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Electric Contacts Holm1967
Electric Contacts Holm1967
Electric Contacts
Theory and Application
Fourth Edition.
2061/3014-5432
Electric Contacts
Theory and Application
By
Ragnar Holm
Ph. D., hon. Dr. Techn.
Part I
Stationary Uontacts
§ 1. Introduction, A simplified summary of the theory of stationary electric
contacts..................... ................................. .. 1
§ 2. The contact surface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
§ 3. The contact resistance. General theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
§ 4. Calculation of constriction resistances with constant resistivity !.! in alt
isotropic material . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Problem A. 13- Problem B. 14- Problem C. Constriction resistance of an
elliptic spot. 14 - Problem D. 15 - ProblemE. 17 - Problem F. The in-
fluence of the elliptic shape of the contact area on the constriction resist-
ance expressed by a shape factor. 18
§ 5. Constriction resistances when conditions deviate from those in § 4, but
with e still a constant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
Problem A. 20 - Problem B. The constriction resistance of one member
when the a-spot is covered with a film. 20 - Problem C. Multispot metallic
contact referred to a semi-infinite member. 21 -Problem D. 23- Problem
E. 24- Problem F. 24- Problem G. Distorted constrictions. 25- Problem
H. 26 - Problem I. 26
§ 6. Introduction to thin films on contacts. Conta<:t cleaning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
§ 7. The Ioad boaring contact area as a function of load and elastic and plastic
properlies of the members . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
.-\. Introduction. 29- B. Flat Contact. 30- C. Experimentaldetermination
of A 6 • 32 - D. Persistence of asperities in indentations. 37- E. Infl.uencc
of temperature and contact duration on the contact area. 37- F. Special
application of Eq. (I,23) concerning creep in contacts. 39
§ 8. The relation between contact load and resistance, particularly at moderate
and high load . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
A. Introduction with description of Fig. (8.01). 40- B. Crossed rod con-
tacts. 42- C. Explanation of the dashed lines in Fig. (8.01). 44- D. Di-
versified resistance measurements. 46- E. Use of Diagram (8.01) in prac-
tice. 47- F. Practically clean contacts, preloaded with a high P. 47
§ 9. Contact resistance on freshly cleaned rods in air at very small contact loads 48
A. Observations on gold and silver. 48 - B. Observations on carbon con-
tacts. 50- C. Method of wire probes for exploring contact surfaces. 52
VI Contents
§ 22. Growth of films on metals used for contacts, near room temperature. . . . 102
A. Introduction. 102 - B. Rate of adsorption. 103 - C. Development
of tarnish from a chemisorbed monolayer. 104 - D. Protective films.
107 - E. Tarnishing of some relatively poor contact metals. 108- F. Tar-
uishing of noble metals. 109 - G. Contact breathing. 111
§ 34. Carbon-pile rheostats. Electric resistance of pressed meta! powders ...... 190
Part II
Thermal Contacts
§ 35. Thermal metallic contacts ......................................... 193
A. Introduction. 193- B. Bilateral heat current. 193 - C. Thermal resis-
tance of nominally flat bolted contacts. Examples. 194
Part III
Sliding Contacts
Part IV
Electric Phenomena in S"itching Contacts
§ 62. Capacitive queuehing when an arc with a very small duration or no are is
drawn .......................................................... 329
A. Equations. 329- B. Condition for no breakdown of the gap between the
separating electrodes. 331 - C. Example. 331
§ 63. Queuehing of ares by a resistanee parallel to the operating contact or to
the inductive eoil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 332
A. Queuehing with ,. in position a. 332- B. Are queuehing with r in posi-
tion b. 334
§ 64. Details about the types of arc in relay contaets and the material transfer
produced by them ....... , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 334
A. Survey. 334 - B. Result of measurements. 335 - C. The eriticallength,
s.,. of the änode dominated arc. 336
Contents XI
§ 65. Bridge transfer and short are tram;fer at contact separation . . . . . . . . . . . . . 338
A. Introduction. 338- B. A classical example of a long liquid bridge. 339-
C. Methods of determination of the rate of transfer. 341- D. Results of
measurements and their interpretation. 342
§ 67. Bridge material tra.n><fer in thc shape of pips and spires ................ 354
§ 68. Mereury switches . .• . . . . . . . . . .• . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 356
A. Introduction. 356 - B. Medium duty switches with a pool of mercury
forming one electrode. 357- C. Mercury wetted contaets. 358- D. Mercury
between the members of a sliding contact. 358
§ 69. Application of statistics to contact operations • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 359
A. Reliability of eontacts. 359- B. Some numerical results of tests. 361 -
C. Effeet of twin contacts. 361
§ 70. The choice of contact material; contact shape for practical applications 362
A. Permanent contacts. 363- B. Microcontacts. 363-C. Relay contacts with
high repetitive operation. 364- D. Light duty relays for medium frequen-
cies. 364- E. Medium duty circuit breakers and contactors. 365- F. Heavy
duty circuit breakcrs with up to thousands of amperes and volts. 365 -
G. Slirling contacts for resistors and apparatus. 366
Appendh1es
§I. Elasticity, plasticity and hardness ............................... 367
A. Introduetion. 367-B. HERTZ' formulas forideallyelastie indentations.
367 - C. Plastic deformations. Dislocations. 369 - D. Mathematics of
plastic yielding. 370- E. Indentation in an isotropic semi-infinite body,
produced by a spherical indenter (ball). 371 - F. The ball and pyramid
indentation tests. Hardness. 372- G. lnfl.uence of friction on the inden-
tation. 377 - H. Diffusion effeets. 377 - I. The work consnmed by a plas-
tic deformation. Examples. 378
§ U. Electronic conduction in solids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 380
A. Introduction. 380 - B. General concepts concerning conduction.
380 - C. Quantization of the electrons in a crystal and the constitution
of a band. 381 - D. Infl.uence of the temperature on the distribution (or
partition) of electrons on cells in metals. 382- E. Current carriers in se-
miconductors. 384 - F. Mobility of current carriers. Resistance. 386 -
G. Surfaee potential barrier of a metal. Thermionic emission of electrons
387- H. Equilibrium in a contact between metalsA and Bwithdifferent
work functions iP, iP..- > iP8 389 -I. Metal-semieonduetor contact. 390
§ III. Heat conduction. WIEDEMANN-FRANZ law (WF-law) .....••.....•.. 393
A. Heat capacity. 393- B. Thermal conduction. 395-C. WIEDEMA.NN-
FRA.NZ law (WF-law). 396
XII Contents
N.n.
