causing pain and severe disability + Vector is Mosquitoes; it may be transmitted by different types of mosquitoes
including Culex mosquito + WHO runs Global program to eliminate lymphatic Filariasis since 2000 and targets
complete eliminationby 2020 + Maharashtra launched pilot project in Nagpur to initiate use of Triple drug
therapy for filariasis + Triple drug therapy was recommended by WHO-> combination of ivermectin,
diethylcarbamazine citrate and albendazole + Indian Government has also launched the Accelerate Plan for
Elimination of Lymphatic Filariasis(APELF) in 2018.
34. Guillain Barre Syndrome: It is a very rare autoimmune disorder in which the immune system attacks the
nerves of the patient + It is not contagious and not hereidtary; most common in adults over 50 years + Possible
causes include bacterial or viral infection andmay also be triggered by vaccine administration or surgery + It
affect the peripheral nerves that control muscle strength as well as those transmitting feelings of pain,
temperature, and touch + Treatment include Intravenous immunoglobulin (IVIG) and PlasmaTherapy.
35. Cytomegalovirus: It is also known as Human Herpesvirus 5 (HHV-5), CMV is a common herpesvirus that
often causes natural infections in childhood and remains asymptomatic in patients with normal immunity +
Once infected, the virus is retained in the body for life. Most people do not realize that they have been infected
by CMV because it rarely causes problems in healthy people + The medicines used to treat COVID-19 such as
steroids suppress the natural immunity of patients and reduce the lymphocyte count which makes them
susceptible to infections like CMV + Symptoms include gastrointestinal bleeding (blood in stools), diarrhea,
swollen glands, mouth ulcers, inflamed liver and inflammation + It spreads between humans via contact with
someone who has the disease; transmission happens through sexual contact and bodily fluids such as urine,
blood, saliva, tears, and faeces + Expecting mothers who develop an active CMV infection during pregnancy
can pass on the virus to their babies, which is known as congenital CMV + Presence of CMV canbe confirmed
by PCR testing for CMV + There is no specific cure for CMV but there are medicines that can help treat the
symptoms.
36. Monkey B virus: China has reported the first human infection case with Monkey B virus (BV) + It is an
alphaherpesvirus enzootic in macaques of the genus Macaca; first identified in 1932 + It is the only
identified old-world-monkey herpesvirus that displays severe pathogenicity in humans + It is transmitted via
direct contact and exchange of bodily secretions of monkeys + Flu-like symptoms such as fever and chills,
muscle ache, fatigue and headache, shortness of breath etc.
37. Myopia or Short- sightedness: It is the inability to see the distant objects clearly; it ariseswhen the image is
formed infront of the retina. A short sighted person can see near objectsclearly. This may arise due to either
excessive curvature of the cornea or elongation of the eyeball. This defect is corrected by wearing glasses with
a concave lens.
38. Hypermetropia or Long sighedness: This defect arises when the image is formed behind the retina. This defect
may arise due to shortening of eye ball. A long sighted person can seethe distant objects clearly. This defect is
corrected by wearing spectacles with convex lens (converging) of appropriate focal length. A converging lens
will correct this defect by converging the incoming rays so that the image is formed on the retina.
39. Zycov-D Vaccine: It is a ‘plasmid DNA’ vaccine, which uses a genetically engineered, non-replicating version
of a type of DNA molecule known as a ‘plasmid’ + Developed with the support of DBT and ICMR + The

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plasmids in this case are coded with the instructions to make the spike protein of SARS-CoV-2, the coronavirus
that causes Covid-19 + Needle is not required for administering it; instead, a spring-powered device delivers
the shot as a narrow, precise stream of fluid that penetrates the skin.
40. Marburg virus disease: It is a highly virulent disease which causes hemorrhagic fever;belongs to same family
of virus which causes Ebola virus disease + The outbreak was associated with laboratory work using African
green monkeys (Cercopithecus aethiops) imported from Uganda + Symptoms include Headache, vomiting
blood, muscle pains and bleeding through various orifices + Rousettus aegyptiacus, fruit bats of the
Pteropodidae family, are considered to be natural hosts of Marburg virus + It is transmitted to people from fruit
bats and spreads among humans through human-to-human transmission +Human to human transmission
possible via direct contact with the blood, secretions, organs or other bodily fluids of infected people, and with
surfaces and materials contaminated with these fluids + There is no vaccines or antiviral treatments approved
for MVD; supportive care rehydration with oral or intravenous fluids improves survival.
41. West Nile virus: It is a single-stranded RNA virus that causes West Nile fever + It is a member of the family
Flaviviridae, from the genus Flavivirus, which also contains the Zika virus, dengue virus, and yellow fever virus
+ It can cause a fatal neurological disease in humans; cause severe disease and death in horses + Birds are the
natural hosts of West Nile virus + Human infection is the result of bites from infected mosquitoes + Symptoms
will include fever, headache, body aches, skin rash and swollen lymph glands + Only way to reduce infection
in people is by raising awareness of the risk factors and educating people about the measures they can take to
reduce exposure to the virus + Vaccines are available foruse in horses but not yet available for people.
42. Global roadmap to defeat Meningitis (By 2030): WHO and its partners launched the first- ever global strategy
to defeat meningitis + It aims to prevent infections and improve care anddiagnosis for those affected + It also
aims to eliminate epidemics of bacterial meningitis — the deadliest form of the disease — and to reduce deaths
by 70% and halve the number of cases.
43. Nobel prize in medicine, 2021: Recently, the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 2021 was awarded jointly
to David Julius and Ardem Patapoutian for their discoveries of receptors for temperature and touch + Focused
their work on somatosensation-> ability of specialised organs such as eyes, ears and skin to see, hear and feel +
David Julius discovered TRPV1, a heat-sensing receptor + Ardem Patapoutian discovered two
mechanosensitive ion channels known as the Piezo channels; he found cellular cellular mechanism and the
underlying gene that translates a mechanical force on our skin into an electric nerve signal + The discoveries
allows us better understand how heat, cold and mechanical force can initiate the nerve impulses that allow us to
perceive and adapt to the world around us.
44. Xenotransplantation

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45. Pneumococcal conjugate vaccine: It is a mix of several bacteria of the pneumococci family,which are known
to cause pneumonia + It was introduced in India’s Universal Immunisation Programme (UIP) in a phased
manner from June 2017 onwards + India’s first fully indigenously developed pneumococcal conjugate vaccine
“Pneumosil” was launched in 2020 + Advantages of the conjugate vaccine include improved immune and
memory response andlonger lasting protection.
46. Cervical cancer: New research has found that the Human papillomavirus (HPV) vaccine(Cervarix) reduces the
risk of Cervical Cancer significantly in women + Cervical cancer occurs in the cells of the cervix - the lower
part of the uterus that connects to the vagina +The HPV vaccine (Cervarix) protects against two of the cancer-
causing strains, which areHPV 16 and 18 + Around 27% of total cervical cancer cases are from India + In India,
bivalent and quadrivalent HPV vaccines were licensed in 2008 and a non valent vaccine was licensed in 2018
+ Officially, the HPV vaccine has not been recommended forboys and males in India.
47. Molnupiravir: It is a repurposed Covid-19 drug, originally developed to treat influenza. It ismeant for mild or
moderately ill Covid-19 patients who are at risk of developing serious illness. The pill, if administered during
the first five days after contracting the infection, has the potential to prevent serious illnesses + It belongs to a
class of broad spectrum antiviral drugs called nucleoside analogues + It works by causing viruses to make errors
when copying their own RNA, introducing mutations that inhibit replication + These drugs work by preventing
the process of replication of the virus inside human cells.
48. Norovirus: It is an animal-borne disease transmitted through contaminated water and food + It causes
gastrointestinal illness, including inflammation of the lining of the stomach and intestines, severe vomiting and
diarrhea + It can cause serious complications in young children, the elderly and people with comorbidities + It
is easily transmitted through close contact with people who have been infected, or by touching contaminated
surfaces + The virus is spread through the excrement and vomit of an infected person.
49. SWADESH: It is the World’s First Multimodal Brain Imaging Data and Analytics, developed at DBT-National
Brain Research Centre, Haryana + It proposes a big-data architecture that manages and analyzes six modules,
namely neurodegenerative [AD, mild cognitive impairment (MCI), and Parkinson’s disease (PD)],
neuropsychiatric (schizophreniaand bipolar disorder), neurodevelopmental (autism and epilepsy), COVID-19-

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related disorders, other disorders, and healthy subjects.

50. Food fortification: It means deliberately increasing the content of essential micro-nutrientssuch as iron, folic
acid, vitamin A, zinc etc. so as to improve nutritional quality of food andto provide public health benefits +
MoH&FW and MoHRD have made fortified staples (wheat, oil) under ICDS and MDM schemes + Recently, a
group of scientists and activists warned the FSSAI of the adverse impacts of Food Fortification on health and
livelihoods + Mandatory fortification could lead to hypervitaminosis [Condition of abnormally high storage
levels of vitamins-> over excitement, irritability, or even toxicity] + Milk Fortification Project was launched by
the National Dairy Development Board (NDDB) in along with World Bank and Tata Trusts, as a pilot project
in 2017.
51. Covishield: It is an Oxford-AstraZeneca Covid-19 vaccine candidate technically referred toas AZD1222 or
ChAdOx 1 nCoV19 + It is developed by the University of Oxford in collaboration with Swedish-British
drugmaker AstraZeneca; Serum Institute of India (SII) isthe manufacturing partner in India + It is made by
weakened version of a common cold virus or the adenovirus that is found in chimpanzees.
52. Covaxin gets WHO nod for emergency use: Recently, WHO has given pre-qualification, orEmergency Use
Listing (EUL) for Bharat Biotech’s Covaxin vaccine + approval has been given by the Technical Advisory
Group (TAG), an independent advisory panel of the WHO + It has been granted EUL for use in persons 18
years and above, over two doses spaced four weeks apart. However, no recommendation has been made for use
in children + The move is expected to ease international travel for Indians who have opted for the vaccine +
WHO has already approved six vaccines for emergency use: AstraZeneca’s Covishield, Moderna’s mRNA-
1273, Sinopharm’s BBIBP-CorV, Sinovac’s CoronaVac, Pfizer/ BioNTech’s Comirnaty, and Johnson &
Johnson’s vaccine + (Covaxin = Covaxin is a whole virion- inactivated vaccine against SARS-CoV-2,
developed in partnership with the Indian Council of Medical Research and the National Institute of Virology,
Pune).
53. Silicosis: It is an occupational disease or hazard caused by exposure to dust + It is the mostcommon among
those who work in the quarrying, industrial, or construction industries + Symptoms include shortness of breath,
cough, fever and bluish skin + The nodules can takeup to 20 years to show on chest x-rays, and person may not
detect symptoms for years afterbeing exposed to silica + In India, the disease is common among construction
and mining workers in Gujarat, Pondicherry, Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh, Haryana, Chattisgarh, Bihar, West
Bengal, Jharkhand and Orissa + It is a notified disease under the Factories Act,1948and Mines Act,1952 +
Factory Act,1948 stipulates a properly-ventilated working environment, as well as regulations for dust
protection, overcrowding reduction, and basic occupational health care + Department of Social Justice and
Empowerment sponsored a silicosis portal.
54. Precision-guided sterile insect technique (pgSIT): It alters genes linked to male fertility - creating sterile
offspring and female flight in Aedes aegypti + CRISPR is used to sterilise male mosquitoes and render female
mosquitoes flightless + It is self-limiting and is not predicted to persist in the environment + pgSIT eggs can be
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shipped to a location threatenedby mosquito-borne disease or developed at an on-site facility that could produce
the eggs fornearby deployment.
55. INDIGAU: India’s First Cattle Genomic Chip for the conservation of pure varieties of indigenous cattle breeds
like, Gir, Kankrej, Sahiwal, Ongole etc + Developed by the concerted efforts of scientists of National Institute
of Animal Biotechnology (NAIB), Hyderabad, an autonomous institution under the aegis of the Department of
Biotechnology.
56. Multiple Sclerosis: It is an auto-immune disorder where the body’s own immune system attacks itself + First
areas to get affected is the myelin sheath, the layer covering the nerves +Symptoms can include numbness,
weakness in the limbs, sudden loss of balance, blurred vision, paralysis, and disability at the most advanced
stage + There is no permanent cure yet;patients are treated with a group of injections known as interferons, also
called “disease- modifying drugs.
57. Mud crab reovirus: Mud Crab Reovirus (MCRV) has been found to be the reason for the mass mortality of
wild crab (Scylla serrate) in Andhra Pradesh State + The MCRV, known asSleeping Disease, has taken a toll on
wild crab in every farming method; Crab Fattening, Crab polyculture in which shrimp and wild crab are cultured
in the same pond and exclusive mud crab ponds + It is responsible for the mass mortality of wild crabs. The
viral pathogen belongs to the family of ‘Reoviridae’. It mainly affects the connective tissue of hepatopancreas,
gills, and intestine.
58. Filoviruses: They belong to a virus family called Filoviridae and can cause severe hemorrhagic fever in humans
and nonhuman primates + So far, three genera of this virus family have been identified: Cuevavirus,
Marburgvirus and Ebolavirus + Filloviruses are confined primarily to regions of central, eastern and Western
Africa.
59. Epstein - Barr virus (EBV): can cause cancers like head and neck cancer, B-cell (a type of whiteblood cells)
cancer, stomach cancer, Burkett’s lymphoma, Hodgkin’s lymphoma, post-transplant lymphoid disorders, and
so on + More than 95% of adult population is positive for EBV + However, infection is mostly asymptomatic,
and very little is known about factors which trigger development of such disease + Scientists have recently
found that cancer-causing virus Epstein- Barr Virus (EBV) affects glial cells + Glial cells are non-neural cells
in central nervous system.
60. Bovine Mastitis: It is a potentially fatal mammary gland infection, that is most common in dairy cattle
worldwide + Bovine Mastitis is a common infectious disease, which affects farm productivity due to fall in milk
quality, thus impacting income-generating activities + Mastitis is caused by microorganisms ranging from virus,
mycoplasma, fungus and bacteria. Physical injuryto the mammary region, poor hygiene and trauma, also cause
this condition
61. Leptospirosis: a bacterial disease that effects humans and animals + Caused by bacteria of the genus Leptospira
+ It is also known as Rat fever + emerging tropical infectious disease + Zoonotic disease + Severe form of
leptospirosis is known as Weil’s disease + Transmission takes place dueto exposure to water contaminated by
urine from infected animals + Human to Human transmission is rare + Currently there is no preventive vaccine
for humans that are available in market + Disease is detected in areas which have witnessed excessive rainfall
or flooding
62. Neglected Tropical Diseases (NTDs): Neglected tropical diseases (NTDs) are a diverse group of tropical
infections which are common in low-income populations in developing regions of Africa, Asia, and the
Americas. They are caused by a variety of pathogens such as viruses, bacteria, protozoa and parasitic worms
(helminths) + India experiences the world’s largest absolute burdenof at least 11 major NTD (2018), though
India has already eliminated several NTDs, including guinea worm, trachoma, and yaws + Some major
initiatives to deal with NTDs are:
• WHO’s first road map for the prevention and control of NTDs was published in 2012
• END7: an international public awareness campaign with a mission to see the end of tropical diseases (NTDs)
by 2020
63. Bacteriophages: Phages, as they are also called, are viruses that specifically target bacteria and are also
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extremely strain-specific + While there is research to suggest that these phages may have anti-microbial
properties and could potentially destroy bacteria such as Mycobacterium streptococcus and Pseudomonas
Yersinia, it is unclear how phages — being viruses themselves —could have anti-viral properties + Phage therapy
has its uses in experimental medicine and has been used to treat infections from antibiotic-resistant bacteria.
CoVID- related
64. Covishield: It is an Oxford-AstraZeneca Covid-19 vaccine candidate technically referred to as
AZD1222 or ChAdOx 1 nCoV19 + It is developed by the University of Oxford in collaboration with
Swedish-British drugmaker AstraZeneca; Serum Institute of India (SII) isthe manufacturing partner in
India + It is made by weakened version of a common cold virus or the adenovirus that is found in
chimpanzees.
65. Covaxin gets WHO nod for emergency use: Recently, WHO has given pre-qualification, or
Emergency Use Listing (EUL) for Bharat Biotech’s Covaxin vaccine + approval has been given by the
Technical Advisory Group (TAG), an independent advisory panel of the WHO + It has been granted
EUL for use in persons 18 years and above, over two doses spaced four weeks apart. However, no
recommendation has been made for use in children + The move is expected to ease international travel
for Indians who have opted for the vaccine + WHO has already approved six vaccines for emergency
use: AstraZeneca’s Covishield, Moderna’s mRNA-1273, Sinopharm’s BBIBP-CorV, Sinovac’s
CoronaVac, Pfizer/ BioNTech’s Comirnaty, and Johnson & Johnson’s vaccine + (Covaxin = Covaxin
is a whole virion- inactivated vaccine against SARS-CoV-2, developed in partnership with the Indian
Council of Medical Research and the National Institute of Virology, Pune).
66. PANGO Network = Phylogenetic Assignment of Named Global Outbreak Lineages or PANGO
Network is a software tool developed by Dr. Áine O'Toole and members of the Andrew Rambaut
laboratory, with an associated web application developed by the Centre for Genomic Pathogen
Surveillance in South Cambridgeshire + An open and global consortium of researchers, provides a
system for naming different lineages of SARS-CoV-2 and as of date, 49 recombinant lineages of
SARS-CoV-2 have been detected and assigned a lineage name + Its purpose is to implement a dynamic
nomenclature (known as the PANGO nomenclature) to classify genetic lineages for SARS-CoV-2, the
virus that causes COVID-19 + (XBB Lineage = While Europe and North America are currently seeing
an emergence of Omicron variants, especially BQ.1 and its sublineages, a recombinant lineage XBB
has been emerging in Asia + While the XBB lineage is present in multiple countries including India,
XBB has been significantly emerging concurrently with a surge in COVID-19 infections in Singapore.
While Singapore detected its earliest XBB variant in September 2022, XBB and its sublineages
account for over 50% of the genomes from Singapore in recent weeks)
67. Corbevex = Recently, the Union government approved ‘Corbevax’ by Biological E as a precaution
dose against COVID-19 for those above 18 who are fully vaccinated with either Covaxin or Covishield
+ 18 plus people can get the dose 26 weeks after the administration of the second dose. It will be
considered as a precaution dose + Corbevax is still awaiting emergency use listing (EUL) by the World
Health Organization + This approval is the first time that a booster dose different from the one used
for primary vaccination is to be allowed in India + The approval is based on the recommendations
made by the COVID-19 Working Group of the National Technical Advisory Group on Immunization
+ (Corbevex Working: It is a “recombinant protein sub-unit” vaccine. It means it is made up of a
specific part of SARS-CoV-2 - the spike protein on the virus’s surface. The spike protein allows the
virus to enter the cells in the body so that it can replicate and cause disease. However, when this protein

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alone is given to the body, it is not expected to be harmful as the rest of the virus is absent + The body
is expected to develop an immune response against the injected spike protein.Therefore, when the real
virus attempts to infect the body, it will already have an immune response ready that will make it
unlikely for the person to fall severely ill).
67. ACE2 Enzyme = research has found that human enzyme ACE2 may be offering protection to women
against Covid-19 disease + It enables the novel coronavirus to infect the cell + It is a key in protecting
against cardiovascular, lung and kidney diseases + It is linked to X chromosome, thus women have
twice as many active genetic instructions to make ACE2 + Because of their chromosomes, women (XX
chromosome) have two copies of the ACE2 gene and men (XY chromosome) have only one copy +
This makes female Covid-19 patients face less severe disease complications and a lower risk of dying
than male patients.
68. Molnupiravir: It is a repurposed Covid-19 drug, originally developed to treat influenza. It ismeant for
mild or moderately ill Covid-19 patients who are at risk of developing serious illness. The pill, if
administered during the first five days after contracting the infection, has the potential to prevent serious
illnesses + It belongs to a class of broad spectrum antiviral drugs called nucleoside analogues + It works
by causing viruses to make errors when copying their own RNA, introducing mutations that inhibit
replication + These drugs work by preventing the process of replication of the virus inside human cells.
68. WHO Labels for CoVID Variants = WHO will assign labels for those variants that are designated
as Variants of Interest or Variants of Concern by WHO + These labels do not replace existing scientific
names (e.g. those assigned by GISAID, Nextstrain and Pango), which convey important scientific
information and will continue to be used in research + Few labels given by WHO are
Name by WHO Scientific Name Country of origin
Alpha B.1.1.7 U.K.
Beta B.1.351 South Africa
Gama P.1 Brazil
Delta B.1.617.2 India
69. AY.1 = India formally acknowledged the occurrence of AY.1, a coronavirus variant that is closely
related to the prevailing Delta variant + AY.1, or B.1.617.2.1, has a mutation called K417N that is
linked to high infectivity and has been associated with the Beta variant, first identified in South Africa
70. C.1.2 Corona Virus Variant = Mutuated form of C.1 Variant + Prevalent in Africa
71. Mu Variant = World Health Organization (WHO) has classified another SARS-CoV-2 variant —
B.1.621 — as a variant of interest (VOI) and has called it Mu variant + The four other variants of
interest are Eta, Iota, Kappa and Lambda + Mu variant was first found in Colombia in January 2021.
There have been few reported cases of the Mu variant and some larger outbreaks have been reported
from countries in South America and in Europe
72. AY.4.2 = Delta Covid Strain’s Subvariant + It is a descendant of the Delta variant of COVID-19. The
Delta variant, also known as B.1.617.2, was first identified in India in October 2020. The AY.4.2
(dubbed “Delta Plus” and now named VUI-21OCT-01 by the UK Health Security Agency (UKHSA))
sub-lineage contains 2 mutations in its spike protein — A222V and Y145H
73. iNCOVACC = India’s first intranasal vaccine for COVID-19 + India’s first nasal COVID-19 vaccine,
developed by Bharat Biotech with technology in-licensed from Washington University-St Louis, has been
approved for primary immunisation in those 18 and above + It has been approved for primary immunisation,
meaning it can be given to the unimmunised to protect against Covid-19 + Bharat Biotech’s ChAd36-SARS-
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CoV-S COVID-19 (Chimpanzee Adenovirus Vectored) is India’s first intranasal vaccine that will be delivered
through the nose instead of a shot in the arm. Product name is iNCOVACC.
74. NeoCoV = Scientists in China have warned about a new strain of coronavirus, NeoCov, related to the
Middle East respiratory syndrome MERS-coronavirus + NeoCoV carries with it the potentially
combined high mortality rate of MERS-CoV (where one in three infected people die on average) and
the high transmission rate of the current SARS-CoV-2 coronavirus + NeoCoV is a bat coronavirus
that was first identified in 2011. It was identified in a species of bats known as Neoromicia, which is
where the name NeoCoV was derived from. Commonly known as aloe bats, this species is distributed
in the Afro-Malagasy region. NeoCoV shares an 85% similarity to MERS-CoV in the genome
sequence, making it the closest known relative of MERS-CoV
75. Omicron = The new variant B 1.1. 529, which was designated as a ‘Variant of Concern’ by World
Health Organisation has been assigned the name Omicron + Reported by public health officials of
South Africa, the new variant has triggered a lot of concern worldwide over a probable resurgence of
Covid infections + The WHO currently lists
76. S-gene = S-gene refers to the gene that codes for the spike protein, or the most distinctive part of the
coronavirus + SARS-CoV-2, like many other coronaviruses, has key protein-regions that define its
structure: The envelope protein (E), the nucleocapsid protein(N), the membrane protein (M) and the
spike protein (S) + World Health Organization has said the S gene is not present in the Omicron variant
+ Union health ministry said that Omicrondoes not escape RT-PCR or rapid antigen test. While these
tests will confirm the presence of Covid, the variant will be identified only through genome sequencing
and through S-gene target failure + RT-PCR tests in India, as of now, only focus on the E, N and Rd
Rp genes and the S test was not required
77. Nucleocapsid or ‘N’ protein = The nucleocapsid Protein (N-protein) is the most abundant protein in
coronavirus. The N-protein is a highly immunogenic phosphoprotein, and it is normally very
conserved. The N protein of coronavirus is often used as a marker in diagnostic assays
78. R Value = R-value or R-factor or R0 (R-naught) or Reproduction Rate refers to how many persons an
infected person infects on an average + It indicates the speed at which the Covid infection is spreading
in the country, along with the ‘efficiency’ of the spread + An R-Factor of 1 would mean that an infected
person is giving the virus to 1 other person. An R-Factor of 5 would mean that 1 person is spreading
the virus to 5 other people
79. D-Dimer Test = When a body part is damaged or is bleeding, body tries to stop bleeding by clumping
together cells there to make a network using fibrin protein. This makes a blood clot + When the healing
is done, the body starts to degrade that clot and starts breaking down the fibrin. When the fibrin breaks
down, it forms fibrin degradation products or FDPs. One of the FDP is D-Dimer + it shows presence
of clots in the lung of the body when COVID becomes serious + it is detectable for up to 8 hours after
formation until time kidney clears it out + A higher level of D dimer in body shows that there is lot of
clot in body which can be a dangerous sign when affected with COVID-19 + So D-Dimer test is used
to assess for severity of COVID disease and if the patient is going to need oxygen in the future.
80. CoviSelf = India’s first Covid-19 self-use Rapid Antigen Test (RAT) kit + approved by Indian Council

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of Medical Research (ICMR) + developed in India by Mylab + gives results within 15 minutes + test
is synced with a mobile app, which directly feeds the positive case’s report on the ICMR portal +
Rapid Antigen Test is a point-of-care test on swabbed nasal samples that detects antigens in the SARS-
CoV-2 virus. RAT is done outside the usual lab setting, and it gives quick results
81. ViraGen = Recently, the Cipla Limited has launched a Covid-19 test kit called ‘ViraGen’ + It is
a polymerase chain reaction (Covid-19 RT-PCR) test for Covid-19 in India + It is a real-time detection
kit approved by the ICMR (Indian Council of Medical Research) + The commercialisation of test kit
‘ViraGen’ is announced by Cipla in partnership with Ubio Biotechnology Systems Pvt. Ltd
82. Mucormycosisor Black fungus = rare but serious fungal infection, is being detected frequently
among Covid-19 patients in some states + caused by group of moulds known as mucormycetes present
naturally and abundantly in environment + Sinuses or lungs of such individuals get affected after they
inhale fungal spores from air + It mainly affects people who are on medication for health problems
that reduces their ability to fight environmental pathogens and sickness + Vulnerable groups include
those patients with diabetes mellitus, cancer, or those who have had an organ transplant + Examples
of fungi that most commonly cause mucormycosis are: Rhizopus species, Mucor species, Rhizomucor
species, Syncephalastrum species etc + Mucormycosis isn’t contagious, so one can’t get it from an
infected person. It can’t spread between people and animals + Other type of fungal infections are:
White Fungus or Candidiasis = caused by fungus called Candida + When fungus attacks
private parts, there is white colour discharge, thus the name white fungus
Aspergillosis: caused by a common mould, Aspergillus
83. White fungus infection = can be caused due to low immunity, or if people come in contact with things
that contain these moulds + it is affecting those coronavirus patients who are on oxygen support + It
is the main reason of Leucorrhoea in women - flow of a whitish, yellowish, or greenish discharge from
the vagina + Patients of white fungus show Covid-like symptoms but test negative; the infection can
be diagnosed through CT-Scan or X-ray + can be prevented by sanitising the surroundings + It is more
dangerous than black fungus or mucormycosis
84. Paediatric inflammatory multisystem syndrome (PIMS-TS) = also known as multisystem
inflammatory syndrome in children (MIS-C) + rare immune overreaction that occurs approximately
four to six weeks after mild or asymptomatic SARS-CoV-2 infection + Symptoms include fever, rash,
eye infection, and gastrointestinal symptoms (e.g. diarrhoea, stomach-ache, nausea). In some rare
cases, the condition can lead to multi-organ failure
85. Remdesivir = is an anti-viral drug that was manufactured in 2014 to fight the Ebola virus and the
Middle East Respiratory Syndrome (MERS) + Remdesivir is injected intravenously and it subsumes
itself into the genetic material of the virus and prevents the replicating enzyme from making new
copies of the virus + When the world was struck by the COVID-19 pandemic, the drug was found to
be useful in fighting SARS-COV-2 and it was given authorisation for emergency-use + Remdesivir
was approved as the first drug to treat the virus by the US Food and Drug Administration in 2020.
However, WHO says there is still no evidence that the drug is beneficial in treating hospitalized
COVID-19 patients + Remdesivir is designed to obstruct the stage of replication, when the virus
creates copies of itself, followed endlessly by the copies creating copies of themselves.

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86. Itolizumab = In 2020, Drugs Controller General of India (DCGI) has cleared Itolizumab for restricted
emergency use in Covid-19 cases + Itolizumab is a drug used to treat severe chronic plaque psoriasis.
Plaque psoriasis is a chronic autoimmune condition in which skin cells build up and form scales and
itchy, dry patches + Itolizumab is for emergency use only in the treatment of Cytokine Storm
Syndrome (CSS) in Covid-19 patients. CSS is an uncontrolled attempt by the immune system to
neutralise the virus that often ends up damaging the lungs and other organs and even death.
87. Baricitinib = Drugmaker Natco Pharma has received emergency use approval for Baricitinib tablets,
1 mg, 2 mg and 4 mg strengths, from the Central Drugs Standard Control Organisation (CDSCO) in
India + Baricitinib, in combination with Remdesivir, is used for treatment of COVID-19 positive
patients
88. Ivermectin = anti-parasitic agent + used for the treatment and eradication of two life-threatening
illnesses - Onchocerciasis and filariasis + Orally-administered Ivermectin is still listed in India’s
revised national COVID-19 treatment protocol as a possible treatment option for mild COVID-19
patients under home isolation + WHO has recommended against the use of ‘Ivermectin’ drug for
COVID-19 except within clinical trials
89. Paxlovid = Recently, US Pharma Giant Pfizer has received USFDA emergency use authorization for
its Covid-19 antiviral treatment Paxlovid + The drug, Paxlovid, is a faster way to treat early COVID-
19 infections + It is an antiviral Covid-19 treatment candidate, which is administered in combination
with low dose HIV medicine ritonavir + It consists of nirmatrelvir, which inhibits a SARS-CoV-2
protein to stop the virus from replicating, and ritonavir, which slows down nirmatrelvir’s breakdown
to help it remain in the body for a longer period.
90. Molnupiravir = investigational new drug for COVID-19 + Pharmaceutical major Merck and
Ridgeback Biotherapeutics announced this drug + The company name for molnupiravir is ‘EIDD
2801’ + The antiviral drugs work by inhibiting a process by which the virus replicates. In case of
molnupiravir drug, when tested on cultured cells, it works by altering critical enzymes which are
necessary for virus to start replicating the host cells of body + Molnupiravir is a pro-drug, which means
that it needs to undergo processing in the body to become active. It is metabolised to a ribonucleoside
analog, which is essentially a sugar molecule linked to a molecule that resembles a nucleic acid.
Nucleic acids are needed to make RNA, and if molnupiravir is used, the viral enzyme instead of using
real cytidine or uridine uses a molecule that is generated by metabolism of molnupiravir called NHC-
TP
91. Drug Niclosamide = It is a drug used for tapeworm treatment. Other worms, such as pinworms and
roundworms, are not affected + Recently, In an exploratory study, the repurposed drug, an
anthelmintic originally used to treat tapeworm infection, was found to show promising results in
treating COVID-19.
92. Corbevax = “recombinant protein sub-unit” vaccine + it is made up of a specific part of SARS-CoV-
2 — spike protein on virus’s surface + spike protein allows virus to enter cells in body so that it can
replicate and cause disease + when this protein alone is given to the body, it is not expected to be
harmful as the rest of the virus is absent but body is expected to develop an immune response against

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the injected spike protein + when real virus attempts to infect the body, it will have immune response
ready.
93. Covovax = WHO issued an emergency use listing (EUL) for NVX-CoV2373 as 9th such vaccine,
expanding the basket of WHO-validated vaccines against the SARS-CoV-2 virus + Covovax is the
Indian version of a Covid-19 vaccine developed by Novavax Inc and manufactured under licence by
the Serum Institute of India (SII) + It is a recombinant protein vaccine that uses spike proteins to teach
the body how to develop immunity against the novel coronavirus + Covovax has greater efficacy as a
booster dose than Covishield + Covovax requires two doses and is stable at 2 to 8 degrees Celsius
refrigerated temperatures
94. Sinovac COVID-19 vaccine = WHO has given approval for global use of covid-19 Vaccine by
Sinovac Biotech Ltd. Of China + CoronaVac or Sinovac COVID-19 vaccine is an inactivated virus
COVID-19 vaccine + It was developed by Chinese company Sinovac Biotech
95. Soberana & Abdala = These are vaccines for Covid-19 being developed by Cuba + Both the vaccines
are three-shot vaccines + Both are subunit vaccines, meaning that a part of the virus forms the antigen
and is hitched on to another construct. A subunit vaccine is a vaccine that presents one or more antigens
to the immune system without introducing pathogen particles, whole or otherwise. The word "subunit"
simply means the antigen is a fragment of the pathogen, and the antigens involved can be any
molecule, such as proteins, peptides or polysaccharides.
• Soberana: This is the world’s first conjugate vaccines for COVID-19 + In Soberana 2,
spike protein is chemically linked to the tetanus toxoid, making it a conjugate vaccine.
• Abdala: In Abdala, spike protein of coronavirus is combined with chemically
manufactured adjuvant.
96. Covaxin gets WHO nod for emergency use = Recently, WHO has given pre-qualification, or
Emergency Use Listing (EUL) for Bharat Biotech’s Covaxin vaccine + approval has been given by
the Technical Advisory Group (TAG), an independent advisory panel of the WHO + It has been
granted EUL for use in persons 18 years and above, over two doses spaced four weeks apart. However,
no recommendation has been made for use in children + The move is expected to ease international
travel for Indians who have opted for the vaccine + WHO has already approved six vaccines for
emergency use: AstraZeneca’s Covishield, Moderna’s mRNA-1273, Sinopharm’s BBIBP-CorV,
Sinovac’s CoronaVac, Pfizer/ BioNTech’s Comirnaty, and Johnson & Johnson’s vaccine + (Covaxin
= Covaxin is a whole virion-inactivated vaccine against SARS-CoV-2, developed in partnership with
the Indian Council of Medical Research and the National Institute of Virology, Pune)

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DEFENCE
1. Defence Research Development Organization (DRDO): Under the administrative control of Ministry of
Defence + It was established in 1958 after combining Technical Development Establishment (TDEs) of the
Indian Army and the Directorate of Technical Development & Production (DTDP) with the Defence Science
Organisation (DSO) + Its mission is to design, develop and lead to production state-of-the-art sensors, weapon
systems, platforms and allied equipment for our Defence Services.
2. Missiles: Tactical guided missiles are generally categorized according to the location of the launch platform and
target. There are five types, air-to-air, air-to-surface, surface-to-air, anti-ship, and antitank, or assault.
• Missiles according to the location of launch and target
o Surface to Surface Missiles(S2S): A surface-to-surface missile or ground-to-ground missile is a missile
designed to be launched from the ground or the sea and strike targets on land or at sea.
o Surface to Air Missiles(S2A): A surface-to-air missile (SAM), also known as a ground- to-air missile
(GTAM) or surface-to-air guided weapon (SAGW), is a missile designed tobe launched from the ground
to destroy aircraft or other missiles.
o Air to Air(A2A): An air-to-air missile (AAM) is a missile fired from an aircraft for the purpose of
destroying another aircraft. AAMs are typically powered by one or more rocketmotors, usually solid
fueled but sometimes liquid-fueled.
• Classification based on technology and Assault
o Ballistic Missiles: Ballistic missile, is a rocket-propelled self-guided strategic-weapons system that
follows a ballistic trajectory to deliver a payload from its launch site to a predetermined target. Ballistic
missiles can carry conventional high explosives as well as chemical, biological, or nuclear munitions.
Examples include Trishul, Akash, Prahaar etc.
o Cruise Missiles: A cruise missile is a guided missile used against terrestrial or naval targetsthat remains in
the atmosphere and flies the major portion of its flight path at an approximately constant speed. Cruise
missiles are designed to deliver a large warhead overlong distances with high precision. Examples include
Brahmos and Nirbhay.

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3. Integrated Guided Missile Development Programme (IGMDP): In 1983, IGDMP was launched by GOI to
achieve self-sufficiency in the development and production of wide range of ballistic missiles + It was the
brainchild of renowned scientist Dr. APJ Abdul Kalam + The missiles developed under IGMDP are:
4. Agni Prime [AGNI-P] = New Generation Nuclear Capable medium-range Ballistic Missile + Successfully tested
by DRDO on Dr APJ Abdul Kalam island off the coast of Odisha, Balasore + Range is between 1,000-2,000 kms
+ Solid-fuelled missile + weighs 50% less than Agni 3 and has new guidance and a new generation of propulsion
-> Due to its long range, this missile can be used to target enemy armadas in the Indo-Pacific + Since it is a
canisterised missile, it can be launched from rail and road and stored for a longer period and transported all across
the country as per operational requirements.
5. BrahMos Missile = Supersonic Cruise Missile + It is a two-stage missile with solid propellant boosteras first stage
and liquid ramjet as the second stage + It is named as combination of names of Brahmaputra and Moskva rivers
+ They are designed and developed by BrahMos Aerospace, a joint venture company of DRDO and
Mashinostroyenia of Russia + The range of the missile was originallycapped at 290 km as per obligations of the
Missile Technology Control Regime (MTCR). Following India’s entry into the club in 2016, the range has been
extended to 450 km (and to 600 km at a later stage) + Submarine launched version has capability of being
launched from around 50 meters below the water surface + BrahMos equipped Sukhoi-30s have a range of 1,500
kms at a stretch without mid-air refuelling + ecently, Philippines has signed a deal with BrahMos Aerospace
Private Ltd. for the supply of a shore-based anti-ship variant of the BrahMos supersonic cruise missile. This is
the first export order for the missile, a joint product of India and Russia + Other similar missile systems:
• HD-1 = China + supersonic missile + HD-1 needs less fuel than its competitors, rendering thelighter
missile able to fly faster and farther
• Tomahawk = used by U.S and its allies + is a long-range, all-weather, subsonic cruise missile
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+ can strike targets precisely from 1,000 miles away

• Sea Breaker = Israel + the 5th generation long range, autonomous, precision-guided missile system, is
meant to hit high-value maritime and land targets
• P-800 Oniks/Yakhont = Russia + supersonic anti-ship cruise missiles that has an effective guidance
system and is a fire-and-forget missile
6. “Make” category for Defense Procurement = The provision of the ‘Make’ category of capital acquisition in
Defence Procurement Procedure (DPP) is a vital pillar for realizing the vision behind the ‘Make in India’
initiative + ‘Make’ Procedure has following sub-categories:
• Make-I (Government Funded): Projects under ‘Make-I’ sub-category will involve Government funding of
90%, released in a phased manner and based on the progress of the scheme, as per terms agreed between
MoD and the vendor.
• Make-II (Industry Funded): Projects under ‘Make-II’ category will involve prototype development of
equipment/ system/ platform or their upgrades or their subsystems/ sub-assembly/assemblies/ components.
They aim primarily for import substitution/innovative solutions, for which no Government funding will be
provided for prototype development purposes.
• Another sub-category under ‘Make’ is ‘Make-III’ that covers military hardware that may not be designed
and developed indigenously, but can be manufactured in the country for import substitution, and Indian firms
may manufacture these in collaboration with foreign partners.
7. AD-1 Missile System = Developed by DRDO + AD-1 is a long range interceptor missile designed for both low
exo-atmospheric and endo-atmospheric interception of long range ballistic missiles as well as aircraft + It is
propelled by a two stage solid motor and equipped with an indigenously developed advanced control system,
navigation and guidance algorithm to precisely guide it to the target + The missile is capable of striking down
incoming adversary missiles and aircraft.
8. Twin Engine Deck Based Fighter (TEDBF) = Twin Engine Deck Based Fighter is a canard delta wing, twin-
engine, carrier-based, multirole combat aircraft currently under development for the Indian Navy + The TEDBF
is being designed and developed by the Aeronautical Development Agency, and will be manufactured by
Hindustan Aeronautics Limited + The TEDBF aircraft is seen as a replacement for the existing and ageing fleet
of Mig-29K fighters.
9. High-Energy Laser System (HELS) = HELS weapons emit enough thermal energy to directly render a target
ineffective without using a conventional munition + They could affect targets across the domains of air, ground,
sea, and space + SFO Technologies has partnered with DRDO to develop high-energy laser system (HELS). The
collaboration with DRDO’s Center for High Energy Systems and Sciences (CHESS) is to develop a 2 kW single-
mode continuous wave fiber laser. HESS is a defence lab under DRDO for research and works on HELS + HELS
is a laser weapon belonging to Directed Energy Weapon (DEW) Category.
10. Garuda VII = Air space exercise between India and France + This is 4th edition to be conducted in India.
11. Garuda Shakti = Bilateral Military Exercise at Army level + between India and Indonesia + 8th Edition recently
held at held at Karawang, Indonesia.
12. Exercise Naseem Al Bahr (Sea Breeze), 2022 = Bilateral Naval Exercise initiated in 1993 + between India and
Oman + 13th edition recently held off the coast of Oman + Oman is the first country in the Gulf Cooperation
Council (GCC) which has been conducting bilateral exercises with India jointly.
13. Austra Hind 22 = Bilateral training exercise + between India and Australia + to take place at Mahajan Field
Firing Ranges (Rajasthan) + This is the first exercise in the series of AUSTRA HIND with participation of all
arms and services contingent from both armies.
14. Exercise Harimau Shakti 2022 = Bilateral Military Exercise + conducted between India and Malaysia since
2012 + took place at Pulai, Kluang, Malaysia
15. Indo-Pacific Endeavour 2022 = It is a Maritime Partnership Exercise involving Royal Australian Navy and
Indian Navy.