Propositions, equat.ions, and figures are numbered consecuti,·ely
within each chapter in the following way: in Fig. (18.04), 18 refers to
§ 18 and 04 is the number in that chapter.
Numbers in square braekets refer to the lü;t. of Iiterature a t the end
of t.he book.
Part I
Stationary Contacts
1 R. HoLM (1].
1*
4 Stationary Contacts
(1.03)
(1.04)
(1.05)
2a= nb (1.06)
(1.07)
cf. § 16.
1 It may be asked why the formula (1.05) contains the factor 1/a instead of
1/a2 • The following simple consideration gives the answer. An electric resistance
varies in proportion to a length and in inverse proportion to a cross-section. The
dominating part of the constriction resistance is found in the neighborhood of the
contact surface. The order of magnitude is for its length a and for the cross-section
a 2 ; thus the factor in question is afa2 = 1/a.
§ 1. Introduction. Theory of stationary electric contacts 5
If we want to check this formula, the problern would be how to
measure the temperature e. Perhaps the first idea would be to try
thermoelements fitted near the contact. This does not work because
the elements never get close enough to the contact surface. The error
would amount to the order of the measured value.
A simple, indirect method, that enables the determination of the
supertemperature from the contact voltage exists because of the inter-
esting relationship between the supertemperature ein the contact sur-
face of a monometallic contact and the conta.ct voltage, U = RI. This
relationship is a consequence of the heat flowing along the same paths
as the electric current, irrespective of the fact that the surroundings of
the contact which insulate electrically do not insulate thermally. Be-
cause of the symmetry, there is no reason for heat transfer from one
member to the other.
As is proved in § 13, saidrelationshipfor a monometallic contact with
electric and thermal conductivities 1/e and ). respectively is
(1.08)
softenlng melting
1 Cf. § IIIC.
6 Stationary Contacts
increase the voltage beyond the melting voltage would result in the
contact sinking together and forming a greater contact area that
carries the current without further melting. Ifthis happens, the voltage
usually drops to a value somewhat below the melting voltage. Melting
voltages of various materials are given in Table (XI.2).
The temperature can surpass the melting point only if the contact
members are mechanically kept from approaching each other, for ins-
tance, in an opening contact. Then the boiling point of the metal may
be reached. For copper, the boiling point corresponds to 0,8 V and for
tungsten, 2.1 V. Boiling in the last moment of opening may imme-
diately precede the ignition of an arc with an arc voltage of 10 to 15 V;
since the arc demands a certain minimum gap, we conclude that boiling
here appears like an explosion which at once produces a gap and fills
it with overheated, ionized vapor.
In order to check the factor [1 + 2/3 (o:0)] one must, of course, in-
vestigate a contact with a constant contact area. Usually, the contact
area enlarges with increasing current because of softening of the metal
by the heat. Therefore, in order to secure a constant area, one should
begin the test with a high current and proceed to lower values. Or,
better still, vary the current up and down and record reversible varia-
tions (see § 20). If such a reversible series of resistance records shows
that the resistance increases with rising current (rising R U-character-
istic, § 20), this would prove that the contact is metallic. Conversely,
a falling R U-characteristic would indicate that the resistance belongs
to either a semiconducting film, say a tarnish film, or to a thin, tunnel-
conducting film. It happens that visibly tarnished contacts have a re-
versible R U-characteristic that rises with increasing current. Such a
behavi_or indicates that the current :flows mainly through (invisible)
metallic contact spots which have been produced either by rupture of
the film at contact make or by fritting.
A-fritting is an electric breakdown that occurs when the electric
field reaches the order of 108 Vfm and may result in a metal bridge
through the film 1 or even in a small conducting contact spot. There is a
commonplace example of fritting. If you investigate an ordinary plug
and socket contact by using a small emf, such as 1 V, you may fre-
quently find it insulating. But, this feature is not noticeable in service
since the ordinary line voltage is able to frit the contact.
W e also distinguish B-fritting which Ieads to enlargement of the
conducting areas at relatively low voltages across the conducting spot
that is limited by a surrounding film. For details see § 27.
When the contact film is thin enough to be permeable to electrons
1 Cf. § 27.
§ 2. The contact surface 7
by means of the tunnel effectl, usually no fritting occurs. A contact
spot with such a film has been called quasi-metallic. The tunnel resis-
tance may be negligible at high Ioads; but if the load is of the order
of 0.01 N and the contaot area correspondingly small, this resistance
may surpass the constriction resistance and render measurements in-
consistent. Many investigators have observed that it is necessary to
submit such contacts to small vibrations before measuring in order to
secure reproducible values. HoLM called this action aging the contaot 2 •
The explanation of the aging seems tobe as follows. When a clean
metallic surface is exposed to air, it soon becomes covered by two lay-
ers of oxygen atoms. The outer layer is bound much weaker than the
inner one but contributes to the tunnel resistance by a far greater
amount. Later, these layers may develop into an oxide tarnish. It
seems that aging results in the mechanical breakdown of the outer
oxygen layer.
Wehave sketched problems of stationary contacts which constitute
the very fundamentals of the theory of electric contacts. An extended
treatmentwill be presented in Part I, while Parts (III and IV) will be
devoted to problems of moving contacts. They concern: Part III slid-
ing contaots, and Part IV make and break contacts, including the
theory of the arc, the chief enemy of the switches. Although the elec-
tric conduction through sliding contacts ist physically the same as
through stationary contacts, a significant difference may result from
the fact that single contacts serve too short a time for reaching temper-
ature equilibrium. This means that in sliding contacts Eq. (1.08) is
no Ionger valid. Part II is devoted to thermal resistances.
The local pressure, p, may vary from point to point with elastic
deformation in some spots and plastic deformation in others. In many
1 Cf.§ 26.
2 In Germanit was called normieren; see R. HOLM [29] p. 69; cf. § 20B.
8 Stationary Contacts
cases however, the entire area Ab will yield plastically; for example, in
contacts between two cylinders placed crosswise (cross rod contact)
at an ample Ioad. Then, the average pressure
will be close to the hardness lP. Even in mac-
roscopically flat contacts, p usually ist not
lower than about 0.2 of the hardness because a
considerable fraction of the Ioad-hearing eleva-
tions become plastically deformed; cf. § 7. It is
to be noted that the hardness ist not a strictly
unambiguous concept, and the reader is referred
to Appendix I and § 7 for detailed information
on hardness and Ioad-hearing area.