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16. Yudh Abhyas 22 = It is an annual India-US exercise

17. Exercise 'Samanvay 2022' = Conducted by Indian Air force + Annual Joint Humanitarian Assistance and
Disaster Relief (HADR) Exercise + Conducted at Air Force Station Agra.
18. Sea Vigil-22 Exercise = The third edition of the ‘pan-India’ coastal defence Exercise ‘Sea Vigil-22’ is scheduled
to be held soon + The exercise was conceptualised in 2018 to validate various measures that have been instituted
towards enhancing maritime security since ‘26/11’ + The exercise is a warm-up for the Indian Navy’s major
Theatre Level Readiness Operational Exercise (TROPEX), which takes place every two years.
19. SPACE Facility - Indian Navy = Defence Research & Development Organization (DRDO) launches sonar
systems test and evaluation facility for the Indian Navy at Naval Physical & Oceanographic Laboratory (NPOL)
Kochi + The facility is named as Hull Module of Submersible Platform for Acoustic Characterisation and
Evaluation (SPACE) + It is a state-of-the-art testing and evaluation facility for sonar systems developed for use
by the Indian navy onboard various platforms, including ships, submarines and helicopters + The SPACE facility
is based on the concept design and requirements projected by NPOL and has been constructed by M/s L&T
Shipbuilding, Chennai.
20. Dirty Bomb = It is also known as a “Radiological dispersion device” + It is a weapon that combines conventional
explosives like dynamite and radioactive material such as uranium + Dirty bombs do not create city-flattening
atomic explosions but are designed to spread toxic waste + The method of delivery could be a missile, an airplane
stocked with radioactive materials or a strategically planted improvised explosive device + Recently, Moscow
has accused that Kyiv might be planning to use a so-called dirty bomb.
21. HAWK Air Defense Equipment = It is a medium-range, surface-to-air guided missile that provides air defense
coverage against low-to-medium-altitude aircraft + It entered service with the US Army in 1959, during the
Vietnam war + The HAWK system was the predecessor to the PATRIOT missile defense system.
22. Rustom 2.0 = Rustom-2 is also known as Tapas-BH (Tactical Airborne Platform for Aerial Surveillance-Beyond
Horizon 201) + It has been designed and developed by the Aeronautical Development Establishment (ADE),
Bengaluru, with the production partners being Hindustan Aeronautics Ltd. (HAL) and Bharat Electronics Ltd +
It is being developed to carry out surveillance and reconnaissance (ISR) role + Its navigation was done using
GAGAN satellites through the onboard SATCOM system.
23. Prachand = The Indian Air Force (IAF) inducted the first fleet of indigenously-built Light Combat Helicopters
(LCH), which have been developed primarily for mountain warfare + HAL Prachand (meaning “Fierce”) is an
Indian multi-role, light attack helicopter designed and manufactured by the Hindustan Aeronautics Limited
(HAL) under project LCH + The LCH drew extensively on an earlier indigenous helicopter developed and
manufactured by HAL, the ALH Dhruv.
24. C-295 Aircraft = It is a medium tactical transport aircraft that was designed and initially manufactured by the
Spanish aerospace company CASA + The C-295 is an aircraft of 5-10 tonne capacity used for tactical transport
of up to 71 passengers or 50 paratroopers, and for logistic operations to locations that are not accessible by current
heavier aircraft + It will replace the Indian Air Force’s ageing fleet of Avro-748 planes + It can operate from
short or unprepared airstrips + It will be installed with the indigenous Electronic Warfare Suite + Recently,
Cabinet Committee on Security (CCS) has cleared procurement of 56 C-295 MW medium transport aircraft for
the Indian Air Force under the Make-in-India initiative in the aerospace sector.
25. HTT-40 Indigenous basic Trainer Aircraft = HTT-40 is a basic training aircraft developed by Hindustan
Aeronautics Limited (HAL) for the Indian Air Force (IAF) + It will replace the ageing fleet of HAL HPT-32
Deepak trainers that are in service with the IAF + It has a maximum speed of 450km/h and can reach a maximum
distance of 1,000 km. The stall speed with flaps down is 135 km/h.
26. 4th Indigenisation List = Recently, PM released 4th indigenisation list that bars import of over 100 defence items
+ Provision of Indigenisation list has been envisioned in Defence Acquisition Procedure (DAP) 2020 +
Indigenisation list contains the items has which Defence Ministry will stop importing + It essentially means that
the Armed Forces—Army, Navy and Air Force—will only procure all of these items from domestic
manufacturers -> The manufacturers could be private sector players or defence Public Sector Undertakings

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(Revision Notes)
(DPSUs). All the items included in these lists will be procured from indigenous sources as per provisions given
in Defence Acquisition Procedure (DAP) 2020.
27. PowerEX = Designed and conducted by CERT-In in collaboration with Power-CSIRTs (Computer Security
Incident Response Teams in Power sector) for Power Sector Utilities.
28. Manesar Anti-Terror Exercise 2022 = National Security Guard (NSG) is holding a multinational Joint Anti-
Terror Exercise (JATE) recently, under the Regional Anti-Terrorist Structure (RATS) of the Shanghai
Cooperation Organisation (SCO) framework + Pakistan, which is a part of SCO will take part in counter-terror
drills in Haryana’s Manesar in October
29. Exercise Garuda-VII = It is a bilateral exercise between Indian Air Force (IAF) and French Air and Space Force
(FASF) at Air Force Station Jodhpur, Rajasthan
30. Exercise Simbex = The Indian Navy is hosting the Singapore India Maritime Bilateral Exercise (SIMBEX) at
Visakhapatnam.
31. IMT TRILAT = It is Indian Navy’s maiden Trilateral Exercise with Mozambique and Tanzania.
32. Prasthan Exercise = An offshore security exercise conducted under aegis of Headquarters, Eastern Naval
Command + Conducted every six months to integrate efforts of all maritime stakeholders involved in offshore
defence.
33. IBSAMAR = It is a joint multinational maritime exercise, among the Indian, Brazilian and South Africa navies.
34. Project 75 = Six Scorpene-class submarines are currently being built under 'Project 75' of the Indian Navy + The
submarines, designed by French firm Naval Group are being built by Mazagon Dock Limited in Mumbai + first
of these, INS Kalvari was commissioned in 2017, second INS Khanderi in 2019, third INS Karanj in 2020 +
Recently, 4th submarine INS Vela was commissioned at the Indian Navy’s Western Command, Mumbai (Vela
is named after a type of Indian fish belonging to the stingray family) + INS Vela is equipped with C303 anti-
torpedo countermeasure system, and can carry up to 18 torpedoes or Exocet anti-ship missiles or 30 mines in
place of torpedoes + With this, the Navy currently has 16 conventional and one nuclear submarines in service +
INS Vagir and INS Vagsheer (5th and 6th Submarine) are under trial and development phases.
35. Project 75I = Project of Indian Navy + follow-on of the Project 75 Kalvari-class submarine for the Indian navy
+ This project envisages indigenous construction of submarines equipped with the state-of-the-art Air
Independent Propulsion system worth ₹40,000 crore through the Strategic Partnership (SP) model of the Defence
Procurement Procedure. It will be the first under the strategic partnership model which was promulgated in 2017
to boost indigenous defence manufacturing + Project 75 (I), approved in 2007, is part of the Indian Navy’s 30
year Plan for indigenous submarine construction. that ends in 2030. According to this, India has to build 24
submarines — 18 conventional submarines and six nuclear-powered submarines (SSNs) + Recently, Russia
pulled itself out of this project.
36. Taragiri = It is the third stealth frigate of the Project 17A, launched by Mazagon Dock Shipbuilders Ltd. (MDL)
in Mumbai + ‘Taragiri’ was named after a hill range in the Himalayas located at Garhwal + The ship is expected
to be delivered by August 2025 + The vessel is designed by ‘Bureau of Naval Design’ of the Indian Navy and
the MDL had undertaken the detailed design and construction of the ship + Indigenously developed triple tube
lightweight torpedo launchers and rocket launchers will add punch to the ship’s anti-submarine capability.
37. INS Tarkash = INS Tarkash is the second Talwar-class frigate constructed for the Indian Navy. She was built
at the Yantar shipyard in Kaliningrad, Russia + Reinforcing the Indian Navy’s commitment to maritime security,
INS Tarkash is currently mission deployed in the Gulf of Guinea (GoG) for anti-piracy operations.
38. INS Vikrant or IAC-1 = The nation’s first Indigenous Aircraft Carrier (IAC-1) was commissioned recently to
the Indian Navy + The name ‘INS Vikrant’ originally belonged to India’s first aircraft carrier which was acquired
from the UK, and played a vital role in the 1971 War with Pakistan before it was decommissioned in 1997 +
Design & Development: By the Indian Navy's in-house Warship Design Bureau (WDB) and built by Cochin
Shipyard Limited, a Public Sector Shipyard under the Ministry of Ports, Shipping & Waterways. It has been built
with state-of-the-art automation features and is the largest ship ever built-in the maritime history of India + The
ship is capable of operating an air wing consisting of 30 aircraft comprising MiG-29K fighter jets, Kamov-31,

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(Revision Notes)
MH-60R multi-role helicopters, in addition to indigenously manufactured Advanced Light Helicopters (ALH)
and Light Combat Aircraft (LCA) (Navy).
39. INS Vishal, also known as Indigenous Aircraft Carrier 2 (IAC-2), is to be the second aircraft carrier to be built
in India after INS Vikrant (IAC-1)
40. INS Vikramaditya (India’s only active aircraft carrier) is Indian Navy's largest short take-off, but assisted
recovery (STOBAR) aircraft carrier, converted from the Russian Navy's decommissioned vertical take-off and
landing (VTOL) missile cruiser carrier + Unlike Vikramaditya, which is steam-propelled, Vikrant is propelled
by four gas turbines that were produced by GE but integrated and commissioned by its Indian partner, the public
sector Hindustan Aeronautics Ltd (HAL)
41. LCA-Mk2 = Light Combat Aircraft-Tejas Mark 2, the 2nd generation fighter prototypes are underway in
association with the DRDO’s Aeronautical Development Agency (ADA) + The Mk2 is 1,350 mm longer
featuring canards and can carry a payload of 6,500 kg. The first flight is expected to be ready by 2023 + LCA-
Mk2 will be a heavier and much more capable aircraft than the current LCA variants and the LCA-Mk1A + Mk2
will be powered by the General Electric GE-414 engine, which will also power the Advanced Medium Combat
Aircraft (AMCA) + The LCA Mark-2 fighter jets will replace the Jaguar and Mirage 2000 fighters when they are
phased out after 10 year.
42. TEJAS MARK-2 = Recently, Cabinet Committee on Security has cleared Tejas Mark-2 project, it is considered
to be a more capable version of indigenous Tejas light combat aircraft (LCA) + It has been described as a 4.5-
generation machine that will have 70 per cent indigenisation + The jet will be fitted with the more powerful GE-
414 engine, which will give it a longer combat range and more weapon-carrying capability than the existing Tejas
Mark-1 (GE-404 engine) + The LCA Mark-2 fighter jets will replace the Jaguar and Mirage 2000 fighters when
they are phased out after 10 years
43. Very Short-Range Air Defence System (VSHORADS) Missile = Designed indigenously by DRDO + is a Man
Portable Air Defence System (MANPAD) + It can neutralise low altitude aerial threats at short ranges + It is
propelled by a dual thrust solid motor and incorporates miniaturized Reaction Control System (RCS) and
integrated avionics.
44. Man Portable Air Defence System (MANPAD) = MANPADS are short-range, lightweight and portable
surface-to-air missiles that can be fired by individuals or small groups to destroy aircraft or helicopters + they
help shield troops from aerial attacks + they are most effective in targeting low-flying aircraft + MANPADS
have a maximum range of 8 kilometers and can engage targets at altitudes of 4.5 km + The first MANPADS were
introduced by the United States and Soviet Union in the 1960s.
45. CARL-GUSTAF M4 = Carl-Gustaf M4 (CGM4) is a man-portable, shoulder-launched weapon system designed
and developed by Swedish defence and security firm Saab to meet a wide range of modern combat needs of
infantry forces + Recently, Swedish defence major SAAB announced plans to manufacture its Carl-Gustaf M4
weapon system in India.
46. Chinook = The Boeing CH-47 Chinook is an American twin-engined, tandem rotor, heavy-lift helicopter + It is
developed by American rotorcraft company Vertol and manufactured by Boeing Vertol (later known as Boeing
Rotorcraft Systems) + The Chinooks can carry goods and cargo of up to 9.6 tonnes each + India had signed a 3-
billion-dollar deal with the US in 2015 for the purchase of 15 Chinook heavy lift and 22 AH-64E Apache attack
helicopters + Recently, US Army has grounded its fleet of CH-47 Chinook helicopters after finding the helicopter
to be at risk of engine fires. The Indian Air Force (IAF) also operates a fleet of Chinook Helicopters.
47. VOSTOK 2022 = India is participating in the multilateral exercise ‘Vostok-2022’ which was commenced
recently in Russia + Recently, India joined a multilateral strategic and command Exercise Vostok - 2022 in Russia
along with China among other countries. The Indian Army was represented by the contingent of troops from 7/8
Gorkha Rifles + Exercise will involve troops from several ex-Soviet nations, China, India, Laos, Mongolia,
Nicaragua and Syria + The drills are set to master the skills of commanders and headquarters in exercising
command and control of combined arms and coalition forces to repel acts of aggression, raise compatibility and
interoperability of the coalition forces.

Technology
(Revision Notes)
48. Exercise Parvat Prahar = Parvat Prahar Exercise is a 20-day long routine exercise conducted by the Indian
Army to undertake disengagement from Patrolling Point 15 in eastern Ladakh + It is being conducted by the One
Strike Corps of the Indian Army. This corp is the first to eliminate any danger that comes from any of the two
countries China or Pakistan.
49. Exercise Kakadu = is a biennial exercise hosted by the Royal Australian Navy and supported by the Royal
Australian Air Force + It's a two-week-long exercise, both in harbour and sea, involving ships and maritime
aircraft from 14 navies(including India) + Theme of the exercise is Partnership, Leadership, Friendship + Other
multilateral exercises with Australia include Exercise Malabar and Exercise Pitch black 22
50. Exercise JIMEX = The 4th edition of India - Japan Maritime exercise JIMEX was held in the North Arabian
Sea + It is conducted biennially between the Indian Navy and Japanese Maritime Self-Defense Force (JMSDF)
51. Exercise Synergy = It is a a cyber security exercise in collaboration with Cyber Security Agency of Singapore
+ Hosted by the Indian Computer Emergency Response Team (CERT-In) + 13 countries including India
participated in it + It was conducted as part of the International Counter Ransomware Initiative- Resilience
Working Group, led under the leadership of National Security Council Secretariat (NSCS) + It aims to accelerate
cooperation to counter ransomware.
52. Operation Megh Chakra = It is a pan-India drive against the circulation and sharing of Child Sexual Abuse
Material (CSAM) conducted by the Central Bureau of Investigation (CBI) + The operation code-named “Megh
Chakra” is being carried out following the inputs received from Interpol’s Singapore special unit based on the
information received from the authorities in New Zealand + Other Initiatives related to Child sexual abuse are:
• Operation Carbon: It is a pan-India drive against the circulation and sharing of Child Sexual Abuse Material
(CSAM) + Similar to Operation Megh Chakra + It was conducted by CBI in 2021.
• CyberTipline [by some NGO of USA]: National Center for Missing & Exploited Children (NCMEC), a
non-profit organisation in the United States, operates a programme called CyberTipline, for public and
electronic service providers (ESPs) to report instances of suspected child sexual exploitation + ISPs are
mandated to report the identity and the location of individuals suspected of violating the law.
• Internet Watch Foundation (IWF) -> NGO in UK + In the United Kingdom, the mission of the Internet
Watch Foundation (IWF), a non-profit organisation established by the United Kingdom’s Internet industry
to ensure a safe online environment for users with a particular focus on CSAM, includes disrupting the
availability of CSAM and deleting such content hosted in the U.K.
• INHOPE: a global network of 50 hotlines (46 member countries), provides the public with a way to
anonymously report CSAM + It provides secure IT infrastructure, ICCAM (I- “See” (c)-Child-Abuse-
Material) hosted by Interpol, and facilitates the exchange of CSAM reports between hotlines and law
enforcement agencies + ICCAM is a tool to facilitate image/video hashing/fingerprinting and reduce the
number of duplicate investigations.
• ‘Aarambh India’: a Mumbai-based non-governmental organisation, partnered with the IWF, and launched
India’s first online reporting portal in 2016 to report images and videos of child abuse + These reports are
assessed by the expert team of IWF analysts and offending URLs are added to its blocking list.
53. Operation GARUDA = The Central Bureau of Investigation (CBI) has launched a multi-phase Operation
GARUDA to dismantle drug networks with international linkages. The CBI is doing this in close coordination
with enforcement actions across international jurisdictions through INTERPOL and Narcotics Control Bureau
with special focus on the Indian Ocean Region + Operation GARUDA seeks to target drug networks with
international footprints for action against handlers, operatives, production zones and support elements.
54. Crime Multi Agency Centre (Cri-MAC) = It was launched in 2020 by the Union Ministry of Home Affairs +
It is run by the National Crime Records Bureau (NCRB) to help in early detection and prevention of crime
incidents across the country + It is an online platform meant to share information and coordinate action among
law enforcement agencies on serious criminal incidents, including human trafficking 24×7 + As per the recent
report, A few states and one Union Territory have not uploaded a single alert on Cri-MAC (Crime Multi Agency
Centre) platform.

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(Revision Notes)
55. New Naval Ensign = Naval Ensigns are flagging that naval ships or formations bear to denote nationality +
Recently, The Prime Minister of India unveiled the new Naval Ensign (flag) at Kochi, which bears the seal of
Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj, who laid the foundations of a modern navy + The current Indian Naval Ensign
consists of a St. George's Cross -- a red cross with a white background. St. George was a Christian Warrior Saint
who is believed to have been a crusader during the third crusade. In 2001 the George’s Cross was replaced with
the naval crest in the middle of the white flag while the Tricolour retained its place on the top left corner + The
Indian Naval Ensign has changed multiple times since Independence.
56. Hybrid Militants = ‘Hybrid’ or ‘part-time’ militants are people who do not figure on police records as ultras,
but are radicalised enough to carry out a terror strike and then slip back into the routine life + They basically
assist the terrorist groups + For instance, shopkeepers allowing terrorists to store their arms, passing information,
etc are hybrid terrorists + They are like temporary or contract labours + They are then kept on standby mode +
The hybrid terrorists are also trained to kill or paid to kill a target.
57. INS Vikramaditya = INS Vikramaditya is the country’s most powerful aircraft carrier. It was built in 1987 and
had served the Soviet navy (named as Baku) + The Indian navy purchased the vessel in 2004 and commissioned
it in November 2013 at Severodvinsk in Russia + It can carry over 30 aircraft comprising MiG-29Ks, Kamov-
28s, Kamov-31s, ALH-Dhruv and Chetak helicopters + It was retrofitted with a Barak missile system under joint
development with Israel + It is based at its home port at Karwar in Karnataka.
58. Vertical Launch Short Range Surface-to-Air Missile (VL-SRSAM) = Recently, Vertical Launch Short Range
Surface to Air Missile (VL-SRSAM) was successfully flight-tested by Defence Research & Development
Organisation (DRDO) and the Indian Navy from an Indian Naval Ship at Integrated Test Range (ITR), Chandipur
off the coast of Odisha + The VL- SRSAM system has been indigenously designed and developed by DRDO +
The VL-SRSAM is a quick reaction surface-to-air missile + The VL-SRSAM is a ship-borne weapon system that
can be used for nullifying aerial threats at close ranges and can also be used against sea-skimming targets (a
technique used by missiles to fly as low as possible to avoid radar or infrared detection) + The VL-SRSAM is
equipped with an indigenous Radio Frequency (RF) seeker which helps intercept targets with high accuracy +
The missile is expected to be a force multiplier for the Indian Navy.
59. Hellfire R9X missile = Better known in military circles as the AGM-114 R9X, the Hellfire R9X is a US-origin
missile known to cause minimum collateral damage while engaging individual targets + It weighs about 45 kg
and the missile can also be launched from helicopters, aircraft and Humvees. The range of these missiles varies
from 500 metres to 11 km + Hellfire means Heliborne, Laser, Fire and Forget Missile + The US military used its
‘secret weapon’ — the Hellfire R9X missile (‘Ninja missile’)– to kill Al Qaeda chief Ayman al-Zawahiri on the
balcony of a safe house in Kabul.
60. MIG-21 = The Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-21 is a supersonic jet fighter and interceptor aircraft, designed by the
Mikoyan-Gurevich Design Bureau in the Soviet Union + India inducted the MiG-21 in 1963 and got full
technology transfer and rights to license-build the aircraft in the country + It is the first supersonic fighter aircraft
of the Indian Air Force + Russia stopped producing the aircraft in 1985, while India continued operating the
upgraded variants + There are four squadrons of MiG-21 Bison aircraft currently in service in the IAF with each
squadron comprising 16-18 aircraft, including two trainer versions + The IAF also plans to phase out three
squadrons of MiG-29 fighter jets over the next five years.It is a part of the modernization drive of the Indian Air
Force. All four MiG-21 squadrons are planned to be retired by the year 2025. (MIG-21 Bison: The MiG-21 Bison
is an upgraded version of the MiG-21bis which had been first inducted into service in 1976. The MiG-21 FL,
which was an older version of the aircraft and which joined service in the early 1960s, had been phased out of
IAF in 2013)
61. Swarm Drone Systems = Indian Army has inducted indigenously produced Swarm Drones Systems aiming to
employ them in both offensive and defensive operations + The force believes that it will be providing a decisive
edge to the tactical commanders employing them + A swarm drone system consists of a number of small drones
which are AI enabled and capable of communicating with the control station as well as among themselves and
provide asymmetric capabilities for taking out frontline assets of the adversary.

Technology
(Revision Notes)
62. Dornier 228 Aircraft = The Dornier 228 (DO – 228) aircraft is a multi-purpose light transport aircraft specially
developed to meet the needs of maritime surveillance + The aircraft is also used in utility and commuter transport,
third-level services and coast guard duties + Dornier 228 is a twin-turboprop STOL (Short-Take off and Landing)
aircraft + It was manufactured by Dornier Flugzeugbau GmbH and the Hindustan Aeronautics Limited (HAL)
has got a production licence.
63. Nipun Mines = Nipun mines are indigenously designed and developed anti-personnel mines termed by the
DRDO as ‘soft target blast munition’. These mines are meant to act as the first line of defence against infiltrators
and enemy infantry + Developed by: Armament Research and Development Establishment, a Pune-based DRDO
facility, and Indian industry + Note: Anti-personnel mines are meant to be used against humans as against anti-
tank mines that are aimed at heavy vehicles. They are smaller in size and can be deployed in large numbers.
64. Butterfly Mine = It is a very sensitive anti-personnel landmine. An applied force of 5 kg is enough to detonate
the mine + These mines can be deployed by dropping from helicopters or through ballistic dispersion using
artillery and mortar shells + The PFM-1 and PFM-1S are two kinds of anti-personnel landmines that are
commonly referred to as ‘Butterfly mines’ or ‘Green Parrots’ + The major difference between PFM-1 & PFM-
1S is that the latter one comes with a self-destruction mechanism which gets activated within one to 40 hours +
Recently, Russia is accused of using PFM-1 + Banned by International Convention on land mines + Russia and
Ukraine are not signatories to it.
65. Advanced Towed Artillery Gun System (ATAGS) = The ATAGS is an indigenous calibre howitzer gun
developed by the DRDO + Howitzers is an umbrella term for a category of long-range artillery guns + ATAGS
project was started in 2013 by DRDO.
66. Zoravar Tank = Zorawar tanks are a fleet of indigenously developed light tanks + Zorawar tanks being light
tanks are “air portable” and hence can be easily airlifted during strategic operations + It will be designed to
operate from High Altitude Area, the marginal terrain to the Island territories and will be highly transportable for
rapid deployment to meet any operational situation.
67. Landing Craft Assault(LCA) = The Landing Craft Assault(LCA) is meant to serve as a replacement for the
boats with limited capabilities currently in use in the Pangong Tso lake + Developed by: Goa-based Aquarius
ShipYard Limited + It has better launch speed and capacity to operate across water obstacles in eastern Ladakh.
Similar vessels are already in operation in the Indian Navy.
68. F-INSAS System = F-INSAS stands for Future Infantry Soldier As A System + It is a programme for infantry
modernisation aimed at enhancing the operational capability of the soldier + The full gear of the F-INSAS system
includes an AK-203 assault rifle and a multimode hand grenade. Apart from this, soldiers are also provided with
ballistic helmets and ballistic goggles for protection against small projectiles and fragments, along with a bullet-
proof vest + F-INSAS also comes with hands-free, secured advanced communications set for real-time exchange
of information with the command post and fellow soldiers for enhanced situational awareness.
69. Ex Vajra Prahar 2022 = The 13th edition of the exercise “Ex Vajra Prahar 2022” started at the Special Forces
Training School (SFTS), Bakloh in Himachal Pradesh + Exercise Vajra Prahar is a Joint Special Forces exercise
of India and the US army + The Exercise is conducted alternately in India and the US + Aim: To enable sharing
of best practices and experiences in areas such as, joint mission planning capabilities and operational tactics.
70. Operation Skylight = Indian Army tested the operational readiness of its satellite-based systems under this
operation + Satellite-based Systems: provide communication facilities to the military's ground and air-based
systems, It also acts as a backup in case terrestrial connectivity is disrupted + Currently, the Army doesn’t have
a dedicated satellite system (unlike Air-force and Navy). However, GSAT-7B satellite will be launched for use
by the Army.
71. AL NAJAH IV = India and Oman will carry out a military exercise with a focus on counter terror cooperation
+ This will be the 4th edition between contingents of the Indian Army and the Royal Army of Oman + It is
scheduled to take place at the Mahajan Field Firing Ranges, Rajasthan + The previous edition was organised in
Muscat in March 2019.

Technology
(Revision Notes)
72. Pitch- Black Exercise = The Indian Air Force will join 16 other nations later this month for Exercise Pitch Black,
hosted by the Australian Air Force + The exercise is a biennial three week multinational large force employment
exercise + The exercise will host up to 2500 personnel and up to 100 aircraft from around the globe including
participants from Australia, France, Germany, Indonesia, India, Singapore, Japan, Republic of Korea, UK, the
Philippines, Thailand, UAE, Canada, Netherlands, Malaysia, New Zealand and the US. Significantly, Germany,
Japan, and the Republic of Korea will be participating fully for the first time.
73. Udara Shakti Exercise = It is a bilateral air force exercise between India and Malaysia + An Indian Air Force
(IAF) contingent has left for Malaysia to participate in a bilateral exercise ‘Udarashakti’ with the Royal
Malaysian Air Force (RMAF) + (Exercise Harimau Shakti: It is a bilateral joint military exercise between India
and Malaysia) Combined Maritime Forces (CMF) = It was established in 2001 + Located in: Bahrain + It is a
multinational naval partnership to promote security, stability and prosperity across approximately 3.2 million
square miles of international waters, which encompass some of the world’s most important shipping lanes + It is
Commanded by the U.S. Navy Vice Admiral + It consists of 34 member nations. Including countries such as
Australia, Bahrain, Brazil, France, Japan, Pakistan, United States, Yemen, and others + CMF has four Combined
Task Forces: CTF 150 (Maritime Security Operations outside the Arabian Gulf); CTF 151 (Counter-Piracy); CTF
152 (Maritime Security Operations inside the Arabian Gulf) and CTF 153 (Red Sea Maritime Security) + Note:
At the India-US 2+2 Ministerial dialogue in April 2022, India announced that it would join the CMF as an
Associate Partner.
74. Yudh Abhyas 2022 = Yudh Abhyas started in 2004 under the US Army Pacific Partnership Program + It is the
largest running joint military training and cooperation exercise between India and the US + The exercise is hosted
alternately between both countries with an objective to enhance understanding, cooperation and interoperability
between the two armies + The upcoming 15th edition of the “Yudh Abhyas” joint exercise is expected to take
place in September 2022 in Uttarakhand.
75. VINBAX 2022 = Vietnam India Bilateral Army Exercise + It was a Multi Agency Humanitarian Assistance in
Disaster Relief (HADR) demonstration and an equipment display showcasing the Make in India and Atmanirbhar
Bharat initiatives + focused on deployment of Army Engineer and Medical teams in UN Peacekeeping operations
+ Concluded at Chandi Mandir Cantonment Area in Haryana.
76. Y- 3023 Dunagiri = Recently, Y- 3023 Dunagiri, Project 17A frigate built by Garden Reach Shipbuilders
Limited (GRSE) in Kolkata was launched + The ship has been named after a mountain range “Dunagiri” in
Uttarakhand + It is the fourth ship of P17A Frigates + It is the improved version of P17 Frigates (Shivalik Class),
with some improvements in stealth features, platform management systems, advanced weapons and sensors +
The first two ships of P17A Project, were launched in 2019 and 2020 are INS Nilgiri and INS Himgiri
respectively + (P17A Frigates = The Nilgiri-class frigate or Project 17A is a follow-on of the Project 17 Shivalik-
class frigate for the Indian Navy + The frigates are built with extensive use of low-observability technologies,
including new radar-absorbing coatings, composite materials and “faceted” shape superstructures + P17A ships
have been designed in-house by the Indian Navy’s Directorate of Naval Design (DND), which has successfully
spear-headed design of numerous classes of indigenous warships in the past.)
77. S-400 Triumf = long range air defence system consists of a surface to air missile that can attack UAVs, drones,
cruise missiles + designed by Russia + Range = 400km + Max. altitude = 10000 ft + Max speed = 4800 m/s +
has command control system, multiple radar units, automated from acquisition to final engagement + 4th
generation system in terms of its combat capabilities + identified by NATO as the SA-21 Growler + world’s most
dangerous such system + It is the most dangerous operationally deployed modern long-range SAM (MLR SAM)
in the world, considered much ahead of the US-developed Terminal High Altitude Area Defense system
(THAAD) + The system can track 100 airborne targets and engage six of them simultaneously + Other Russian
equipment deployed in India - INS Vikramaditya (only active aircraft carrier), nuclear attack submarine Chakra
2, Army’s T-90 and T-92 main battle tank , IAF’s Su30 MKI fighter.
78. INS Vikrant or IAC-1 = Recently, the Indigenous Aircraft Carrier (IAC) 1 named INS Vikrant, started sea trials
(one of the last phases of trials)+ India’s first domestically built aircraft carrier + designated as IAC-1, operates

Technology
(Revision Notes)
a ski-jump assisted Short Take-Off But Arrested Recovery (STOBAR) launch systems for launching aircraft and
is capable of accommodating MiG 29K fighter jets and helicopters + INS Vishal, also known as Indigenous
Aircraft Carrier 2 (IAC-2), is to be the second aircraft carrier to be built in India after INS Vikrant (IAC-1) + INS
Vikramaditya (India’s only active aircraft carrier) is Indian Navy's largest short take-off, but assisted recovery
(STOBAR) aircraft carrier, converted from the Russian Navy's decommissioned vertical take-off and landing
(VTOL) missile cruiser carrier + Unlike Vikramaditya, which is steam-propelled, Vikrant is propelled by four
gas turbines that were produced by GE but integrated and commissioned by its Indian partner, the public sector
Hindustan Aeronautics Ltd (HAL) + Having operated two British-origin carriers, Vikrant and Viraat, the Navy
wanted to build an air defence ship right from the 1980s but the idea crystallised into a project in the late 1990s.
The Cabinet Committee on Security (CCS) accorded approval for the project in 2002, its keel was laid in 2009.
79. Stealth Drone = Recently, Indigenous stealth drone took maiden flight from test range in Karnataka + The stealth
drone, also referred to as an Unmanned Combat Airborne Vehicle (UCAV) + It has been designed and developed
by the Aeronautical Development Establishment (ADE). It is powered by a small turbofan engine + UCAV is a
precursor to the Ghatak armed stealth drone programme called AURA (Autonomous Unmanned Research
Aircraft). AURA is described as a self-defending, high-speed, reconnaissance UAV with a weapon firing
capability.
80. AI-based Mandarin Translation Devices for Army = Indian soldiers patrolling on the Line of Actual Control
(LAC) will soon be able to understand Mandarin and reply back instantly + It is a 600 gm Artificial Intelligence-
based device developed by an Indian start-up, Cogknit.
81. ‘Joint Theatre Commands’ (JTC) = Announced by Ministry of Defence + It means putting specific number of
personnel from the three services —army, navy and air force— under a common commander in a specified
geographical territory + proposed by the Kargil review committee & DB Shekatkar committee + single service
commands that currently exist would be combined into just 4 geographical commands + Air, space and cyber
war would be the 5th and 6th theatre commands in future.
82. Sprint Challenges = Recently, Prime Minister unveiled ‘Sprint Challenges’ for Indian Navy + This collaborative
project is named SPRINT, i.e., Supporting Pole-Vaulting in R&D through iDEX (Innovations for Defence
Excellence), Naval Innovation and Indigenisation Organisation (NIIO), and TDAC (Technology Development
Acceleration Cell). It is aimed at giving a boost to the usage of indigenous technology in Indian Navy.
83. Maritime Partnership Exercise (MPX) = Conducted between Japan Maritime Self Defense Force and Indian
Navy in Andaman Sea + aimed at enhancing interoperability and streamlining seamanship and communication
procedures.
84. ‘Surat’ and ‘Udaygiri’ = Two frontline warships of the Indian Navy: ‘Surat’ & ‘Udaygiri’ were launched +
‘Surat’ is the fourth Guided Missile Destroyer of the P15B class + The Project 15B class of ships are the next-
generation stealth guided-missile destroyers of the Indian Navy, being built at the MDL, which are follow-on
class of the weapon intensive P15A (Kolkata Class) Destroyers + ‘Udaygiri’ is the second Stealth Frigate of the
P17A class + P17A Frigates are warships that are follow-on class of the P17 (Shivalik Class) Frigates with
improved stealth features, advanced weapons & sensors and platform management systems. Seven P17A Frigates
are under various stages of construction at MDL and Garden Reach Shipbuilders & Engineers (GRSE) + Both
warships have been designed in-house by the Directorate of Naval Design (DND) and built at Mazagon Docks
Ltd., Mumbai.
85. INS NIRDESHAK = INS Nirdeshak, second (first was ‘Sandhayak’) of the four Survey Vessels (Large) projects,
was launched recently + Main role of the ships would be to undertake full scale coastal and deep-water
hydrographic surveys of ports and navigational channels.
86. P-8I Warfare Aircraft = The aircraft is manufactured by Boeing + The aircraft is designed for long-range
antisubmarine warfare (ASW), anti-surface warfare (ASuW), and intelligence, surveillance and reconnaissance
(ISR) missions. It is also used for low altitude, humanitarian, and search and rescue missions + The aircraft has
two variants: i. The P-8I, which is developed for the Indian Navy, and ii. The P-8A Poseidon (use by US Navy)
+ The P-8I can fly as high as 41,000 feet, and has a short transit time, which reduces the size of the Area of

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Probability when searching for submarines or search and rescue survivors + The P-8I aircraft is powered by twin
jet engines and can be equipped with air-to-ship missiles and torpedoes, and is about 40 metres long, with a
wingspan of 37.64 metres. The aircraft weighs about 85,000 kg and has a top speed of 789 km/hour. It requires
a crew of nine, and has a range of 1,200+ nautical miles, with 4 hours on station, which means about 2,222 km
+ The P-8I’s advanced sensors such as multi-mode radars, electronic intelligence system, sonobuoys,
electrooptic, infrared camera and advanced weapons provide the Indian Navy with a very potent platform with
significant capability to deter and destroy + The aircraft has been deployed along the International Border, the
Line of Control and the Line of Actual Control.
87. Zircon Hypersonic Cruise Missile = Recently, Russia successfully tested Zircon hypersonic cruise missile + A
hypersonic missile is a weapon system which flies at least at the speed of Mach 5 i.e. five times the speed of
sound and is maneuverable. The maneuverability of the hypersonic missile is what sets it apart from a ballistic
missile as the latter follows a set course or a ballistic trajectory + Thus, unlike ballistic missiles, hypersonic
missiles do not follow a ballistic trajectory and can be maneuvered to the intended target.
88. Advanced Towed Artillery Gun System (ATAGS) = Indigenous ATAGS developed by the DRDO jointly with
the private industry (Bharat Forge and Tata Group) + The ATAGS is a 155mm, 52- calibre heavy artillery gun.
89. Integrated Battle Group = The new concept of Integrated Battle Groups (IBGs) which the Army plans to create
as part of overall force transformation + IBGs are brigade-sized, agile, self-sufficient combat formations + Each
IBG would be tailor-made based on Threat, Terrain and Task and resources will be allotted based on the three
Ts + they will be low on logistics, the source stated and added, “They will be able to mobilise within 12-48 hrs
based on the location.
90. Operation Satark = Railway Protection Force has recently started “Operation Satark” with an objective of taking
action against illicit liquor/FICN/illegal tobacco products/unaccounted gold and any other items being
transported through railway networks for the purpose of tax evasion and smuggling.
91. Operation Dudhi = took place in 1991 + Recently, paramilitary Assam Rifles felicitated the surviving soldiers
of Operation Dudhi, marked in the country’s defence history as India’s most successful counter-insurgency
operation more than 30 years ago + Operation took place in Kashmir to counter Pakistan-trained extremists.
92. Operation Namkeen = In order to interdict the narcotic drugs, “Operation Namkeen” was launched by
Directorate of Revenue Intelligence (DRI) + DRI, under the Central Board of Indirect Taxes and Customs
(CBIC), Department of Revenue, Ministry of Finance, Government of India, is the apex agency of the Indian
Customs in the field of anti-smuggling in India + DRI enforces the provisions of the Customs Act, 1962 and over
fifty other allied Acts including the Arms Act, NDPS Act, COFEPOSA, Wildlife Act, Antiquities Act etc.
93. CORPAT Exercise = Recently, 4th edition of India-Bangladesh Navy Bilateral CORPAT exercise commenced
in Northern Bay of Bengal.
94. Exercise Bongosagar = 3rd edition of Indian Navy–Bangladesh Navy Bilateral Exercise ‘Bongosagar’
commenced at Port Mongla in Bangladesh.
95. High Strength Metastable Beta Titanium Alloy = It has been designed and developed by DRDO’s Hyderabad-
based Defence Metallurgical Research Laboratory (DMRL) + indigenously developed + ‘High Strength
Metastable Beta Titanium Alloy’ containing Vanadium, Iron and Aluminium, Ti-10V-2Fe-3Al (non-ferrous
near-beta titanium alloy) on industrial scale for applications in aerospace structural forgings + It is already used
by many developed nations as beneficial substitute for relatively heavier traditional Ni-Cr-Mo structural steels
to achieve weightsavings + It is unique due to their higher strength, ductility, fatigue, and fracture toughness -
making them attractive for aircraft structural applications.
96. Operation Samudra Setu II = Indian Navy has launched Operation Samudra Setu-II for shipment ofOxygen-
filled containers to India + Ship tanks INS Airavat, INS Trikand and INS Kolkata were usedin the operation.
These ships are part of nine ships deployed for COVID relief operation ‘Samudra Setu II’ for shipment of Liquid
Medical Oxygen and associated medical equipment from friendly foreign countries in the Persian Gulf and South
East Asia + Please note: Operation Samudra Setu waslaunched in May 2020 as part of the national effort to
repatriate Indian citizens from overseas duringthe Covid-19 pandemic.