Fig. (2.02). Apparent con· From the aspect of current conduction, the
tact surface .4 load-bea·
4 ;
Ioad-hearing area may consist of three differ-
ring contact area .db, con·
taining insulating spots rent parts; cf. Fig. (2.02):
(shaded) and conducting 1. Portions with metallic contact. The cur-
spots, i. e., a-spots (dotted)
rent passes through them without perceptible
transition resistance in the interface, just as it does between different
crystallites in a compact meta!; cf. Introduction.
2. Quasi-metallic spots. Theseare film-covered areas with films suffi-
ciently thin to be easily permeable by the electron current by means
of the tunnel effect, irrespective of the resistivity of the film material.
Typical films of this kind are chemisorbed layers of oxygen atoms which,
in air, are formed on any meta! surface. This will be discussed in §§ 3,
6, 20, and 26.
3. Areas covered by relatively thick films; particularly, visible tar-
nish films (oxides, sulphides, etc.). As a rule, such areas are pratically
insulating.
The short name a-spot for the conducting contact areas, referring
to the radius a of a circular contact area, is a widely accepted term.
Fig. (2.02) illustrates different kinds of contact surfaces. The ratios
between these surfaces are diversified, and it may even happen that
Aa = Ab = A 0 • For example, if two clean meta! cylinders, whose dia-
meter is a few mm, are placed crosswise in contact with an ample Ioad,
50 N, plastic deformation Ieads to a Ioad-hearing area which is simul-
taneously the conducting area. This area is circular within the Iimits
of the irregularities of the surfaces. It is a difficult problern to deter-
mine Ab and Ac in cases where these surfaces are small compared to
Aa, as in the contact of a carbon brush on a collector ring. The present
state of our knowledge concerning Ab and Ac is summarized in § 7.
The contact between mercury and a solid metal has particular fea-
tures, since the deformation of the solid member is perfectly negligible
1 As for hardness, see § IF.
§ 3. The contact resistance. General theory 9
and tarnish or chemisorbed films on it remain undamaged. Here the
Ioad-hearing area and the apparent contact area are equal, i. e., Aa = Ab.
The contact between the film covered meta! and mercury provides
means for investigating the conduction of the films because we may
regard Ac = Aa.
and
R = Rab- Rgb} (3.02)
U=Rl
10 Stationary Contacts
In the case of a clean meta! contact, i. e., with no film in the contact,
the contact resistance R, is simply a constriction resistance. See § 1. If
a film is present and both sides have different metals, the contact re-
sistance R is the sum of the constriction resistances R 1 and R 2 in the
two members respectively and the film resistance R,, thus
(3.03)
With r!t being the resistivity of the film material and s being its thick-
ness we have
(3.06)
Through very thin films, the tunnel effect furnishes a current inde-
pendent of e1 even if e1 is "infinite". For this case, a is defined and
calculated in § 26. In later chapters the picture of the resistances R 1 ,
R 2 , Rr will be completed by the study of details under different condi-
tions.
Those regions within the contact members C1 and C2 (Fig. 3.07)
where, owing to the smallness of the contact spots, the lines of current
flow noticeably deviate from the straight course, are called constriction
regions or simply constrictions. Within the constriction region, the po-
tential gradient is relatively great but relatively small outside the con-
striction; in other words, R: b in Eq. (3.02) is relatively small, usually
even negligible as compared to Rab· As a consequence, an exact de-
finition of the positions of the probes a and b ist not necessary. This
§ 4. Calculation of constriction resistances with constant resistivity e 11
dated, but the detailed evaluation of the forumlas will only be given for
three relatively simple problems: 1) Ac is a (hemisphere or) circle;
2) Ac is an ellipse and 3) Ac is composed of several circular or elliptic
a-spots. Allproblemsare treated under the conditions that the material
is the same in both members and that (!, thus also the temperatur, is
the same in all points of the constriction. The assumption of a spatially
homogeneous structure concerning (! at constant temperatures is no
considerable Iimitation in most applications because structural Varia-
tions usually are insignificant in so small a region as a constriction.
vVe shall generally assume that the conducting area Ac is equipoten-
tial, as is true, due to symmetry, if both membcrs consist of the same
material and thus ha ve equal constrictions. Exceptions which are treated
in § 5 show that deviations from the equipotentiality of A" have only
a moderate inßuence on the constriction resistance.
We seek the resistance between Ac and another equipotential sur-
face A1 belanging to the same contact member, and for this purpose
require a mathematical expression for the current ßow in the space
between A" and A1 . It is immaterial whether or not this expression
describes the state outside this region correctly. A method often applied
is the following: Ac is considered as a current source and A1 as a sink,
the region between them being free from sources and sinks. Then, the
current vector can be expressedas the gradient of a potential function,
q;, which in the respective region satisfies the Laplacian equation 1
1 With e varying, the electrostatic picture would contain space charges and the
[1] § 6.14.
§ 4. Calculation of constriction rPsist.ances with constant resistivity e 13
Q = 4n
- 1/lßq;i
on - ~ dA '. (4.02)
Ae
In the resistance problern (now with n being th!:' normal to A,.) the
current density is ~ j ~: \ , and the total current. is
I = ~! I ~: IdA , (4.04)
Ae
with them the expression for 0 is particularly simple, and 2. because they are nsed
in the references.
14 Stationa.ry Contacts
to be C
= 2( ! _~) cgs umts
1 .
(4.08)
(4.09)
(4.10)
where f-l is a parameter and the axes of the ellipse coincide with the
directions of x and y. It is obvious from Eq. (4.10) that the height of a
- ---
semi-ellipsoid (normal to the xy-plane) is ltt and that vo: 2 + f-l is its
axis in the x direction, cf. Fig. (4.16). The capacity between the flat
elliptic base surface A 0 and the semi-ellipsoid (4.10) is, in cgs electro-
static units
(4.12)
~I (4.15)
Fig. (4.16). Lines of current tlow and equipotential surfaces in the vicinity of a circular a-spot
in a symmetric ccntact. The resistance between two consecutive equipotential surfaces of the
ftgure is 1/6 of the total constriction resistance in one contact member
1 Cf. Problem A of § 5. A direct derivation of Eq. (4.14) using the HANKEL trans-
form is given in LLEWELLYN JONES [4], p. 13-15.