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97. Operation Blue Freedom = Recently, the Government of India has accorded sanction to Team CLAW to lead
a team of people with disabilities to scale Siachen Glacier and create a new world record for the largest team of
people with disabilities + This is the land world record expedition part of ‘Operation Blue Freedom Triple World
Records’ being undertaken + Team CLAW (Conquer LandAir Water) is a team of ex-Indian Special Forces
commandos.
98. Operation Sard Hawa = Border Security Force (BSF) launched operation ‘Sard Hawa’ at the international
border of Rajasthan, under which vigil will be beefed-up to check the instances of infiltration due to the dense
fog in the area + BSF conducts “Operation Garam Hawa” in summer and“Operation Sard Hawa” in winter every
year + BSF is a central armed police force (CAPF) that functions under the Union government. It was raised in
1965. BSF is deployed along the Pakistan andBangladesh borders. It is also deployed in areas affected by Left
Wing Extremism etc
99. Operation Devi Shakti = India conducted to evacuate more than 800 people including its citizens andAfghan
partners from Afghanistan + Following are the biggest international evacuation operations thatIndia has conducted
since 2000:
• Operation Sukoon, 2006: to evacuate Indian, Sri Lankans and Nepalese from war hit Lebanan
• Operation safe homecoming, 2011: to evacuate Indian citizen fleeing from the civil war of inLibya
• Operation Raahat, 2015: to evacuate Indian as well as foreign citizens from conflict hit Yemen.
100. Operation Sankalp = Operation Sankalp was started in 2019 after there were explosions in oil tankerships in
the Gulf of Oman amid tensions between Iran and the US. Since then, an Indian Navy ship with an integral
helicopter embarked has been continuously deployed in the north-west Arabian Sea, Gulf of Oman and Persian
Gulf + Operation Sankalp ensure safety of India's Mercantile Marine in thePersian Gulf and the Gulf of Oman +
recently, As part of Operation Sankalp, INS Trikand is currentlydeployed by the Indian Navy in the Persian Gulf
and Gulf of Oman + INS Trikand is a state-of-the-artguided missile stealth frigate. It is part of the Western Fleet
that operates under the Flag Officer Commanding-in-Chief, Western Naval Command (Mumbai)
101. Operation Vijay 1961 = operation by the Military of India that led to the capture of Goa, Daman andDiu and
Anjediva Islands + Portuguese were the first ones to colonize parts of India and were the lastto leave. The
Portuguese invaded Goa in the year 1510 + Please Note: Operation Vijay of 1999 was launched by the Indian
Army to recapture the Indian territories from Pakistani intruders in the Kargil-Drass sector in 1999
EXERCISE IN NEWS – LAST YEAR – can SKIP
102. Exercise Cutlass Express, 2021 = annual maritime exercise conducted to promote national and regional
maritime security in East Africa and the Western Indian Ocean + Recently, Indian Naval ShipTalwar participated
in a multinational training exercise Cutlass Express 2021, being conducted alongthe East Coast of Africa + The
2021 edition of the exercise involves participation of 12 Eastern Africancountries, US, UK, India and various
international organisations like International Maritime Organisation (IMO), United Nations Office on Drugs and
Crime (UNODC), Interpol, European Union Naval Force (EUNAVFOR), Critical Maritime Routes Indian
Ocean (CRIMARIO) + India’s Information Fusion Centre – Indian Ocean Region (IFC-IOR) is also
participating in the exercise
103. MALABAR-21 = Recently, the Navies of the Quad (Quadrilateral Framework) Nations (India, the United
States, Japan, and Australia) have participated in the 25thedition of the Malabar Exercise, whichbegan off the coast
of Guam in the Pacific Ocean+ Guam is a US island territory in the North PacificOcean, which is much closer
to China in the East than to the US mainland in the West + It is a multilateral war-gaming naval exercise that
was started in 1992. It began as a bilateral exercise between the navies of India and the United States + From
2002 onward, the exercise has been conducted every year + Japan and Australia first participated in 2007, and
since 2014, India, the US and Japan have participated in the exercise every year + In 2020 Australia joined the
Malabar Exerciseon India’s request in order to contain China in the Indo-Pacific region + For the first time in

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over a decade, Malabar 2020 saw the participation of all four Quad members + Please Note: Exercise is not part
of the framework of cooperation under Quad.
104. Exercise Milan = India is set to host its largest naval exercise- Exercise Milan- early in 2022 for which 46
countries have been invited + The exercise will see the participation of all Quad countries +Milan has so far been
held at Port Blair but is now being shifted to Visakhapatnam, which offers morespace and facilities.
105. Exercise Peaceful Mission = being held between the member-states of the Shanghai Cooperation Organisation
(SCO) + 6th edition + Exercise Peaceful Mission: 2021 is based on joint counter terrorismoperations at operational
and tactical level in an urban environment in which Armies and Air Forces of all SCO member states are
participating.
106. PASSEX with the U.S.A = Recently, Indian Naval ships conducted a Passage Exercise (PASSEX) with the
U.S. Navy’s USS Nimitz carrier strike group near the Andaman and Nicobar islands + A passage exercise is
normally undertaken whenever an opportunity arises, in contrast to pre-planned maritime drills + Recently, the
Indian Navy had also conducted similar PASSEXs with the Japanese Navy and the French Navy.
107. Southeast Asia Cooperation and Training (SEACAT) Military Exercise = Indian Navy demonstrated its
maritime maneuvers in U.S. Navy-led Southeast Asia Cooperation and Training (SEACAT) military exercise
in Singapore.
108. IN-EUNAVFOR Exercise = maiden Indian Navy and European Union Naval Force (EUNAVFOR) exercise
began in the Gulf of Aden.
109. Exercise Ajeya Warrior = Recently, the 6th Edition of India - UK Joint Company Level Military Training
Exercise AJEYA WARRIOR has commenced in Uttarakhand.
110. Konkan Shakti 2021 = Recently, India and the UK started Konkan Shakti 2021, the first-ever tri- services joint
exercise + It started off the west coast of India + Other Joint Exercises between India and UK: Navy: Konkan;
Air Force: Indradhanush; Military: Ajeya Warrior.
111. INDRA = 12th edition + Indo-Russia joint military Exercise INDRA 2021 + Held at Volgograd, Russiain Baltic
Sea.
112. Zapad Exercise = It is one of the theatre level exercises of the Russian Armed Forces and will focusprimarily
on operations against terrorists + The NAG Battalion group (from India) will participate inthe exercise. The
Naga Regiment is an infantry regiment of the Indian Army + Of the 17 countries, invited for the exercise, there
are nine Participating countries and eight Observers including China andPakistan.
113. Sagar Shakti Exercise = mega multi-agency military exercise + conducted in Kutch to test India's combat
readiness.
114. Exercise Talisman Sabre = Australia is keen on India joining its biggest war games ‘Exercise Talisman Sabre’
in 2023. A formal invitation in this regard will shortly made + Talisman Sabre 2021,which just concluded, was
the largest bilateral combined training activity between the Australian Defence Force (ADF) and the U.S. military
and saw the participation of approximately 17,000 militarypersonnel from seven nations on land, air and sea. The
other countries include Canada, Japan, New Zealand, South Korea and U.K [Mark Talisman Sea on Map
115. AUSINDEX = Biennial maritime warfare exercises between the Royal Australian and the Indian navies + It is
being held this year in Australia + Commenced in 2015 as a bilateral IN-RAN maritimeexercise , AUSINDEX
has grown in complexity over the years and the 4th edition of the was held in September 2021.
116. India-Vietnam Naval Exercise = Navies of India and Vietnam held a four-day maritime exercise offCam Ranh
Bay in Vietnam + India-Vietnam relations were elevated to the level of Comprehensive Strategic Partnership in
2016
117. Al-Mohed Al-Hindi Exercise = Recently, India and Saudi Arabia started their first-ever Naval joint exercise
called the Al-Mohed Al-Hindi Exercise + The decision on this Bilateral exercise was taken in the Riyadh
Summit held in 2019
118. Zayed Talwar 2021 = Indian Navy took part in a bilateral exercise named ‘Zayed Talwar 2021’ withthe United
Arab Emirates (UAE) Navy off the coast of Abu Dhabi + Other Exercises between India and UAE are Exercise
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Desert Eagle II& Exercise Desert Flag

119. KAZIND-21 = 5th edition of Indo - Kazakhstan joint training exercise + will be held at Training Node,Aisha Bibi,
Kazakhstan.
120. SIMBEX = 28th edition of Singapore-India Maritime Bilateral Exercise + held in the South China Seaas an ‘at-
sea only’ exercise without any physical interactions due to COVID 19 pandemic + Initiated in 1994, SIMBEX
is the Indian Navy's longest uninterrupted bilateral maritime exercise with any foreign navy
121. Exercise Surya Kiran = joint Military Training Exercise between Indian Army and Nepali Army
122. Mitra Shakti = It is a joint military exercise between the Indian Army and the Sri Lankan Army
123. Sarthak = Sarthak is an offshore Patrol Vessel (OPV), 4th in the series of five OPVs deployed by theCoast
Guard to enhance maritime security + It runs on two high- performance rocket propellants- liquid natural
gas(LNG) and liquid oxygen (LoX) + Being built by Goa Shipyard Limited for the ICG + The Ship is fitted with
state-of-the-art Navigation and Communication equipment, sensor and machinery + The ship is designed to
embark and carry a twin-engine helicopter, four high speed boatsand one inflatable boat for swift boarding and
Search & Rescue operations.
124. Pinaka Rocket = Defence Research and Development Organisation (DRDO) on Friday successfullytest fired
the enhanced range versions of the indigenously developed 122 mm calibre rocket as well asthe extended range
version of indigenously developed Pinaka rocket from a Multi-Barrel Rocket Launcher (MBRL) at integrated
test range, Chandipur in Odisha + These rockets have been developedfor Army applications and can destroy
targets up to 40 km + This enhanced rocket system would replace the existing 122mm Grad rockets + Both the
Pinaka and the 122 mm rockets were developed by Pune-based Armament Research and Development
Establishment and High Energy Materials Research Laboratory with manufacturing support from Economic
Explosives Limited, Nagpur.
125. Dhawan-1 = India’s first privately developed Cryogenic Rocket + Skyroot Aerospace successfully tested
Dhawan-1 and became the country’s first privately developed fully cryogenic rocket engine + The indigenous
engine was developed using 3D printing with a superalloy. It runs on two high- performance rocket propellants
— liquid natural gas (LNG) and liquid oxygen (LoX). This was aftersuccessfully designing and developing the
solid propulsion rocket engine, the first private firm in thecountry to do so.
126. Agni P(Prime) = New Generation Nuclear Capable Ballistic Missile + successfully tested by DRDOon Dr APJ
Abdul Kalam island off the coast of Odisha, Balasore + range is between 1,000-2,000 kms + weighs 50% less
than Agni 3 and has new guidance and a new generation of propulsion + Since it is a canisterised missile, it can
be launched from rail and road and stored for a longer period and transported all across the country as per
operational requirements + Due to its long range, this missilecan be used to target enemy armadas in the Indo-
Pacific
127. Akash Missile = Lightweight anti-tank missile + surface-to-air missile + successfully DRDO successfully flight-
tested an indigenously developed low weight man-portable anti-tank guided missile + Once deployed, the Akash-
NG weapon system will prove to be a force multiplier for the air defencecapability of the IAF + It is learnt that
the new variant of the Akash missile (Akash-NG) has a slightlybetter range compared to the original version that
can strike targets at a distance of around 25 km.
128. Akash Prime Missile = A new version of the Akash Missile - ‘Akash Prime’ has been successfully flight tested
from Integrated Test Range (ITR), Chandipur, Odisha + Akash Prime is a medium-rangemobile surface-to-air
missile (SAM) system developed by Defence Research and DevelopmentOrganisation (DRDO) and
produced by Bharat Dynamics Limited (BDL) + It can be fired from a tankor a wheeled truck to attack an aerial
target + It was developed to replace the Russian 2K12 Kub (SA-6 Gainful) missile + In comparison to the existing
Akash system, it is equipped with indegenous activeRF (Radio Frequency) seeker for improved accuracy + other
improvements like ensuring reliable performance under a low - temperature environments at higher altitudes
129. SANT Missile = Stand-off Anti-tank (SANT) Missileis an indigenous stand-off weapon designed anddeveloped
by Research Centre Imarat (RCI), Hyderabad in coordination with other DRDO labs and participation from

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industries + It is equipped with a state-of-the-art millimetre wave (MMW) seeker which provides high precision
strike capability from a safe distance. The weapon can neutralize targetsin a range up to 10 kms + It will strengthen
the indigenous defence capabilities and the arsenal of IAF
130. HELINA = Helicopter based NAG + HELINA has completed all the trials + It is a third-generation fire and
forget class anti-tank guided missile (ATGM) system mounted on the Advanced Light Helicopter (ALH) + It is
being inducted into the Indian Army and its variant called DHRUVASTRAis being inducted into the Indian Air
Force + All weather day and night capability. It can defeat battletanks with conventional armour as well as
explosive reactive armor. A minimum range of 500 m anda maximum range of 7 km
131. Pralay = DRDO successfully conducted maiden flight test of indigenously developed surface-to- surface missile
‘Pralay’, from Dr A P J Abdul Kalam Island off the coast of Odisha + 'Pralay' is India'sfirst conventional ballistic
missile and is an answer to any conventional missile attack from northern or western borders + Pralay is a solid-
fuel, surface-to-surface battlefield missile developed by DRDObased on Prithvi Defence Vehicle from the Indian
ballistic missile programme + ‘Pralay’ is a 350-500km short-range missile with a payload capacity of 500-1,000
kg. It can be launched from a mobile launcher + The missile guidance system includes state-of-the-art navigation
system and integrated avionic.
132. Man Portable Anti-tank Guided Missile (MPATGM) = third generation, low weight, fire and forgetMissile +
incorporated with state-of-the-art Miniaturized Infrared Imaging Seeker along with advanced avionics +
indigenously developed and successfully flight-tested by DRDO
133. Vertical Launch Short Range Surface to Air Missile (VL-SRSAM) = India successfully test-firedthe missile
for the second time from Chandipur off the coast of Odisha + Launches were carried out for demonstration of
vertical launch capability + It is meant for neutralising aerial threats at close ranges, including sea-skimming
targets + Sea skimming targets are those assets that fly as close as possible to sea surface to avoid being detected
by the radars onboard warships + indigenously designedand developed by DRDO for the Indian Navy
134. Varunastra = Varunastra torpedo was developed by Naval Science and Technological Laboratory (NSTL) of
the Defence Research and Development Organisation (DRDO) for the Indian Navy + It isa ship launched, heavy
weight, electrically-propelled anti-submarine torpedo + Varunastra is capableof targeting quiet submarines,
both in deep and shallow waters in an intense countermeasuresenvironment + It can be fired from all ASW
ships capable of firing heavyweight torpedoes + It was inducted by Indian Navy in 2016 + Varun Astra is
considered the only torpedo in the world to have aGPS based locating aid + Torpedo is an underwater weapon
with an explosive warhead that is designedto detonate when in proximity to the target or on contact with the
target.
135. Supersonic Missile Assisted Torpedo (SMART) System = DRDO developed Supersonic Missile Assisted
Torpedo (SMART) System gets successfully launched from Wheeler Island in Odisha + SMART system is a
next generation long-range missile-based standoff torpedo delivery system + A torpedo is an underwater ranged
weapon launched above or below the water surface, self-propelled towards a target, and with an explosive
warhead designed to detonate either on contact with or in proximity to the target + SMART system has been
designed to enhance anti-submarine warfare capability far beyond the conventional range of the torpedo. This
canister-based missile system consists of advanced technologies viz. 2- stage solid propulsion, electro-
mechanical actuators and precision inertial navigation
136. Dhruv MK III: Advanced Light Helicopter = The indigenously designed and developed Advanced Light
Helicopter (ALH-DHRUV) is a twin engine, multi-role, multi-mission new generation helicopter in the 5.5 ton
weight class + It is a multi-role chopper with the Shakti engine manufacturedby Hindustan Aeronautics Limited
(HAL) + HAL conceptualised the Advanced Light Helicopter programme in 1984. The major variants of Dhruv
are classified as Dhruv Mk-I, Mk-II, Mk-III & Mk-IV.
137. P-8I Patrol Aircraft = The six aircraft will come fitted with encrypted systems, as India has signed the
Communications Compatibility and Security Agreement (COMCASA) with the US + P-8I Aircraftis a long-range
maritime reconnaissance and Anti-Submarine Warfare Aircraft. It is a variant of the P-8A Poseidon aircraft that

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Boeing company developed as a replacement for the US Navy’s ageing P-3fleet + With a maximum speed of
907 kmph and an operating range of over 1,200 nautical miles, theP-8Is detect threats and neutralize them if
required, far before they come anywhere near Indian shores.Indian Navy became the first international customer
for the P-8 aircraft in 2009 + US State Departmenthas approved the sale of six P-8I patrol aircraft and related
equipment to India.
138. C-295 Aircraft = The Cabinet Committee on Security (CCS) has cleared procurement of 56 C-295 MW medium
transport aircraft for the Indian Air Force under the Make-in-India initiative in the aerospace sector + The C-
295MW aircraft will be purchased from Airbus Defence and Space S.A., Spain + C-295 MW is a transport
aircraft of 5-10 tonne capacity with contemporary technology. It will replace the Indian Air Force’s ageing fleet
of Avro-748 planes.
139. Light Combat Aircraft (LCA) Tejas = received the final operational clearance for induction into theIndian Air
Force (IAF) as a weaponised fighter jet + indigenously built fighter aircraft + It is the smallest and lightest
Mukti-Role Supersonic Fighter Aircraft inducted into Indian Air Force in the year 2016 + designed by
aeronautical development agency (ADA) + produced by Hindustan Aeronautics Limited (HAL) + single-seat +
multi-role jet fighter + powered by single engine + can also carry out mid-air refuelling + pegged as world’s
smallest and lightest supersonic fighter aircraft in its class + limited reach of little over 400-km and will be
mainly used for close air-to-ground operations (unlike Russian-origin Sukhoi-30MKIs or Rafale which have
deep strike capability into enemy territory due to their long range) + equipped with state-of-the-art Satellite
aided Inertial Navigation System + It is not the first indigenous fighter to be inducted into the IAF. In April
1967, IAF had formed the first operational squadron with the indigenous HF-24 Marut fighter.
140. LCA-Mk2 = Light Combat Aircraft-Tejas Mark 2, the second generation fighter prototypes are underway in
association with the DRDO’s Aeronautical Development Agency (ADA). The Mk2 is 1,350 mm longer
featuring canards and can carry a payload of 6,500 kg. The first flight is expected tobe ready by 2023 + fifth-
generation Advanced Medium Combat Aircraft (AMCA) + Heavy weaponsof the class of Scalp, Crystal Maze
and Spice-2000 will also be integrated on the Mk2. The LCA-Mk2will be a heavier and much more capable
aircraft than the current LCA variants.
141. Indrajaal = India’s first indigenous drone defence dome + developed by Hyderabad-based technologyR&D firm
Grene Robotics + has capability to autonomously protect area of 1000-2000 sqkm againstaerial threats by
assessing and acting on aerial threats such as Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs), loitering munitions, and Low-
Radar Cross Section (RCS) targets.
142. Integrated Triservice Theatre Commands = Recently, a high-level committee has been formed for the
consultations on the creation of integrated triservice theatre commands + The committee will examine all issues
and find a way forward before a formal note on their creation. The move was necessitated due to some aspects
like bringing in paramilitary forces (which is under Home Ministry)under the purview of the theatre commands
and financial implications that may arise in the process ofintegration
• Integrated Theatre Command = An integrated theatre command envisages a unified command
of the three Services, under a single commander, for geographical theatres (areas) that are of
strategic and security concern + The integrated theatre commander will not be answerable to
individual Services + The Shekatkar committee (in 2015) had recommended the creation of 3
integrated theatre commands — northern for the China border, western for the Pakistan border, and
southern for the maritime role.
143. Andaman and Nicobar Command (ANC) = It is the first and only Tri-Service theatre command ofthe Indian
Armed Forces, based at Port Blair in Andaman and Nicobar Islands of India + created in 2001 to safeguard
India's strategic interests in Southeast Asia and the Strait of Malacca + It conductsbi-annual coordinated patrols
(CORPATs) with the navies of Thailand and Indonesia, the annual SIMBEX maritime exercise with Singapore,
and the biennial Milan multilateral naval exercise + It also patrols India's exclusive economic zone to suppress
gun running, narcotics smuggling, piracy etc.

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144. Beyond Visual Line of Sight (BVLOS)= is a term relating to the operation of UAVs (unmanned aerial vehicles)
and drones at distances outside the normal visible range of the pilot. BVLOS drone operations provide numerous
advantages over regular line-of-sight flying + While government rules now permit only those drone operations
that are within visual range, the ICMR project comes at a timethe Ministry of Civil Aviation has allowed 20
entities to conduct trials for long-range or “beyond visual line of sight” drone flights
145. Advanced Chaff Technology = Defence Research and Development Organisation (DRDO) launchedAdvanced
Chaff technology(strips of metal foil released in the air to obstruct radar detection) + It aimsto safeguard the
fighter aircraft of the Air Force against hostile radar threats + The IAF has started theprocess of induction of this
technology after the completion of successful user trials + The technologyhas been given to the industry for
production in large quantities to meet the annual rolling requirement of the IAF + Chaff is an electronic
countermeasure technology used by militarise worldwide to protectnaval ships or other sensitive targets from
radar and radio frequency(RF) guiding mechanisms of the enemy missile.
146. Extreme Cold Weather Clothing System (ECWCS) = Recently, DRDO (Defence Research and Development
Organisation) has handed over a Technology for indigenous Extreme Cold Weather Clothing System (ECWCS)
to five Indian companies+ The ECWCS is required by the Army for operations in glacier and Himalayan peaks.
The Army, till recently, had been importing extreme coldweather clothing and several special clothing and
mountaineering equipment (SCME) +DRDO- designed ECWCS was an ergonomically designed modular
technical clothing with improved thermalinsulation and physiological comfort based on the insulation required
at various ambient climatic conditions in the Himalayan regions during different levels of physical activity +
ECWCS is designedto suitably provide thermal insulation over a temperature range of +15 to -50 degrees Celsius
with different combinations of the layers and intensity of physical work.
147. Indian Ocean Naval Symposium(IONS) = It is a biennial event which was conceived by the IndianNavy in
2008 + Recently, the 7th edition of Indian Ocean Naval Symposium (IONS) was hosted by the French Navy at
Réunion island + voluntary and inclusive initiative that brings together navies of Indian Ocean Region littoral
states + It includes 24 nations that permanently hold territory that abuts or lies within the Indian Ocean, and
8 observer nations (India and Pakistan are its members) +France assumed the chairmanship in June 2021
for a two - year tenure.
148. ABHYAS: It is a drone (UAV) that will be used as a target for various missile systems + Developed by DRDO’s
Aeronautical Development Establishment (ADE), Bengaluru. It is powered by a gas turbine engine to sustain a long
endurance flight at subsonic speed + The target aircraft is equipped with MEMS (Micro-Electro-Mechanical
Systems) based Inertial Navigation System (INS) for navigation along with the Flight Control Computer (FCC) for
guidance and control.
149. Minuteman III: The US Air Force successfully launched a Minutemen III equipped with three test re-entry
vehicles. It is a land-based intercontinental ballistic missile (ICBM) having range of more than 10000 km.
150. Very Short-Range Air Defense System (VSHORADS) missile: It is a Man Portable Air Defense
System (MANPAD) + It is designed and developed indigenously by Hyderabad-based Research Centre
Imarat of the DRDO + The missile is propelled by a dual thrust solid motor.
151. HAWK Air Defense: It is an American medium-range surface-to-air missile + The HAWK system was the
predecessor to the PATRIOT missile defense system + Patriot is a long-range, all-altitude, all-weather air defense
system to counter tactical ballistic missiles, cruise missiles and advanced aircraft.
152. AGM-88 HARM: It is an air-to-surface missile, which can cover a range of more than 100 km. The
missile is produced by American defence contractor Raytheon Corporation + It has the capability to
detect and penetrate into the radiation emitted by enemy radar stations with surface-to-air detection
capability.
153. Terminal High Altitude Area Defense (THAAD): It is an American anti-ballistic missile defense system
designed to shoot down short-, medium-, and intermediate-range ballistic missiles in their terminal phase
(descent or re-entry) by intercepting with a hit-to-kill approach. It was developed after the experience of Iraq’s
Scud missile attacks during the Gulf War in 1991. It carries no warhead, but relies on its kinetic energy of impact
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to destroy the incoming missile.

154. Agni IV missile: It is a nuclear capable intercontinental ballistic missile developed by DRDO + The strategic
surface-to-surface missile has a strike range of 4,000 km + It is a two-stage missile and is 20 meters long with
a weight of 17 tonnes + Its re-entry heat shield can withstand temperatures in the range of over 4,000 Degree +
It is equipped with state-of-the-art technologies, which include indigenously developed ring laser gyro and
composite rocket motor.
155. Biological Weapons Convention: Also known as “The Convention on the Prohibition of the Development,
Production and Stockpiling of Bacteriological (Biological) and Toxin Weapons and on their Destruction”, the
Convention was negotiated by the Conference of the Committee on Disarmament in Geneva, Switzerland + It
entered into force on 26th March 1975 + India is a signatory of the convention + It effectively prohibits
the development, production, acquisition, transfer, stockpiling and use of biological and toxin weapons + It was
the first multilateral disarmament treaty banning an entire category of Weapons of Mass Destruction (WMD).
156. Chemical Weapons Convention: It is a multilateral treaty banning chemical weapons and requiring their
destruction within the stipulated time + It became effective from April 1997 + It makes it mandatory to destroy
old and abandoned chemical weapons + Members should also declare the riot-control agents (sometimes
referred to as ‘tear gas’) in possession of them.
157. Draft Drone rules, 2021: Ministry of Civil Aviation has unveiled the Draft Drone Rules, 2021 based on “trust,
self-certification and non-intrusive monitoring” + It would replace the existing Unmanned Aircraft System
(UAS) Rules, notified in March, 2021.
• Security clearance: It exempts drone operator from seeking security clearance before registering a drone
or applying for a license.
• Foreign companies: Those registered in India allowed to import and operate drones and their parts;
regulated by Directorate General of Foreign Trade (DGFT).
• Drone Coverage: Increased from 300kg to 500kg; it will also cover drone taxis, while issuance of
certificate of airworthiness has been delegated to the Quality Council of India.
• Development of drone corridors: MoCA facilitates development of drone corridors for cargo
deliveries, and a drone promotion council will be set up to facilitate a business-friendly regulatory
regime.
• Reduction in Airport Perimeter: It reduces airport perimeter from 45 km to 12 km.
• Digital sky platform: Initiative by MoCA to provide a secure and a scalable platform that supports drone
technology frameworks + It is to developed as a business-friendly single-window online system with
minimal human interference.
• Licensing requirement: No pilot license needed for micro drones for non-commercial use, nano drones
and for R&D organizations.
158. Drones: A drone, also known as an unmanned aerial vehicle or UAV, is basically a flying robot that can be
controlled remotely or it may have the technology to fly on its own using software-controlled flight plans which
are embedded in their systems.
• Applications of Drones: Spraying pesticides on crop field, Used to collect whale mucus from humpback
whales at sea in a technique which help monitor the health of whales and DNA analysis, Inspection of
the craters of an active volcano, Mapping of Landslide Affected Area, Infested Crop Damage
Assessment, 3-Dimensioinal Terrain Model Construction, Aerial photography for journalism and film,
Gathering information or supplying essentials for disaster management, Precision crop monitoring,
Unmanned cargo transport, Law enforcement and border control surveillance, Storm tracking and
forecasting hurricanes and tornadoes.
159. Nuclear Suppliers Group (NSG)
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• It is a multilateral export control regime and a group of nuclear supplier countries that seek to prevent nuclear
proliferation by controlling the export of materials, equipment and technology that can be used to
manufacture nuclear weapons.
• It was set up in 1974 as a reaction to India’s nuclear tests to stop misuse of nuclear material meant for
peaceful purposes.
• India is not a member; it sought membership of the NSG in 2008
• Signing Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons (NPT) is a pre-requisite for joining NSG.
• Benefits: Timely information on nuclear matters, enables access to technology for a range of uses from
medicine to building nuclear power plants for India.
160. Organization for Prohibition of Chemical Weapons: It is an intergovernmental organization established in
1997 that promotes, administers and verifies the adherence to the Chemical Weapons Convention (CWC) + 193
member-states have signed and ratified this convention including India + It is headquartered in Hague,
Netherlands + The OPCW is authorized to perform inspections to verify that signatory states are complying
with the convention + Note: OPCW is not a United Nations(UN) organization.
161. Nuclear Non-Proliferation treaty: The treaty entered into force in 1970 + All the five permanent
members of the United Nations Security Council are among its members + India, Pakistan & Israel
have not signed the treaty + The Treaty represents the only binding commitment in a multilateral
treaty to the goal of disarmament by the nuclear-weapon States + It is aimed to Prevent spread of
nuclear weapons and weapons technology and Promote cooperation in the peaceful uses of nuclear energy.
162. International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA)
• Widely known as the world’s “Atoms for Peace and Development” organization within the United Nations,
the IAEA is the international centre for cooperation in the nuclear field established in 1957.
• Headquartered is at Vienna, Austria
• It seeks to promote peaceful use of nuclear energy, and to prohibit its use for any military purpose, including
manufacturing of nuclear weapons
• It reports to the UNGA and the UNSC (although it is an independent body).
• There are 14 operational reactors under IAEA safeguards as these use imported fuel.
• Under safeguards agreement, IAEA has the right and obligation to ensure that safeguards are applied on all
nuclear material in the territory, jurisdiction or control of the State for the exclusive purpose.
• The IAEA executes its mission with three main functions:
o the inspection of existing nuclear facilities to ensure their peaceful use,
o providing information and developing standards to ensure the safety and security of nuclear facilities,
and
o as a hub for the various fields of science involved in the peaceful applications of nuclear technology
• Programs: Program of Action for Cancer Therapy (PACT), Human Health Program, Water
Availability Enhancement Project and International Project on Innovative Nuclear Reactors and Fuel
Cycles, 2000.

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NANOTECHNOLOGY
1. Introduction: Nanotechnology is the study of structures and materials on an ultra-small scale (in range of 1-100
nanometers). It is the manipulation of matters at atomic level in order to produce novel materials and devices
with new extraordinary properties. Richard Feynman is called as the Father of Nanotechnology.
2. Nanoparticles
• Formed through breaking down of larger particles or by controlled assembly processes.
• Uses: Manufacture pf scratchproof eyeglasses, crack-resistant paints, transparent sunscreens, self-cleaning
windows and ceramic coatings for solar cells.
• The cosmetics are formulated by using different types of metal and metal oxide nanoparticles such as silver
nanoparticles (AgNPs), gold nanoparticles (AuNPs) and titanium dioxide nanoparticles (TiO2 NPs), iron
oxide nanoparticles, (Fe2O3 NPs).
• They can accumulate in environment and contaminate water and soil.
• They can enter food chains; reach the blood and may reach other target sites such as liver, heart and
bloodcells.
• They can also trigger the production of free radicals.
3. Carbon Nanotubes
• CNTs are cylindrical molecules which consist of rolled-up sheets of single-layer carbon atoms (graphene);
they can be single-walled (diameter of less than 1nm) or multi-walled, consisting of several concentrically
interlinked nanotubes, with diameters reaching more than 100 nm
• They are well-suited for any application requiring high strength, durability, electrical conductivity, thermal
conductivity and lightweight properties compared to conventional materials
• Applications of Carbon nanotubes include production of electric wires to reduce losses, replace silicon made
transistors, carriers of drugs and antigens in human body, used as additives to synthetics, can be spun into
fibres - specialty textiles
• NASA has demonstrated the use of carbon nanotube arrays as biosensor
• They are biodegradable (Bacteria, fungi and other microbes have ability to degrade carbon nanotubes (CNTs)
and their derivatives).
4. Graphene: It is used in transparent electrodes for solar cells, LCD, robust non-volatile atomic switches, chemical
and biological sensors and in spintronic devices. The key properties of graphene include:

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5. Schwarzite: It is a completely new form of carbon that has been created by scientists recently. It is a negatively
curved carbon unlike fullerenes and graphene which have positive or zero curvature respectively.

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6. Nano Robots and Nanotechnology in Health sector

• Nanobots are robots that carry out a very specific function and are ~50–100 nm wide.
• the drug can be targeted to a precise location which would reduce the chances of possible side effects. The
applications of nanotechnology in health sector includes:
7. Electrically Configured Parallel Nanochannels

• Scientists have developed electrically configured nanochannels that can eliminate unwanted energy waste
and promise wave-based computing.
• It was developed by S. N. Bose National Centre for Basic Sciences, an autonomous institute under the
Department of Science and Technology (DST), Government of India.
• They tunethe behaviour of spin waves in nano-structure elements, by periodically tailoring the property that
confers a preferred direction on the spin of a system, also called voltage-controlled magnetic anisotropy using
the electric field.
• Spintronics or spin electronics, in addition to its fundamental electronic charge, in solid-state devices offer
to harness electron spins.
• Spintronics is the study of the intrinsic spin of the electron and its associated magnetic moment.
8. Nano-biosensor: Recently, a team of researchers from the Institute of Nano Science and Technology (INST),
Mohali, has developed a nano-biosensor for detecting ‘lycopene’, a phytochemical with high commercial value.
9. Nano Urea
• Despite being fast tracked for commercial application, nano-urea has yet to be fully tested. Nano-urea
approval was granted in February 2021

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• Nano-urea is developed by the Indian Farmers and Fertiliser Cooperative (IFFCO), a multi-state cooperative
society (based in New Delhi) and promoted by the government as a panacea to reduce farmer reliance on
packaged urea
• It is the only Nano fertiliser approved by the Government of India and included in the Fertiliser Control
Order (FCO)
• Earlier, Prime Minister of India officially inaugurated the country’s first liquid nano urea plant at Kalol,
Gujarat.
10. Nano Urea Liquid
• World’s 1st Nano Urea Liquid for the farmers, launched by Indian Farmers Fertiliser Cooperative Limited
(IFFCO).
• Indigenously developed at Nano Biotechnology Research Centre, Gujarat in line with Atmanirbhar Bharat
and Atmanirbhar Krishi.
• It aims to replace conventional urea and it can curtail the requirement of the same by at least 50% +
conventional urea is effective 30-40% in delivering nitrogen to plants, while its effectiveness is over 80%.
• IFFCO is one of India's biggest cooperative societies that is wholly owned by Indian Cooperatives.
• It was founded in 1967 to enable Indian farmers to prosper through timely supply of reliable, quality
agricultural inputs and services in sustainable manner and to undertake other activities to improve their
welfare.
11. World’s First Liquid Nano Urea Plant
• Opened at Kalol (Gujarat)
• Liquid nano Urea is a patented chemical nitrogen fertiliser developed by IFFCO’s Nano Biotechnology
Research Centre at Kalol with nano nitrogen particles (from 20-50 nm)
• Nano Urea is sprayed directly on the leaves of plants and gets absorbed by the stomata- pores found on the
epidermis of leaves
• Benefits of Nano urea: Improved agricultural produce with reduced urea consumption, Significant reduction
in urea imports, Reduced soil, water and air pollution, Higher shelf life etc.
12. Photonic Crystals
• These are optical nanostructures in which the refractive index changes periodically.
• Refractive index is the measure of the bending of a ray of light when passing from one medium into
another.
• It promises to be useful in a range of applications ranging from reflection coatings to optical
computers when artificially produced or engineered in laboratories.
13. Cordy Gold Nanoparticles
• Recently, scientists from four Indian institutions, including Bodoland University, have developed Cordy
Gold Nanoparticles (Cor-AuNPs).
• They are derived from the synthesis of the extracts of Cordyceps Mlitaris and Gold Salts.
• Cordyceps militaris is a high value parasitic fungus, lab-grown at the Department of Biotechnology’s
Technology Incubation Centre (TIC) in Bodoland University.
• It indicates a new application of nanoparticles in the development of therapeutic drugs which can be delivered
as ointments, tablets, capsules and in other forms.

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14. Biodegradable Carbonoid Metabolite

• Researchers from IIT Kanpur have developed a biodegradable nanoparticle that can be used as an alternative
to chemical-based pesticides.
• It helps farmers protect their crops from bacterial and fungal infections.
• the nanoparticle can remain active at low concentration and can be as effective as pesticides without having
any negative impact on soil and health of consumers.
• This extracted metabolite acts as an effective organic antimicrobial agent against fungal/bacterial pathogens
while naturally enriching the soil.
15. ITMO Researchers Develop New Method of Magnetite Nanoparticle Synthesis
• Magnetite nanoparticles: These are extremely miniscule particles consisting of iron and oxygen + Their
properties differ from that of bigger pieces of the same material.
• Applications: Used to manufacture prototypes of memristor devices. These devices imitate synapses – the
connections between neurons of the human brain + Production of healing-accelerating bindings + Treatment
of neurocognitive diseases such as Alzheimer’s by restoring brain function.
16. Carbon Dots
• Carbon Dots are one of the youngest members of the carbon nanomaterial family. They have an average
diameter of less than 10 nanometres.
• Carbon Dots provide an excellent possibility for fluorescence and colourimetric environmental pollutants
detection.
• useful for water treatment as they are promising nano-fillers in fabricating thin-film nanocomposite
membranes where they can form chemical bonds with other compounds.
• Pollutant degradation by providing a cutting-edge approach for next-generation photocatalysis.

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17. Silver Antimony Telluride

• Scientists at the Bengaluru-based Jawaharlal Nehru Centre for Advanced Scientific Research, have found a
new material called as Silver Antimony Telluride (AgSbTe2), which can help in tapping waste heat produced
by all kinds of domestic and industrial appliances, and use it to accomplish other useful work.
• It is a nanomaterial compound synthesised from Silver, Antimony and Tellurium.
• It is a good conductor of electricity but a bad conductor of heat.
18. Mission on Nano-Science and Technology (Nano Mission) (2007)
• It is an “umbrella capacity-building programme” for overall development in the field of nanotechnology.
• It was launched in 2007 with an annual allocation of Rs. 1,000 crores.
• It is implemented by the Department of Science and Technology (DST) under the Ministry of Science and
Technology.
• The objectives of the mission are: Basic research promotion; Infrastructure development; Nano applications
and technology development; Human Resource development and International collaborations.
19. Flame Spray Pyrolysis processing facility
• It involves conversion of solution precursors into nano-powders by high temperature pyrolytic
decomposition.
• FSP process is a gas phase combustion synthesis method enabling the production of a broad range of
materials in the form of nanostructured powders with high specific surface area and primary particle size in
the range of few nanometers.
• FSP is based on the exothermic combustion of a spray of a metallorganic liquid precursor.

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ROBOTICS
1. Introduction: A robot can be defined as a reprogrammable, multifunctional manipulator those designed to move
parts, tools, material or specialized devices through various programmed motions for the performance of a variety
of tasks.
2. Xenobots (Living Robots)
• Xenobots are synthetic life forms that are designed by computers toperform some desired function and built
by combining together different biological tissues
• Xenobots are named after the African clawed frog (Xenopus laevis). The world’s first Xenobots were
developed in 2020 by assembling African clawed frog cells.
• Benefits - One day these xenobots could be programmed to perform useful functions such as finding cancer
cells in the human body or trapping harmful microplastics in the ocean.
3. Vyom Mitra
• Vyommitra, the humanoid designed and developed by ISRO to fly aboard unmanned test missions ahead of
the Gaganyaan human spaceflight mission, is undergoing pre-flight ground tests at the ISRO Inertial
Systems Unit (IISU).
• It is a “female” robot astronaut unveiled in 2020. It is a half-humanoid lacking lower limbs.
• Unveiled at inaugural session of symposium organized by ISRO, International Academy of Astronautics
(IAA) and Astronautical society of India. It will simulate human functions while in space.
4. Humanoid robot – Optimus = Tech billionaire Elon Musk has presented the latest prototype of a humanoid
robot being developed by his Tesla electric car company.
5. FEDOR
• FEDOR, which stands for Final Experimental Demonstration Object Research, the Skybot F-850 is the first
humanoid robot to be sent to space by Russia.
• The humanoid robot Fedor, the first from Russia sent into orbit, has reached the International Space Station.
• The robot’s main purpose is to be used in operations that are especially dangerous for human onboard
spacecraft and in outer space.
6. REX MKII
• Israeli firm unveils armed robot to patrol borders
• remote-controlled armedrobot which can patrol battle zones, track infiltrators and open fire
• The Israeli military iscurrently using a smaller but similar vehicle, called the Jaguar, to patrol the border with
the Gaza Strip.
7. MESSENGER
• MESSENGER is a NASA’s robotic spacecraft that orbited the planet Mercury between 2011 and 2015.
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• Aim: Study the geology, magnetic field and chemical composition of the mercury.
• The MESSENGER mission has shared more than 10 terabytes of Mercury science data. It includes nearly
300,000 images, millions of spectra and numerous map products.
8. Astrobee
• Astrobee is NASA’s new free-flying robotic system
• Astrobee also consists of a system that serves as a research platform that can be outfitted and programmed
to conduct microgravity experiments. Thus, it will help to learn more about how robotics can benefit
astronauts in space
• The three free-flying robots are named Honey, Queen, and Bumble. The robots are shaped like cubes 12.5
inches wide.
9. Ai-da Robot
• It is the world's first ultra-realistic humanoid artist which is able to draw creatively due to in-built AI
technology.
• It is named after Ada Lovelace, the English mathematician and writer often called the world's first computer
coder.
10. Sophia
• Developed by the Hong Kong-based Hanson Robotics
• Sophia is the first robot citizen of the world after Saudi Arabia granted her citizenship in October 2017.
• She is a social humanoid robot, which using AI programming, can imitate human gestures and facial
expressions, and is able to converse on predefined topics.

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INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY RIGHTS

1. Introduction: Intellectual property rights (IPR) are the rights given to persons over the creations of their minds:
inventions, literary and artistic works, and symbols, names and images used in commerce. They usually give the
creator an exclusive right over the use of his/her creation for a certain period of time.
2. National Intellectual Property Rights Policy (2016)
• It was adopted in May 2016 as a vision document to guide future development of IPRs in the country.
• Its clarion call is Creative India; Innovative India.
• Department for Promotion of Industry and Internal Trade (DPIIT), Ministry of Commerce is the nodal
department to coordinate, guide and oversee the implementation and future development of IPRs in India.
• India’s IPR regime is in compliance with the WTO's agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual
Property Rights (TRIPS).
• Objectives: IPR Awareness: Outreach and Promotion, Generation of IPRs, Legal and Legislative
Framework, Administration and Management, Commercialization of IPRs, Enforcement and Adjudication
and Human Capital Development.
3. Types of IPRs
• Copyrights and Rights related to copyrights
o The rights of authors of literary and artistic works are protected by copyright, for a minimum period of
50 years after death of the author.
o Also protects the rights of performers (e.g: actors, singers and musicians), producers of phonograms and
broadcasting organizations. It also includes computer softwares.
o Purpose: Encourage and reward creative work, promote innovation and provide appropriate financial
benefits.
• Industrial Property
o Includes patents for inventions, trademarks, industrial designs and geographical indications.
o It can be divided into two main areas:
§ Protection of distinctive signs, in particular trademarks and geographical indications:
Ø Trademarks distinguish the goods or services of one undertaking from those of other
undertakings.
Ø Geographical Indications (GIs) identify a good as originating in a place where a given
characteristic of the good is essentially attributable to its geographical origin.
§ Industrial designs and trade secrets: Protected primarily to stimulate innovation, design and the
creation of technology. In this category fall inventions (protected by patents), industrial
designs and trade secrets. The protection is usually given for finite term (typically 20 years in the
case of patents).

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4. Patents: A patent is a type of intellectual property right. It is an exclusive right granted by a government to an
inventor for a limited, pre-specified time.
5. Types of Patents:
• Product Patent: No person can manufacture the patented product without the consent of the patent holder
even if he/she uses an alternative process.
• Process Patent: Under this only the process is protected. A person can manufacture the patented product
using an alternate process.
6. Patent Regime in India
• India moved from product patenting to process patenting in the 1970s. This enabled it to become a significant
producer of generic drugs on a global scale.
• However, due to obligations arising out of the TRIPS Agreement, it had to amend the Patents Act in 2005.
This made a switch to a product patents regime across the pharma, chemicals, and biotech sectors.
7. Patent Act, 1970
• It defines what invention is and make it clear that any existing knowledge of thing cannot be patented.
• Three prerequisites for patentability defined by act-> Novelty standard; Non-obviousness or inventive step
and Industrial applicability.
• Discoveries are excluded from patent protection under Section 3 of the Indian patent act.

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• Compulsory Licensing (Section 84 (1)): Patent is suspended without the consent of the patent holder and a
domestic manufacturer is allowed to come up with the drug + Only one compulsory license has been issued
since 2005 for the drug ‘Nexaver’ manufactured by Bayer.
• Evergreening of Patents: Section 3(d) of Patents Act, 2005- Discovery of a new form of a known substance
does not qualify for a patent; nor mere discovery of any new property or new use for a known substance.
8. Patent (amendment) Act, 2005
• Product patent was reintroduced
• Increase in timeframe of applicability of patent- All patents given a time frame of 20 years (Under 1970 act,
life of patent was limited between 5-7 years).
• Intellectual Property Appellate Board-> specialized judiciary to hear IP cases.
9. Copyright Act, 1957
• Types of work protected- Literary, dramatic, musical and Artistic.
• Duration of Protection: Lifetime of author + 60 years from beginning of next calendar year next following
the year in which author dies.
• Foreign work: Copyrights of work mentioned in International Copyright order (WIPO) are protected in India,
as if such work is Indian work.
• Three times of remedies available- Administrative remedies, Civil remedies and Criminal remedies.
10. Patent Prosecution Highway programme
• The Union Cabinet has approved the proposal for adoption of Patent Prosecution Highway (PPH) programme
by the Indian Patent Office (IPO) with patent offices of various other countries or regions.
• The PPH programme is a set of initiatives for providing accelerated patent prosecution procedures by sharing
information between some patent offices. It also permits each participating patent office to benefit by work
already done by other office.
• Benefits of PPH Programme:
o Reduction in time to dispose of patent applications.
o Reduction in pendency of patent applications.
o Improvement in quality of search and examination of patent applications.
o An opportunity for Indian inventors including MSMEs and Start-ups of India to get an accelerated
examination of their patent applications in Japan.
11. Geographical Indication Status
• It is an insignia on products having a unique geographical origin and evolution over centuries with regards
to its special quality or reputation attributes.
• These are given on the basis of the Geographical Indications of Goods (Registration and Protection) Act,
1999.
• It is issued by the Geographical Indications Registry (Chennai).
• The registration is valid for 10 years after which it needs to be renewed.
• Violation of GI tags is punishable offence under law.
• It is covered as an element of intellectual property rights under Paris Convention for the Protection of
Industrial Property.
• At international level, GI is governed by WTO TRIPS agreement.
• The first product in India to be accorded GI tag was Darjeeling tea in the year 2004-05.
• Benefits: Legal protection to the products, helps consumers to get quality products of desired traits, promotes
economic prosperity of producers of GI tag goods by enhancing their demand in national and international
markets.

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12. Pusa Narendra Kalanamak 1638 and Pusa Narendra Kalanamak 1652
• Recently, Indian Agriculture Research Institute (IARI) has successfully developed two dwarf varieties of
Kalanamak rice
• Kalanamak Rice
o Kalanamak rice has been granted the Geographical Indication (GI) Tag
o The yield of the new varieties is double that of the traditional variety. It derives its name from black
husk.

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o It’s recorded in the GI application that Lord Budhha gifted Kalanamak paddy to the people of Sravasti
so that they remembered him by its fragrance + Lodging -> Kalanamak Rice has been prone to lodging
which is also one main reason for its low yield. Lodging is a condition in which the top of the plant
becomes heavy because of grain formation, the stem becomes weak, and the plant falls to the ground.
o It is grown in 11 districts of the Terai region of north-eastern Uttar Pradesh and in Nepal.
13. Geographical Indications of Goods (Registration and Protection) Act, 1999
• Article 22 of the TRIPS Agreements (WTO Agreement):
o Geographical Indication as “indications which identify a good as originating in the territory of a Member,
or a region or locality in that territory, where a given quality, reputation or other characteristic of the
good is essentially attributable to its geographical origin”.
• Consequently, upon India joining as a member state of the TRIPS Agreement sui-geneis legislation for the
protection of geographical indication was enacted in 1999.
• The registration of a geographical indication is valid for a period of 10 years.
• It can be renewed from time to time for further period of 10 years each.
14. Protection of Plant varieties and Farmer’s right act, 2001
• Introduction: It was enacted by India in 2001 to grant IPRs to plant breeders, researchers and farmers who
developed any new or extant plant species. It is in conformity with International Union for the Protection of
New Varieties of Plants (UPOV), 1978.
• Rights under the Act
o Breeders Rights: They will have exclusive rights to produce, sell, market, distribute, import or export
the protected variety. Breeder can appoint licensee and may exercise for civil remedy in case of
infringement of rights.
o Researchers Rights: Researcher can use any of the registered variety under the Act for conducting
experiment or research. It includes the use as an initial source of variety for the purpose of developing
another variety but repeated use needs prior permission of the registered breeder.
o Farmers Rights
§ A farmer who has evolved or developed a new variety is entitled for registration and protection in
like manner as a breeder of a variety. Farmers variety can also be registered as an extant variety.
§ Right to save, use, sow, re-sow, exchange, share or sell his farm produce including seed of a variety
protected under the act in the same manner as he was entitled before the coming into force of this
Act provided farmer shall not be entitled to sell branded seed of a variety protected under the
PPV&FR Act, 2001.
§ Farmers are eligible for recognition and rewards for the conservation of Plant Genetic Resources of
land races and wild relatives of economic plants.
§ Compensation: There is also a provision for compensation to the farmers for non-performance of variety
under Section 39 (2) of the Act, 2001.
§ Farmer shall not be liable to pay any fee in any proceeding before the Authority or Registrar or the
Tribunal or the High Court under the Act.
15. Department for Promotion of Industry and Internal trade (DPIIT)
• Under the Ministry of Commerce and Industry.
• Functions
o internal trade, the welfare of traders and their employees and Startups.
o Formulate and implement industrial policy and strategies for industrial development.
o Formulate FDI policy and investment by NRIs.

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o Formulation of Policies relating to IPR in patents, trademarks, industrial designs and GI tag of
goods and administers
o Coordinates with UN Industrial Development Organization (UNIDO)
o It administers Central legislations of Explosives Act, 1884; Inflammable Substances Act, 1952; Salt Cess
Act, 1953; Patents Act, 1970; Trade and Merchandise Marks Act, 1958; Designs Act, 2000 and Boilers
Act, 1923.
16. Intellectual Property Appellate Board
• IPAB exercises jurisdiction over Trademarks, Patents and Geographical Indications.
• It is the only tribunal of India which has a global impact.
• It has been constituted by a Gazette notification of Central Government in Ministry of Commerce and
Industry in Sep 2003.
17. World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO)
• It is one of the 17 specialized agencies of the United Nations.
• It was created in 1967 “to encourage creative activity, to promote the protection of intellectual property
throughout the world.”
• Headquartered in Geneva, Switzerland
• It currently has 191 members and India is a member of WIPO.
• Non-members are the states of Marshall Islands, Federated States of Micronesia, Nauru, Palau, Solomon
Islands, South Sudan and Timor-Leste. Palestine has observer status.
• WIPO administers 26 international treaties – Paris convention for protection of Intellectual property (1883)
and Berne convention for protection of literary and artistic works (1886).
• WIPO copyright treaty: It came into force in 2002; adopted by 96 contracting parties and is a Special
agreement under Berne convention.
• WIPO Performances and Phonograms treaty: It came into force in 2002. It deals with rights of two kinds of
beneficiaries – Performers (actors, singers and musicians) and Producers of phonograms etc. It recognizes
moral rights of the performers for the first time and provides exclusive economic rights to them.
18. Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS)
• Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS) is the most comprehensive multilateral
agreement on IPR. It is in sync with the Paris Convention for the Protection of Industrial Property (patents,
industrial designs, etc.) and the Berne Convention for the Protection of Literary and Artistic Works
(copyright).
• International legal agreement between all member nations of WTO.
• It sets minimum standards for regulation by national governments of Intellectual property
• It was negotiated at Uruguay round of GATT (1989-1990)
• It became effective on 1st January 1995
• Developing countries got 10 years to adopt the TRIPS agreement standards while the advanced countries
adopted them by 1995.
• TRIPS agreement allows both process and product patents.
• Product patents must be awarded for food, pharmaceuticalsand chemicals
• Safeguards in TRIPS = Compulsory Licensing + Prevents Evergreening of Patents.
19. Patent Pooling:
• Patent pools can be defined as an agreement between two or more patent owners to license one or more of
their patents to one another or to third parties.
• In a patent pool, patent rights are aggregated amongst multiple patent holders. Then, the pooled patents are
made available to member and non-member licensees and typically the pool allocates a portion of the
licensing fees it collects to each member in proportion to each patent’s value.

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20. India and IPR: India is a member of the following important WIPO-administered International Treaties and
Conventions relating to IPRs.
• Budapest Treaty on the International Recognition of the Deposit of Microorganisms for the Purposes of
Patent Procedure
• Paris Convention for the Protection of Industrial Property
• Berne Convention for the Protection of Literary and Artistic Works
• Patent Cooperation Treaty
• Protocol Relating to the Madrid Agreement Concerning the International Registration of Marks- Madrid
Protocol
• Washington Treaty on Intellectual Property in respect of Integrated Circuits
• Nairobi Treaty on the Protection of the Olympic Symbol
• Convention for the Protection of Producers of Phonograms Against Unauthorized Duplication of Their
Phonograms
• Marrakesh Treaty to facilitate Access to Published Works by Visually Impaired Persons and Persons with
Print Disabilities.

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ASTRONOMY
Universe:
• Big bang theory/expanding universe hypothesis: by Edwin Hubble.
• Stages– As the Time passes galaxies further move apart.
• Though space between the galaxies is increasing there is no expansion of galaxies.
•
All the matter was a tiny ball of unimaginably small volume, with infinite temperature andinfinite density.
•
At the Big Bang the “tiny ball” exploded violently which led to huge expansion.
•
Within 300,000 years from the Big Bang, temperature dropped to 4,500 K (Kelvin) andgave rise to atomic
matter.
• The Universe Became Transparent.
• Redshift and Blueshift describe how light changes as objects in space (such as stars or galaxies) move closer
or farther away from us. The concept is key to charting the universe’sexpansion.
• When an object moves away from us (Doppler-shifted to lower frequencies), the light is shifted to the red
end of the spectrum, as its wavelengths get longer.
• Hubble’s law: the farther away galaxies are, the faster they are moving away from Earth ―also known as
accelerating the expansion of the universe.
Cosmic microwave background (CMD)
• With a traditional optical telescope, the space between stars and galaxies is completely dark.
• However, a sensitive radio telescope shows a faint background glow. This glow is strongestin the microwave
region of the radio spectrum, and hence it is called a cosmic microwave background.
Solar System: Our solar system consists of the sun (the star), 8 planets, more than 200 moons, millions of smaller
bodies like asteroids and comets and huge quantities of dust-grains gases.
Stars:
• Due to uneven distribution of matter and energy in the early universe led to initial density differences in
gravitational forces and it caused the matter to get drawn together as bases for development of galaxies.
• A galaxy starts to form by accumulation of hydrogen gas in the form of a very large cloudcalled a nebula.
• Nebula->localised clumps of gas That led to formation of gaseous bodies -> formation of stars.
Sun:
• The solar interior, from the inside out, is made up of the core, radiative zone and theconvective zone.
• The solar atmosphere above consists of the photosphere, chromosphere, and the corona(solar wind is an
outflow of gas from the corona).
• The photosphere is the bright outer layer of the Sun that emits most of the radiation.
• The photosphere is an extremely uneven surface.
• The effective temperature on the outer side of the photosphere is 6000°C.
• Just above the photosphere is the chromosphere.
• It is relatively a thin layer of burning gases.
• The chromosphere is a bit cooler — 4,320◌֯ C.
• A corona is a distinctive atmosphere of plasma that surrounds the Sun and other celestialbodies.

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• The Sun’s corona extends millions of kilometres into space and is most easily seen duringa total solar
eclipse.
• Sun’s Corona visible during Total Solar Eclipse
Solar flares
• Solar flares are produced on the sun’s surface due to magnetic anomalies.
• They are magnetic storms which appear to be very bright spots with a gaseous surfaceeruption.
• As solar flares are pushed through the corona, they heat its gas to anywhere from 10 to 20million °C.
Solar prominence
• An arc of gas that erupts from the surface of the Sun is called solar prominence.
• Prominences can loop hundreds of thousands of miles into space.
• Prominences are held above the Sun’s surface by strong magnetic fields and can last formany months.
• At some time in their existence, most prominences will erupt, spewing enormous amountsof solar material
into space.
Sunspot
• A dark patch on the surface of the Sun is known as a sunspot.
• Sunspots appear as dark areas because they are about 500-1500°C cooler than the surrounding
chromosphere.
• The individual sunspot has a lifetime ranging from a few days to a few months.
• Each spot has a black centre or umbra, and a lighter region or penumbra, surrounding it.
• It has been suggested that the Sun is 1% cooler when it has no sunspot and that this variationin solar radiation
might affect the climates of the Earth.
Solar Wind
• The solar wind is a stream of energised, charged particles, primarily electrons and protons,flowing outward
from the Sun at speeds as high as 900 km/s and at a temperature of 1 million degrees (Celsius).
• It is made of plasma (ionised atoms).
• Effects of Solar Wind:
- An aurora is a natural light display in the sky, predominantly seen in the high latitude (Arctic and
Antarctic) regions. (This is due to magnetic field lines of earth and solar wind)
- Auroras are caused by charged particles, mainly electrons and protons, entering theatmosphere from
above causing ionisation and excitation of atmospheric constituents, andconsequent optical emissions.
- As the solar wind approaches a planet that has a well-developed magnetic field (such as Earth, Jupiter
and Saturn), the particles are deflected.
- This region, known as the magnetosphere, causes the particles to travel around the planet rather than
bombarding the atmosphere or surface.
- The magnetosphere is roughly shaped like a hemisphere on the side facing the Sun, then isdrawn out in
a long trail on the opposite side.
- The boundary of this region is called the magnetopause, and some of the particles are ableto penetrate
the magnetosphere through this region by partial reconnection of the magneticfield lines.
- The solar wind is responsible for the overall shape of Earth’s magnetosphere.
Solar Cycle:
• The Sun’s surface is a very active space and the electrically charged gases on its surfacegenerate areas of
powerful magnetic forces, which are called magnetic fields.

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• The motion created by the stretched, twisted and tangled magnetic field due to the constantmovement of the
gases on the Sun’s surface is referred to as solar activity.
• Solar activity varied with the stages of the solar cycle, which lasts on average for a periodof 11 years.
• The beginning of a solar cycle is typically characterised by only a few sunspots and istherefore referred
to as a solar minimum.
Stellar Midlife Crisis:
• At about 4.6 billion years of age, the sun is middle aged, that is, it will continue to live forroughly the same
period. There are accurate methods for estimating the age of the Sun, such as by using radioactive dating of
very old meteorites that have fallen on the Earth.
• However, for more distant stars which are similar in mass and age to the Sun, such methodsare not possible.
One of the methods used is called ‘stellar gyrochronology’. There is a relationship between rotation rate and
age, that is the rotation rate of a star slows down withage.
• Recent observations, however, indicate that this intimate relationship breaks down around middle age
because after midlife, a star’s rate of spin does not slow down with age as fast as it was slowing down
earlier.
• This allows stars to exist in two distinct activity states – low activity mode and active mode.A middle-aged
star like the sun can often switch to low activity mode resulting in drasticallyreduced angular momentum
losses by magnetised stellar winds.
Planets
• The stars are localized lumps of gas within a nebula, gravitational force within the lumps lead to formation
of a core to the gas cloud and a huge rotating disc of gas and dust developed around the gas core.
• Gas cloud ->condenses->matter around the core develops into small- round objects by the process of
cohesion->planetesimals.
• These large numbers of small planetesimals accrete to form a few large bodies in the formof planets.
Mercury:
• Mercury is the smallest planet in our solar system
• It is the closest planet to the Sun at a distance of about 36 million miles.
• One day on Mercury (the time it takes for Mercury to rotate or spin once with respect tothe stars) takes
59 Earth days.
• Mercury makes a complete orbit around the Sun (a yearinMercurytime)in just 88 Earth daysMercury Has No
Moons.
• The two spacecraft ESA-JAXA's epiColombo are enroute to Mercury.
• NASA's Mariner 10 was the first mission to explore Mercury. NASA's MESSENGER wasthe first to orbit
the innermost planet.
Venus:
• Venus is the second closest planet to the sun at a distance about 67 million miles.
• One day Venus lasts 243 Earth Day because Venus spins backwards, with its sun rising inthe west and
setting in the east.
• Venus Has no moons and rings.
• Venus is the brightest planet in the solar system and is the third brightest object visible fromearth after the sun
and moon.
• Venus is sometimes called Earth’s sister planet or Earth’s twin because of their similar size,mass, proximity
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to the Sun, bulk composition and presence of similar physical features such as high plateaus, folded
mountain belts,numerous volcanoes,etc.
• In ancient literature, Venus was often referred to as the morning star and evening star.
Mars:
• Has dark patches, it possesses an atmosphere of mostly carbon dioxide.
• Mars is often referred to as the “Red Planet” because of the reddish iron oxide prevalent onits surface.
• Mars has two irregularly shaped moons, Phobos and Deimos,which are thought to becaptured asteroids.
• Martian year is 687 days and Martian day is 24h 37m.
Jupiter:
• Largest Outer Planet;
• composed of hydrogen, helium and methane.
• It has a circular light and dark band with outer rings, very cold (-130℃).
• Jupiter rotates once about every 10 hours (a Jovian day), but takes about 12 Earth years tocomplete one
orbit of the Sun(Jovian year). In 1979 the Voyager mission discovered Jupiter's faint ring system.
• All four giant planets in our solar system havering systems. Jupiter has 53 named moons and another 26
awaiting official names.
Saturn:
• It is composed mostly of hydrogen, and helium.
• Saturn takes about 10.7 hours (no one knows precisely)to rotate its axis once—a Saturn“day”— and 29
Earth Years Orbit The sun.
• Saturn has 53 known moons with an additional 29 moons awaiting confirmation of theirdiscovery—that
is a total of 82 moons.
• Saturn has the most spectacular ring system, with seven rings and several gaps and divisionsbetween them.
• Few missions have visited Saturn: Pioneer 11 and Voyagers 1 and 2 flew by; But Cassiniorbited Saturn
294 times from 2004 to 2017.
Uranus:
• Uranus takes about 17 hours to rotate once (a Uranian day), and about 84 Earth years tocomplete an orbit
around the Sun(Uranian year).
• Uranus is an ice giant. Most of its mass is Hot, dense fluid of "icy" materials – water,methane and
ammonia–above a small rocky core.
• Uranus has 27 known moons, and they are named after characters from the works ofWilliam
Shakespeare and Alexander Pope.
• Uranus has 13 known rings. The inner rings are narrow and dark and the outer rings arebrightly colored.
• Voyager2 is the only spacecraft to fly by Uranus.
• Like Venus, Uranus Rotates East to West
Neptune:
• Neptune orbits our Sun, a star, and is the eighth planet from the Sun at a distance of about 2.8 billion miles
• Neptune takes about 16 hours to rotate once (a Neptunian day), and about 165 Earth yearsto orbit the sun (a
Neptunian year) Neptune is an ice giant. Most of its mass is a hot, densefluid of "icy" materials – water,
methane and ammonia–above a small rocky core.
• Neptune Has 14 known moons which are named after sea gods nymphs in Greek mythology.

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• Voyager 2 is the only spacecraft to have visited Neptune.

Dwarf Planets
• Dwarf planets are heavenly bodies that are too small to be considered a planet but too largeto fall under
smaller categories.
• The International Astronomical Unit defines a planet as something that obeys the followingcriteria:
• To be in orbit around the Sun
• Has enough gravity to pull its own mass into a round shape
• Has cleared its orbit Of Smaller Objects
Terrestrial vs Jovian Planets :
1. While the terrestrial planets are made of solid surfaces, the jovian planets are made ofgaseous surfaces.
2. When comparing the size, the jovian planets are much larger than the terrestrial planets.
3. While the atmosphere of terrestrial planets is composed mainly of carbon dioxide andnitrogen, hydrogen
and helium are found in abundance in the atmosphere of jovian planets.
4. The core of the jovian planets is more dense than the terrestrial planets.
5. The jovian planets are far away from the sun.
6. The terrestrial planets spin less, and are therefore less flattened at the poles.
7. The jovian planets have more moons when compared to terrestrial ones.
Kuiper’s Belt: The Kuiper belt is a great ring of debris similar to the asteroid belt, but consisting mainly of objects
composed primarily of ice.
Ultima Thule
• This Kuiper Belt object was discovered by the Hubble Space Telescope in 2014.
• Officially it is known as 2014 MU69 and is nicknamed as Ultima Thule.
• Thule means the most distant places beyond the known world.
• Ultima Thule will be the farthest object ever visited by a spacecraft.
Moon:
• The moon is the only natural satellite of the earth.
• Like the origin of the earth, there have been attempts to explain how the moon was formed.
• In 1838, Sir George Darwin suggested that initially, the earth and the moon formed a singlerapidly rotating
body.
• The whole mass became a dumb-bell-shaped body and eventually it broke.
• It was also suggested that the material forming the moon was separated from what we haveat present the
depression occupied by the Pacific Ocean.
• However, the present scientists do not accept either of the explanations.
• It is now generally believed that the formation of moon, as a satellite of the earth, is anoutcome of ‘giant
impact’ or what is described as “the big splat”.
• A body of the size of one to three times that of mars collided into the earth sometime shortlyafter the earth was
formed.
• It blasted a large part of the earth into space.
• This portion of blasted material then continued to orbit the earth and eventually formed intothe present moon
about 4.44 billion years ago.
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• The moon moves around the earth in about 27 days. It takes exactly the same time tocomplete one
spin. As a result, only one side of the moon is visible to us on earth.
• Most of the major planets – all except Mercury and Venus – have moons.
• Pluto and some other dwarf planets, as well as many asteroids, also have small moons.
• Saturn and Jupiter have the most moons, with dozens orbiting each of the two giant planets.
• Jupiter's menagerie of moons includes the largest in the solar system (Ganymede), an oceanmoon (Europa)
and a volcanic moon (Io). Many of Jupiter's outer moons have highly elliptical orbits and orbit backwards
(opposite to the spin of the planet i.e. retrograde).
• Saturn, Uranus and Neptune also have some irregular moons, which orbit far from their respective planets.
• Saturn has two ocean moons – Enceladus and Titan.
• Neptune's moon Triton is as big as Pluto and orbits backwards compared with Neptune's direction of
rotation.
• Pluto's large moon Charon is about half the size of Pluto.
• Recently the discovery of 20 new moons of Saturn has made Saturn the planet with the highest number of
moons (82) against 79 moons of Jupiter.
Moon’s Wobble Effect:
• When the Moon makes its elliptical orbit, its velocity varies and alters causing ourperspective of
the "light side" to appear at slightly different angles. This is what it calls theMoon’s wobble or that is how it
appears to our eyes.
• It is a cyclical shift in the moon’s orbit, it is a regular swaying (Oscillation) in the moon’sorbit.
• It was first documented way back in 1728. This wobble takes over an 18.6-year period to complete. It acts
as a background of sea level rise.
• The moon wobble impacts the gravitational pull of the moon, and therefore, indirectly influences the ebb
and flow of tides on the Earth.
• Each wobble cycle has the power to amplify and suppress the tides on Earth. During half of the
Moon’s orbit of 18.6 years, the Earth's regular tides are suppressed i.e. high tides are lower than normal and
low tides higher than normal (Current situation).
• In the other half, the effect is reversed, which is called the tide-amplifying phase of the Moon.
Lunar Eclipse:
• Lunar eclipse takes place when the Moon moves into the Earth’s shadow. The Earth has tobe directly
between the Sun and the Moon, and a lunar eclipse can only take place duringa full Moon.
• First, the Moon moves into the penumbra – the part of the Earth’s shadow where not all ofthe light from the
Sun is blocked out. Part of the Moon’s disc will look dimmer than a regular full Moon.
• And then the Moon moves into the Earth’s umbra, where direct light from the Sun is totallyblocked out by
the Earth. This means the only light reflecting off the Moon’s disc has already been refracted, or bent, by
the Earth’s atmosphere.
Total Lunar Eclipse:
• During this, the whole of the lunar disc enters the Earth’s umbra, so the Moon appearsreddish (Blood
Moon). This won’t last forever, though.
• After about 14 minutes, the Moon will move out of Earth’s umbra and back into itspenumbra. In
total, the lunar eclipse will last a few hours.
• Red light has a longer wavelength than blue light, which gives the lunar eclipse itscharacteristic
reddish colour.

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• On Earth, we see the same effect during sunrises and sunsets, when the sky has a morereddish glow than
during the day.
Super Moon:
• A supermoon occurs when the Moon’s orbit is closest to the Earth at the same time that theMoon is full.
• As the Moon orbits the Earth, there is a point of time when the distance between the two isthe least (called
the perigee) and a point of time when the distance is the most (called the apogee).
• Since a full Moon appears at the point of least distance from earth, not only does it appearto be brighter but
it is also larger than a regular full moon.
Exoplanets:
• An exoplanet or extrasolar planet is a planet outside the Solar System. The first confirmation of detection
of exoplanets occurred in 1992. More than 4,400 exoplanets havebeen discovered till now.
• Exoplanets are very hard to see directly with telescopes. They are hidden by the bright glareof the stars they
orbit. So, astronomers use other ways to detect and study exoplanets suchas looking at the effects these
planets have on the stars they orbit.
• Ahmedabad-based Physical Research Laboratory (PRL), has discovered a new exoplanet with a mass of 1.5
times that of the Sun and located 725 light years away.
• This is the second such exoplanet known as TOI 1789b or HD 82139b. The first such exoplanetK2-236b,
was discovered in 2018.
• Such close-in exoplanets around stars with masses between 0.25 to a few Jupiter masses are called "Hot
Jupiters".
Asteroid
1. Small rocky body orbiting the sun. Large numbers of these, ranging enormously in size, arefound between
the orbits of Mars and Jupiter.
2. The largest asteroid is asteroid Ceres at about 952 km (592 miles) in diameter, and Ceresis so large that it
is also categorized as a dwarf planet.
3. Apophis: is a near-Earth asteroid with a relatively large size (about 335 meters wide). Named after the
ancient Egyptian god of chaos and darkness, it was discovered in 2004,after which NASA had said that it
was one of the asteroids that posed the greatest threat to Earth. Apophis was predicted to come threateningly
close to us in the years 2029 and 2036, but NASA later ruled these events out. However, there were still fears
about a possible collisionin 2068.
4. 163348 (2002 NN4):
• It was discovered in July 2002 and is expected to approach the earth in June 2020.
• The asteroid is estimated to be between 250-570 meters in diameter.
• The asteroid is a Near-Earth Object and classified as a Potentially Hazardous Asteroid (PHA)
Life Cycle of Star:
1. Nebula
• A nebula is a cloud of gas (mostly hydrogen and helium) and dust in space.
• Nebulae are the birthplaces of stars.
2. Protostars
• A Protostar looks like a star, but its core is not yet hot enough for nuclear fusion to takeplace.
• The luminosity comes exclusively from the heating of the Protostar as it contracts(because of gravity).
• Protostars are usually surrounded by dust, which blocks the light that they emit, so theyare difficult to observe
in the visible spectrum.

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3. T-Tauri phase
• A very young, lightweight star, less than 10 million years old, that it still undergoing gravitational
contraction; it represents an intermediate stage between a Protostar and alow-mass main sequence star like
the Sun.
4. Main Sequence Stars
• Main sequence stars are stars that are fusing hydrogen atoms to form helium atoms intheir cores.
• Most of the stars in the universe — about 90 per cent of them — are main sequencestars.
• The sun is a main sequence star.
• Towards the end of its life, a star like the Sun swells up into a red giant, before losingits outer layers as a
planetary nebula and finally shrinking to become a white dwarf.
5. Red Giant
• Red giants have diameters between 10 and 100 times that of the Sun.
• They are very bright, although their surface temperature is lower than that of the Sun.
• A red giant is formed during the later stages of the evolution as it runs out of hydrogenfuel at its centre.
• It still fuses hydrogen into helium in a shell surrounding a hot, dense degenerate heliumcore.
• As the layer surrounding the core contains a bigger volume the fusion of hydrogen to helium around the core
releases far more energy and pushes much harder against gravityand expands the volume of the star.
6. Red Supergiant
• As the red giant star condenses, it heats up even further, burning the last of its hydrogenand causing the star’s
outer layers to expand outward.
• At this stage, the star becomes a large red giant. A very large red giant is often called Red Supergiant.
7. Planetary Nebula
• Planetary nebula is an outer layer of gas and dust (no planets involved!) that are lost when the star changes
from a red giant to a white dwarf.
• At the end of its lifetime, the sun will swell up into a red giant, expanding out beyond the orbit of Venus. As
it burns through its fuel, it will eventually collapse under the influence of gravity.
• The outer layers will be ejected in a shell of gas that will last a few tens of thousands of years before spreading
into the vastness of space.
8. White Dwarf
• A white dwarf is a very small, hot star, the last stage in the life cycle of a star like the Sun.
• White dwarfs are the remains of normal stars, whose nuclear energy supplies have beenused up.
9. Supernova
• A supernova is the explosive death of a star and often results in the star obtaining thebrightness of 100
million suns for a short time.
• The extremely luminous burst of radiation expels much or all of a star’s material at agreat velocity, driving
a shock wave into the surrounding interstellar medium.
• These shock waves trigger condensation in a nebula, paving the way for the birth of anew star ― if a star
has to be born, a star has to die!
• A great proportion of primary cosmic rays comes from supernovae.
10. Neutron Stars
• These stars are composed mainly of neutrons and are produced after a supernova,forcing the protons
and electrons to combine to produce a neutron star.
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• Neutron stars are very dense. (mass of three times the Sun can be fit in a sphere of just20km in diameter).
• If its mass is any greater, its gravity will be so strong that it will shrink further to becomea black hole.
11. Meteoroid: Much smaller rocks or particles in orbit around the Sun. A meteoroid is a piece of interplanetary
matter that is smaller than an asteroid and frequently is only millimetres in size.
12. Meteor: Most meteoroids that enter the Earth's atmosphere are so small that they vaporise completely and never
reach the planet's surface. When they burn up during their descent, they create a beautiful trail of light known as
a meteor, sometimes called a shooting star.
13. Meteorite: If a small asteroid or large meteoroid survives its fiery passage through the Earth'satmosphere
and lands on Earth's surface, it is then called a meteorite.
Gravitational Waves:
• Ripples in the fabric of space-time created by the movement of mass.
• Gravitational waves are caused by the movement of mass. These are mostly too small to bedetected, so we
need to look for waves that begin with massive events like the Big Bang, the collapse of stars and the
collision of black holes.
• Researchers working with the recently upgraded Laser Interferometer Gravitational-Wave Observatory
(LIGO) — a set of two identical observatories located in Washington and Louisiana — revealed that they
have directly seen the ripples in space-time, which are known as gravitational waves, created by two black
holes that collided 1.3 billion years ago.
• Albert Einstein predicted the existence of gravitational waves in his general theory of relativity a century
ago, and scientists have been attempting to detect them for 50 years.
Dark Matter And Dark Energy:
• Dark matter works like an attractive force — a kind of cosmic cement that holds our universe together. This
is because dark matter does interact with gravity, but it doesn’t reflect, absorb, or emit light. Meanwhile,
dark energy is a repulsive force — a sort of anti-gravity — that drives the universe’s ever-accelerating
expansion.
• Dark energy is the far more dominant force of the two, accounting for roughly 68 percent of the universe’s
total mass and energy. Dark matter makes up 27 percent. And the rest —a measly 5 percent — is all the
regular matter we see and interact with every day.
Gamma Ray Bursts:
• Recently, energy afterglow of GRB detected in space may help in probing stellar evolution.
• GRBs are short-lived explosions of highly energetic gamma rays lasting from less than asecond to several
minutes.
• GRB are thought to be generated during the formation of black holes. They shine about amillion trillion
times as bright as the Sun.
• They are known to occur at huge distances from Earth, towards the limits of the observableUniverse
Heliosphere:
• The sun creates a heliosphere by sending a constant flow of particles and a magnetic fieldout into space at
over 670,000 miles per hour. This stream is called the ‘solar wind.’
• Heliopause marks the end of a region created by our sun that is called the heliosphere.
• It is the boundary between our Solar System and the interstellar medium.
• It is the place where the sun’s constant flow of material and magnetic field stops affectingits surroundings.
• Interstellar Space is the part of space that exists between stars with cold particles around it.

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• Inside the heliosphere, the solar particles are hot but less concentrated. Outside of thebubble, they are
very much colder but more concentrated.
Black Hole:
• A black hole is a place in space where gravity pulls so much that even light cannot get out.The gravity is so
strong because matter has been squeezed into a tiny space.
• This can happen when a big star is dying (our sun will never turn into a black hole as it isnot big enough to
make a black hole).
• Because no light can get out, so they are invisible.
• In the center of a black hole is a gravitational singularity, a one-dimensional point which contains a huge
mass in an infinitely small space, where density and gravity become infiniteand space-time curves infinitely,
and the laws of physics as we know them cease to operate.In 2019 scientists got the first optical image of a
black hole through Event Horizon Telescope.
• It has captured the just outside region of a black hole, located 55 million light-years from Earth, at the centre
of a galaxy named Messier 87.The image shows a photon (light quantum) can orbit the black hole without
falling in. This is called the ‘last photon ring’
• Sagittarius A* is the second black hole whose photographs have been captured by the Event Horizon
Telescope project.
• Detection of Black Holes: They cannot be directly observed because they themselves do not emit or radiate
light, or any other electromagnetic waves that can be detected by instruments built by human beings.
• But the area just outside the boundary of the black hole (Event Horizon), which has vast amounts of gas,
clouds and plasma swirling violently, emit all kinds of radiations, includingeven visible light.
• Black hole area theorem, by physicist Stephen Hawking, which states that it is impossiblefor the surface
area of a black hole to decrease over time has been proven right.
• Black hole area theorem was derived in 1971 from Einstein's theory of general relativity that defines
gravitational waves and black hole.
Merging of three supermassive black holes
• Indian astrophysicists spot rare merger of three jumbo black holes
• The team was observing the merging of two galaxies NGC7733 and NGC7734 when theydetected unusual
emissions from the centre of the latter
• This is only the third time such an event has been observed
• All three merging black holes were part of galaxies in the Toucan constellation. They are quite far away
given that the earth’s nearest galactic neighbour the Andromeda galaxy is 2.5 million light years away
• There are supermassive blackholes, which are several million solar masses in size, at the centres of galaxies,
and these are known as Active Galactic Nuclei
• The study used data from the Ultraviolet Imaging Telescope (UVIT) on board the first Indian space
observatory ASTROSAT, the European integral field optical telescope calledMUSE mounted on the Very
Large Telescope (VLT) in Chile and infrared images from theoptical telescope (IRSF) in South Africa.
Ganymede
• Using datasets from NASA's Hubble Space Telescope (Collaboration of NASA and European Space
Agency), scientists for the first time have discovered evidence of water vapour in the atmosphere of Jupiter's
moon Ganymede.
• Ganymede, the largest moon in the solar system, contains more water than all of Earth's oceans. However,
temperatures there are so cold that water on the surface is frozen solid.
• Right now, NASA's Juno mission is taking a close look at Ganymede and Jupiter.