§ 4. Calculation of constriction resistances with constant resistivity (! 17
The ellipsoid halving the constriction resistance has the height a,
that is, it corresponds to f1 = a 2 , as is easily verified by inserting this
f1 into (4.13) giving for one member
(4.17)
!
changes Eq. (4.11) into
R _ e
u - 2:n:(rx + ß)
1
t/(1-
dt
t2) [1- (: ~ ~rt2]
j
«P _,. (4.20)
~ ~:
.. + ß;{;(.) 'F IF (•· '"''" 1= ~ :m I} J
with the same sign before the last term as with P.- rxßß. The symbols
P.+rx
k, F(k, q;), K(k) are those used by JAHNKE and EMDE [1] 1, k signi-
fying a modulus, F(k,q;) the elliptic integral of the first kind, i.e.,
-j }'1-k'sin
tp
F(k ) dq;
,t:p- q; 2
0
1 JAHNKE and EMDE use k = siniX in the tables. This IX shall not be confused
with our IX for one of the axes of the elliptic A •.
2 Electric Contacts, 4th Ed.
18 Stationary Contacts
and
which is twice the value that is obtained with {t = cxß. Thus the con-
striction resistance is halved by the equipotential surface that has
,u = rxß (4.22)
The current density in Ac is given by Eq. (4.12).
Problem F. The infiuence of the elliptic shape of the contact area on
the constriction resistance expressed by a shape factor. Putting rx = y a
and ß = afy in ProblemE , one obtains the area of the elliptic contact
surface :n; cxß = :n;a2 , equal to a circular area with radins a. Here y is
a measure of the ellipticity. W e now express the constriction resistance
R (cx,ß) for an elliptic surface by means of the resistailce R (a, a)
= ef4a for a circular surface with the same area as the elliptic one by
writing for one member
R(rx,ß) = R(a,a)f(y) = 4eaf(y) (4.23)
1.0
........
..........
r-..
r-....
s
.........
f(J
?--
["'"--..
/ftJ
--
Fig. (4.24). The functlon f(y), a form factor
F(k,cp) are not suitable due to Iack of small increments. But, the fol-
lowing approximation is advantageously applicable:
1 16
K(k) ~ 2 In 1 _ k 2 (4.25)
§ 5. Constriction resistances when conditions deviate from those in § 4 19
or, since 1 - k 2 "'=' 4fy2 (as is readily checked),
K(k) :~dn(2y) (4-.26)
giving
4
f(y) = -ln(2y)
:ny
(4.27)
While the direct use of Eq. (4.20) is protracted, the calculation can
be much simplified by aid of Figs. (4.24) and (4.28), both based on this
equation. In the latter figure, :(~) is plotted against y with ttfa.ß as a
parameter. Since R(co) = R(aa) f(y) we have
R(p,)
R(tt) = R(a,a) R(co)f(y) (4.29)
where the first factor is obtained from Eq. (4.14), the second from
Fig. (4.28) and the third from Fig. (4.24).
_ An important feature of Fig. (4.28) is that it illustrates how ]arge
VP •the length ofthe constriction, must be as compared with the aver-
age radius, a = ~~aß, of
-
--
the contact spot in orrler
lO
~-tt«fJ - <»
r--:-_wo I
Long co~·lriclinn I
to make the constric- ~
tion long. Even with y - --r---..; :+- -- r-:- --
I~ ~G- -
= 1, i. e., a circular spot,
lflfa has to be larger
than 10 in order to ha ve
R (fl) a pproach R (co) to
---
,- 1-t-
I
!
~
p
I
:----r-- --:.. -
~-1
--
- I
I 1 i
R(co); with y = 20 and ~OS
1pfa =
- I
-
10, R ({l) devi-
ates
20% .
from R(co) by
-+ ~
I - -~-
Some disagreements
betwcen observation
' I I I
'
I
I
l Ii
Iiterature result from
observations on short 0
1 z J 5710
I ZOJO SQ
constrictions beingcom- r-
pared to calculations for Fig. (4.28). R(!J)/R( oo) plotted as a function of the a-spot 's
long constrictions. cllipticity expressed by y with IJ/tz {! as parameter
(5.04)
. 1 . The potential at a point on the symmetry axis, perpendicular to the disc, is
eaßily calr.ulated by using concentric ring-shaped elements of the disc and then
integrating.
22 Stationary Contacts
R E(n a l) =
e a r c tvz-
-- g -- -
a 2 VF -- -a
-- 0 6 n
2
(5.08)
c ' ' 2nna a ' o: A,
where the coefficient 0.6 is chosen so as to make RcF: (n, a, l) approaching 0
for z...... a without assuming any negative values.
Eq. (5.08) is approximate, particularly because the current is not
uniformly distributed among the a-spots but the spots are all the more
favored the closer they lie to the rim of A,; cf. Eq. (4.18). In Eq. (5.08),
§5. Constriction resistances when conditions deviate from those in § 4 23
this effect could cause an error of up to 20 % when the spots are very
close to each other; but the error decreases with increasing lfa. The un-
certainty is taken care of by the shaded area in Figs. (5.12) and (5.13).
Problem H provides the opportunity to compare Eq. (5.08) for n = 1
with an exact calculation.
However, since the height l/12 - a 2 is a microscopic length, the vol-
tage between A, and E can not be measured directly. Assuming the vol-
tage probes to be at a distance from the contact surface that is great
compared with the diameter of A,, the measurement involves a long
constriction on the basis E ""' A,. Therefore, with
A,. = nr2 = 4nl2 (5.09)
according to (5.06), a resistance ef4r has tobe added 1
to Rcr;(n, a,l).
The total constriction resistance in one member resulting from the
group of a-spots on the Lase of a semi-infinite member then is
(! Vl2-a2 eVP-a2
R(n,a,l) = --arctg
2 nna ---0,6
a
A
r
+ 4-(!r (5.10)
Actually the a-spots are seldom circular; but their shape can be
taken into account by calculating aR if they were ellipses, characterized
by a certain y in ac-
-t-
lO
cordance with Problem I I I I
F in § 4. Then the first
term on the right side
of Eq. (5.10) becomes
Oß\ I
I I
I
I
I
I
I
I
fl& ~
I i :
gj_('Y) arctg vz2 - a2 ~~
2nna a
(5.11) 09 ~ IQ:~ I I
~~ n-10
Problem D. We con-
sider an apparant area f1Z
~~
A,. on which equal circu- --= """" I 700
and the formulas for Iong constrictions are, of course, no Ionger valid.
The calculation of a deformed constriction resistance may be ob-
tained by an approximate, step by step, construction of equiresistant
space elements 1 , bounded by current tubes and equipotential surfaces.
1 The practical details of such constrictions have been described, for instance,
by KÜPFMÜLLER [1] § 19.
26 Stationary Contacts
With l the average length and A the average cross section of such an
element, it is required that all elements satisfy lfA = C where C is a
chosen constant. If n such elementary tubes intersect an equipotential
surface (the same tubes intersecting all equipotential surfaces) and if
there are rn elements along each line of flow within the constriction ,
then the resistance of the distorted constriction is
(5.18)
e2 1
1.31 3.81 6.85
nB R(a, B) = 0 ·296
00
h/rl 10 5 2 1 0.5
R (h, a)f R (oo, a) accord. to Fig. (4.28) 0.94 0.88 0.7 0.5 0.3
accord. to FoxHALL et al. 0.96 0.90 0.80 0.64 0.43
§ 6. Introduction to thin films on contacts. Contact cleaning 27
Cleaning metho ds
Grease and lubricants are removed with the aid of acetone, carbon-
tetra-chloride and trichlor-ethylene (not as toxic as CC14 ). So much
liquid must be used that the fatty solution becomes very diluted. Final
eleaning is accomplished by washing in ethyl alcohol, and rinsing in
tap water, or, better, in boiling distilled water.
Among the several recommended procedures for combined mechan-
ical and chemical cleaning we cite 2 : Polish with 1/4 mi9ron diamond
powder or alumina; extract with benzene for four hours in a Soxhlet
Extractor; soak for 15 minutes in hot chromic acid; rinse in destilled
water; heat to 600 to 635 oc in helium atmosphere; use immediately
to prevent contamination by the ambient atmosphere.
The cleanness of the surfaces and the density of the adsorbed films
e
were determined by measuring the contact angle of methylene iodide
and water. For clean palladium0max = 0 to 3°. For organic monolayers,
Bmax was in the range of 37 to 93° depending upon the materials and
eoherence of the coverage.
Another fairly intricated method for cleaning is recommended by
BLAKE [1].
For noble metals strong etching processes may be used. CHAIKIN [ 1]
recommends for palladium, treating in cold aqua regia for 15 seconds,
rinsing in 1 : 1 hydrochloric acid, and then rinsing in distilled water;
this followed by a 15 minute treatment in sulfuric-chromic acid clean-
ing solution at 80 °C. Finally, after a thorough rinsing in double-
distilled water, the contacts are dried in a desiccator containing magne-
[1]. A description of the method and action is given in the article "Ultrasonics" in
Encyclopedia of Electronics, Reinhold, New York 1962; cf. McCornick [1].
30 Stationary Contacts
each other, steadily back and forthin the samestraight path. Recently,
CLAUSING and CHAO [1] attained g < 0.02 between extremely smooth
contact members of stainless steel which had a curvature radius of
between 50 and 100m. The Ioad was about 1000 N.
In § 36B the explanatioil of CouLOMB's law of friction is discussed.
Thereby the question arises whether g can be independent of P . .As to
this particular problern we point to the fact that ~ is proportional to
the average pressure p (see 1,17 and the remark connected with this
equation). Therefore, g is a function of the specific depth D of the in-
dentations constituting the Ioad bearing area. Thus, a constant g means
a constant average specific depth D. Since nature evidently presents
cases of D = constant, it is important to investigate relevant condi-
t.ions.
According to Eq. (I, 17) a constant g is equivalent to Ab oc: P.
GREENWOOD and WILLIAMSON1 have investigated a mathematical
model of a very general type that satisfies Ab oc P. They characterize
the unevenness of a surface by asperities each of them rcpresented by
its height, z, and the radius, r, of curvature of its top. They show by
profilometric measurements that usually a Gaussian distribution of z
is essentially realized. The distribution of r is skew.
The authors assume a contact between nominally flat members
{without macroscopic waviness) with the asperities so far apart that
they deform independently of each other. When the higher asperities
deform, lower ones touch, and a variety of contact areas with different
sizes is produced. It is shown that probably both the nurober of spots
and the total contact area are fairly proportional to the Ioad P, whereas
the density of the spots is proportional to the apparent pressure PJA.,
where Aa is the covered (apparent) area.
The authors introduce the concept "plast.icity index", lJ', that we
slightly modify to
1 J . .A. GREENWOOD et al. [4], [5], [7], [8], where earlier contributions, parti-
cularly that of ÄRCHARD [2] are discussed.
32 Stationary Contacts
Fig. (7.04). Record of the currents in three insulated probes in the brush and of the current in the
matrix brush
HoLM's final results are summarized in Table (7.09). The data vary
considerably. This may be a consequence of the complicated nature
of contact formation and, on the other band, may lie in the meas-
uring method. The contact resistance between brush and ring
Table (7.09). Number of a-spots on A. and their mean diameter in a contact o.f an
electrographite brush on a copper or graphitering (No. 5).
Brush material is characterized by e = 4.31. w-• Q m and H 1 = 2. 108 N/m 2
Worn-in
Dia- Average Number
area Contact Contact Diameter
meter number of of Contact
of the Ioad resistance of a-spots
No. of the brush p a-spots in a-spots pressure
probe R 2a in.A 6
Aa contact
with probe
cm cm 2 N n 10- 3 cm n 10• N/m'
1 The hardness noted in the original paper was measured with too shallow an
indentation. Gonverted to the right specific depth, the hardness was about 2 • 108
Nfm2.
§ 7. The load bearing contact area as a function of load 35
Fig. (7.10), refers to groundsilversteel Fig. (7.11). Same as (7.10) but with 30 K
( = 1 % carbon steel). P = 20 N
ridges of grinding marks. Fig. (7.12) reveals a HERTZ area 1 ofa polished
contact surface whose size (according to the authors) reasonably agrees
with what is calculated with elasticity theory.
Fig. (7.12). Polished contact surface of Fig. (7.13). Steel polished on corrosil finishing
silver steel. P = 20 N paper. P = 30 N
Fig. (7.14). Due to A. J. W. MooRE [1]. Taper section of a deep indentation in originally annealed
grooved copper, showing the persis tence of the grooves in the indcnt.ation
spots will also be deformed so that the true size of these spot~ may
be smaller than the revealed areas. On the other band, it seeroH that
slightly stressed spots do not show up at all.