Technology
(Revision Notes)
INDIA’S POLICY IN FIELD OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

1. Science and Technology Policy resolution (1958)
• It aimed to lay the foundation of scientific temper and develop scientific enterprises around India
• It has led to the establishment of many research institutes and national laboratories across India
• By the end of 1980, India developed advanced scientific infrastructure along with sufficient scientific
personnel.
2. Science and Technology Policy (2003)
• This is the first Science Policy in India after the economic reforms in 1991.
• This policy aimed to increase investment in research and development.
• It called to invest heavily in the research and development sector with the aim of increasing investment to
2% of GDP.
• Scientific and Engineering Research Board (SERB) was established in India to promote research.
3. Science, Technology and Innovation Policy (2013)
• The policy aimed to make India as one of the top five global scientific leaders in the world.
• The Centre built partnerships with State governments,
• The government established more research and development centres throughout India
• India collaborated in international research projects such as the Neutrino research, Large Hadron
Collider, etc.
• Through private sector participation, increasing expenses in science-tech-innovation to 2% in next five years.
• It was acknowledged that in order to stay globally competitive, it was necessary to make a transition into a
knowledge-based economy.
4. Science Technology and Innovation Policy (2020)
• It will lead to the establishment of a National STI Observatory that will act as a central repository for all
kinds of data related to and generated from the STI ecosystem.
• A dedicated portal to provide access to the outputs of such publicly-funded research will be created through
Indian Science and Technology Archive of Research (INDSTA).
• Teaching-learning centres (TLCs) will be established to upskill faculty members which in turn will
improve the quality of education.
• Higher Education Research Centres (HERC) and Collaborative Research Centres (CRC) will be established
to provide research inputs to policymakers and bring together stakeholders.
• Each State will earmark a percentage of the state allocation for STI-related activities under a separate
budget head.
• To ensure systematic governance of the expanded STI financing landscape, an STI Development Bank will
be set up to facilitate a corpus fund for investing in direct long term investments in select strategic areas
• An institutional architecture to integrate Traditional Knowledge Systems (TKS) and grassroots innovation
into the overall education, research and innovation system will be established.
5. Department of Science and Technology
• It was established in May 1971, with the objective of promoting new areas of Science & Technology and to
play the role of a nodal department for organising, coordinating and promoting Science & Technology
activities in the country.
• Responsibilities of DST
o Formulation of policies relating to Science and Technology
o Matters relating to the Scientific Advisory Committee of the Cabinet (SACC)
o Coordination and integration of areas of Science & Technology having cross-sectoral linkages in which
a number of institutions and departments have interest and capabilities
o All matters concerning

Technology
(Revision Notes)
Ø Science and Engineering Research Council

Ø Technology Development Board and related Acts such as the Research and Development Cess Act,
1986 (32 of 1986) and the Technology Development Board Act, 1995 (44 of 1995)
Ø National Council for Science and Technology Communication
Ø National Science and Technology Entrepreneurship Development Board
Ø International Science and Technology Cooperation including appointment of scientific attaches
abroad (These functions shall be exercised in close cooperation with the Ministry of External Affairs)
Ø Autonomous Science and Technology Institutions relating to the subject under the Department of
Science and Technology including Institute of Astro-physics, and Institute of Geo-magnetism
Ø Professional Science Academies promoted and funded by Department of Science and Technology
Ø The Survey of India, and National Atlas and Thematic Mapping Organisation
Ø National Spatial Data Infrastructure and promotion of G.I.S.
Ø The National Innovation Foundation, Ahmedabad
6. Technology Vision Document (2035)

• Technology Vision Document 2035’ has been unveiled by Prime Minsiter at the 103rd Indian Science
Congress.
• The document presents a vision of requirements of Indian citizens in 2035 and how technology should bring
this vision to fruition.
• The document has identified 12 sectors for development of technologies. They are Education, Medical
Sciences & Healthcare, Food and Agriculture, Water, Energy, Environment, Habitat, Transportation,
Infrastructure, Manufacturing, Materials, Information and Communication Technology.

SCIENCE &
TECHNOLOGY

PART - 3
Science
(Revision Notes)
BIOLOGY
1. What is living?
• The word living cannot be defined because living things exhibit too much diversity and
complexity.
• Characteristics of Living
o Growth: Increase in the number of cell or mass
o Reproduction: Living organism produce young ones of their same kind.
o Metabolism: Chemical reaction occurring inside a living cell.
o Response of stimuli: Living have the ability to sense the condition of their surrounding and
respond to these stimuli
2. Classification of organisms
• Monera: It includes all prokaryotic organism like bacteria, cynobacteria and archiobacteria.
• Protista: It includes unicellular form usually found in aquatic habitats, Diatoms flagellates and
protozoa.
o Note : Euglena have both heterotrophic and autotrophic mode of nutrition. So, it is placed
between plant and animal.
• Fungi: It includes nongreen plants. It has saprophytic nutrition and growing on dead and decaying
organic matter. Example: Mushroom, Mucor, Albugo etc.
• Planatae: It includes all plants except algae, diatoms, fungi and member of monera and protista.
• Animalia: Almost all animal comes under this kingdom except protozoan.
3. Cell
• It is the basic structural and functional unit of life. Smallest cell - Mycoplasma gallisepticum. Longest
cell - Neuron. Biggest cell - Egg of ostrich.
• Stem Cell : These are the body's raw materials — cells from which all other cells with specialized
functions are generated + Under certain conditions in the body or a laboratory, stem cells divide to form
more cells called daughter cells + These daughter cells either become new stem cells (self-renewal) or
become specialized cells (differentiation) with a more specific function, such as blood cells, brain cells,
heart muscle cells or bone cells + No other cell in the body has the natural ability to generate new cell
types.
• Two types of cell -
Prokaryotes Eukaryotes
Small size (unicellular) Large size
Nucleus absent Nucleus present
Contains single chromosome Contains multiple chromosome
Cell organelles absent Cell organelles present
Cell division through fission or budding Cell division through mitosis and meiosis
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Science
(Revision Notes)
4. Structure of typical cell
Fig : Plant cell Fig : Animal Cell
• Cell wall: Non living + freely permeable + made up of cellulose or chitin + Provides shape and rigidity
to the cell
• Cell membrane: Also known as plasma membrane + forms the outer covering of animal cell + In plant
cell it is found within cell wall + thin, elastic, living, double layer, permeable membrane + made up of
phospholipid molecules + regulates movement of molecules inside and outside of the cell
• Protoplasm: Whole fluid present inside plasma membrane is protoplasm + Made up of various
chemical substances like water, ions, salt and organic molecule + Living part of cell + Made up of
oxygen (76%), carbon (10.5%) hydrogen (10%) and nitrogen (2.5%)
o Divided into two parts
Science
(Revision Notes)
▪ Cytoplasm : The fluid found outside the nuclear membrane.

▪ Nucleoplasm: The fluid found inside the nuclear membrane.
• Mitochondria: Discovered by Altman (1886) + Cylindrical, rod shaped or spherical structure +
Surrounded by double layered membrane + A Mitochondria is considered as prokaryotic cell inside
eukaryotic + Respiratory site of cellular respiration + Synthesize energy rich compound ATP + Also
known as 'Power House' of the cell + able to produce their own proteins.
• Golgi bodies: Discovered by scientist Camilo Golgi + made up of group of tubes, vesicles and vacuoles
+ In plant it is more in number and here it is known as dictyosomes + works as storage, processing and
packaging of material + involved in the synthesis of cell wall, plasma membrane and lysosomes,
synthesis of carbohydrate from simple sugar which combine with protein made by ribosome forming
glycoprotein.
• Endoplasmic reticulum: Membranous network of tubules like structure found in cytoplasm is called
endoplasmic reticulum + Attached with the nucleus on one side and on other side it is joined with
plasma membrane + Helps in the distribution of material + Forms supporting framework of cell
• Ribosome: Discovered by Palade + Small granules like structure found attached to the endoplasmic
reticulum or in free state + Made up of ribonucleic acid (RNA) + Take part in protein synthesis.
• Lysosome: Discovered by De Duve + These are sac like structure bounded by single membrane and
contain hydrolytic enzyme + Helps in intracellular digestion + Found in lysosome may digest the entire
cell + Also known as suicidal bag + Not found in Red blood corpuscles of mammal.
• Centrosome: Discovered by Boveri + Only found in animal cell taking part in cell division + Not
bounded by membrane consist of two centriole + Helps in the formation of spindle fibre between pole
during cell division
• Plastid: Only found in plant cell.
o It is of three type:
▪ (a) Chloroplast : Green pigment found in green plant involve in photosynthesis +
Known as 'Kitchen of the cell" + Bounded by two unit membrane having grana and
stroma + Grana are membrane bounded sac like structure found in stacks containing
chlorophyll molecule + Stroma is the matrix present inside the chloroplast which
contain photosynthetic enzymes and stand grain + Granum is the site of light reaction
during photosynthesis while stroma the site of dark reaction + Chloroplast provides
green colour to plant & take part in photosynthesis.
▪ (b) Chromoplast : Provides various colours to the plant like flower, fruit etc.
▪ (c) Leucoplast : Colourless + Stores the food in the form of starch, fat & protein.
• Vacuole: Fluid filled single membrane bounded, dead organelles of cell. In plant cell it is larger in size
but in animal it is smaller in size.
• Nucleus: Spherical, centrally located is a major structure found in the cell + In plant cell it is shifted
towards periphery + Bounded by double layered nuclear membrane having pore + Within nucleoplasm
nucleolus chromatin material is present. Nucleolus is rich in protein and RNA. Chrome material is thin
thread like structure forming network + Made up of genetic substance DNA (deoxyribo nucleic acid)
and histone protein. During cell division chromatin breaks into pieces and form chromosome + Controls
all the activity of cells + Also known as 'control room of cell + Chromatin transmits hereditary
characters from parents to their offspring
Difference between Plant and Animal Cells
Plant cell Animal Cell
Larger in size Smaller in size
Science
(Revision Notes)
Cell wall present Cell wall absent
Plastid present Plastid absent
Centrosome absent Centrosome present
Vacuole is larger in size Vacuole is smaller in size
• Chromosomes : Composed of DNA and Protein + Thread like structure found in the nucleus +
Becomes visible during cell division + Made up of two chromatids joined together at a point centromere
+ Bead like structure found on chromosome is called gene + In prokaryotes there is only one
chromosome, like bacteria and virus + Diploid - Set of paired chromosomes + Haploid - set of unpaired
chromosomes + Humans have 23 pairs of chromosomes
5. Nucleic Acid: Complex organic compound + contains special genetic instruction in coded form + Two Types :
• Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA) : Inherited material found in every single living creature + responsible
for carrying and transmitting hereditary materials or genetic instructions from parents to offspring +
made up of molecules called nucleotides + each nucleotide contains a sugar group, a phosphate group,
and a nitrogen base + four types of nitrogen bases are adenine (A), thymine (T), guanine (G) and
cytosine (C) + It is the same in all of the cells in the body of an individual + DNA replication occurs
Science
(Revision Notes)
during cell division (also known as semi-conservative replication) during which DNA makes a copy of
itself.
o DNA Fingerprinting : Every individual has unique fingerprints + It is the information

regarding sequence of bases on DNA which is unique for a person
o rDNA (Recombinant DNA): These are DNA molecules formed by laboratory methods of
genetic recombination (such as molecular cloning) to bring together genetic material from
multiple sources, creating sequences that would not otherwise be found in the genome + It is
possible because DNA molecules from all organisms share the same chemical structure. They
differ only in the nucleotide sequence within that identical overall structure.
o Hachimoji DNA: It is a synthesised molecular system that like DNA, can store and transmit
information + Meets all the structural requirements that allow our DNA to store, transmit and
evolve information in living systems + It has eight informational ingredients instead of four (It
includes the four nucleotides present in Earth life -- adenine, cytosine, guanine, and thymine -
- but also four others that mimic the structures of the informational ingredients in regular DNA)
o DNA metabarcoding : It infers the species composition of an environmental sample by
amplifying, sequencing, and analysing target genomic regions + It differs from DNA barcoding
in the use of high-throughput sequencing + This technique allows for DNA sequencing of bulk
samples without a prior step of specimen sorting + With DNA metabarcoding one can identify
Science
(Revision Notes)
organisms down to various taxonomic levels and compare the taxa composition among samples
+ It can be used even when DNA is degraded.
o Photo 51 : It is an X-ray diffraction image of a paracristalline gel composed of DNA fiber
taken by Raymond Gosling, working under the supervision of Rosalind Franklin in May 1952
+ The image was tagged "photo 51" because it was the 51st diffraction photograph that Franklin
and Gosling had taken + It was critical evidence in identifying the structure of DNA.
o Genome sequencing : It is figuring out the order of DNA nucleotides, or bases, in a genome—
the order of As, Cs, Gs, and Ts that make up an organism's DNA.
o CRISPR (Clustered Regularly Interspaced Short Palindromic Repeats) : It is a reference
to the clustered and repetitive sequences of DNA found in bacteria, whose natural mechanism
to fight some viral diseases is replicated in this gene-editing tool + Its mechanism is often
compared to the ‘cut-copy-paste’, or ‘find-replace’ functionalities in common computer
programmes.
o Next Generation Sequencing (NGS) : It allows parallel Genome sequencing, resulting in the
generation of Giga bases of data in a short amount of time.
• Ribonucleic Acid (RNA): Helps in the synthesis of proteins in our body + Responsible for the
production of new cells in the human body + Obtained from the DNA molecule + Referred to as an
enzyme as it helps in the process of chemical reactions in the body.
Science
(Revision Notes)
o tRNA (Transfer RNA) : Responsible for selecting the correct protein or the amino acids that
the body requires to help the ribosomes in turn + Also called soluble RNA + Constitutes a
connection between messenger RNA and amino acid
o rRNA (Ribosomal RNA) : Located within a cell's cytoplasm, where ribosomes are found +
Involved in the synthesis + Ttranslation of mRNA into proteins + Composed primarily of
cellular RNA + Most prevalent RNA in the cells of all living organism
o mRNA (Messenger RNA) : Responsible for bringing the genetic material to the ribosomes
and insists on what kind of protein the body needs + Involved in the transcription process, or
the process of protein synthesis.
o MicroRNAs: Small molecules, about 21 nucleotides long, and help in controlling the levels of
proteins in the cell + They destroy the messenger RNA molecules that help with the production
of that specific protein in the cell + These molecules do this by cutting down that particular
messenger RNA thereby destroying it + This process is called the silencing of the messenger
RNA.
o Knocking out : A way to study the effect of a gene in the DNA is to silence or “knockout” the
gene. In knocking out processes, those RNA that induce the gene to produce proteins are
destroyed or their levels are reduced by the microRNA as described earlier.
6. Differences between DNA and RNA
Science
(Revision Notes)
7. Cell Cycle
• Cell cycle: It is the sequence of events in which cell duplicates its genetic material, synthesise the
other constituents of cell and ultimately divide into two daughter cell.
• Cell Division: The process in which cell increase in their number is called cell division + It is needed
for growth, development and repair of body +A typical eukaryotic cell divides once in approximately
every 24 hours + Two kind of cell division :
Science
(Revision Notes)
o Mitosis: Mitosis cell division occur in somatic cell which take part in growth, repair and
development. In unicellular organism asexual reproduction takes place by this type of cell division
+ After Mitosis cell division one cell divided into two daughter cell in which number of
chromosome is equal to the parent cell + Since the number of chromosomes in the parent and
progeny cells is the same, it is also called as equational division + Mitosis is the process of nuclear
division, which occurs just prior to cell division, or cytokinesis + Cytokinesis is the physical
process that finally splits the parent cell into two identical daughter cells.
o Meiosis: It occurs in reproductive cell + It takes place during the formation of haploid gamete. i.e.
ova & sperm + It is also known as reduction division during which each daughter cell have haploid
number of chromosome + Four daughter cells are produced from one meiotic cell division.
Science
(Revision Notes)
7. Genetics
• Basics : Transmission of character from one generation to next generation is called heredity + The
process of transfer of hereditary character from generation to generation is called genetics + Variation
is the degree by which progeny differ from their parents + The name genetics was first coined by W.
Wattson in 1905 + Johannes was first used the name gene in 1909 + Gregar Johan Mendal was the first
who gave the idea of heredity based on his experiment in 1822-1884 (He is also known as father of
genetics) : Based on his observations on monohybrid crosses Mendel proposed two general rules to
consolidate his understanding of inheritance in monohybrid crosses (Today these rules are called the
Principles or Laws of Inheritance: the First Law or Law of Dominance and the Second Law or Law of
Segregation)
• Chromosomal Theory of Inheritance : Sutton and Boveri argued that the pairing and separation of a
pair of chromosomes would lead to the segregation of a pair of factors they carried. Sutton united the
knowledge of chromosomal segregation with Mendelian principles and called it the chromosomal
theory of inheritance.
8. Sex Determination in Humans
• Basics : Sex determining mechanism in case of humans is XY type + Out of 23 pairs of chromosomes
present, 22 pairs are exactly same in both males and females; these are the autosomes + A pair of X-
chromosomes are present in the female, whereas the presence of an X and Y chromosome are
determinant of the male characteristic + During spermatogenesis among males, two types of gametes
are produced. 50 per cent of the total sperm produced carry the X-chromosome and the rest 50 per cent
has Y-chromosome besides the autosomes+ Females, however, produce only one type of ovum with an
X-chromosome + There is an equal probability of fertilization of the ovum with the sperm carrying
either X or Y chromosome + In case the ovum fertilizes with a sperm carrying X-chromosome the
zygote develops into a female (XX) and the fertilization of ovum with Y-chromosome carrying sperm
results into a male offspring.
Science
(Revision Notes)
9. Genetics disorders
• Mendelian Disorder : Mendelian disorders are either autosomal dominant, autosomal recessive, sex-
linked dominant, sex-linked recessive, or mitochondrial and occur due to mutations in a single gene +
These disorders can be detected by pedigree analysis + The genetic locus at which the mutation occurs
may be a sex chromosome or an autosome and may be in a recessive or dominant mode + In autosomal
traits, females and males are equally expected to be affected. Examples : Sex Linked Disorders-
Hemophilia, Autosomal Recessive Disorder- Cystic Fibrosis, Albinism, Sickle Cell Anemia.
• Chromosomal Disorders : Genetic disorders arising due to mutation in the chromosome are
chromosomal disorders + Alteration in the number and functioning of the chromosomes + A
chromosomal disorder affects many genes at a time and can be fatal + It may occur due to the loss or
gain of a whole chromosome. Examples :
o Down’s syndrome- the addition of a chromosome 21 (trisomy)
o Turner’s syndrome-absence of an X chromosome (XO)
o Kleinfelter’s syndrome-addition of an X chromosome (XXY)
• Multifactorial Genetic Inheritance : This is also known as polygenic inheritance + These are caused
as a result of environmental factors and gene mutations Examples : Heart Disease, High Blood Pressure,
Alzheimer’s Disease, Cancer, Arthritis
• Mitochondrial Inheritance : These kinds of genetic disorders arise as a result of mutations in the non-
nuclear mitochondrial DNA + Generally, in such cases, each mitochondrion has 5 to 10 pieces of DNA
+ These anomalies are inherited from the mother. Examples : Leber’s Hereditary Optic Atrophy
(LHON), Myoclonic epilepsy with ragged red fibres, Mitochondrial encephalopathy, Lactic acidosis.
10.Botany : The study of different types of Trees, plants is called Botany. Theophrastus is called the father of
Botany.
11. Classification of plantae
• Cryptogamous plants : No flower and seed + Three types

1. Thalophyta : Largest group of plant kingdom + no roots, stem and leaves + no conducting
issue + Divided into two groups
▪ Algae : Have chronologically and autotrophic mode of transportation + may be
unicellular, colonial or filamentous . Useful Algae :
• As a food: Porphyra, Ulva, Surgassum, Laeminaria, Nostoc etc.
• In making Iodine: Laeminaria, Fucus, Echlonia etc.
• As a manure : Nostoc, Anabana, kelp etc.
• In making medicines: Chloreloline from Chlorella and Tincher iodine is made
from Laminaria.
• In research works: Chlorella Acetabularia, Belonia etc.
▪ Blue-green algae : Also known as Cyanobacteria + Microscopic organisms found
naturally in all types of water + These single-celled organisms live in fresh, brackish
(combined salt and freshwater), and marine water + These organisms use sunlight to
make their own food + In warm, nutrient-rich (high in phosphorus and nitrogen)
environments, cyanobacteria can multiply quickly.
▪ Spirogyra : These are free-floating green algae present in freshwater habitats such as
ponds, lakes, etc. Spirogyra are commonly known as “water silk or pond silk” + They
have a filamentous and unbranched vegetative structure + There are around 400 species
of Spirogyra found + The genus Spirogyra is named after the unique spiral chloroplast
Science
(Revision Notes)
present in the cells of algae + Spirogyra are photosynthetic and contribute substantially
to the total carbon dioxide fixation carried out + They increase the level of oxygen in
their habitat + Many aquatic organisms feed on them.
▪ Important points :
• Agar-Agar is prepared from algae
• Red snow : Phenomenon that has been known since ancient times + It is the
algae that give the snow its red tinge + This alga species, Chlamydomonas
Chlamydomonas nivalis, exists in snow in the polar and glacial regions, and
carries a red pigment to keep itself warm.
• Sea snot : It is marine mucilage, which floats up on the surface of the sea like
a brown phlegm + This thick slimy layer of organic matter looks like a viscous,
brown and foamy substance + It is formed when algae are overloaded with
nutrients as a result of water pollution combined with the effects of climate
change + The nutrient overload occurs when algae feast on warm weather
caused by global warming + Water pollution adds to the problem +
▪ Fungi : Study of fungi is called Mycology + eukaryotic, non-vascular, non-motile and
heterotrophic organisms + may be unicellular or filamentous + reproduce by means of
spores + exhibit the phenomenon of alternation of generation + lack chlorophyll and
hence cannot perform photosynthesis + store their food in the form of starch +
Biosynthesis of chitin occurs in fungi + The nuclei of the fungi are very small + Having
no embryonic stage + They develop from the spores + The mode of reproduction is
sexual or asexual + Some fungi are parasitic and can infect the host + Fungi produce a
chemical called pheromone which leads to sexual reproduction in fungi. Examples :
Mushrooms, moulds and yeast.
▪ Classification of Fungi :
• Saprophytic – The fungi obtain their nutrition by feeding on dead organic
substances. Examples: Rhizopus, Penicillium and Aspergillus.
• Parasitic – The fungi obtain their nutrition by living on other living organisms
(plants or animals) and absorb nutrients from their host. Examples: Taphrina
and Puccinia.
• Symbiotic – These fungi live by having an interdependent relationship with
other species in which both are mutually benefited. Examples: Lichens and
mycorrhiza.
▪ Note : Lichens are the symbiotic association between algae and fungi. Here both algae
and fungi are mutually benefited as fungi provide shelter for algae and in reverse algae
synthesis carbohydrates for fungi. Mycorrhiza is the symbiotic association present
between fungi and plants. Fungi improve nutrient uptake by plants, whereas, plants
provides organic molecules like sugar to the fungus.
2. Bryophyta : Land plants + Lack of Xylem and phloem tissue + may be of thallus like and
leafy erect structure are in moss + Lack true roots, stem and leaves
3. Peridophyta : Mostly found in wet shady places, forests and mountains + body is
differentiated into root, stem and leaves + Reproduction occurs by spores produced inside the
sporangia
• Phanerogamous : Plants are well-developed + Plants bears flowers, fruits and seeds + classified into
sub-groups
o Gymnosperm : Plants are in the form of trees and bushes + Differentiated into root, stem and
leaves + Woody, perennial and tall + Plants bear naked seed + Tap roots are well developed +
Science
(Revision Notes)
Pollination takes place through air + The longest plant of the Plant kingdom, Sequoia gigentia
comes under it (Its height is 120 meters + This is also called Red Wood of California) + The
smallest plant is Zaimia Pygmia + Living fossils are Cycas, Ginkgo biloba and Metasequoia +
A Ginkgo biloba is also called Maiden hair tree + Ovule and Antherozoids of Cycas is the
largest in Plant kingdom + Corolloid roof of cycas help in absorption of water and fixation of
nitrogen.
o Angiosperm : Seeds are found inside the fruits + roots leaves, flowers, fruits and seeds are
fully developed.
12. Photosynthesis
• Process : Plants use light energy to convert carbon dioxide and water into glucose and oxygen + Leaves
contain microscopic cellular organelles known as chloroplasts + Each chloroplast contains a green-
coloured pigment called chlorophyll + Light energy is absorbed by chlorophyll molecules whereas
carbon dioxide and oxygen enter through the tiny pores of stomata located in the epidermis of leaves +
Another by-product is sugars such as glucose and fructose + These sugars are used by the plants as an
energy source
• Factors Affecting Photosynthesis

o Light Intensity: Increased light intensity results in a higher rate of photosynthesis and vice
versa
o CO2: Higher concentration of carbon dioxide helps in increasing the rate of photosynthesis
o Temperature: For efficient execution of photosynthesis, it is important to have a temperature
range between 25° to 35° C.
o Water: As water is an important factor in photosynthesis, its deficiency can lead to problems
in the intake of carbon dioxide
o Pollution: Industrial pollutants and other particulates may settle on the leaf surface. This can
block the pores of stomata which makes it difficult to take in carbon dioxide.
Science
(Revision Notes)
13. Plant harmones :
• Auxins : Widely used in agricultural and horticultural practices + Found in growing apices of roots and
stems and then migrate to other parts to act + Induces parthenocarpy i.e. development of fruit without
fertilisation e.g. in tomatoes + Prevents premature fall of leaves, flowers, fruits + Useful in stem cuttings
and grafting where it initiates rooting + Promotes flowering e.g. in pineapple
• Gibberellins : Acidic in nature + Found in higher plants and fungi + Promotes bolting (sudden
elongation of internodes just before flowering in rosette plants like cabbage, beet) + Delays senescence
+ Induces parthenocarpy + Elongation of the stem and reverses dwarfism + Induces maleness in certain
plants like cannabis
• Cytokinins : Play an important role in cytokinesis process + Promotes lateral and adventitious shoot
growth and used to initiate shoot growth in culture + Helps in overcoming apical dominance induced
by auxins + Stimulate the formation of chloroplast in leaves + Promotes nutrient mobilisation and delay
leaf senescence
• Abscisic Acid Function : It is a growth-inhibiting hormone + It is also called “stress hormone” as it
increases the tolerance of plants + Induces abscission of leaves and fruits + Inhibits seed germination
+ Induces senescence in leaves + Accelerates dormancy in seeds that is useful for storage purposes +
Stimulates closure of stomata to prevent transpiration under water stress
• Ethylene Plant Hormone : It acts as a growth promoter as well as an inhibitor + Occurs in gaseous
form + It is synthesised in the ripening fruits and tissues undergoing senescence + Hastens the ripening
of fruits + Controls epinasty of leaves + Breaks seed and bud dormancy
14. Plant diseases
• Viral Diseases:
Science
(Revision Notes)
o Mosaic disease of tobacco: Leaves get shrinked and become small. The chlorophyll of leaves
get destroyed + By Tobacco Mosaic Virus (TMV) + Control - Affected plants should be burnt
o Bunchy top of banana : By banana virus + Plants become dwarf and all the leaves get
accumulated like a rose on the branch.
o Fiji Virus : Also known as Southern Rice Black-Streaked Dwarf Virus (SRBSDV) + first
reported in southern China in 2001 + Causes a disease on rice and maize that leads to serious
yield losses + Spreads by the white-backed plant hopper (Sogatella furcifera), which injects it
while sucking the sap from mostly young plants + The virus is specific to the phloem and is
not transmitted by seed or grain + The infected tillers can be pulled out easily.
o Bacteriophages : Bacteria can be infected by tiny viruses called bacteriophages (phages).
Bacteriophages are so small they do not even have a single cell, but are instead just a piece of
DNA surrounded by a protein coat.
o Mycoviruses : Also known as mycophages, are viruses that infect fungi + The majority of
mycoviruses have double-stranded RNA (dsRNA) genomes and isometric particles, but
approximately 30% have positive-sense, single-stranded RNA (+ssRNA) genomes
• Bacterial Disease:
o Wilt of Potato : Also known as ring disease because brown ring is formed on the xylem + By
Pseudomonas solonacearum bacteria + Conduction system of the plant is affected.
o Black Arm of cotton : By Xanthomonas Bacteria + In this disease a water body (brown) is
formed on the leaves.
o Bacterial blight of Rice: By Xanthomonas oryzae bacteria + Yellow-greenish spot is seen on
both side of leaves + Vascular bundles get blocked due to bacterial growth.
o Citrus Canker: By Xanthomonas citri bacteria. It has originated in China. Leaves, branches,
fruits all are affected by this disease.
o Tundu disease of wheat: By Corinobacterium titrici bacteria and Enzuina Titriki Nematode +
In this disease lower parts of the leaves are faded and turned.
o Sandalwood spike disease (SSD) : Caused by phytoplasma — bacterial parasites of plant
tissues — which are transmitted by insect vectors + first reported in Kodagu in 1899 +
Classified as “vulnerable” by IUCN + Presently, there is no option but to cut down and remove
the infected tree to prevent the spread of the disease.
o Xoo infection : Xanthomonas oryzae pv. oryzae (Xoo) causes a serious bacterial leaf blight
disease in rice + It is also known as Bacterial blight + Xoo is a gram-negative bacteria +
Prevention - cultivation of rice varieties with genes that confer resistance to Xoo infection.
• Fungal Diseases:
o Yellow Rust disease : It appears as yellow stripes of powder or dust on leaves and leaf sheaths
of the wheat crop + This yellow powder comes out on clothing or fingers when touched + This
occurs when the rust colonies in the leaves drain the carbohydrates from the plant and reduce
the green leaf area + In India, it is a major disease in the Northern Hill Zone and the North-
Western Plain Zone and spreads easily during the onset of cool weather and when wind
conditions are favourable + Rain, dew and fog favour the disease’s development.
o Athelia rolfsii : For the first time, fruit rot caused by the fungus Athelia rolfsii is being reported
in jackfruit (Artocarpus heterophyllus) in India + It is a soil-borne fungal pathogen + Attacks
various commercially cultivated crops belonging to different families + One disease which is
found in immature jackfruit is the Rhizopus fruit rot, but it does not affect mature fruit.
o Fusarium wilt TR4 : It cripples plantations by first attacking the leaves, which turn yellow
from their trailing edges before wilting away + It infected the most commonly sold variety,
Grand Nain (musa acuminata).
o Damping off of seedling is caused by fungus Pythium debaryanum.
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o Red root of sugarcane is caused by fungus colletotrichum falcatum.
15. Classification of animal kingdom
• Mains groups of phylum chordata

o Pisces : Aquatic life + All these are cold blooded animals + Its heart pumps only impure blood
and have two chamber + Respiration takes place through gills
▪ Example : Hippopotamus, scoliodon, Torpedo
o Amphibia : Found both on land & water + Creatures are amphibian + Cold blooded +
Respiration takes place through gill, skin and lungs + Heart have three chamber, two auricles
and one ventricle
▪ Example : Frog, Necturus, toad etc.
o Reptilia: Crawlling animal + Land vertebrate, cold-booded, terrestrial or aquatic vertebrates +
It contains two pair of limbs + The skeleton is completely flexible + Respiration takes place
through lungs + Its eggs are covered with shell made up of Calcium carbonate + Cobra is the
only snake which makes nests + Cobra emits their venom through fangs + Heloderma is the
only poisonous lizard + Sea snake which is called Hydrophis is the world's most poisonous
snake.
▪ Examples : Lizard, snake, tortoise, crocodile, turtle, sphenodon etc.
▪ Note: Mesozoic era is called the era of reptiles.
o Aves: Warm blooded tetrapod vertebrates with flight adaptation + Its fore-feet modified into
wings to fly + Boat shaped body is divisible into head, neck, trunk and tail + Its respiratory
organ is lungs + Birds have no teeth + Beak help in feeding + A Beak is formed by jaw.
▪ Example-crow, peacock, parrot etc.
o Mammalia: Sweat glands and oil glands are found on skin + All these animals are warm
blooded + Its hearts are divided into four chamber + Tooth comes twice in these animals.
(Diphyodont) + There is no nucleus in its red blood cells (except in camel and lama) + Skin of
mammal have hair + External ear (Pinna) is present in mammal + Mammals are divided into
three sub-classes:
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▪ Prototheria- It lays eggs. Example - Echidna

▪ Metatheria - It bears the immature child. Example - Kangaroo
▪ Eutheria-It bears the well developed child. Example - Human
▪ Note: In mammal the highest body temperature is of goat. (Average 39 degree Celsius)
+ Echidna and Duck billed Platypus are the egg laying mammal + Allantois of
mammalian embryo help in respiration + Excretion in hemichordata takes place by
glomerulus.
Microbial pathogens : A pathogen is defined as an organism causing disease to its host, with the severity of
the disease symptoms referred to as virulence + Pathogens are taxonomically widely diverse and comprise
viruses and bacteria as well as unicellular and multicellular eukaryotes.
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16. Human blood
• About blood : Fluid connective tissue that consists of plasma, blood cells and platelets + Transports
substances like digested food from the small intestine to the other parts of the body + carries oxygen
from the lungs to the cells of the body + Transports waste for removal from the body + Two parts :
o Plasma : Straw coloured, viscous fluid constituting nearly 55 per cent of the blood + 90-92 per
cent of plasma is water and proteins contribute 6-8 per cent of it + Fibrinogen, globulins and
albumins are the major proteins + Fibrinogens are needed for clotting or coagulation of blood
+ Globulins primarily are involved in defense mechanisms of the body + Albumins help in
osmotic balance + Plasma also contains small amounts of minerals like Na+, Ca++, Mg++,
HCO3-, Cl-, etc. + Glucose, amino acids, lipids, etc., are also present in the plasma as they are
always in transit in the body + Factors for coagulation or clotting of blood are also present in
the plasma in an inactive form + Plasma without the clotting factors is called serum.
o Blood Corpuscles : Remaining 40% of the blood
▪ Red Blood Cells (RBC) : Erythrocytes or RBC are the most abundant of all the cells
in blood + A healthy adult man has, on an average, 5 million to 5.5 million of RBCs
mm-3 of blood + RBCs are formed in the red bone marrow in the adults + RBCs are
devoid of nucleus in most of the mammals and are biconcave in shape + They have a
red coloured, iron containing complex protein called haemoglobin, hence the colour
and name of these cells + RBCs have an average life span of 120 days after which they
are destroyed in the spleen (graveyard of RBCs).
▪ White Blood Cells (WBC) : Also known as Leucocytes are also known as white blood
cells + they are colorless due to the lack of haemoglobin + They are nucleated and are
relatively lesser in number which averages 6000-8000 mm-3 of blood + Types of
White Blood Cells :
1. Granulocytes
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o Eosinophils : They are the cells of leukocytes, which are present in

the immune system + Responsible for combating infections in
parasites of vertebrates and for controlling mechanisms associated
with allergy and asthma + Produced in the bone marrow and makes 2
to 3 per cent of whole WBCs. These cells are present in high
concentrations in the digestive tract.
o Basophils : Least common of the granulocytes, ranging from 0.5 to 1
per cent of WBCs + They contain large cytoplasmic granules, which
play a vital role in mounting a non-specific immune response to
pathogens, and allergic reactions by releasing histamine and dilating
the blood vessels + These white blood cells have the ability to be
stained when exposed to basic dyes, hence referred to as basophil +
These cells are best known for their role in asthma and their result in
inflammation and bronchoconstriction in the airways + They secrete
serotonin, histamine and heparin.
o Neutrophils : They are normally found in the bloodstream + They are
predominant cells, which are present in pus + Around 60 to 65 per cent
of WBCs are neutrophils with a diameter of 10 to 12 micrometres +
The nucleus is 2 to 5 lobed and the cytoplasm has very fine granules
+ Neutrophil helps in the destruction of bacteria with lysosomes, and
it acts as a strong oxidant + Neutrophils are stained only using neutral
dyes. Hence, they are called so + Neutrophils are also the first cells of
the immune system to respond to an invader such as a bacteria or a
virus + The lifespan of these WBCs extends for up to eight hours and
is produced every day in the bone marrow.
2. Agranulocytes
o Monocytes : These cells usually have a large bilobed nucleus, with a
diameter of 12 to 20 micrometres + The nucleus is generally half-
moon shaped or kidney-shaped and it occupies 6 to 8 per cent of
WBCs + They are the garbage trucks of the immune system + They
migrate into tissues and clean up dead cells, protect against
bloodborne pathogens and move very quickly to the sites of infections
in the tissues
o Lymphocytes : They play a vital role in producing antibodies + They
are commonly known as natural killer cells + They play an important
role in body defence + These are colourless cells formed in lymphoid
tissue, hence referred to as lymphocytes + There are two main types
of lymphocytes – B lymphocytes and T lymphocytes + These cells are
very important in the immune systems and are responsible for humoral
and cell-mediated immunity.
▪ Platelets (Thrombocytes) : Thrombocytes are specialized blood cells produced from
bone marrow + Platelets come into play when there is bleeding or haemorrhage + They
help in clotting and coagulation of blood + Platelets help in coagulation during a cut
or wound.
• Coagulation of Blood : It is in response to an injury or trauma + This is a mechanism to prevent
excessive loss of blood from the body + Dark reddish brown scum is formed at the site of a cut or an
injury over a period of time + It is a clot or coagulam formed mainly of a network of threads called
fibrins in which dead and damaged formed elements of blood are trapped + Fibrins are formed by the
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conversion of inactive fibrinogens in the plasma by the enzyme thrombin + Thrombins, in turn are
formed from another inactive substance present in the plasma called prothrombin.
• Blood Groups :
o ABO grouping : Based on the presence or absence of two surface antigens (chemicals that can
induce immune response) on the RBCs namely A and B + Similarly, the plasma of different
individuals contain two natural antibodies (proteins produced in response to antigens). + ABO
blood groups are controlled by the gene I
o Rh grouping : Another antigen, the Rh antigen similar to one present in Rhesus monkeys
(hence Rh), is also observed on the surface of RBCs of majority (nearly 80 per cent) of humans
+ Such individuals are called Rh positive (Rh+ve) and those in whom this antigen is absent are
called Rh negative (Rh-ve) + An Rh-ve person, if exposed to Rh+ve blood, will form specific
antibodies against the Rh antigens
17. Human digestive system :
• The digestive system comprises of Alimentary Canal and Accessory Organs.

o Alimentary Canal : It starts at the mouth (buccal or oral cavity), passes through the pharynx,
esophagus or food pipe, stomach, small intestines, large intestines, rectum, and finally ends at
the anus.
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▪ Mouth: Teeth are designed for grinding food particles into small pieces and are
moistened with saliva before the tongue pushes the food into the pharynx.
▪ Pharynx: A fibromuscular y-shaped tube which are attached to the terminal at the end
of the mouth + Mainly involved in the passage of chewed/crushed food from the mouth
through the Esophagus
▪ Esophagus: This is a muscular tube that connects the pharynx, which is a part of an
upper section of the gastrointestinal tract + It supplies swallowed food along with its
length.
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▪ Stomach: It serves as a muscular bag that is situated towards the left side of the
abdominal cavity, beneath the diaphragm + It acts as a storage for food and provides
enough time to digest meals + It also produces digestive enzymes and hydrochloric
acid that maintains the process of digestion.
• Mucus: It is an aqueous secretion produced by the mucous membranes. It
functions by protecting the stomach lining and gastric pits from the acid, which
is produced by the glands to destroy the bacteria that entered along with the
food particles.
• Digestive enzymes: They are the group of enzymes that functions by breaking
down polymeric macromolecules like biopolymers into their smaller and
simpler substances.
• Hydrochloric acid: It is the digestive fluid formed by the stomach during the
process of digestion + Destroyes harmful microorganisms present in the food
particles.
▪ Small Intestine: It is a thin, long tube of about 10 feet long and a part of the lower
gastrointestinal tract + It is present just behind the stomach and acquires a maximum
area of the abdominal cavity.
• Intestinal juice contains the following enzymes:
o Erepsin: It converts the remaining protein and peptone into amino
acids.
o Maltase: It converts maltose into glucose.
o Sucrase: It converts the sucrose into glucose and fructose.
o Lactase: It converts the lactose into glucose and galactose.
o Lipase: It converts the emulsified fats into glycerol and fatty acids.
▪ Large Intestine: This is a thick, long tube measuring around 5 feet in length + It is
present just beneath the stomach and wraps over the superior and lateral edges of the
small intestine + It absorbs water and consists of bacteria (symbiotic) that support the
breakdown of wastes to fetch small nutrients.
▪ Rectum: Waste products are passed into the end of the large intestine called the rectum
and eliminated out of the body as a solid matter called stool + It is stored in the rectum
as semi-solid feces which later exits from the body through the anal canal through the
process of defecation.
o Accessory Organs
▪ Pancreas: Large gland present just behind the stomach + It is short with its anterior
connected to the duodenum and posterior pointing towards the left part of the
abdominal cavity + The pancreas releases digestive enzymes to complete the process
of chemical digestion.
• Pancreatic juice from the pancreas combines with food and it contains the
following enzymes:
o Trypsin: It converts the protein and peptone into polypeptides and
amino acids.
o Amylase: It converts the starch into soluble sugar.
o Lipase: It converts emulsified fats into glycerol and fatty acids.
Ptyalin : It accelerates the conversion of starch to dextrin and maltose + The chloride ions found in saliva
activate ptyalin + Saliva contains the enzyme ptyalin, which converts starch to maltose + Ptyalin enzymes
are in charge of breaking down starch (carbs) into basic carbohydrate molecules like maltose.
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Pepsin : It is an activated digestive enzyme found in gastric juice that cleaves proteins into smaller
peptides + It is an endopeptidase that is released in the stomach lining by the gastric chief cells and is
one of the crucial digestive enzymes found in humans and other animals + The enzyme is an aspartic
protease that uses a catalytic aspartate in its active site
Gastrin : It is a linear peptide hormone secreted by the walls of the pyloric canal ends + The pyloric
canal is the area or the junction between the stomach and the duodenum, where the stomach connects the
small intestine of mammals + It is released into the bloodstream when food enters the stomach, and is
carried by the circulatory system to the gastric cells in the stomach wall, which triggers the secretion of
gastric juice + The gastric juice primarily constitutes hydrochloric acid and pepsinogen + Hydrochloric
acid helps break apart fibrous matter in food and kills bacteria that may have been ingested, and
pepsinogen is a precursor of the protein-splitting enzyme pepsin.
▪ Liver: Roughly triangular, reddish-brown accessory organ of the digestive system

located to the right of the stomach + It produces bile, which helps in the digestion of
fat in the small intestine + The bile is stored and recycled in the gallbladder + Small,
pear-shaped organ that is located just next to the liver.
18. Circulatory system :
• Heart : It remains safe in the pericardial membrane + Its weight is approximately 300 grams + Heart
of the human is made up of four chambers + In the anterior side there is a right auricle and a left auricle
+ In the posterior side of the heart there is a right ventricle and a left ventricle persist + A Between the
right auricle and the right ventricle there is a tricuspid valve + Between the left auricle and left ventricle
there is a bicuspid valve + The blood vessels carrying the blood from the body towards the heart is
called vein + In the vein there is impure blood i.e. carbon dioxide mixed blood. Its exception is
pulmonary vein, which always carry pure blood + Pulmonary vein carries the blood from lungs to left
auricle + The blood vessels carrying the blood from the heart towards the body is called artery + In
artery there is pure blood i.e. oxygen mixed blood + Its exception is pulmonary artery + Pulmonary
artery carries the blood from right ventricle to lungs + It contains impure blood + In the right part of
the heart, there remains impure blood i.e. carbon dioxide mixed blood and in the left part of the heart
there remains pure blood i.e.oxygen mixed blood + The artery carrying blood to the muscles of the
heart are called coronary arteries + Any type of hindrance in it causes heart attack.
• Course of circulation: Mammals have double circulation. It mean blood have to cross two times from
heart before circulating throughout the body. Right auricle receive impure blood from the body which
goes into right ventricle. From here the blood went into pulmonary artery which send it to the lung for
purification. After purification it is collected by pulmonary vein which bring it back to heart in left
auricle. From auricle it went into left ventricle. Now this purified blood is went into aorta for different
organ of body + This circulation is done is a cardiac cycle
o Cardiac cycle : Rhythmic systole (Contraction) and diastole (relaxation) of auricle and
ventricle constitutes a cardiac cycle.
o A Heart beat: Heart keeps beating rhythmically throughout the life. There is a node from
which originate contraction of heart.
19. Excretory System : Removal of nitrogenous substances formed during metabolism from the body of human
is called excretion + The main excretory organs of human are as follows
• Kidneys: Its weight is 140 grams + Outer part is called cortex and the inner part is called medulla +
Each kidney is made up of approximately 1,30,00000 kidney ducts which are called nephrons +
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Nephron is the structural and functional unit of the kidney + There is a cup like structure in the every
nephron called Bowman's capsule + Glomerulus is made up of thin blood vessels found in the
Bowman's capsule which is made up of two types of arterioles + The process of filtration of liquids into
the cavity of Bowman's capsule, is called ultra filtration + The main function of the kidneys is
purification of blood plasma i.e. to excrete the unwanted nitrogenous waste substances through
urination + The supply of blood to kidneys takes place in large quantity in comparison to other organs
+ The stone formed in the kidneys is made up of calcium oxalate.
o Afferent arteriole: Which carries the blood to the glomerulus.
o Efferent arteriole: By which the blood is taken out of the glomerulus.
• Skin: Oil gland and sweat glands found in the skin respectively secretes sebum and sweat.
• Liver: Liver cells play the main role in excretion by converting more and more amino acids and
ammonia of blood into urea.
• Lungs: The lungs excretes two types of gaseous substances carbon dioxide and water vapour. The
excretion of some substances like garlic, onion and some spices in which vapour component is present
excreted by the lungs.
20. Nervous system :
• Neuron : Neuron is a structured and functional unit of the nervous system and unlike other cells, neurons
are irregular in shape and able to conduct electrochemical signals + The different parts of a neuron are
discussed below + Dendrite stretches out from the cell body of a neuron, and it is the shortest fibre in the
cell body + Axon is the longest thread on the cell body of a neuron and has an insulating and protective
sheath of myelin around it + Cell body consists of cytoplasm and nucleus + Synapse is the microscopic
gap between a pair of adjacent neurons over which nerve impulses pass, when moving from one neuron
to the other.
• Nerves : Thread-like structures that emerge from the brain and spinal cord + responsible for carrying
messages to all the parts of the body. There are three types of nerves - Sensory nerves send messages
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from all the senses to the brain + Motor nerves carry messages from the brain to all the muscles + Mixed
nerves carry both sensory and motor nerves.
Nervous system is a complex network of neurons specialized to carry messages + Two parts :
• Central Nervous System (consists of the brain and spinal cord) : Brain is the central information
processing organ of our body, and acts as the command and control system + It is also the site for
processing of vision, hearing, speech, memory, intelligence, emotions and thoughts + brain is well
protected by the skull + Inside the skull, the brain is covered by cranial meninges consisting of an outer
layer called dura mater, a very thin middle layer called arachnoid and an inner layer (which is in contact
with the brain tissue) called pia mater
o The human brain is composed of three major parts:

▪ Forebrain: The anterior part of the brain, consists of Cerebrum, Hypothalamus and
Thalamus.
• Cerebrum : It is the largest part of the brain + It consists of the cerebral cortex
and other subcortical structures + It is composed of two cerebral hemispheres
that are joined together by heavy, dense bands of fibre called the corpus
callosum + The cerebrum is further divided into four sections or lobes
o Frontal lobe: It is associated with parts of speech, planning, reasoning,
problem-solving and movements.
o Parietal lobe: Help in movements, the perception of stimuli and
orientation.
o Occipital lobe: It is related to visual processing.
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o Temporal lobe: This region is related to perception and recognition

of memory, auditory stimuli and speech.
▪ Midbrain: The smaller and central part of the brainstem, consists of Tectum and
Tegmentum.
▪ Hindbrain: The central region of the brain, composed of Cerebellum, Medulla and
Pons.
• Cerebellum : It is the second largest part of the brain, located in the posterior
portion of the medulla and pons + The cerebellum and cerebrum are separated
by cerebellar tentorium and transverse fissure + Cortex is the outer surface of
the cerebellum, and its parallel ridges are called the folia + Apart from this,
the cerebellum has the cerebellar peduncles, cerebellar nuclei, anterior and
posterior lobes + The cerebellum consists of two hemispheres, the outer grey
cortex and the inner white medulla + It is mainly responsible for coordinating
and maintaining the body balance during walking, running, riding, swimming,
and precision control of the voluntary movements.
• Medulla Oblongata : It is a small structure present in the lowest region of the
brain + It mainly controls the body’s autonomic functions such as heartbeat,
breathing, and digestion + It plays a primary role in connecting the spinal cord,
pons and the cerebral cortex + It helps us in maintaining our posture and
controlling our reflexes.
• Pons : It is the primary structure of the brain stem present between the
midbrain and medulla oblongata + It serves as a relay signals between the
lower cerebellum, spinal cord, the midbrain, cerebrum and other higher parts
of the brain + Functions : Controlling sleep cycles + Regulating the magnitude
and frequency of the respiration + Transfers information between the
cerebellum and motor cortex + Pons is also involved in sensations, such as the
sense of taste, hearing and balance.
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o Spinal cord : It is a cylindrical bundle of nerve fibers and associated tissues enclosed within
the spine and connect all parts of the body to the brain + It begins in continuation with the
medulla and extends downwards + It is enclosed in a bony cage called vertebral column and
surrounded by membranes called meninges + The spinal cord is concerned with spinal reflex
actions and the conduction of nerve impulses to and from the brain.
• Peripheral Nervous System (includes all the nerves of the body) : The nerve fibres of the PNS are
of two types:
o afferent fibres → tissues/organs to brain.
o efferent fibres → brain to tissues/organs.
o The afferent nerve fibres transmit impulses from tissues/organs to the CNS and the efferent
fibres transmit regulatory impulses from the CNS to the concerned peripheral tissues/organs +
The PNS is divided into two divisions called somatic neural system and autonomic neural
system + The somatic neural system relays impulses from the CNS to skeletal muscles while
the autonomic neural system transmits impulses from the CNS to the involuntary organs and
smooth muscles of the body
▪ Somatic Neural System → Brain to Voluntary muscles.
▪ Autonomic Neural System → Brain to Involuntary muscles.
21. Skeletal system : It is made up of two parts:
• Axial skeleton : Makes the main axis of the body + total 80 bones
o Skull : There are 29 bones in it + Skull: Out of these, 8 bones jointly protect the brain of the
human + The structure made up of these bones is called forehead + A the bones of the forehead
remain joined strongly by the sutures + There are 14 bone in addition to this which form the
face. Six ear ossicles and one hyoid bone.
o Vertebral Column: Made up of vertebra + All the vertebra are joined by intervertebral disc +
Vertebra is made flexible by these intervertebral disc + Functions - holds the head + provides
the base to the neck and body + helps the human in standing, walking etc + provides flexibility
to the neck and body by which a human can move its neck and body in any direction + provides
protection to spinal cord
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• Appendicular skeleton : It has two parts

o Foot bones - Both hands and feet have 118 bones
o Girdles : To hold the forelimb and hind limb on the axial skeleton + The girdle of forelimb is
called pectoral girdle and girdle of hindlimb is called pelvic girdle + Pectoral girdle joined with
forelimb is called humerus and the bone from pelvic girdle join to hindlimb is called femur.
• Functions of the skeletal system: To provide a definite shape to the body + To provide protection to
soft parts of the body + To provide a base to the muscles for joining + To help in respiration and
nutrition + To form Red Blood Corpuscles.
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22. Endocrine system
• Endocrine glands : Unlike exocrine glands(sweat, salivary), endocrine glands secrete their respective
substances directly into the bloodstream rather than through a duct + These endocrine glands belong to
the body’s control system and they produce hormones which help to regulate the functions of cells and
tissues. Some glands are specific to either male (testes) or female (ovaries)
o Major Endocrine Glands
▪ Pituitary gland : Enclosed deep within the skull, the pituitary gland is the size of a
pea + It hangs on a stalk at the base of the brain + It consists of an anterior portion that
produces hormones and a posterior portion that has many neural links + This gland is
regarded as the master gland as it controls the functions of all the other glands (such as
the adrenal, thyroid glands) in the endocrine system + The pituitary gland stimulates
the adrenal gland to secrete cortisol, a steroid hormone controls a range of activities
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from controlling the body’s metabolism to stimulating blood pressure + The pituitary
gland also secretes prolactin, which stimulates the production of milk.
▪ Thyroid gland : The thyroid glands can be found at the front of the neck + It sits low
in the throat, between the windpipe. Brownish red, it has blood vessels coursing
through it + It secretes hormones that are collectively called thyroid hormones + The
most prominent are T3 and T4, which influence the body’s rate of metabolism.
▪ Parathyroid glands : The parathyroid glands consist of four small glands that are
located behind the thyroids in the neck + They influence the calcium levels in the body
by producing a hormone called Parathyroid Hormone + Sometimes, when the gland
produces excess parathyroid hormones, it can have negative effects such as brittle
bones and kidney stones.
▪ Adrenal glands : The adrenal glands sit atop the kidneys and are no larger than a
walnut + These glands produce over 150 hormones that regulate different functions in
the body + The most well known is Adrenaline, which triggers the flight or fight
response + In other words, this is a stress hormone that helps the organism to either
face a dangerous situation or to avoid it altogether + It does this by: Increasing blood
sugar levels + Increasing the blood supply to the muscles, particularly to the limbs +
Dilating the pupils + Increasing the heart rate + Tightening the jaw muscles
▪ Pancreas : The pancreas is exocrine as well as an endocrine gland that sits behind the
stomach + It is roughly 6 inches long and rather flat + It has two primary roles to play:
Producing digestive enzymes + Producing hormones such as insulin and glucagon.
• Insulin is produced by the β cells in the pancreas and it helps in regulating the
blood glucose levels in the body from getting too high + The hormone
glucagon is produced by α cells of the pancreas and it helps the body to prevent
the glucose levels from dropping too low + Lack of glucagon leads to
hypoglycemia + Another key difference between the two is insulin becomes
active when the blood glucose levels are high, and glucagon become active
only when blood glucose levels are low.
▪ Gonads : Some glands are specific to males or females + For instance, the ovaries are
specific to females and are located in the pelvic cavity + While the testes are specific
to males + Ovaries produce estrogen that is important for reproduction and female sex
characteristics + Testes produce testosterone that is responsible for male sex
characteristics + Also, it results in increased muscle mass and body hair.
▪ Pineal gland : The pineal gland is located between the two halves of the brain. It was
also known as the “third eye” for most of history due to its location in the brain and its
connection with light + It produces a hormone known as melatonin which influences
the body’s internal clock + Also known as the Circadian Rhythm, it influences the
body’s sleep/wake cycle + Its effects are not really noticeable unless the individual is
sleep-deprived
23. Respiratory system and its organs
• Main organs:
o Nasal passage: Its main function is related to sniffing + Its inner cavity is lined with mucous
membrane + This secretes approximately ½ litre of mucous everyday + This prevents the
particles of dust, bacteria or other small organisms from entering into the body + It makes the
air wet entering into the body and equalises it with the temperature of the body.
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o Pharynx : It is situated behind the nasal cavity a common passage for both respiratory and
digestive system.
o Larynx: Pharynx open into anterior wider part of trachea called larynx + The opening is called
glottis + A cartilaginous flop like structure cover the glottis called epiglottis which prevent the
entry of food during swallowing + A pair of vocal cord is present inside the larynx help in
producing sound
o Trachea: From the base of larynx a tube arises, passes through the neck and reaches upto
middle of thorax is called trachea + It is supported by 'C' shaped cartilaginous ring + Internally
trachea is lined by ciliated and mucus secreting epithelium.
o Bronchi: In the thorocic region trachea divides into two branches called bronchi + Each
bronchus enters into the lung of its own side + After entering into the lung bronchous of each
side divide and redIvide into very fine tube called bronchioles + Finally bronchioles give rise
alveoli or alveolar sac + Alveoli are the site of gaseous exchange
o Lungs : There is a pair of lungs in the thoracic cavity + Its colour is pink, red and looks like
sponge + Right lung is larger in comparison to left lung + Each lung is surrounded by a
membrane which is called pleural membrane + There is a network of blood capillaries + Here
Oxygen enters into the blood and CO2 release out from blood.
• Four parts of process of respiration :

1. External respiration :
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▪ Breathing : In lungs air is taken and given out a certain rate which is called breathing
• Inspiration: At this stage, air from the environment enters into the lungs
through the nasal passage, due to increase in the dimension of thoracic cavity
a low pressure is formed in the lungs and air enters into the lungs from
environment + This air continues to enter until the pressure of air inside and
outside the body lungs
• Expiration: In this process air comes out of the lungs.
▪ Exchange of gases : Exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide due to the differences in
partial pressures
2. Transportation of gases : Transportation of oxygen takes place by haemoglobin present in
blood + Transportation of carbon dioxide from cells to lung takes place by haemoglobin only
to the extent of 10 to 20% and through circulation of blood
3. Internal respiration: Inside the body, gaseous exchange takes place between bood and
tissue fluid which is called internal respiration + The gaseous exchange in lungs is called
external respiration.
4. Cellular respiration: Glucose is oxidised by oxygen reached into the cell + This process is
called cellular respiration.
• Two types of respiration
o Anaerobic respiration : Oxidation of food takes place in absence of oxygen
o Aerobic respiration : Oxidation of food takes place in presence of oxygen
24. Nutrients : Nutrients are the substances by which an organism get energy or it is used for biosynthesis of
its body
• Carbohydrate : These are organic compounds in which the ratio of Carbon, Hydrogen and Oxygen is
1: 2: 1 + Carbohydrate in the form of sugar and starch are major intake in animals and human + 50 to
75% energy is obtained by oxidation of carbohydrate + Carbohydrate containing aldehyde group is
called aldose and with ketone group is called ketose + Carbohydrates are derivatives of polyhydroxy
alcohols + Types :
o Monosaccharides : A carbohydrate that cannot be hydrolyzed further to give simpler unit of
polyhydroxy aldehyde or ketone is called a monosaccharide + About 20 monosaccharides are
known to occur in nature. Some common examples are Glucose, Fructose, Ribose, Galactose,
etc.
o Oligosaccharides : Carbohydrates that yield two to ten monosaccharide units, on hydrolysis,
are called oligosaccharides + They are further classified as disaccharides, trisaccharides,
tetrasaccharides, etc., depending upon the number of monosaccharides, they provide on
hydrolysis.
o Polysaccharides : Carbohydrates which yield a large number of monosaccharide units on
hydrolysis are called polysaccharides + Some common examples are Starch, Cellulose,
Glycogen, Gums + Polysaccharides are long chains of sugars. Polysaccharides are not sweet in
taste, hence they are also called non-sugars.
• Protein : Protein: Protein word was first used by J. Berzelius. This is a complex organic compound
made up of 20 type of amino acids. Approximately 15% of the human body is made up of protein.
Nitrogen is present in protein in addition to C, H & O + N2 is essential for protein synthesis + Twenty
types of amino acid are necessary for human body, out of which 12 are synthesized by body itself and
remaining 8 are obtained by food are called essential amino acid.
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• Fats : Fat is one of the three main macronutrients: fat, carbohydrate, & protein + Fat is a major source
of energy & helps your body absorb vitamins + Fat has the most calories compared to any other nutrient
+ Fats, also known as triglycerides, are esters of three fatty acid chains & the alcohol glycerol.
o Lipid : A lipid is chemically defined as a substance that is insoluble in water and soluble in
alcohol and chloroform + Lipids are an important component of living cells + Together with
carbohydrates and proteins, lipids are the main constituents of plant and animal cells +
Cholesterol and triglycerides are lipids + Lipid is not necessarily a triglyceride + Glycerol is a
simple sugar alcohol compound + A triglyceride is an ester derived from glycerol and three
fatty acids (tri + glyceride) + Triglycerides are the main constituent of body fat in humans and
animals, as well as vegetable fat.
• Types of Fats
o Saturated fat : A saturated fat is a fat in which the fatty acids all have single bonds + A
saturated fat has the maximum number of hydrogens bonded to the carbons, & therefore is
‘saturated’ with hydrogen atoms + Most animal fats are saturated whereas the fats of plants &
fish are generally unsaturated + Many experts recommend a diet low in saturated fat.
o Unsaturated fat : An unsaturated fat is a fatty acid in which there is at least one double bond
within the fatty acid chain + Where double bonds are formed, hydrogen atoms are eliminated
+ In cellular metabolism, unsaturated fat molecules contain somewhat less energy (i.e., fewer
calories) than an equivalent amount of saturated fat + The greater the degree of unsaturation in
a fatty acid (i.e., the more double bonds in the fatty acid) the more vulnerable it is to rancidity
(lipid oxidation or rusting of fats) + Antioxidants can protect unsaturated fat from lipid
oxidation.
o Trans fats or trans-unsaturated fatty acids : These are a type of unsaturated fats that are
uncommon in nature + Trans fats are worse than saturated fats + Trans fat is simply liquid oils
turned into solid fats during food processing + Natural trans fats, present in very small amounts
in certain animal products, are not considered harmful + But industrially produced artificial
trans fats (manufactured by adding hydrogen to vegetable oil) have the tendency to negatively
alter the lipoprotein cholesterol profile by increasing the level of bad cholesterol (LDL) while
decreasing the level of HDL or good cholesterol.
• Vitamin : It was invented by Sir F. G. Hopkins + The term vitamin was coined by Funk + Vitamins
are organic compound required in minute quantities + No calorie is obtained from it, but it is very
important in regulating chemical reactions in the metabolism of the body.
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• Minerals : Mineral is a homogeneous inorganic material needed for body.
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• Water : Human gets it by drinking + water is the important component of our body + 65-75% weight
of the body is water + water controls the temperature of our body by sweating and vaporizing
26. Human diseases
• Diseases caused by Protozoa

o Malaria : Malaria is mosquito borne blood disease caused by plasmodium parasites. It is
predominantly found in the tropical and subtropical areas of Africa, South America as well as
Asia + The parasites spread through the bites of infected female Anopheles mosquitoes + After
entering the human body, parasites initially multiply within the liver cells and then attack the
Red Blood Cells (RBCs) resulting in their rupture + It is preventable as well as curable +
Malaria Vaccine is known by its lab initials as RTS, S but branded as Mosquirix
o Diarrhoea : It is the passage of 3 or more loose or liquid stools per day, or more frequently
than is normal for the individual + It is a symptom of infections caused by a host of bacterial,
viral and parasitic organisms, most of which are spread by faeces-contaminated water + Threat
posed by diarrhoea is dehydration, which occurs when lost water and electrolytes are not
replaced + Diarrhoea should be treated with ORS, a solution of clean water, sugar and salt.
• Diseases caused by Bacteria
o Diphtheria : It is a severe communicable and bacterial infectious disease that causes
inflammation of the mucous membranes by forming a false membrane in the throat which
creates a problem while swallowing food and during breathing + Diphtheria can be prevented
to an extent by the use of vaccines and antibiotics + The vaccine for diphtheria is called DTaP
+ It’s normally given in a single shot with vaccines for diphtheria, tetanus, and pertussis.
o Plague : It is a class of dangerous, life-threatening and infectious diseases mainly caused by
the gram-negative, rod-shaped coccobacillus called Yersinia pestis + This bacterium is mainly
found in animals like rodents or rats, and then it is transmitted through the insects that feed on
the blood of these animals + This disease is called by several names: Black Plague – as the
black rats are the carrier of this dangerous disease + There are three kinds of Plague disease:
▪ Bubonic plague disease – It is an infection in the lymph nodes of the body + The
lymph nodes swell and cause serious pain and it is transmitted through the fleas that
contain the bacteria.
▪ Pneumonic plague disease – It is a contagious disease that causes infection in the
lungs + Pneumonic plague disease is mainly transmitted from one person to another +
In this condition, the patient develops several disorders such as chest pain, cough, cold,
etc.
▪ Septicemic plague disease – It is the infection of the blood that leads to Septicemic
plague + This is a condition where the bacteria almost kill the cells of the blood in the
human body, causing death.
o Tetanus : It is a bacterial infection also known as lockjaw + It causes stiffness in various
muscles present in different parts of the body + It affects the nervous system + The first affected
parts are mostly jaw and neck but it may soon cause muscle contractions in other parts of the
body + It is a fatal disease of the nervous system caused by nerve toxins released by the
bacterium Clostridium tetani + The bacterium is found in the soil and in the faeces and digestive
tract of animals + However, it is typically treated with a variety of therapies and medications,
such as: Cleaning the wound + Muscle Relaxers to control muscle spasms + Taking antibiotics
like penicillin to kill the bacteria + Tetanus Immune Globulin (TIG) to neutralize the toxins
o Cholera : It is a life-threatening infectious disease and a public health hazard + Cholera is an
acute, diarrheal illness caused by infection of the intestine with the bacterium Vibrio cholerae
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+ A person may get cholera by drinking water or eating food contaminated with the cholera
bacterium + The disease can spread rapidly in areas with inadequate treatment of sewage and
drinking water + Currently there are three WHO pre-qualified oral cholera vaccines (OCV),
Dukoral, Shanchol, and Euvichol-Plus.
o Typhoid : It is a life-threatening systemic infection caused by the bacterium Salmonella
enterica serovar Typhi (commonly known as Salmonella Typhi) carried only by humans – no
other animal carrier has been found + Typhoid fever is transmitted by the faecal-oral route,
through ingestion of contaminated food or water + A new type of drug resistance is observed
in strains termed XDR typhoid
o Tuberculosis : It is caused by a bacterium called Mycobacterium tuberculosis + In humans,
TB most commonly affects the lungs (pulmonary TB), but it can also affect other organs (extra-
pulmonary TB) + treatable and curable disease + BCG vaccine was developed by two
Frenchmen, Albert Calmette and Camille Guerin, by modifying a strain of Mycobacterium
bovis (that causes TB in cattle).
▪ MultiDrug Resistant Tuberculosis (MDR-TB) is a strain of TB that cannot be treated
with the two most powerful first-line treatment anti-TB drugs.
▪ Extensively Drug Resistant Tuberculosis (XDR-TB) is a form of TB caused by
bacteria that are resistant to several of the most effective anti-TB drugs.
o Pneumonia : It is an inflammatory condition of the lung affecting primarily the small air sacs
known as alveoli + It is contagious and can be spread through coughing or sneezing + It can
also be spread through fluids, like blood during childbirth, or from contaminated surfaces +
Pneumonia caused by bacteria is easily preventable with vaccines. 3 doses of the primary
vaccine (Pneumococcal Conjugate Vaccine (PCV) are recommended to prevent it + Recently,
the Serum Institute of India announced the launch of India’s first indigenously developed
pneumococcal vaccine – Pneumosil.
o Leprosy : It is also known as Hansen’s Disease + Leprosy is a chronic, progressive bacterial
infection + It is caused by a bacterium called Mycobacterium Leprae, which is an acid-fast rod-
shaped bacillus + Leprosy is curable with the combination of drugs known as Multi-Drug
Therapy (MDT).
• Diseases caused by viruses :
Viruses : Viruses are not plants, animals, or bacteria. They are generally placed in their own kingdom +
In the strictest sense, viruses should not even be considered organisms – because they are not free-living
+ Viruses cannot reproduce and carry on metabolic processes without a host cell + They lack metabolic
machinery of their own to generate energy or synthesize proteins + They can reproduce only within a
living cell – hence they are obligate intracellular parasites + They take over the functions of the host cell
hence causing infection.
Structure of virus :
(1) Nucleic Acid: Starting from the inside, you will see a nucleic acid, which can be either RNA or DNA.
The nucleic acid can be either single-stranded or double-stranded.
(2) Protein Coat: Surrounding the nucleic acid almost all viruses will have e a protein coat. This will
either be in the form of the capsid or little small units.
(3) Envelope: Some viruses will also have an envelope that they obtain as they emerge from the cell.
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o Japanese Encephalitis: It is a disease caused by a flavivirus that affects the membranes around
the brain + It is also a major cause of Acute Encephalitis Syndrome (AES) in India + The
disease is transmitted to humans through bites from infected mosquitoes of the Culex species
+ These mosquitoes breed mainly in rice fields and large water bodies rich in aquatic vegetation
+ There is no antiviral treatment for patients with JE + Treatment, available, is supportive to
relieve symptoms and stabilise the patient
o Chickenpox : It is also known as varicella + It is a communicable, infectious, viral disease
characterized by itchy red blisters that appear all over the body + This dreadful disease was
introduced in the mid-1990 and more often affects children + There is now a vaccine against
chicken pox that is recommended for anyone over 12 months of age who has not had the disease,
and who does not have sufficient antibody to protect against chicken pox
o AIDS (Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV) : HIV attacks CD4, a type of White Blood
Cell (T cells) in the body’s immune system + T cells are those cells that move around the body
detecting anomalies and infections in cells + After entering the body, HIV multiplies itself and
destroys CD4 cells, thus severely damaging the human immune system + By receiving
treatment, a severe form of HIV can be prevented
o Dengue : It is a mosquito-borne tropical disease caused by the dengue virus (Genus Flavivirus),
transmitted by several species of female mosquito within the genus Aedes, principally Aedes
aegypti + This mosquito also transmits chikungunya, yellow fever and Zika infection +
Diagnosis of dengue infection is done with a blood test + There is no specific medicine to treat
dengue infection + Vaccine manufacturer Indian Immunologicals Limited (IIL) is developing
India's first Dengue vaccine and has received permission for a Phase-1 trial.
o Polio : It is a crippling and potentially deadly viral infectious disease that affects the nervous
system + India received polio-free certification by the WHO in 2014, after three years of zero
cases.
▪ There are three individual and immunologically distinct wild poliovirus strains:
• Wild Poliovirus type 1 (WPV1)
▪ Vaccines:
• Oral Polio Vaccine (OPV): It is given orally as a birth dose for institutional
deliveries, then primary three doses at 6, 10 and 14 weeks and one booster
dose at 16-24 months of age.
• Injectable Polio Vaccine (IPV): It is introduced as an additional dose along
with the 3rd dose of DPT (Diphtheria, Pertussis and Tetanus) under the
Universal Immunisation Programme (UIP).
o Influenza : It is an acute viral infection of the respiratory tract which is considered to be one
of the life-threatening infectious diseases + The virus can be transmitted by direct contact with
infected individuals, via contaminated objects (also called fomites) and by inhalation of virus-
laden aerosols + Influenza is caused by three types of RNA viruses called influenza types A,
B and C (considered different genera), which all belong to the family Orthomyxoviridae + The
disease, colloquially called "flu" in humans, is generally caused by the viruses A and B + Only
a fraction influenza A subtypes (i.e. H1N1, H1N2 and H3N2) are currently in general
circulation among people + Influenza B viruses are responsible the same spectrum of disease
as influenza A. And, influenza B viruses do not cause pandemics + Influenza C viruses are
different in comparison to influenza A and B + They cause a mild respiratory illness and are
not thought to cause epidemics.
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o H1N1 : Swine flu is a highly contagious respiratory disease in pigs caused by one of several
swine influenza A viruses + Transmission of swine influenza viruses to humans is uncommon
+ Swine influenza virus can be transmitted to humans via contact with infected pigs or
environments contaminated with swine influenza viruses.
o H5N1 : Also called avian influenza + It is a disease caused by avian influenza Type A viruses
found naturally in wild birds worldwide + The virus can infect domestic poultry and there have
been reports of H5N1 infection among pigs, cats, and even tigers in Thailand zoos + Symptoms
have ranged from mild to severe influenza-like illness + Avian Influenza type A viruses are
classified based on two proteins on their surfaces – Hemagglutinin(HA) and
Neuraminidase(NA).
o Smallpox : Smallpox is a contagious disease, caused by the Variola Virus (VARV) + It
transmits through the droplets released from coughing, sneezing, and face to face contact with
an infected person + it is also the only one to have been eradicated by vaccination + The first
effective vaccine was discovered by Edward Jenner in 1796.
o Hepatitis : It is of five types, which are Hepatitis A, B, C, D, and E + Hepatitis is an
inflammatory condition of the liver + It disturbs various metabolic processes such as bile
production, excretion, fat and protein metabolism, activation of enzymes, and synthesis of
proteins + Usually caused by a group of viruses known as the “hepatotropic” viruses + Other
viruses may also cause it, such as the varicella virus that causes chicken pox
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• Covid-19 : It is an infectious disease caused by Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus 2

(SARS-CoV-2), a virus closely related to the SARS virus + Coronavirus consists of an RNA genome
and is one of the largest in the RNA family + Coronaviruses are enveloped and contain single-stranded
positive-sense RNA + The RNA attaches to the host cell’s ribosome for translation + Positive sense
RNA can function as messenger RNA, meaning that viral RNA sequence may be directly translated
into the desired viral proteins.
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Classifications of the virus variants
• Variant under Investigation: A variant becomes a variant under investigation when the mutations
happen and if there is any previous association with any other similar variant which is felt to have an
impact on public health.
• Variant of Interest (VOI): This includes variants with specific genetic markers that have been
associated with changes to receptor binding, decreased neutralisation by antibodies generated against
vaccination/previous infection, lessened efficacy of treatments, potential diagnostic impact, or
predicted increase in transmissibility or disease severity.
• Variant of Concern (VOC): When there is evidence for increased transmissions through field and
clinical investigations, a variant becomes a VOC. Variants of Concern have one or more of the
following characteristics : Higher transmissibility + Change in virulence/disease presentation; evidence
of increased disease severity + Evading diagnostics, drugs and vaccines
• Variant of High Consequence: A variant of high consequence has clear evidence that prevention
measures or medical countermeasures (MCMs) have drastically reduced effectiveness relative to
previously circulating variants. Possible attributes include: Demonstrated diagnostics failure + Higher
severity of the disease and increased hospitalisations + Reduced susceptibility to treatment + Evidence
for decreased vaccine effectiveness, a very large number of vaccine breakthrough cases, or very low
protection from vaccine against severe disease
Miscellaneous diseases :
• Sickle cell disease (SCD) : It is a group of inherited red blood cell disorders + Red blood carries
oxygen to all parts of the body + Healthy red blood cells are round, and they move through small blood
vessels to carry oxygen to all parts of the body + In someone who has SCD, the hemoglobin is abnormal,
which causes the red blood cells to become hard and sticky and look like a C-shaped farm tool called a
“sickle.” + Management of SCD is focused on preventing and treating pain episodes and other
complications + The Unmukt Project is being implemented by the Central Government to strengthen
screening and timely management of Sickle Cell Anemia + The Tribal Affairs Ministry established the
National Council on Sickle Cell Disease and Tribal Health Cell, which would coordinate with the
Ministry of Health and State Governments + The Tribal Affairs Ministry, through development of
Sickle Cell Support Corner, has instituted a mechanism for creating a Central Repository of data.
• Mitochondrial diseases : These are chronic (long-term), genetic, often inherited disorders that occur
when mitochondria fail to produce enough energy for the body to function properly. (Inherited means
the disorder was passed on from parents to children.) Mitochondrial diseases can be present at birth,
but can also occur at any age.
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CHEMISTRY
1. Matter: Matter is made up of particles. Matter is not continuous and is particulate in nature. The particles of
matter are very small.
• Characteristics of matter: Matter is made up of particles + Matter has inter particle space + The
particles constituting a matter are very small + Particles in matter are always in a state of motion + The
motion of the particles increases with an increase in temperature
• Particles of matter
o Atoms: An atom is the smallest particle of an element that may or may not exist independently
and retain all its chemical properties i.e., takes part in chemical reactions + Atoms of different
elements have different masses and chemical properties.
o Molecules: A molecule is a group of two or more atoms that are chemically bonded together +
It can be defined as the smallest particle of an element or a compound that is capable of
independent existence and shows all the properties of that substance + However, it does not
take part in a chemical reaction.
• States of matter
o Solid: In solids, particles are tightly or closely packed + The gaps between the particles are tiny
and hence it is tough to compress them + Solid has a fixed shape and volume + Due to its rigid
nature, particles in solid can only vibrate about their mean position and cannot move + Force
of attraction between particles is adamant + The rate of diffusion in solids is very low + An
example of solids: solid ice, sugar, rock, wood, etc.
o Liquid: In a liquid state of matter, particles are less tightly packed as compared to solids +
Liquids take the shape of the container in which they are kept + Liquids are difficult to
compress as particles have less space between them to move + Liquids have fixed volume but
no fixed shape + The rate of diffusion in liquids is higher than that of solids + Force of attraction
between the particles is weaker than solids + Example of a liquid state of matter: water, milk,
blood, coffee, etc.
o Gas: In gases, particles are far apart from each other + Force of attraction between the particles
is negligible, and they can move freely + Gases have neither a fixed volume nor a fixed shape
+ The gaseous state has the highest compressibility as compared to solids and liquids + The
rate is diffusion is higher than solids and liquids + The kinetic energy of particles is higher than
in solids and liquids + Examples of gases: air, helium, nitrogen, oxygen, carbon dioxide, etc
o Plasma: Plasma is a not so generally seen form of matter + Plasma consists of particles with
extremely high kinetic energy + Electricity is used to ionize noble gases and make glowing
signs, which is essentially plasma + Superheated forms of plasma are what stars are.
o Bose-Einstein Condensates: Discovered in 1995, Bose-Einstein condensates were made with
the help of the advancements in technology + Carl Weiman and Eric Cornell cooled a sample
of rubidium with the help of magnets and lasers to within a few degrees of absolute zero + At
the said temperature, the motion of the molecules becomes negligible + As this brings down
the kinetic energy, the atoms no longer stay separate, but they begin to clump together + As the
atoms join together they form a super-atom + Light slows down as it passes through a BEC
helping scientists to study more about the nature of light as a wave and particle + BEC’s also
show properties of a superfluid which implies, that it flows without friction.
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Matter is divided into pure substances and mixtures.
2. Pure substances: A single substance (or matter) which cannot be separated into other kinds of matter by any
physical process is called pure substance. Pure substances have been classified as elements and compounds.
(a) Elements: The simplest form of a pure substance which can neither be broken into nor built from
simpler substances by ordinary physical and chemical methods is called element + Types :
o Metals : Metals are solids (except mercury which is liquid at room temperature) are normally
hard : They have lustre, high melting point (mp) at boiling point (bp) and also good conductor
of electricity and heat + The conductivity of metal decreases with increase in temperature due
to vibration of positive ions at their Lattice points. Examples-Iron, Copper, Silver, Gold,
Aluminium, Zinc etc.
o Non-metals: Non-metals are the elements with properties opposite to those of the metals. They
are found in all states of matter. They do not possess lustre (exception-iodine). They are poor
conductors of electricity (exception-graphite) and they are not malleable and ductile.
Examples-Hydrogen, Carbon, Oxygen, Nitrogen, Sulphur, Phosphorous etc.
o Metalloids : They have common properties of both metals and non-metals. Examples -
Arsenic, Antimony, Bismuth etc
(b) Compounds : Compounds are pure substances that are composed of two or more different elements
in fixed proportion by mass + The properties of a compound are entirely different from those of the
elements from which it is made + Example-Water, Sugar, Salt, chloroform, Alcohol, Ether etc.
o Organic Compounds: The Compounds obtained from living sources are called organic
compounds + The term organic is now applied to hydrocarbons and their derivatives +
Examples : Carbohydrates, Proteins, Oils, Fats etc.
o Inorganic compounds : The Compounds obtained from non-living sources such as rocks
and minerals are called inorganic compounds + Examples : Common Salt, Marble,
Washing Soda etc.
3. Mixtures: When two or more substances mix with each other without participating in a chemical change,
the resulting substance is called a Mixture. Example - milk, sea water etc + Two types :
• Heterogeneous Mixture: Heterogeneous mixtures possess different properties and compositions in