D. Persistence of asperities in indentations. Fig. (7.14) shows a rc-
markable persistence of asperities during plastic bulk deformation of
originally annealed copper. That the asperities arenot totally flattened
is understandable if one considers that they yielded plastically with
about the same percentage of their height as the underlying material
does with respect to its much greater thickness. In addition, the asperi-
ties strain-harden during the deformation, thus increase their persist-
ence. A similar picture was obtained with copper originally strain-
hardened to ultimate hardness. If the thickness of the sample is com-
parable with the amplitudes of the asperities, the entire sample is
flattened by a high Ioad; see GREENWOOD et al. [5].
Fig. (7.15a) illustrates a HERTZ area with a-spots on asperities.
The shaded circle represents elastic deformation in a cross-rod contaet .
Because of the asperities, real contact exists only at
their tops, sketched as black spots. The tops are re-
garded as plastically deformed and hardened. They
actually carry the Ioad P and are carried them-
selves by elastic counter forces that require a de-
•
formed area of size according to HERTZ equation i.L
(1,1). We therefore call this pot"ential are<~ a HERTZ
area. It is obvious that here the HERTZ area (shaded)
represents the apparent. contact area whereas t-h<'
h
Ioad bearing area Ab is the sum of the black arcus.
The HERTZareais not strictly given by HERTZ equa- .Fig.(7.t5).Twot;ve-'
of contact. with the
tions because asperities can touch the other mem- same size of the Ioad
her outside the ideal H ER1'Z area where the ga p is very bearing area (black)
bnt different clastic-
smalJ: see GREENWOOD Pt al. r7]; HARKAN et al [1]. ally strained areas
Fig. (7.15b) shows a continuous contact area for- (shaderl)
med by total plastic deformation with a size equal to thE' sum of the
black areas in Fig. (7.15a). It may be regarded as produced between
rods thinner than those for thP upper figure.
E. Influence of t.emperature and contact duration on the contact. area.
As is described in Appendix I, the measured hardness, H, depends 011
the temperature, and on the time of the stress due to continued ther-
mal diffusion of atoms under the influence of the stress. Table (7.16)
shows how the constriction resistance, R, slowly decreases with time.
The essential cause for this decrease will be that the strain in the struc-
ture, produced around the contact by the stress at contact make, more
or Iess vanishes, enlarging the contact surface. Table (7.16) shows that
3E
38 Stationary Contacts
In Table (7.17) the following notations have been used. The hard-
ness H({}a, {}, t), measured as PfAb is expressedas a function ofthe va-
riables {}a, {}, t. Here {}a means the temperature at which the specimens,
two cylindrical rods, were annealed before being brought into contact.
They were kept at the temperatures {} a until hardness tests indicated a
permanent state. Then
Table (7.17). Change of hardness of eilver with time
after having attained the
(hours)and temperature
observation temperature {},
{}. I Observation-~
temperature (J H((J
a. •
1160)
(J the
H((J 0 , (},
specimens
co) were
oc •c 10• N/m• 10• N/m2 brought into contact and
left in contact for the time
18 18 8.2 6.8
130 18 7.8 -
t. Finally the contact was
130 130 - 1.45 opened and the indenta-
165 18 6.3 - tions measured microsco-
165 165 4.5 0.72 pically, from which the
:WO 18 4.6 - noted hardness H({}a, {},
200 200 - 0.35
t) was calculated. The
symbol t = oo means that members have been in contact at the
temperature {} for such a time t that a practically permanent contact
resistance was observed with a small current. The contact duration
before the initial reading was one minnte.
Ta ble (7.17) shows that the initial hardness (after the preceding heat-
ing) diminishes from 8.2 to 4.6 108 Nfm2, if {}a is increased from 18 to
agitation, the contact resistance varies more rapidly particularly at a small Ioad.
The variation of the resistance of tungsten contacts with time observed by FuxuBOI
and MuTO (1] was probably accelerated by small vibrations.
§ 8. The relation between contact Ioad and resistance 39
:wo oc. A considerably greater reduction has been noted for t = oo,
namely, from 6.8 to 0,35 108 Nfm 2 •
F. Special application of Eq. (1,23) concerning creep in contacts.
Three crossed silver rod contacts were investigated each under a con-
tact Ioad of 350 N at the temperatures T = 473, 438 and 403 °K. One
observed a steady yielding of the contacts. This is explanable by
atomic diffusion.
Weshall compare "states" which may be defined by the size of the
contact area which is the mouth of an indentation. It is just as weH
accomplished by the contact resistance, mathematically reduced to
a chosen environment temperature {) by the formula 1 : rxiJ· During
Observation at the temperature Tl °K, Iet R,.(Tl) be the initialresistance
and Rb(T1 ) the resistance after t1 hr both reduced to the chosen temper-
ature. We represent the change between the states by the number x of
atoms displaced among x 0 atoms belonging to the initial indentation. In
another experiment, at T 2 °K, the respective change of the reduced re-
sistances is from Ra ( T 2 ) to Rb ( T 2 ) in t 2 hr. The experiments are made
in such times that
Then we may as ume that x0 fx is the samein both cases. Hence apply-
ing Eq. (1,24) with v = constant, we obtain
11 600 11 600
---<p ---rp
t1 e T, = t2 e T2
or
(i.18)
The q;-values in Table (7.19) Iie between those given for silver by
SEEGER [ 1]p. 4 72: 2.0 e V for self-diffusion and 1,2 eV for diffusion of
vacancies.
Stationary Contacts
10 ' 1 t:----+-~·_,-+""-<,---l
lw~~--~~--r---~~·~dp
Flg. (8.01). Vlrgin contact resistances R plotted against the contact Ioad P. Solid llnes are for
clean contacts. In alr the metals soon become covered by a monolayer of oxygen. The increased
resistances are represented by the dashed lines, associated wlth solid lines by shading. Practical
contacts have thicker alien films. Their curves have a steeper slope and often lie higher above
the dashed lines as the latter above the solid lines. The measurements for the carbon haw hren
carried out in air, but also hold for vacuum, except for thcir dashed part.
fl.at contacts when covered with a chemisorbed oxygen layer, the associa·
tion with the corresponding solid curve again being indicated by shading.