various parts i.e. the properties are not uniform throughout the mixture. Examples – air, oil, water, A
mixture of sand mixed with salt, etc.
• Homogeneous Mixture: Sugar mixed with water is the most common example of a homogeneous
mixture. Homogeneous mixtures can be defined as the mixtures which possess the same properties and
combination throughout their mass. Examples – alloys, salt, and water, alcohol in water, etc.
4. Separation of mixtures: The separation of mixtures is the method of separating the mixture into its
components.
• Evaporation: When a liquid turns into gas on the application of heat, the process is known as
evaporation + This technique may separate a volatile component (solvent) from its non-volatile solute.
• Sublimation: Sublimation is when solid substances are directly converted to the gas state without going
through the fluid state + It is used to separate the elements that sublime on heating from the one which
does not + Solids that sublime are ammonium chloride, naphthalene, camphor, etc
• Chromatography: It’s the technique used to separate those solutes that dissolve within the same
solvent + For example, if we place a drop of ink on a filter paper and immerse it into the water from
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one end, the water rises, separating the colours + The colour constituent that is more soluble in the
water rises quickly, and the colours separate.
• Distillation: It is used to separate components of a mixture containing two miscible liquids that boil
without decomposition and have sufficient distinction in their boiling points + When we heat a mixture
of liquids, the component with a lower boiling point begins to form vapours collected in a distillation
tube + The other component is then separated as it remains in the distillation flask
• Fractional Distillation: It is used to separate a mixture of two or more miscible liquids when the
distinction in boiling points is less than 25 K + For instance, the separation of various gases from the
air, different factions from petroleum products, etc
• Crystallisation: Crystallisation separates a pure solid as crystals from a solution + It is used to purify
solids + For example, the salt we acquire from seawater may include a lot of contaminants + The
crystallisation procedure is used to eliminate these contaminants + The crystallisation method performs
better than evaporation.
• Reverse Osmosis: It is the technique in which solvent molecules move from the solution of higher
concentration to the solution of lower concentration separated by a semipermeable membrane when
excess pressure is applied to the solution of higher concentration + It is used for the desalination of
seawater
• Centrifugation: It is a mechanical technique for separation which involves the usage of the centrifugal
force to separate particles contained in a solution + The particles are segregated depending on their size,
shape, density, and rotor speed + The suspended particles in a mixture are rotated at a high speed in a
machine, called the centrifuge in order to segregate the particles from the liquid.
5. Concept of change in state:
• Melting Point: The constant temperature a which a solid becomes liquid upon absorbing heat under
normal pressure is called melting point of that solid. Example: MP of ice is 0°C and MP of Sodium
Chloride (NaC) is 800°C + The melting point of a substance is a fixed temperature + But if there are
impurities in a substance, the melting point of that substance can change considerably. Examples : MP
of mixture of ice and salt i.e. freezing mixture is -15°C.
• Boiling point: It is the constant temperature at which a liquid changes to vapour state under normal
atmospheric pressure is called boiling point + The boiling point decreases with decrease in atmospheric
pressuren + Soluble impurities increases the boiling point of liquid.
• Freezing Point: The constant temperature at which a liquid changes into a solid by giving out heat
energy is called freezing point of that liquid. FP of water =0°C.
• Evaporation: It is the process of conversion of a liquid into its vapours at room temperature + It causes
cooling + During evaporation, the molecules having higher kinetic energy escape from the surface of
the liquid --> Average kinetic energy of the rest of the molecules decreases --> Cooling takes place
during evaporation because of temperature of liquid is directly proportional to average kinetic Energy.
• Vapour pressure: The pressure exerted by the vapours of liquid in equilibrium with liquid at a given
temperature is called vapour pressure + Vapour pressure depends upon : 1. Its nature and 2.
Temperature + Higher the vapour pressure of a particular liquid lesser will be the magnitude of
intermolecular forces present in molecules + Vapour pressure of a liquid increases with increase in
temperature.
6. Atomic structure
• Atomic structure : The atomic structure of an element refers to the constitution of its nucleus and the
arrangement of the electrons around it + Primarily, the atomic structure of matter is made up of protons,
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electrons and neutrons + The protons and neutrons make up the nucleus of the atom, which is
surrounded by the electrons belonging to the atom + The atomic number of an element describes the
total number of protons in its nucleus.
o Subatomic Particles :
▪ Protons : Protons are positively charged subatomic particles + The charge of a proton
is 1e, which corresponds to approximately 1.602 × 10-19 + The mass of a proton is
approximately 1.672 × 10-24 + Protons are over 1800 times heavier than electrons +
The total number of protons in the atoms of an element is always equal to the atomic
number of the element.
▪ Neutrons : The mass of a neutron is almost the same as that of a proton i.e. 1.674×10-
24 + Neutrons are electrically neutral particles and carry no charge + Different isotopes
of an element have the same number of protons but vary in the number of neutrons
present in their respective nuclei.
▪ Electrons : The charge of an electron is -1e, which approximates to -1.602 × 10-19 +
The mass of an electron is approximately 9.1 × 10-31 + Due to the relatively negligible
mass of electrons, they are ignored when calculating the mass of an atom.
o Atomic Structures of Some Elements : The structure of atom of an element can be simply
represented via the total number of protons, electrons, and neutrons present in it. The atomic
structures of a few elements are illustrated below.
▪ Hydrogen : The most abundant isotope of hydrogen on the planet Earth is protium.
The atomic number and the mass number of this isotope are 1 and 1, respectively.
• Structure of Hydrogen atom: This implies that it contains one proton, one
electron, and no neutrons (total number of neutrons = mass number – atomic
number)
▪ Carbon : Carbon has two stable isotopes – 12C and 13C. Of these isotopes, 12C has
an abundance of 98.9% + It contains 6 protons, 6 electrons, and 6 neutrons.
• Structure of Carbon atom: The electrons are distributed into two shells and
the outermost shell (valence shell) has four electrons + The tetravalency of
carbon enables it to form a variety of chemical bonds with various elements.
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▪ Oxygen : There exist three stable isotopes of oxygen – 18O, 17O, and 16O + However,
oxygen-16 is the most abundant isotope.
• Structure of Oxygen atom: Since the atomic number of this isotope is 8 and
the mass number is 16, it consists of 8 protons and 8 neutrons + 6 out of the 8
electrons in an oxygen atom lie in the valence shell.
• Atomic Models : In the 18th and 19th centuries, many scientists attempted to explain the structure of
the atom with the help of atomic models.
o Dalton’s Atomic Theory : Every matter is made up of atoms + Atoms are indivisible +
Specific elements have only one type of atoms in them + Each atom has its own constant mass
that varies from element to element + Atoms undergo rearrangement during a chemical reaction
+ Atoms can neither be created nor be destroyed but can be transformed from one form to
another.
▪ Demerits : The theory was unable to explain the existence of isotopes +Nothing about
the structure of atom was appropriately explained + Later, the scientists discovered
particles inside the atom that proved, the atoms are divisible
o Thomson Atomic Model : The English chemist Sir Joseph John Thomson put forth his model
describing the atomic structure in the early 1900s + He was later awarded the Nobel prize for
the discovery of “electrons” + His work is based on an experiment called cathode ray
experiment + Thomson described the atomic structure as a positively charged sphere into which
negatively charged electrons were embedded + It is commonly referred to as the “plum pudding
model” because it can be visualized as a plum pudding dish where the pudding describes the
positively charged atom and the plum pieces describe the electrons + Thomson’s atomic
structure described atoms as electrically neutral, i.e. the positive and the negative charges were
of equal magnitude.
▪ Limitations : Thomson’s atomic model does not clearly explain the stability of an
atom. Also, further discoveries of other subatomic particles, couldn’t be placed inside
his atomic model.
o Rutherford Atomic Theory : Rutherford, a student of J. J. Thomson modified the atomic
structure with the discovery of another subatomic particle called “Nucleus” + His atomic model
is based on the Alpha ray scattering experiment + He concluded that the nucleus is at the center
of an atom, where most of the charge and mass are concentrated + Atomic structure is spherical
+ Electrons revolve around the nucleus in a circular orbit, similar to the way planets orbit the
sun.
▪ Limitations : If electrons have to revolve around the nucleus, they will spend energy
and that too against the strong force of attraction from the nucleus, a lot of energy will
be spent by the electrons and eventually, they will lose all their energy and will fall
into the nucleus so the stability of atom is not explained + If electrons continuously
revolve around the ‘nucleus, the type of spectrum expected is a continuous spectrum.
But in reality, what we see is a line spectrum.
o Bohr’s Atomic Theory : Neils Bohr put forth his model of the atom in the year 1915 + This
is the most widely used atomic model to describe the atomic structure of an element which is
based on Planck’s theory of quantization + He concluded that the electrons inside atoms are
placed in discrete orbits called “stationery orbits” + The energy levels of these shells can be
represented via quantum numbers + Electrons can jump to higher levels by absorbing energy
and move to lower energy levels by losing or emitting its energy + As longs as, an electron
stays in its own stationery, there will be no absorption or emission of energy + Electrons
revolve around the nucleus in these stationery orbits only + The energy of the stationary orbits
is quantized.
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(Revision Notes)
▪ Limitations : Bohr’s atomic structure works only for single electron species such as
H, He+, Li2+, Be3+ When the emission spectrum of hydrogen was observed under a
more accurate spectrometer, each line spectrum was seen to be a combination of no of
smaller discrete lines + Both Stark and Zeeman effects couldn’t be explain using
Bohr’s theory.
The Stark effect is the shifting and splitting of spectral lines of atoms and molecules due to the presence
of an external electric field.
The Zeeman effect is the effect of splitting of a spectral line into several components in the presence of
a static magnetic field.
Note : Zeeman effect is analogous to the Stark effect, the splitting of a spectral line into several
components in the presence of an electric field. Also similar to the Stark effect, transitions between
different components have, in general, different intensities, with some being entirely forbidden (in the
dipole approximation), as governed by the selection rules.
7 : Periodic Classification of Elements :
• Features : There are in all, 18 vertical columns and 18 groups in the long form periodic table + These
groups are numbered from 1 to 18 starting from the left + There are seven horizontal rows called periods
in the long form periodic table + Thus, there are seven periods in the long form periodic table + The
elements of Groups 1, 2 and 13 to 17 are called the main group elements + These are also called typical
or representative or normal elements + The elements of Groups 3 to 12 are called transition elements +
Elements with atomic number 58 to 71 (Ce to Lu) occurring after lanthanum (La) are called lanthanides
+ Elements with atomic numbers 90 to 103 (Th to Lw) are called actinides + These elements are called
f-block elements and also as inner transition elements.
Science
(Revision Notes)
8. Chemical bonding : Chemical bonds are forces that hold the atoms together in a molecule + They are a
result of strong intramolecular interactions among the atoms of a molecule.
• Ionic Bond : As the name suggests, ionic bonds are a result of the attraction between ions. Ions are
formed when an atom loses or gains an electron. These types of bonds are commonly formed between
a metal and a nonmetal. Example : Sodium (Na) and chlorine (Cl) combine to form stable crystals of
sodium chloride (NaCl), also known as common salt.
• Covalent Bond : In the case of a covalent bond, an atom shares one or more pairs of electrons with
another atom and forms a bond + This sharing of electrons happens because the atoms must satisfy the
octet (noble gas configuration) rule while bonding + Such a type of bonding is common between two
nonmetals + The covalent bond is the strongest and most common form of chemical bond in living
organisms.
o A covalent bond can be divided into a nonpolar covalent bond and a polar covalent bond + In
the case of a nonpolar covalent bond, the electrons are equally shared between the two atoms
+ On the contrary, in polar covalent bonds, the electrons are unequally distributed between the
atoms.
• Hydrogen Bond : A hydrogen bond is a chemical bond between a hydrogen atom and an
electronegative atom + However, it is not an ionic or covalent bond but is a particular type of dipole-
dipole attraction between molecules + First, the hydrogen atom is covalently bonded to a very
electronegative atom resulting in a positive charge, which is then attracted towards an electronegative
atom resulting in a hydrogen bond. Examples : Hydrogen atom from one molecule of water bonds with
the oxygen atom from another molecule. This bonding is quite significant in ice.
• Metallic Bonds : A metallic bond is a force that holds atoms together in a metallic substance + Such
solid consists of tightly packed atoms, where the outermost electron shell of each metal atom overlaps
with a large number of neighboring atoms + As a consequence, the valence electrons move freely from
one atom to another + They are not associated with any specific pair of atoms.
9. Oxidation and Reduction : Oxidation is the gain of oxygen while reduction is the loss of oxygen + Oxidation
is the loss of hydrogen while reduction is the gain of hydrogen + Oxidation is loss of electron while reduction is gain
of electrons.
10. Types of chemical reactions :
• Combination reaction : Two or more compounds combine to form one compound.
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• Decomposition reaction : The opposite of a combination reaction – a complex molecule breaks down
to make simpler ones.
• Precipitation reaction : Two solutions of soluble salts are mixed resulting in an insoluble solid
(precipitate) forming.
• Neutralization reaction : An acid and a base react with each other. Generally, the product of this
reaction is salt and water.
• Combustion reaction : Oxygen combines with a compound to form carbon dioxide and water. These
reactions are exothermic, meaning they give off heat.
• Displacement reaction : One element takes place with another element in the compound.
• Double Displacement Reactioxn : A chemical reaction in which ions get exchanged between two
reactants which form a new compound
11. Solution : A homogeneous mixture of two or more pure non-reacting substances whose composition can
be varied within certain limits is called solution. Example : When solution is composed of only two components,
it is called binary solution. For example solution of NaCl in water. Similarly solution containing three
components is called ternary solution For example a solution of NaCl and KCI in water.
• In binary solution, there are two components: 1. Solute and 2. Solvent : The component which is in
smaller proportion or amount in solution is called solute while one present in excess is called solvent. For
example-In a binary solution of sugar in water, sugar acts as solute while water is the solvent.
• Saturated Solution: A solution that can not dissolve any more of the solute a given temperature is called
saturated solution.
• Solution: A solution in which more of the solute can be dissolved at a given temperature is as unsaturated
solution.
• Supersaturated Solution : A supersaturated solution at a particular temperature is one that is more
concentrated (contains more solute) than its saturated solution at that temperature.
• Dilute Solution: It is the solution in which the amount of solute present is rather small compared to the mass
of solvent.
• Concentrated Solution: It is the solution in which the amount of solute present is relativity large for a given
mass of solvent.
• Solubility: The maximum amount of solute in gram which can dissolved in 100 g of solvent to form
saturated solution at particular temperature is called solubility of that solute + The solubility of a gas
decreases with increase in temperature because the dissolution of a gas in a liquid is exothermic in nature +
Pressure has very little effect on the solubility of a solid in a liquid because solids and liquids a are highly
incompressible + The solubility of a gas in a liquid increases with increases in pressure
• Henry's law : The effect of pressure on the solubility of a gas in liquid was studied by Henry in 1803 and
is called Henry's law. It states that the mass of a gas dissolved in a given volume of the liquid at constant
temperature is directly proportional to the pressure of the gas present in equilibrium with liquid.
• True Solution: True solution is a homogeneous solution in which size of solute particles is less than 10 m
+ In true solution, the solute particles and solvent molecules can not be distinguished even under a
microscope. For example-Sodium Chloride in water.
• Suspensions: A suspension is a heterogeneous solution in which the size of solute particles is more than 10
m + The particles of suspensions are visible to naked solution in which eye or under microscope.
• Colloidal Solution: Colloidal solution is a heterogeneous size of particles of dispersed phase lies between
10 m to 10 m + The colloidal particles can pass through ordinary filter paper but can not pass through animal
membrane + The Colloidal particles can not be seen by naked eye but they can be seen by ultramicroscope.
Example-Milk, gum, blood, ink etc.
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• Dispersion System: A system consisting of a substance distributes as very small of a solid, droplets of a
liquid or tiny bubbles of a gas in a suitable medium is called dispersion system. The distributed substance is
called dispersed phase where as the medium in which it is dispersed in known as dispersion medium.
• Sols: The colloidal systems with solid as dispersed phase and liquid as dispersion medium are known as sols.
Rubbers gloves are manufactures from rubber sols by the process of electroplating.
• Aerosols: The colloidal systems with solid or liquid as dispersed phase and gas as dispersion medium are
known as aerosols. In smoke, the dispersed phase is solid and dispersion medium is gas. In fog, dispersed
phase is liquid and dispersionmedium is gas.
• Foam : Foam is a colloidal solution in which dispersed phase is gas and dispersion medium is liquid.
• Brownian Movement: The continuous zig-zag movement of colloidal particles in the dispersion medium
in a colloidal solution is called Brownian movement + It is due to unequal bombardments of the moving
particles of dispersion medium on colloidal particles.
• Tyndall Effect: When a beam of light is allowed to pass through a colloidal solution, the colloidal particles
can be seen. This effect is called Tyndall effect. The Tyndall effect arises due to scattering of light by
colloidal particles present in a colloidal solution.
• Dialysis : The process of separating the particles of colloids from thos crystalloids by diffusion of mixture
through animal membrane (or parchmen membrane) is known as dialysis. It is the process of purification of
colloidal solution.
• Electrophoresis: The movement of colloidal particles towards a particles electrodes under the influence of
an electric field is called electrophoresis + The positively charged colloidal particles move towards cathode
and negatively charged colloidal particles move towards anode.
• Coagulation : It is a process of aggregation or accumulation of colloidal particles to settle down as a
precipitate. Substances like metals, their sulfides etc cannot be simply mixed with the dispersion medium to
form a colloidal solution.
13. Acids, bases and salts
• Acid : It is a substance which is sour in taste + turns blue litmus paper into red + contains replaceable
hydrogen + gives hydrogen ion (H) in aqueous solution (Arrhenius theory) + can donate a proton (Bronsted
& Lowry concept) + can accept electron (Lewis theory)
• Uses of acids : Vinegar, a diluted acetic acid solution is used as a food preservative + Sulfuric acid is widely
used in batteries + Nitric acid and sulfuric acid are used in the industrial production of explosives, dyes,
fertilizers, and paints + Phosphoric acid is the main constituent in different soft drinks.
o Uses of HCI : HCI present in gastric juices are responsible for the digestion + Used as bathroom
cleaner + As a pickling agent before galvanization + In the tanning of leather + In the dying and
textile industry + In the manufacture of gelatine from bones
o Uses of HNO : In the manufacture of fertilizers like ammonium nitrate + In the manufacture of
explosives like TNT (Trinitro toluene), TNB (Trinitro benzene), Picric acid (Trinitro phenol) etc. +
Nitro Glycerine (Dynamite) + Found in rain water (first shower) +It forms nitrates in the soil + In
the manufacture of rayon + In the manufacture of dyes & drugs.
o Uses of Sulphuric acid (H2SO4) : In lead storage battery + In the manufacture of HCL + In the
manufacture of Alum + In the manufacture of fertilizers, drugs, detergents & explosives.
o Use of Boric acids: As an antiseptic.
o Uses of Phosphoric acid : Its calcium salt makes our bones + It forms phosphatic fertilizers + PO4-
3providing energy for chemical reactions in our body.
o Uses of Ascorbic acid: Source of Vitamin C
o Uses of Citric acid: Flavouring agent & food preservative.
o Use of Acetic acid : Flavouring agent & food preservative.
o Uses of Tartaric acid: Souring agent for pickles + A component of baking powder (sodium
bicarbonate + tartaric acid)
Science
(Revision Notes)
• Base : Base is a substance which is bitter in taste + turns red litmus paper into blue + gives hydroxyl ions
(OH) in a aqueous solution + can accept proton (Bronsted & lowry concept) & can donate electrons (Lewis
theory) Oxides & hydroxides of metals are bases + Water soluble bases are called alkali e.g. NaOH, KOH,
etc + All alkalies are bases but all bases are not alkalies because bases are not soluble in water
• Uses of bases : Sodium hydroxide is used in the production of soap and paper. It is also used in the
production of rayon + Slaked lime or calcium hydroxide is used in the production of bleaching powder +
Magnesium hydroxide is used as a laxative + Ammonium hydroxide is an essential reagent in laboratories.
• Buffer solution : A solution whose pH is not altered to great extent by the addition of small quantities of
either an acid (H' ions) or a base (OH ions) is called buffer solution.
• Salt : When an acids reacts with a base, salt and water are formed + Important salts are -
o Sodium Chloride or Common Salt (NaCl) : Used in cooking food as well as for cooking gas +
Used as a preservative in pickles and in curing meat and fish + Used in the manufacture of soap +
Used to melt the ice in winter in cold countries +:Used for making chemical likes washing Soda,
baking soda etc.
o Sodium Hydroxide (NaOH) : Used for making soap and detergent + Used for making artificial
textile fibre (rayon) + Used in the manufacturing of paper + Used for purification of bauxite ore +
Used in de-greasing metals, oil refining and making dyes and bleaches
o Sodium Carbonate or Washing Soda : Used as cleansing agent + Used for removing permanent
hardness of water + Used in the manufacturing of glass, soap and paper
o Baking Soda or Sodium Bi-carbonate : Used as neutralising agent (antacid) + Used for making
baking powder + Used in fire extinguisher
o Bleaching Powder or Calcium Hypochlorite : Used as bleaching agent in cotton industry and
paper industry for bleaching cotton and linen as well as wood pulp respectively + Used for
disinfecting drinking water + Used for making chloroform (CHCl3) + Used for making the wool
unshrinkable
o Plaster of Paris or Hemihydrate Calcium sulphate : Used in hospital for setting fractured bone
+ Used for making toys, decoration material cheap ornament, chalk etc + Used for fire-proofing
material + Used for making surface smooth
• pH : pH is defined as the negative logarithm of H+ ion concentration. Hence the meaning of the name pH
is justified as the power of hydrogen + A pH scale is a tool for measuring acids and bases + The scale ranges
from 0-14. Litmus paper is an indicator used to tell if a substance is an acid or a base + The colour of the
paper matches up with the numbers on the pH scale to indicate what kind of substance is being tested + For
example, Vinegar is an acid and measures 2.4 on the pH scale.
o Limitations : pH is zero for 1N solution of strong acid + pH is negative for concentrations 2N, 3N,
ION of strong acids + At higher concentrations, in place of pH Hammett acidity functions are used.
• Acid Rain : Acid rain is the rain that has been acidified, with a pH less than 5.6 + Excessive amounts of
sulfur and nitrogen released by cars and industrial processes get mixed with rain and result in precipitation
that is highly acidic + These pollutants react with water vapours present in the atmosphere to form sulfuric
acid and nitric acid respectively + Sulfur and Nitrogen particles may be released in the atmosphere due to
anthropogenic causes or by natural causes + Anthropogenic causes include industrial emissions, burning of
fossil fuels such as diesel and coal, incineration of garbage, production of paper + Natural causes could be
release of sulfur during volcanic eruptions or nitrogen ions released in the atmosphere during a lightning
strike + The chemical reaction occurs in the presence of lightning to form the nitric oxide + This further
reacts with oxygen to form nitrogen dioxide + Furthermore, ozone, some other organic acids like formic and
acetic acids also contribute to 5-20% acidity in total acid rain.
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14. Electrolysis
• Electrolytes: These are the substances which allow the electricity to pass through them in their molten states
or in the form of their aqueous solution and undergo chemical decomposition. Examples-acids, bases &
salts.
• Strong electrolytes: The electrolytes which are almost completely dissociated into ions in solution are
called strong electrolytes. Examples-NaCl, KCI, HCI, NaOH etc.
• Weak electrolytes: The electrolytes which do not ionise completely in solution called weak electrolytes.
Examples-CH3COOH, HCN etc.
• Electrolysis: The process of chemical decomposition of an electrolyte by passage of electric current through
its molten state or its solution is called electrolysis.
• Electrodes: In order to pass the current through an electrolytes in molten state or in aqueous solution, two
rods or plates are needed to connect with the terminal of a battery. These rods or plates are called electrodes.
• Anode: The electrode which is attached to positive terminal of battery is called anode. Oxidation occurs at
anode.
• Cathode: The electrode which is attached to negative terminal of batteries is called Cathode. Reduction
occurs at cathode.
15. Carbon and its compounds
• Carbon: Carbon is non-metal having atomic number 6 and mass number 12. It is placed in group (IV) A or
group 14 in periodic table.
• Allotropy: The substances which have same chemical properties, but different physical properties are called
allotropes and this property is called allotropy. Example- Allotropies of Carbon-Diamond, graphite,
charcoal.
• Diamond: It is the hardest natural substance known + It does not conduct electricity and can be produced
artificially by exposing pure carbon to extreme pressure and heat + Diamonds are employed in a variety of
cutting instruments, including glass cutters, marble saws, and rock drilling equipment + Jewelry is made
with diamonds.
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(Revision Notes)
• Graphite: Graphite is an opaque greyish-black material + It has a soft, smooth feel to it and conducts
electricity + In dry cells and electric arcs, graphite is used to make electrodes or graphite electrodes +
Graphite helps in the formation of pencil cores (leads) and black paints
• Buckminsterfullerene: It is an allotrope of carboncontaining clusters of 60 carbon atoms linked together to
create spherical molecules + It has the formula C–60 and is a black solid at room temperature.
• Hydrocarbons: Hydrocarbons are organic compounds that are entirely made up of only two kinds of atoms
– carbon and hydrogen + Typically, hydrocarbons are colourless gases that have very weak odours + Types
of Hydrocarbons:
o Saturated Hydrocarbons: In these compounds, carbon-carbon atoms and carbon-hydrogen atoms
are held together by single bonds + These single bonded compounds are the simplest hydrocarbons.
+ These types of hydrocarbons don’t have double or triple bonds.
o Unsaturated Hydrocarbons: These compounds consist of a single, double or a triple bond between
carbon-carbon atoms + The double-bonded compounds are called alkenes and the triple bonded
compounds are called alkynes.
o Cycloalkanes: These hydrocarbons possess one or multiple carbon rings + The hydrogen atom is
attached to the carbon ring.
o Aromatic Hydrocarbons: These are also called arenes + Arenes are compounds which consist of
at least one aromatic ring.
o Aliphatic Hydrocarbons: They are straight chain structures having no rings in them.
o Alicyclic Hydrocarbons: They are hydrocarbons having a ring structure in them + The carbons
atoms can be Sp, Sp2 or Sp3 hybridised.
• Plastics : It is defined as a material that contains an essential ingredient an organic substance of large
molecular weight + It is also defined as polymers of long carbon chains + Plastic was discovered by famous
German chemist Christian Schonbein in 1846 + Plastics were actually discovered accidentally + Christian
was experimenting in his kitchen and by accident, he spilt a mixture of nitric acid and sulphuric acid
o Properties of Plastic : Strong and ductile + Poor conductors of heat and electricity + Easily
moulded into different shapes and size + Resist corrosion and are resistant to many chemicals
o Types of plastics :
▪ Thermoplastic: Plastics that can be deformed easily upon heating and can be bent easily.
Linear polymers and a combination of linear and cross-linked polymers come under
thermoplastics. Example: PVC, nylon, polythene, etc.
▪ Thermosetting: Plastics that cannot be softened again by heating once they are moulded.
Heavily cross-linked polymers come under the category of thermosetting plastics.
Example: Bakelite, melamine, etc. Bakelite is used for making electrical switches whereas
melamine is used for floor tiles.
• Rubber : Rubber consists of polymers of the organic compound isoprene, with minor impurities of other
organic compounds + The main chemical constituents of rubber are elastomers, or “elastic polymers,” large
chainlike molecules that can be stretched to great lengths and yet recover their original shape + Thailand
and Indonesia are two of the leading rubber producers + India is the world's second-biggest consumer of
natural rubber.
• Fibres : Polymers which have quite strong intermolecular forces such as hydrogen bonding
• Rayon : Synthetic fibre obtained from cellulose is known as Rayon
16. Fuels
• Fuel : A substance that can supply energy either alone or by reacting with another substance is known as
fuel + Heat produced by fuel is measured in Calories + An ideal fuel should : have high calorific value + be
cheap and easily available + be regulated and controlled + be easily stored & transport + have low ignition
temperature
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(Revision Notes)
• Calorific value : The quantity of fuel is expressed in the form of calorific value + Calorific value is the total
quantity of heat liberated by complete combustion of a unit mass of fuel in air or oxygen.
• Octane rating : It is also known as octane number is a measurement of the quality or performance of
gasoline + The higher the number, the better the fuel burns within the engine of a vehicle + Higher
performance vehicles require fuels with a higher octane rating.
• Knock resistance : Knock resistance is a fuel’s ability not to self-ignite and burn in an uncontrolled way
while the fuel is being compressed + This means that the air-fuel mixture in the engine is not ignited only
by the ignition spark, but also by compression.
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(Revision Notes)
Hydrogen-Enriched Compressed Natural Gas (HCNG) : The blending of hydrogen with CNG provides a
blended gas termed as HCNG + It can be used in place of gasoline, diesel fuel and propane (C3H8) / LPG and
its combustion produces fewer undesirable gases.
Advantages of HCNG: HCNG reduces emissions of CO up to 70% + Enables up to 5 % savings in fuel +