Every observationwas made with a new contact. The dashed curves .
are entirely based on measurements on contacts which were closed after
being exposed to air for some minutes (up to one hour) after a thorough
cleaning. Under these circumstances, we can expect a chemisorbed
oxygen layer to cover the faces. This seems to be con:firmed because the
deviation, R1, from the associated solid curves can be correctly calcu-
lated from Eq. (8.02) assuming reasonable values for the tunnel re-
sistivity a of the film
(8.02)
The solid curves for nominally flat contacts (plates) as weil as all
curves for carbon are also based on measurements. However, the
solid curves for metallic rods have been calculated and checked in
vacuum by measurements in only a few points.
The basic data for the calculations are summarized in Table (8.09)
which is followed by an example. :Notice that Fig. (8.01) refers to cir-
cumstances that are idealized in certain respects. Particularly, the solid
curves concern perfectly clean and very smooth surfaces. In practice,
deviations are caused by surface contamination and roughness. General
rules for these changes can not be given, but it is important to know the
optimum that can be attained. This is presented in Fig. (8.01).
B. Crossed rod contacts. Preceding the discussion of the results, we
first indicate by means of Figs. (8.03) to (8.06) a suitable method for
measuring contact resistances which is the same method that was used,
in 1928, by R. HOLM [4]. Fig. (8.03) illustrates the wiring diagram,
while Figs. (8.04) and (8.05) show an appropriate construction of the
holders for the contacts. A circular contact area Ac = Ab is obtained
under conditions described in the introduction of this chapter. Fig.
(8.06) pictures the equipotential surfaces in one of the cylinders. In the
vicinity of the contact area, represented by a point in the figure, the
equipotential surfaces are nearly concentric ellipsoids of the type
shown in Fig. (4.16).
The surface A. is considered as end surface of the constriction. Since
it intersects the end of the cylinder, the voltage measured according to
diagram (8.03) will be the voltage between the end surfaces, and conse-
quently be what is called the contact voltage, U. With I being the
current, the ratio Ufl is the contact resistance. R, tobe measured with
sufficiently low U to avoid heating of the constriction. If the radins of
the cylinders is sufficiently large, say more than 20 times !arger than
that of the contact surface, (cf. Fig. [4.28]), the constriction is long
and its resistance can be calculated according to Eq. (4.15).
§ 8. The relation between contact Ioad and resistance 43
Results of the resistance measurement8 with crossed rod contacts. To
begin with, we consider a cylinder material of a moderate hardness, for
example copper. The diameter may be 2r = 5 mm a.nd we suppose the
conta.ct load to be a.bove 100 N. Then the pressure p will atta.in the plas-
Fig. (8.05). Form of the holder H, and H, , used Fig. (8.06). Equipotential surfaces in the en-
for the device shown in Fig. (8.04) vironment of a contact between crossed rods
ticity Iimit in nearly the whole contact surface, making the impression
circula.r. The constriction will be fairly long a.nd Eq. (4.15) applicable
with good approximation.
We then consider a smaller Ioad, for example P = 0.1 N, making
it possible for merely elastic deformation to produce the contact sur-
face; note that this is true only for sufficiently smooth rod surfaces.
The contact area will again be a circle, and its radius a is given by
Eq. (1,1). Combining (1,1) with (4.15) and (7.01) with (4.15) we easily
find in the case of a small P and purely elastic deformation
R o:: p-'1• (8.07)
Both equations are true, of course, only for clean metal surfaces and,
beyond this, in the case of (8.07) for sufficiently smooth surfaces.
Although surfaces of real bodies are never perfectly smooth but
affected with a certain asperity1 , the contact surface at }arge P will be
1 Amplitudes of the asperities0.1 to 0.01 mm, cf. ScHMALTZ [1], and p. 32
44 Stationary Contacts
Material 2r E H (} a
cm 1010 Ntm• 10• X/rn' w-s n m 10-12 n m•
Al 6 2.4 2.8
Cu 0.5 11 5 1.76 1.5
Pt 0.58 13 6.5 13
Ni 0.3 20 14 9 2 to 8
Graphite 0.5 0.8 1.4 4300
baked carbon 0.3 to 0.6 0.5 3.5 7000 7
-~-·---
See, for instance, R. HoLM [28] Fig. 2, and I. MING FENG [1] particularly
1
Figs. (5) and (8).
2 R. HOLM [1] § 7 and R. HOLM [4] p. 243.
§ 8. The relation between contact Ioad and resistance 45
course of the associated solid lines is explained by the existence of a
film penetrable for tunneling electrons. Table (8.09) contains basic data
for Fig. (8.01).
We calculate a point on the copperrod curve obtained with very
smooth and clean surfaces. At P = 0.1 N we are in the region
where the yielding is elastic. Using the data of Table (8.09) and Eqs.
(1,2) as weil as (4.15), i.e., long constriction, we obtain
a = 1.11 V 0.1-2.5-10-3
11-toto = 1.46 ·10-sm
and
o-4 0
R = _!L = 1. 76 . to-s = 6 . 1
2 a 2.92. 10-s
R can be read on the solid line. The indentation is elastic since the
average pressure p = Pfn a 2 = 1.5 ·108.Njm2 < Hj3 is too small to pro-
duce a plastic indentation, cf. §I. The error resulting from assuming a
long constriction is < 1 % in the actual case of : = 1. 4~·~:0 3 = 170,
i.e-, Vß= 170 a. The additive resistance, L1 R (leading to the da!!hed
line), which we assume to be the resistance of a thin uniform film,
obtained from Eq. (8.02), is
L1R = ...!!._
:n:a2
= 2.24 · to-s 0
Thus, the total resistance corresponding toP= 0.1 N is found tobe
R = 0.6. 10-3 + 2.24 . to-s = 2.84 . 1Q-S n
differing very little from 2,9 · 10-3 as given by the dashed line.
The slope of the solid line in the region P = 0.1 N is - 1/3, accord-
ing to Eq. (8.07). Evidently, R is dependent on r in the case of elastic
deformation between relatively smooth surfaces according to Eq. (1,2),
but independent of r when the deformation is plastic.
Applying P = 50 N would bring about plastic deformation and R
has to be calculated according to Eq. (7.01). The slope then is -1/2,
according to Eq. (8.08). The portions of the graph with the slopes
-1/3 and -1/2 are connected by a slightly curved line.
The influence ofthe waviness has not been taken into account when
dra wing the solid lines, otherwise they would ha ve turned upwards a little
at their left end. But, the measured dashed lines show this tendency.