First step towards future Hydrogen economy + Engines can be calibrated to release lower amounts of NO +
Engines need minimum modification to run on HCNG + Ideal fuel for high load applications and heavy-duty
vehicles + Better performance due to higher Octane rating of H2.
Disadvantages of using HCNG: Determining the most optimized H2/ NG (Natural Gas) ratio + It requires
new infrastructures for preparing HCNG + Many steps need to be taken for commercializing it at a large scale
+ Current cost of H2 is more than the cost of Natural Gas. So, HCNG’s cost is more than CNG.
17. Metallurgy
• Basics : Metallurgy is defined as a process that is used for the extraction of metals in their pure form + The
compounds of metals mixed with soil, limestone, sand, and rocks are known as minerals + Metals are
commercially extracted from minerals at low cost and minimum effort + These minerals are known as ores.
A substance which is added to the charge in the furnace to remove the gangue (impurities) is known as flux
+ Metallurgy deals with the process of purification of metals and the formation of alloys.
• Principles of Metallurgy:
o Crushing and grinding: The first process in metallurgy is crushing of ores into a fine powder in a
crusher or ball mill. This process is known as pulverization.
o The concentration of ores: The process of removing impurities from ore is known as a
concentration of minerals or ore dressing.
o Hydrolytic method: In this method, we pour the ore over a sloping, vibrating corrugated table with
grooves. A jet of water is allowed to flow over the surface. The denser ore particles settle in the
grooves, and the impurities are washed away by water.
o Magnetic separation: In this case, the crushed ore is placed on a conveyor belt. This belt rotates
around two wheels in which one of the wheels is magnetic, and therefore the magnetic particles get
attracted to the magnetic wheel and fall apart from the non-magnetic particles.
o Froth floatation: In this process, we take the crushed ore in a large tank which contains oil and
water + A current of compressed air is passed through it + The ore gets wet by oil and is separated
from the impurities in the form of froth + Ore is lighter, and so it comes on the surface and impurities
are left behind.
o Roasting and calcination: In metallurgy, the process of heating a concentrated ore in the presence
of oxygen is known as roasting + This process is applied in the case of sulfide ores + For ores
containing carbonate or hydrated oxides, heating is done in the absence of air to melt the ores, and
this process is known as calcination.
18. Important of Metals : Metals conduct heat and electricity + They are malleable and ductile. (Malleable means
which can be beaten by hammer to form thin sheets without breaking and Ductile means which can be stretched
or drawn into thin wires) + They are also lustrous i.e. shiny, strong, heavy and sonorous + Metals have high
melting points and boiling points except sodium and potassium + At room temperature metals are solid except
mercury + Generally metals are hard except sodium and potassium + Metals have high densities except sodium
and potassium + Metals are sonorous i.e. it makes sound when hit with an object + Usually metals have grey or
silver colour except copper and gold + Iron, Copper and aluminium metals are used to make house-hold utensils
and factory equipment + Chromium metal is used for electroplating iron and steel objects + Lead metal is used
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in making car batteries + Zinc phosphide is used for killing rats + Iron is used as a catalyst in the preparation of
ammonia gas by Haber’s process + Lithium is the lightest and the most reductant element + Silver chloride is
used in photochromatic glass + Zirconium metal is used in making car batteries + The mercury metal is liquid
which is used in making thermometers + Strange silver spoon is not used in egg food because it forms black
silver sulphide + During the flow of electricity, mercury and iron produces more resistance in comparison to the
other + Barium sulphate is used in X-ray of abdomen as barium metal + Pure gold is 24 carrat and copper is
mixed to harden the gold + Fuse wire is made of lead and tin + At room temperature, Gallium metal is in liquid
state + Sodium, titanium and zirconium metals are used in atomic energy (nuclear energy) and space science
projects + Zinc is used for galvanizing iron to protect it from rusting + Co (60) is used in cancer treatment +
Zeolite is used to remove hardness of water.
19. Non-Metals
• Physical properties of Non-metals : Under normal conditions of temperature and pressure, some non-
metals are found as gases, some found as solids and one is found as liquid + In contrast, except mercury, all
metals are solids at room temperature + The fact that so many non-metals exist as liquids or gases means
that non-metals generally have relatively low melting and boiling points under normal atmospheric
conditions + In their solid-state, non-metals tend to be brittle. Therefore, they lack the malleability and
ductility exhibited by metals + Ductility is the property of the material to be stretched into wires but non-
metals are not ductile except for carbon, as carbon fibres find uses in a wide variety of industries including
sports and music equipment + Another property characteristic to metals is absent in non-metals called
malleability + They can’t be drawn into sheets as they are brittle and break on applying pressure + Non-
metals exhibit very low electrical conductivities + The low or non-existent electrical conductivity is the most
important property that distinguishes non-metals from metals + They are not sonorous and do not produce
a deep ringing sound when they are hit with another material + They are also bad conductors of heat and
electricity except for graphite.
• Chemical Properties of Non-Metals :
o Reaction with Water : A non-metal does not react with water but it is usually very reactive in air,
which is why some of them are stored in water. For example, one of the highly reactive non-metals
is phosphorus and it catches fire when exposed to air that is why it is stored in water to prevent its
contact with atmospheric oxygen.
o Reaction with Acids : None of the non-metals is known to react with acids.
o Reaction with Bases : The reaction between non-metals and bases is a very complex one. The
reaction of chlorine with bases like sodium hydroxide gives products like sodium hypochlorite,
sodium chloride as well as water.
o Reaction with Oxygen : Oxides of non-metals are formed when it reacts with oxygen. The oxides
of non-metals are acidic or neutral in nature.
o Reaction with metal : Non-Metals react with metal, generally forming Ionic compounds.
20. Miscellaneous
• Steel slag : A by-product of steel making, is produced during the separation of the molten steel from
impurities in steel-making furnaces + The slag occurs as a molten liquid melt and is a complex solution of
silicates and oxides that solidifies upon cooling.
• Fly Ash : It is a byproduct from burning of coal in electric power generating plants + It is called fly ash
because it is transported from the combustion chamber by exhaust gases + It is collected from the exhaust
gases by electrostatic precipitators or bag filters + Composition: Fly ash includes substantial amounts of
silicon dioxide (SiO2), aluminium oxide (Al2O3), ferric oxide (Fe2O3) and calcium oxide (CaO) + Uses: It
is used in concrete and cement products, road base, metal recovery, and mineral filler among others +
Harmful Effects: Fly ash particles are toxic air pollutants. They can trigger heart disease, cancer, respiratory
diseases and stroke.
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• Portland cement : It is a type of cement obtained by pulverizing clinker, consisting of hydraulic calcium
silicates to which some calcium sulfate has usually been provided as an interground addition + It is widely
used in construction to make concrete + This concrete is used to build structures such as dams, bridges,
buildings, pavements etc.
• Cloud Seeding : It is the process of spreading either dry ice or more commonly, silver iodide aerosols, into
the upper part of clouds to try to stimulate the precipitation process and form rain + Cloud seeding uses
planes to spray clouds with chemicals to condense smaller particles into larger rain droplets + It increases
rainfall rates by approximately 10% to 30% per year and cloud seeding operations cost much less than the
desalination process + Cloud Seeding Methods:
o Hygroscopic Cloud Seeding : Disperses salts through flares or explosives in the lower portions of
clouds + The salt grows in size as water joins with them.
o Static Cloud Seeding : It involves spreading a chemical like silver iodide into clouds + The silver
iodide provides a crystal around which moisture can condense + The moisture is already present in
the clouds, but silver iodide essentially makes rain clouds more effective at dispensing their water.
o Dynamic Cloud Seeding: It aims to boost vertical air currents, which encourages more water to
pass through the clouds, translating into more rain + The process is considered more complex than
static cloud seeding because it depends on a sequence of events working properly.
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PHYSICS
1. Unit system
• Unit: The chosen standard used for measuring a physical quantity is called unit. Unit
should be: well defined + easy to reproduce + easy to compare + internationally accepted
+ independent of changes in physical conditions.
• System of Units: Units depend on choice. Each choice of units leads to a new system (set)
of units.
2. SI Unit: SI unit is an international system of measurements that are used universally in technical and
scientific research to avoid the confusion with the units.
3. Two types of units: Fundamental + Derived
Fundamental units
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4. Motion: One of the most common phenomena in the physical world is motion + Mechanics is the
branch of Physics that deals with the behavior of moving objects + Mechanics is divided further into
two sections:
• Kinematics is the study of motion without regard for the cause of motion.
• Dynamics is concerned with the source of motion, which is force.
5. Motion and Rest: An object is said to be in motion if its position in relation to its surroundings changes
in a given time + An object is said to be at rest if its position in relation to its surroundings does not
change + A frame of reference is another object or scene against which we compare the position of an
object.
6. Scalar quantities: It is the physical quantity with only magnitude and no direction + Such physical
quantities can be described just by their numerical value without directions + Examples : Mass, Speed,
Distance, Time, Volume etc.
7. Vector quantities : A vector quantity is defined as the physical quantity that has both directions as well
as magnitude + Examples : Linear momentum, Acceleration, Displacement, Momentum, Angular
velocity etc
8. Distance and displacement : Distance is a scalar quantity that refers to "how much ground an object
has covered" during its motion + Displacement is a vector quantity that refers to "how far out of place
an object is"; it is the object's overall change in position.
• Example : The distance between termini A and B is 150 kilometers --> A bus connects Terminus
A and Terminus B --> The bus travels a distance of 150 kilometers --> The bus returns from
terminus B to terminus A along the same route --> As a result, the total distance traveled by the bus
from A to B and then from B to A is 150 km + 150 km = 300 km. However, the displacement when
the bus moves from A B to B B is zero.
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9. Speed: Speed is defined as the distance travelled by a moving object in one unit of time + The SI unit
of speed is millimeters per second (m/s). Speed is defined as a scalar quantity
10. Velocity: It is defined as the distance travelled in a given direction by a moving object in a given time
or speed in a given direction. Velocity = Distance travelled in a specified direction/time taken.
11. Acceleration = Rate at which velocity changes over time. The SI unit of acceleration is m/s2 and it is a
vector quantity. The term "acceleration" does not always imply that the speed of a moving body
increases; it can also decrease, remain constant, or become zero.
12. Circular motion: It is described as a movement of an object while rotating along a circular path +
Circular motion can be either uniform or non-uniform. During uniform circular motion the angular rate
of rotation and speed will be constant while during non-uniform motion the rate of rotation keeps
changing + Examples: Man-made satellite that revolves around the earth, a rotating ceiling fan, a
moving car’s wheel, the blades in a windmill, and gears in gas turbines.
13. Angular velocity: It is the time rate at which an object rotates or revolves about an axis + Angular
velocity is represented by the Greek letter omega (ω, sometimes Ω) + It is measured in angle per unit
time; hence, the SI unit of angular velocity is radians per second.
14. Newton's laws of motion:
• An object at rest remains at rest, and an object in motion remains in motion at constant speed and
in a straight line unless acted on by an unbalanced force.
• The acceleration of an object depends on the mass of the object and the amount of force applied.
• Whenever one object exerts a force on another object, the second object exerts an equal and
opposite on the first.
15. Centrifugal Force : Centrifugal force is an outward force apparent in a rotating reference frame + it
does not exist when measurements are made in an inertial frame of reference + All measurements of
position and velocity must be made relative to some frame of reference.
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16. Centripetal Force: A centripetal force is a force that makes a body follow a curved path + Its direction
is always orthogonal to the motion of the body and towards the fixed point of the instantaneous center
of curvature of the path.
17. Moment of force: Moment of force is defined to be the turning ability of force + It is a force that rotates
the body or the object on a particular axis, end or point + This moment of force is also known as torque,
rotational force or the turning effect + Moment of force measures the tendency that rotates the body at
a definite point.
18. Centre of gravity: It is a theoretical point in the body where the body’s total weight is thought to be
concentrated + It predicts the behaviour of a moving body when acted on by gravity.
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19. Equilibrium : It is a state of body where neither the internal energy nor the motion of the body changes
with respect to time + A stable equilibrium is one in which is the body is displaced from its equilibrium
position then it tends to move towards that equilibrium point + For example, a ball kept at the bottom
of a hemisphere + While in case of unstable equilibrium, if it is displaced from that point the body tends
to move away from that point. Example : Consider a ball kept at the top of a sphere. If we slide it, the
ball tends to roll away from the topmost point. Similarly, in neutral equilibrium, the body neither moves
towards nor away from the equilibrium point. For example, displace a ball kept on a horizontal surface
slightly.
20. Work : Work is said to be done when a force applied on the body displaces the body through a certain
distance in the direction of applied force + It is measured by the product of the force and the distance
moved in the direction of the force.
21. Energy : The energy of a body is its capacity to do work + Anything which is able to do work is said
to possess energy + Energy is measured in the same unit as that of work, namely, Joule + Mechanical
energy is of two types:
• Kinetic Energy : The energy possessed by a body by virtue of its motion is known as its kinetic
energy.
• Potential Energy : The energy possessed by a body by virtue of its position or condition is known
as its potential energy + There are two common forms of potential energy:
o Gravitational : Gravitational potential energy of a body is the energy possessed by the
body by virtue of its position above the surface of the earth.
o Elastic : When an elastic body is displaced from its equilibrium position, work is needed
to be done against the restoring elastic force + The work done is stored up in the body in
the form of its elastic potential energy.
22. Energy conversions :
• Thermoelectric (Heat → Electrical energy)
• Geothermal power (Heat→ Electrical energy)
• Heat engines, such as the internal combustion engine used in cars, or the steam engine (Heat →
Mechanical energy)
• Ocean thermal power (Heat → Electrical energy)
• Hydroelectric dams (Gravitational potential energy → Electrical energy)
• Electric generator (Kinetic energy or Mechanical work → Electrical energy)
• Fuel cells (Chemical energy → Electrical energy)
• Battery (electricity) (Chemical energy → Electrical energy)
• Fire (Chemical energy → Heat and Light)
• Electric lamp (Electrical energy → Heat and Light)
• Microphone (Sound → Electrical energy)
• Wave power (Mechanical energy → Electrical energy)
• Windmills (Wind energy → Electrical energy or Mechanical energy)
• Piezoelectrics (Strain → Electrical energy)
• Friction (Kinetic energy → Heat)
• Electric heater (Electric energy → Heat)
• Photosynthesis (Electromagnetic radiation → Chemical energy)
• ATP hydrolysis (Chemical energy in adenosine triphosphate → mechanical energy)
23. Law of conservation of energy : The law of conservation of energy states that energy can neither be
created nor destroyed - only converted from one form of energy to another + This means that a system
always has the same amount of energy, unless it's added from the outside + This is particularly
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confusing in the case of non-conservative forces, where energy is converted from mechanical energy
into thermal energy, but the overall energy does remain the same + The only way to use energy is to
transform energy from one form to another.
24. Collision: Collision is defined as an isolated event in which two or more colliding bodies exert
relatively strong forces on each other for a relatively short time + Collision between particles have been
divided broadly into two types :
• Elastic Collision : A collision between two particles or bodies is said to be elastic if both the linear
momentum and the kinetic energy of the system remain conserved.
o Example: Collisions between atomic particles, atoms, marble balls and billiard balls.
• Inelastic Collision : A collision is said to be inelastic if the linear momentum of the system remains
conserved but its kinetic energy is not conserved.
o Example: When we drop a ball of wet putty on to the floor then the collision between ball
and floor is an inelastic collision.
25. Power: The rate at which work is performed is known as power + This is a measure of energy consumed
per unit of time.
26. Gravitation: It is a force that acts between two bodies and it is always attractive in nature. Gravitational
force is the force with which the objects are attracted to the centre of the earth.
27. Newton’s Law of Gravitation: Newton’s law of gravitation states that every particle in the universe
attracts every other particle with a force directly proportional to the product of their masses and
inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them + The direction of the force is along
the line joining the particles.
28. Kepler’s Laws of Planetary Motion: Johannes Kepler formulated three laws which describe planetary
motion. They are as follows:
i. Law of orbits : Each planet revolves around the sun in an elliptical orbit with the sun at one
of the foci of the ellipse.
ii. Law of areas. The speed of planet varies in such a way that the radius, vector drawn from the
sun to planet sweeps out equal areas in equal times.
29. Satellite : Satellites are natural or artificial bodies revolving around a plane under its gravitational
attraction + Orbital speed of a satellite is independent of its mass + Satellites different masses revolving
in the orbit of same radius have same orbital speed + Orbital speed of a satellite depends upon the
radius of orbit (height of sate from the surface of earth) + Greater the radius of orbit, lesser will be the
orbital speed + The orbital speed of a satellite revolving near the surface of earth is 7.9 km/ sec + Period
of Revolution of a satellite: Time taken by a satellite to complete one revolution in its orbit is called its
period of revolution.
30. Escape Velocity : Escape velocity is defined as the speed at which an object travels to break free from
either the planet’s or moon’s gravity and leave without any development of propulsion + On earth, the
escape velocity is around 40,270 kmph, which is around 11,186 m/s + When a spacecraft is launched
into outer space, the velocity attained by this should be greater than the escape velocity so that the
rocket doesn’t fall back onto earth + Escape velocity is different at the poles of the earth compared to
that from the equator because the radius is slightly more at the equator.
31. Pressure: Pressure is defined as force acting normally on unit area of the surface
32. Atmospheric Pressure: The earth’s atmospheric air is surrounded by a layer of gases and so this air
surrounding the earth exerts a pressure. The atmospheric pressure decreases near Earth’s surface, with
height at a rate of about 3.5 millibars for every 30 meters (100 feet).
33. Pascal: It can be defined as a force of one newton applied over a surface area of a one-meter square.
34. Pressure in liquid: Force exerted on unit area of wall or base of the container by the molecules of
liquid is the pressure of liquid + The pressure exerted by liquid at depth h below the surface of liquid
is given as p-hdg where d is the density of liquid + In a static liquid at same horizontal level, pressure
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is same at all points + Pressure at a point in a static liquid has same value in all directions + Pressure at
a point in a liquid is proportional to the depth of the point from the free surface + Pressure at a point in
a liquid is proportional to the density of the liquid.
35. Pascal law for pressure of liquid: If gravitational attraction is negligible, in equilibrium condition,
pressure is same at all points in a liquid + If an external pressure is applied to an exclosed fluid, it is
transmitted undiminished to every direction + Hydrolic lift, hydrolic press, Hydrolic brake work on
Pascal law.
36. Effect of pressure on Melting Point (MP) and Boiling Point (BP): The M.P. of substances which
expands on fusion increases with the increa pressure; for example - wax. + The M.P. of substances
which contracts on fusion decreases with the increase in temperature for example - ice. + Boiling point
of all the substances increases with the increase in pressure.
37. Floatation: The tendency of an object to rise up to the upper levels of the fluid or to float on the fluid
surface is known as floatation + Sinking is just the opposite process of floatation which means the
tendency of an object to go deep down to the lower levels of the fluid + The phenomenon of floatation
totally depends on the density of the object placed in the fluid and the density of the fluid in which it is
placed.
38. Law of Floatation: The fluid in which a body floats should relocate or displace the fluid of its own
weight to float; this is known as the law of floatation. For example: If a brick of wood weighing 300kg
(3000N) floats in water, then this means that it displaces 300kg (3000N) of water; however, in other
fluids of different properties, if the same wood brick is placed, then it will only float if it is able to
displace the same 300kg of fluid.
39. Conditions for an Object to Float: The fluid in which the object has to float should have a density
more than that of the average density of the floating object + The total weight of the object must be
equal to the upthrust force of the fluid on the object + To displace a huge amount of fluid, the volume
of the object submerged must be huge enough.
(Note : The ship can be assumed to be like a floating bowl of iron in water, but the bowl does not sink
even though iron is denser than water. Because of its hollow shape, it contains air, which causes its
average density to be lesser than that of water. If you fill sand into the bowl, it will keep floating, but
in a surplus mass of sand, the bowl will sink, which is called overloading in ships.)
40. Surface tension : It is the tendency of fluid surfaces to shrink into the minimum surface area possible.
Surface tension is defined as, The ratio of the surface force F to the length L along which the force acts
(T= F/L) + Examples :
• Insects walking on water
• Floating a needle on the surface of the water.
• Rainproof tent materials where the surface tension of water will bridge the pores in the tent material
• Clinical test for jaundice
• Surface tension disinfectants (disinfectants are solutions of low surface tension).
• Cleaning of clothes by soaps and detergents which lowers the surface tension of the water
• Washing with cold water
41. Viscosity : It is a measurement of how resistant a fluid is to attempts to move through it + A fluid with
a low viscosity is said to be "thin," while a high viscosity fluid is said to be "thick." + It is easier to
move through a low-viscosity fluid (like water) than a high-viscosity fluid (like honey).
• Forumula : F / A = n (dv / dr) (where F represents force and A represents area. So, F/A, or force
divided by area, is another way of defining viscosity. Dv divided dr represents the "sheer rate," or
the speed the liquid is moving. The n is a constant unit equal to 0.00089 Pa s (Pascal-second), which
is a dynamic viscosity measurement unit)
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42. Newtonian and Non-Newtonian Fluids : Temperature and pressure affect the viscosity of a fluid. The
viscosity of liquids increases rapidly with an increase in temperature + On increasing pressure viscosity
of liquid molecules increases due to the increase in the resistance to the flow of liquid + If the viscosity
does not change with pressure, we describe something as being a Newtonian fluid + And, if the viscosity
does change as stress or temperature changes, we describe something as being a non-Newtonian fluid
+ Water is an example of Newtonian fluid and toothpaste is an example of Non-Newtonian fluid.
43. Elasticity : It is the property of an object or material which causes it to be restored to its original shape
after distortion + It is said to be more elastic if it restores itself more precisely to its original
configuration + A rubber band is easy to stretch, and snaps back to near its original length when released,
but it is not as elastic as a piece of piano wire.
44. Hooke's law : One of the properties of elasticity is that it takes about twice as much force to stretch a
spring twice as far + That linear dependence of displacement upon stretching force is called Hooke's
law.
45. Stress : When the body is deformed by the application of external forces, forces within the body are
brought into play + Elastic bodies regain their original shape due to internal restoring forces + The
internal forces and external forces are opposite in direction + If a force F is applied uniformly over a
surface of area A then the stress is defined as the force per unit area (Stress = Force/Area)
46. Strain : A body under stress gets deformed + The fractional change in the dimension of a body
produced by the external stress acting on is called strain + The ratio of charge of any dimension to its
original dimension is called strain + Since strain is the ratio of two identical physical quantities, it is
just a number. It has no unit and dimension.
47. Simple Harmonic Motion : It is defined as a motion in which the restoring force is directly
proportional to the displacement of the body from its mean position + The direction of this restoring
force is always towards the mean position + It is a special case of oscillation along with a straight line
between the two extreme points (the path of SHM is a constraint) + Path of the object needs to be a
straight line + There will be a restoring force directed towards the equilibrium position (or) mean
position + Mean position in Simple harmonic motion is a stable equilibrium.
48. Periodic Motion : A motion repeats itself after an equal interval of time. For example, uniform circular
motion + There is no equilibrium position + There is no restoring force + There is no stable equilibrium
position.
49. Oscillation Motion : To and from motion of a particle about a mean position is called an oscillatory
motion in which a particle moves on either side of the equilibrium (or) mean position is an oscillatory
motion + It is a kind of periodic motion bounded between two extreme points. For example, Oscillation
of Simple Pendulum, Spring-Mass System + The object will keep on moving between two extreme
points about a fixed point is called the mean position (or) equilibrium position along any path. (the path
is not a constraint) + There will be a restoring force directed towards equilibrium position (or) mean
position + In an oscillatory motion, the net force on the particle is zero at the mean position + The mean
position is a stable equilibrium position.
50. Waves : A wave is a disturbance in a medium that carries energy without a net movement of particles
+ It may take the form of elastic deformation, a variation of pressure, electric or magnetic intensity,
electric potential, or temperature + Transfers energy + Usually involves a periodic, repetitive movement
+ Does not result in a net movement of the medium or particles in the medium (mechanical wave) +
Characteristics of waves :
• The particles of the medium traversed by a wave execute relatively small vibrations about their
mean positions but the particles are not permanently displaced in the direction of propagation of
the wave.
• Each successive particle of the medium executes a motion quite similar to its predecessors
along/perpendicular to the line of travel of the wave.
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• During wave motion only transfer of energy takes place but not that of a portion of the medium.
51. Types of waves :
• Mechanical waves : Mechanical waves can be produced or propagated only in a material medium.
These waves are governed by Newton’s laws of motion. For example, waves on water surface,
waves on strings, sound waves etc + Mechanical waves are of two types:
o Transverse wave motion : In transverse waves the particles of the medium vibrate at right
angles to the direction in which the wave propagates + Waves on strings, surface water
waves and electromagnetic waves are transverse waves + In electromagnetic waves (which
include light waves) the disturbance that travels is not a result of vibrations of particles but
it is the oscillation of electric and magnetic fields which takes place at right angles to the
direction in which the wave travels.
o Longitudinal wave motion : In these types of waves, particles of the medium vibrate to
and from about their mean position along the direction of propagation of energy + These
are also called pressure waves + Sound waves are longitudinal mechanical waves.
• Electromagnetic Waves : These are the waves which require no material medium for their
production and propagation, i.e., they can pass through vacuum and any other material medium.
Common examples are visible light; ultra-violet light; radiowaves, microwaves etc
• Matter waves : These waves are associated with moving particles of matter, like electrons, protons,
neutrons etc.
52. Wavelength : The distance travelled by the disturbance during the time of one vibration by a medium
particle is called the wavelength (λ) + In case of a transverse wave the wavelength may also be defined
as the distance between two successive crests or troughs + In case of a longitudinal wave, the
wavelength (λ) is equal to distance from centre of one compression (or refraction) to another.
53. Wave Velocity : Wave velocity is the time rate of propagation of wave motion in the given medium. It
is different from particle velocity. Wave velocity depends upon the nature of medium. Wave velocity
(υ) = frequency (v) x wavelength (λ)
54. Amplitude : The amplitude of a wave is the maximum displacement of the particles of the medium
from their mean position.
55. Frequency : The number of vibrations made by a particle in one second is called Frequency. It is
represented by v. Its unit is hertz (Hz) v =1/T
56. Time Period : The time taken by a particle to complete one vibration is called time period. T = 1/v, it
is expressed in seconds.
57. Sound waves : Sound waves are longitudinal mechanical waves + According to their frequency range,
longitudinal mechanical waves are divided into the following categories:
• Audible or Sound Waves: The longitudinal mechanical waves which lie in the frequency range
20 Hz to 20000 Hz are called audible or sound waves + These waves are sensitive to human ear +
These are generated by the vibrating bodies such as tuning fork, vocal cords etc.
• Infrasonic Waves: The longitudinal mechanical waves having frequencies less than 20 Hz are
called Infrasonic + These waves are produced by sources of bigger size such as earth quakes,
volcanic eruptions, ocean waves and by elephants and whales.
• Ultrasonic Waves: The longitudinal mechanical waves having frequencies greater than 20000 Hz
are called ultrasonic waves + Human ear can not detect these waves + But certain creatures like
dog, cat, bat, mosquito can detect these waves Bat not only detect but also produce ultrasonic +
Ultrasonic waves can be produced by Galton's whistle or Hartman's generator or by the high
frequency vibrations of a quartz crystal under an alternating electric field (Piezo-electric effect) or
by the vibrations of a ferromagnetic rod under an alternating magnetic field (Magnetostriction)
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58. The speed of sound : It is defined as the distance through which a sound wave’s point, such as a
compression or a rarefaction, travels per unit of time. The speed of sound remains the same for all
frequencies in a given medium under the same physical conditions.
59. Factors Affecting the Speed of Sound
• Density of the Medium : When the medium is dense, the molecules in the medium are closely
packed, which means that the sound travels faster+ Therefore, the speed of sound increases as the
density of the medium increases.
• Temperature of the Medium : The speed of sound is directly proportional to the temperature +
Therefore, as the temperature increases, the speed of sound increases.
60. Speed of Sound in Different Media :
• Speed of Sound in Solid : Solids are significantly denser than liquids or gases, and this means that
the molecules are closer to each other in solids than in liquids and liquids than in gases + This
closeness due to density means that they can collide very quickly + Effectively it takes less time
for a molecule of a solid to bump into its neighbouring molecule + Due to this advantage, the
velocity of sound in a solid is faster than in a gas + Sound travels 35 times faster in diamonds than
in the air.
• Speed of Sound in Liquid : Similarly, the density of a liquid is greater than the density of a gas +
Therefore the distances between molecules are more in liquids than in solids but are less than in
gases + Hence the speed of sound in liquids lies in between the speed of sound in solids and gases.
• Speed of Sound in Water : The speed of sound in water is more than that of the air, and sound
travels faster in water than in the air +:The speed of sound in water is 1480 metres per second.
• Speed of Sound in Gas : Since gases expand to fill the given space, density is relatively uniform
irrespective of gas type, which isn’t the case with solids and liquids + The velocity of sound in
gases is proportional to the square root of the absolute temperature (measured in Kelvin) + The
velocity of sound in air at 20oC is 343.2 m/s which translates to 1,236 km/h.
• Speed of Sound in Vacuum : The speed of sound in a vacuum is zero metres per second, as there
are no particles present in the vacuum + The sound waves travel in a medium when there are
particles for the propagation of these sound waves + Since the vacuum is an empty space, there is
no propagation of sound waves
61. Diffraction of sound: Wavelength of sound is of the order of 1 m. If an obstacle of that range appears
in the path of sound, sound deviates at the edge of obstacle and propagates forward. This phenomenon
is called diffraction of sound.
62. Doppler effect : It is defined as the increase (or decrease) in the frequency of sound, light, or other
waves as the source and observer move towards (or away from) each other.
63. Mach Number: It is defined as the ratio of speed of source of sound to the speed of sound in the same
medium under the same condition of temperature and pressure.
64. Shock waves: A body moving with supersonic speed in air leaves behind it a conical region of
disturbance which spreads continuously + Such a disturbance is called shock wave + This wave carries
huge energy and may even make cracks in window panes or even damage a building.
65. Bow Waves: When a motor boat in a sea travels faster than sound, then waves just like shock-waves
are produced on the surface of water
66. Heat : Heat is the form of energy which produces the sensation of warmth. Its SI unit is joule and other
unit calorie (1 cal = 4.2 Joule) + The transfer of heat is always from hotter to colder body.
67. Temperature : Temperature is measure of hotness or coldness of a body + The heat flows from one
body to another due to the difference in their body temperature.
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68. Ways in which heat can flow :

• In Conduction, heat is generally transferred to solids. Conductors are elements that permit heat
transfer through them effortlessly. For example Copper, Aluminium, and Iron. Insulators are
materials that do not allow heat to pass through them easily. For example, Wood and Plastic
• In Convection, the heat transfer executes itself through gases and liquids. Air and water are bad
conductors of heat
• In Radiation, for the transfer of heat, there is no requirement of any medium. The heat from the
Sun that reaches us is an example of radiation
69. Total Radiation Pyrometer : When a body is at high temperature, it glows brightly and the radiation
emitted by the body is directly proportional to the fourth power of absolute temperature of the body +
Radiation pyrometer measures the temperature of a body by measuring the radiation emitted by the
body + This thermometer is not put in contact with the body + But it cannot measure temperature below
800°C because at low temperature emission of radiation is very small and cannot be detected.
70. Specific Heat Capacity: The specific heat is the amount of heat per unit mass required to raise the
temperature by one degree Celsius + The relationship between heat and temperature change is usually
expressed in the form where c is the specific heat + The relationship does not apply if a phase change
is encountered, because the heat added or removed during a phase change does not change the
temperature + The specific heat of water is 1 calorie/gram °C = 4.186 joule/gram °C which is higher
than any other common substance +:As a result, water plays a very important role in temperature
regulation + The specific heat per gram for water is much higher than that for a metal, as described in
the water-metal example + For most purposes, it is more meaningful to compare the molar specific
heats of substances.
71. Thermal Expansion: It is the tendency of matter to change in volume in response to a change in
temperature, through heat transfer + Temperature is a monotonic function of the average molecular
kinetic energy of a substance + When a substance is heated, the kinetic energy of its molecules
increases + Thus, the molecules begin moving more and usually maintain a greater average separation
+ Materials which contract with increasing temperature are unusual; this effect is limited in size, and
only occur within limited temperature ranges + The degree of expansion divided by the change in
temperature is called the material's coefficient of thermal expansion and generally varies with
temperature.
72. Newton's law of cooling : The rate of loss of heat by a body is directly proportional to the difference
in temperature between the body and the surrounding + Temperature difference in any situation results
from energy flow into a system or energy flow from a system to surroundings + The former leads to
heating, whereas latter leads to cooling of an object + Newton's Law of Cooling states that the rate of
temperature of the body is proportional to the difference between the temperature of the body and that
of the surrounding medium + This statement leads to the classic equation of exponential decline over
time which can be applied to many phenomena in science and engineering, including the discharge of
a capacitor and the decay in radioactivity.
73. Kirchhoff's law: According to Kirchhoff's law, the ratio of emissive power to absorptive power is same
for all surfaces at the same temperature and is equal to emissive power of black body at that temperature.
Kirchhoff's law signifies that good absorbers are good emitter. Example : If a shinning metal ball with
some black spot on its surface is heated to high temperature and seen in dark, the shinning ball becomes
dull but the black spots shines brilliantly, because black spot absorbs radiation during heating and emit
in dark.
74. Stefan's law: The thermal energy radiated by a blackbody radiator per second per unit area is
proportional to the fourth power of the absolute temperature
Science
(Revision Notes)
75. Change of State : Any material can remain in any of its three states (solid, liquid and gas) + To change
the substance from one state to other state is called change of state + For this either substance is heated
or heat is extracted from the substance.
• Fusion: Fusion or melting is the process by which a solid changes into the liquid state at certain
fixed temperature by the absorption of heat energy + The fusion point or melting point is the fixed
temperature at which a solid starts changing into the liquid state.
• Freezing: The process by which a substance is changed from liquid state to solid state is called
freezing + Freezing takes at a fixed temperature called freezing point (F.P) + For a substance
Melting point = Freezing point + Melting of a substance changes with the change in pressure +
Melting point of substances which contracts in the processes of fusion decreases with the increase
in pressure.
• Vaporization: The process by which a substance is changed from liquid state to vapour state
• Evaporation: Evaporation is the process by which water changes from liquid to vapour below its
boiling point.
• Boiling: When a liquid is heated, it eventually reaches a temperature at which the vapor pressure
is large enough that bubbles form inside the body of the liquid. This temperature is called the boiling
point. Once the liquid starts to boil, the temperature remains constant until all of the liquid has been
converted to a gas.
• Condensation: Condensation is the change of water from its gaseous form (water vapor) into liquid
water + Condensation generally occurs in the atmosphere when warm air rises, cools and loses its
capacity to hold water vapor + As a result, excess water vapor condenses to form cloud droplets
(Note : Boiling point of a liquid increases with the increase in pressure + Boiling point of a liquid
increases with the addition of impurity.)
• Latent Heat or heat of transformation: Latent heat, characteristic amount of energy absorbed or
released by a substance during a change in its physical state that occurs without changing its
temperature : The latent heat associated with melting a solid or freezing a liquid is called the heat
of fusion; that associated with vaporizing a liquid or a solid or condensing a vapour is called the
heat of vaporization + The latent heat is normally expressed as the amount of heat (in units of joules
or calories) per mole or unit mass of the substance undergoing a change of state.
• Sublimation: Sublimation is the term for when matter undergoes a phase transition directly from
a solid to gaseous form, or vapor, without passing through the more common liquid phase between
the two + It is a specific case of vaporization.
76. Thermodynamics : Thermodynamics in physics is a branch that deals with heat, work and temperature,
and their relation to energy, radiation and physical properties of matter.
77. Laws of thermodynamics
• First law of thermodynamics: Energy can neither be created nor be destroyed, it can only be
transferred from one form to another.
• Second law of thermodynamics: The entropy of any isolated system always increases.
• Third law of thermodynamics: The entropy of a system approaches a constant value as the
temperature approaches absolute zero.
• Zeroth law of thermodynamics: If two thermodynamic systems are in thermal equilibrium with
a third system separately, then they are in thermal equilibrium with each other.
(Note : Entropy is the measure of the number of possible arrangements the atoms in a system can have.
Enthalpy is the measurement of energy in a thermodynamic system.)
78. Light : It is a type of energy that can be converted into other types of energy + Light does not require
a physical medium to propagate
Science
(Revision Notes)
79. Rectilinear Propagation of Light : Light travels in a straight line in a homogeneous transparent
medium, which is known as rectilinear propagation of light.
80. Reflection of Light : It describes the phenomenon by which a ray of light changes its propagation
direction when it encounters a boundary between different media through which it cannot pass.
81. Refraction : The deviation in the path of light when it passes from one medium to another medium of
different density is called refraction + The twinkling of stars is due to atmospheric refraction of starlight
+ Since light bends towards the normal the apparent position of the star is slightly different from its
actual position as it passes through the atmosphere + Hence the star appears slightly higher than its
actual position + Due to changing condition of earth's atmosphere the apparent position of the star
changes slightly and the intensity of light reaching the eye also fluctuates.
82. Incident Ray (IO) : The ray of light striking the surface of separation of the media through which it is
traveling is known as the incident ray.
83. Point of Incidence (O) : The point at which the incident ray strikes the surface of separation of the two
media is called the point of incidence.
84. Normal (N) : The perpendicular drawn to the surface of separation at the point of incidence is called
the normal.
85. Refracted Ray (OR) : The ray of light which travels into the second medium, when the incident ray
strikes the surface of separation between the media 1 and 2, is called the refracted ray.
86. Angle of Incidence : The angle which the incident ray makes with the normal at the point of incidence,
is called angle of incidence.
87. Angle of Refraction (r) : The angle which the refracted ray makes with the normal at the point of
incidence, is called angle of refraction + A ray of light refracts or deviates from its original path as it
passes from one optical medium to another because the speed of light changes.
88. Laws of Refraction : The incident ray, the refracted ray and the normal to the surface at the point of
incidence all lie in one plane + For any two given pair of media, the ratio of the sine of the angle of
incidence to the sine of the angle of refraction is a constant + The above law is called Snell's law after
the scientist Willebrod Snellius who first formulated it
89. Lens : A lens is a piece of transparent glass which concentrates or disperses light rays when passes
through them by refraction. Related Terms:
• Pole : The centre of the spherical refracting surface of the lens is called the pole. The point where
the principal axis meets the surface of the lens.
• Optical Centre : The point on the principal axis at the centre of the lens is called Optical centre.
• Centre of Curvature : A lens has two spherical surfaces, these two spherical surfaces form a part
of a sphere. The centre of these spheres is known as the centre of curvature.
• Principal axis : The principal axis is an imaginary line passing through the centres of curvature
and the pole.
• Aperture : The area of the lens suitable for refraction is called Aperture. The aperture of the lens
is the effective diameter of its light-transmitting area.
• Focus : Focus is the point onto which collimated light parallel to the axis is focused.
• Focal length : The focal length is the distance between the optical centre and the focal point or
focus of the lens
• Power : The power of the lens is the reciprocal of its focal length. The S.I unit of power is Dioptre.
90. Types of Lenses :
• Aspheric Lens : Aspheric lens is often known as a non-spherical lens + Aspheric lens is a lens
whose surface is not part of a sphere or a cylinder + The complex surface of an aspheric lens reduces
or eliminates optical aberrations as compared to a simple lens + A single aspheric lens can replace
a combination of simple lenses resulting in a system with a much-reduced size.
Science
(Revision Notes)
• Cylindrical Lens : Lenses that have a curvature along only one axis are classified as cylindrical
lenses + Their main purpose is to convert laser diode elliptical light into a round beam or to focus
light into a line + Motion picture anamorphic lenses are an example of such lenses.
• Fresnel Lens : A Fresnel lens is a lens whose optical surface is divided into narrow rings. This
allows the lens to be much thinner and lighter than conventional lenses.
• Other Lenses : Lenses that have a curvature along only one axis are classified as cylindrical lenses
+ Their main purpose is to convert laser diode elliptical light into a round beam or to focus light
into a line + Motion picture anamorphic lenses are an example of such lenses.
• Lenticular lenses : These are a group of microlenses that are used in lenticular printing + These
lenses produce images that have an illusion of depth + A bifocal lens has two or more or graduated
focal lengths + A gradient index lens is a lens with flat optical surfaces while an axicon lens features
a conical optical surface.
91. Concave and Convex Lens
• Concave Lens : A concave lens is a type of lens with at least one side curved inwards. A concave
lens with both sides curved inward is known as a biconcave lens + Concave lenses are diverging
lenses, that is, they spread out light rays that have been refracted through it + They have the ability
to diverge a parallel beam of light
• Convex Lens : A convex lens is a lens with an outward curve + Unlike the concave lens, the
thickness at the centre of a convex lens is more than the thickness at the edges of the lens + Convex
lenses are converging lenses + They have the ability to converge a parallel beam of light into a
point + This point is called the focal point of the convex lens and the distance from the optical
centre to the focal point is called the focal length + The focal point is on the opposite side of the
lens from which the light rays originate.
92. Powers of lens : The power of a lens is the measure of the degree of divergence or convergence of the
light ray striking it. The degree of divergence or convergence relies on the lens’s focal length + If the
focal length is given in metres (m), the power of the lens is measured in Diopters (D), as in the unit of
power of the lens is diopter
93. Dispersion of light : The phenomenon of splitting of visible light into its component colours is called
dispersion + Dispersion of light is caused by the change of speed of light ray (resulting in angle of
deviation) of each wavelength by a different amount.
94. Examples of some natural phenomenon based on these processes
• Formation of the rainbow: The natural example of the phenomenon of dispersion of light is the
formation of a rainbow. Any rainbow is formed due to the refraction of each light spectrum with a
Science
(Revision Notes)
sorely different angle after entering the tiny drops and reflecting off from the inside and then the
light leaves the small drop.
• Atmospheric Refraction: When the refraction of sunlight occurs due to the earth’s atmosphere as
it consists of many layers of different densities, this process is referred to as atmospheric refraction.
• Changing position of stars: Due to atmospheric refraction of earth, stars lighten up. On the other
hand, the temperature and density of various layers of the atmosphere are changing and hence cause
the changing position of the star
95. Colours:
• Primary Colours of Light : When we speak of white light, we primarily associate it with the entire
visible light spectrum (VIBGYOR) + White light can also be created by mixing only three distinct
light frequencies, given that they are broadly separated on the visible light spectrum + Therefore,
any three colours of light that create white light when combined with the right intensity are known
as primary colours of light + The most common set of primary colours is red (R), yellow (Y) and
blue (B), as they match the sensitivities of the three colour sensing cones of the eye + When the
red, blue and yellow light is mixed together with the proper intensity, white (W) light is obtained.
• Complementary Colour of Light : Any two colours that produce white light when mixed are
known as complementary colours of each + In the traditional RYB color model, the complementary
colour pairs are red–green, yellow–purple, and blue–orange + For example, the complementary
colour of blue light is orange + This is expected since orange is the combination of red and yellow
light, and when red and yellow light are added to blue light, it will produce white light + Thus, blue
light and orange light represent a pair of complementary colours of light; they add together to
produce white light.
• Colour Vision and Colour Blindness : Colour perception in the human eye is governed by cone
cells + Cone cells can identify red light, blue light and yellow light + Each eyeball consists of 7
million cone cells + Based on the relative intensity of the light and the wavelengths that reach the
cells, the combination of red, yellow and blue reception enables humans to perceive all the colours
in the visible light spectrum + People considered colourblind have shortfalls in their cone cells +
Most colourblind people are unable to see only some colours; being unable to see any colour at all
is very rare + Colour blindness affects about 8 per cent of men and 0.5 per cent of women.
96. Scattering of Light : It is a physics term that refers to a variety of physical processes in which moving
particles or radiation of some kind, such as light or sound, are forced to deviate from a straight path due
to localised non-uniformities (including particles and radiation) in the medium through which they pass.
Science
(Revision Notes)
97. Interference : It is the phenomenon in which two waves superpose to form the resultant wave of the
lower, higher or same amplitude +The most commonly seen interference is the optical interference or
light interference + This is because light waves are generated randomly by most of the sources + This
means that light waves coming out of a source do not have a constant amplitude, frequency or phase
98. Polarization : Itis defined as a phenomenon caused due to the wave nature of electromagnetic radiation
+ Sunlight travels through the vacuum to reach the Earth, which is an example of an electromagnetic
wave + These waves are called electromagnetic waves because they form when an electric field
interacts with a magnetic field.
99. Human Eye : The eye is an important and one of the most complex sensory organs that we humans are
endowed with + It helps us in visualizing objects and also helps us in light perception, colour and depth
perception + Besides, these sense organs are pretty much similar to cameras, and they help us see
objects when light coming from outside enters them + That being said, it is quite interesting to
understand the structure and working of the human eye
100. Structure of Human Eye : A human eye is roughly 2.3 cm in diameter and is almost a spherical
ball filled with some fluid
• Sclera: It is the outer covering, a protective tough white layer called the sclera (white part of the eye).
• Cornea: The front transparent part of the sclera is called the cornea. Light enters the eye through the
cornea.
• Iris: A dark muscular tissue and ring-like structure behind the cornea is known as the iris. The colour
of the iris actually indicates the colour of the eye. The iris also helps regulate or adjust exposure by
adjusting the iris.
• Pupil: A small opening in the iris is known as a pupil. Its size is controlled with the help of iris. It
controls the amount of light that enters the eye.
• Lens: Behind the pupil, there is a transparent structure called a lens. By the action of ciliary muscles, it
changes its shape to focus light on the retina. It becomes thinner to focus on distant objects and becomes
thicker to focus on the nearby objects.
• Retina: It is a light-sensitive layer that consists of numerous nerve cells. It converts images formed by
the lens into electrical impulses. These electrical impulses are then transmitted to the brain through optic
nerves.
• Optic nerves: Optic nerves are of two types. These include cones and rods.
• Cones: Cones are the nerve cells that are more sensitive to bright light. They help in detailed central
and colour vision.
• Rods: Rods are the optic nerve cells that are more sensitive to dim lights. They help in peripheral vision.
101. Refractive Defects of Vision
• Myopia or Near-Sightedness : Myopia is commonly known as near-sightedness + In this
condition, the person can see the objects nearby but cannot see distant objects clearly + Faraway
objects appear blurry, and a person will not be comfortable seeing them + Myopia condition takes
place when the shape of the eyes leads the light rays to bend in a wrong way, focusing images in
front of the retina rather than focusing on the retina.
• Hypermetropia or Far-Sightedness : It is commonly known as far-sightedness + In this condition,
the person can see objects at a distance but cannot see nearby objects clearly +:Usually, the person
with this disorder squints to see nearby objects + Hypermetropia is caused when the light rays from
a closeby object are focussed at a point behind the retina.
• Presbyopia : People have difficulties viewing nearby objects clearly without the assistance of
corrective eyeglasses. Presbyopia happens when the ciliary muscles weaken and diminish the
elasticity of the eye lens. Presbyopia can be seen in people above the age of 40 years
102. Static electricity : It is the build up of an electrical charge on the surface of an object + It's called
"static" because the charges remain in one area rather than moving or "flowing" to another area.
Science
(Revision Notes)
103. Electric charge : It is a fundamental property of matter + Electrons carry a charge of negative one
"electron unit", and protons a charge of positive one "electron unit" + Electric charge is conserved in a
closed system + The SI unit for electric charge is the Coulomb.
• Conductors allow charge to move freely through them. Metals are good conductors.
• Insulators keep charged particles nearly fixed in place. Glass, rubber and plastic are good
insulators.
104. Electric Field of hollow conductor : Electric field intensity inside a charged hollow conductor is
zero. Charge given to such a conductor (or conductor of any shape) remains on its surface only. This
explains why a hollow conductor acts as an electrostatic shield. It is for this reason that it is safer to sit
in a car or bus during lightning.
105. Electric Potential: Electric potential at a point in an electric field is the work done in bringing a
unit positive charge from infinity to that point. SI unit of electric potential is volt. It is a scalar quantity.
106. Potential Difference: Work done in bringing a unit positive charge from one point to other point
is the potential difference between the two points + Its SI unit is and is a scalar quantity
107. Electric Capacity: Electric capacity of a conductor is defined as the charge required to increase
the potential of the conductor by unity. If potential of a conductor is increased by V when a charge Q
is given to it, capacity of the conductor is Q/V
108. Electrochemical Cell : Electrochemical cell is a device which converts chemical Cells are
basically of two types: 1. Primary cell 2. Secondary cell. Examples: Voltaic Cell, Leclanche Cell,
Daniel Cell, Dry Cell etc.
109. Primary Cell : In primary cell electrical energy is obtained from the irreversible chemical reaction
taking inside the cell + After complete discharge, primary cell becomes unserviceable.
110. A secondary cell or battery : It is one that can be electrically recharged after use to their original
pre-discharge condition, by passing current through the circuit in the opposite direction to the current
during discharge.
111. Current : An electric circuit is formed when a conductive path is created to allow electric charge
to continuously move + This continuous movement of electric charge through the conductors of a
circuit is called a current, and it is often referred to in terms of “flow,” just like the flow of a liquid
through a hollow pipe.
Science
(Revision Notes)
112. Voltage : The force motivating charge carriers to “flow” in a circuit is called voltage + Voltage is
a specific measure of potential energy that is always relative between two points.
113. Resistance : Current tends to move through the conductors with some degree of friction, or
opposition to motion. This opposition to motion is more properly called resistance. The amount of
current in a circuit depends on the amount of voltage and the amount of resistance in the circuit to
oppose current flow
114. Ohm’s Law : Ohm’s principal discovery was that the amount of electric current through a metal
conductor in a circuit is directly proportional to the voltage impressed across it, for any given
temperature.
115. Fuse : An electrical fuse is a safety device that operates to provide protection against the overflow
of current in an electrical circuit + An important component of an electrical fuse is a metal wire or strip
that melts when excess current flows through it.
Science
(Revision Notes)
116. Atomic physics : It is the study of the composition of the atom, its interactions with other particles
and subatomic energy states + This branch of physics has been proved to be a brilliant application of
quantum mechanics + It is one of the essential pillars of modern physics.
117. Radioactivity : Due to nuclear instability, an atom’s nucleus exhibits the phenomenon of
Radioactivity + Energy is lost due to radiation that is emitted out of the unstable nucleus of an atom.
Two forces, namely the force of repulsion that is electrostatic and the powerful forces of attraction of
the nucleus, keep the nucleus together + These two forces are considered extremely strong in the natural
environment + The chance of encountering instability increases as the size of the nucleus increases
because the mass of the nucleus becomes a lot when concentrated.
118. Laws of Radioactivity : Radioactivity is the result of the decay of the nucleus + The nucleus’s
decay rate is independent of temperature and pressure + Radioactivity is dependent on the law of
conservation of charge + The physical and chemical properties of the daughter nucleus are different
from the mother nucleus + The emission of energy from radioactivity is always accompanied by alpha,
beta, and gamma particles + The rate of decay of radioactive substances is dependent on the number of
atoms that are present at the time.
119. Nuclear energy : Nuclear reactions cause changes in the nucleus of atoms which in turn leads to
changes in the atom itself + Nuclear reactions convert 1 element into a completely different element +
Suppose if a nucleus interacts with any other particles and then separates without altering the
characteristics of other nuclei then the process is called as nuclear scattering rather than specifying it
as a nuclear reaction.
Science
(Revision Notes)
• Nuclear Reactions – Types

o Inelastic scattering: This process takes place when a transfer of energy occurs. It occurs above threshold
energy.i.e Et = ((A+1)/A)* ε1, where Et is called as the inelastic threshold energy and ε1 is the energy
of the first excited state.
o Elastic Scattering: It occurs when there is energy transfer between a particle and intends nuclei. It is
the most vital process for slowing down neutrons. In the case of an elastic scattering total kinetic energy
of any system is conserved.
o Transfer Reactions: The absorption of a particle followed by discharge of 1 or 2 particles is referred as
transfer reactions.
o Capture Reactions: When nuclei capture neutral or charged particles followed by discharge of ˠ-rays,
it is termed as capture reactions. Radioactive nuclides are produced by neutron capture reactions.

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SCIENCE &

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Published by Sunya Notes Private Limited

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SCIENCE ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 113

Some Important Points

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• Geostationary Transfer Orbit (GTO)

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Name of Institution Description

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6. Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle (PSLV)

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10. Satellite Launch Vehicle (SLV)

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14. Sounding Rockets

17. Cryogenic Engine

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23. Navigation Satellites

24. Communication satellite

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33. INSAT Series

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• Space telescope launched by NASA in 1990.

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53. Indian Data Relay satellite system (IDRSS)

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• It is a space station, or a habitable artificial satellite, in low Earth orbit.

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66. SARAS 3 Telescope

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72. Mengtian Module

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82. Mars Orbiter Mission (MOM)

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93. Nova V1280 Scorpii

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121. Evolved LISA (e-LISA)

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3. Plant Cell Vs Animal Cell

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Similarities between both:

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DNA Linear Circular

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initiated the ambitious Genome India Project” (GIP) in 2020.

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