Notice that the dashed curves have a greater slope than the solid
ones. In the event of films thicker than those for Fig. (8.01), the slope
of the resistance lines approaches proportionality to P- 1 . The reason
is that the dominating film resistance varies as A~1 according to Eq.
(8.02), and Ac is nearly proportional to P.
46 Stationary Contacts
that the constriction was not long and the tangential resistance in the
bars became comparablewith the constriction resistance. This can cause
the quantity ~b, defined in § 3, to assume negative values, andin fact
negative quantities for Rab were measured with P = 104 N. To under-
stand this, we consider the extreme case in which Pis !arge enough to
bring the whole covered surface into actual contact. Then the equipo-
tential surfaces will intersect the contact as indicated in Fig. (8.10).
We see that the potential tapped at point 2 will be that of an earlier
equipotential surface than is tapped at point 1. Thus, the voltmeter
measures a voltage with reversed polarity.
E. Use of Diagram (8.01) in practice. The diagram is very helpful
for determining: 1. the contact resistance corresponding to a certain
Ioad, or 2. the Ioad needed if the resistance is prescribed. The causes
for deviation from the curves in Fig. (8.01) are often found to be in a
faulty wiring or in films thicker than those met in the dashed curves.
It is of no great disadvantage that only some few metals are repre-
sented, since the curves for allmetals have a similar inclination. There-
fore, in most cases it is sufficient to calculate one point in the elastic and
one point in the plastic region, and then draw the characteristic p_a rallel
to the plotted ones. The formulas for the calculation are given in §§ 4,
5, 7, 8, and I.
For a rough computation of the resistance in a contact with 0.1
< P < 100 N, practically clean members with resistivities [?! and g2 and
the contact hardness,H, ofthe softer member, one may use the follow-
ing rule of thumb:
R e1 + e2 vH
=
2 p
(8.11)
nickel curves in Fig. (8.01) at the same Ioads shows that the films on
the practically clean nickel rods were relatively thick, but still tunnel
conducting. Submitting these contacts to great Ioads reduces R quicker
than according to (8.01). Va-
rying P between high and low
1
(without vibrations) results in
a constantl R for a pressure
\;
,.__ interval between 1.9and0.25N.
0.0.
This means that metallic spots 2
have been produced (most pro-
bably on the elevations) in
which the members were weld-
ed with a strength that could
~~
(tJ)
-
(10)
withstand the elastic counter-
1
r,~,
force during unloading. The
"'
""
__"., average pressure attained a-
{10/ bout half the hardness of the
(1{){) l10.
ZO}
(150)-'0.
nicke!, which makes it very
0.00~
likely that complete plastic de-
az as 1 N 2 formation was produced in the
Conlocf Ioad contact at the top of elevations,
Fig.(8.12).Cycling of the Ioad P (50 to !50 times) on disrupting the continuity of
a crossed nicke! rod contact; freshly cleaned rods of
0.3 cm diameter; exposed to air two days the film in some spots.
1 R. HoLM [8] p. 61. Aluminum contacts behave differently due to the rapid
oxidation of clean surfaces. A metallic spot which was welded oxidizes very quickly
when the contact is broken and the spot exposed to air. When the contact is remade
this spot no Ionger exhibits adherence.
2 HoLM [26] pp. 334 and 335.
3 R. HoLM [4] § 13 and R. HoLM [30] Fig. (16.02) for which the measurements
N-
Conf<rcf Ioad--
Fig. (9.02). Conductance 1/R of gold and silver contacts plotted against the Ioad fing = 0.01 N.
Hardness H lsilver) - 7 . to• NJm•. The reversible branches which have been run several times,
are marked wlth r
1~ ;2?~cp
Fig. (8.03). A 5 fl wire of platinum or gold
forms the loop. The Ioad is indicated by the
compression of the loop and can be calibrated
Sumpfe
in mg.
Fig. (9.05). Wlre loop The method was used, in 1954, by SAVAGE
probe method for testlng and FLOM [3] and SHOBERT [2] . It was im-
contact points at P of
the order of 1o-• N proved by CHAIKIN et al. [1]; cf. § 30 G.
Fig. (10.01). Parallel current llow Fig. (10.02). Model of F lg. (1.02) lllustratlng
the current flow lnto a slngle central a-spot
between two cyllnders
where two cylinders are held against each other as in Fig. (3.07), The
base, Aa, is the apparent contact surface with a relatively small con-
ducting area, A. , in its center. As in Fig. (1.02), the conducting con-
tact surface is replaced by an artifact consisting of a perfectly conduct-
ing sphere with radius b. The larger sphere in the figure has the same
radius, B, as the cylinders. We imagine a radial current to fl.ow out
through this sphere from b to B. In the surrounding body the lines of
fl.ow are assumed to be parallel to the axis of the cylinders as in Fig.
(10.01).
Let L1 be the inductance in the large sphere B according to the cur-
rent fl.ow of Fig. (10.01}, and let L 2 be the inductance of the correspond-
1 According to a communication by HANS BusCH to the author, not otherwise
ing sphere Bin the case of Fig. (10.02); then the increment of induct-
ance is L= L 2 - L1 . We may confine our calculations to the magnetic
fields generated by the flowlines within the spheres B, since the other
fields are identical in both cases. If W be the magnetic field energy
and I the current, we have with easily understandable indices1•
(10.03)
Thus the magnetic field intensity, H, in the mantle surface ofthat cone
at the distance r from the center is given by
2nrsin{}H({},r) =I({})
Hence
I {}
H =-tan-
2nr 2
(10.04)
where tto =- 1.257 . w-s Hyjm anrl tt is the relative permeability. Hence,
after inserting H from (10.04)
-2
B
w2 =4~~ojd r J n/4
1- COS2 <p d( cosm )
l
J2
--
n b 0 COB <p T J (10.05)
= 1.545tt10-7 (B- b) Hy
with Bandbin meters.
Oalculation of 2 W1 JI 2• Here it is convenient to imagine the B sphere
dissected into cylindrical sheets with radius x, thickness d x, and length
Here v is the frequency of the A-C and (! Q m the resistivity of the wire.
W e are concerned with the skin effect in a current constriction. For
computing its order of magnitude one may proceed as follows. Refer-
ring to Fig. (10.02) we consider two non-magnetic cylinders (radius
B m) connected by the infinitely conducting sphere with the radius
b m according to (1.02).
We imagine the volume between the spheres band B, of one contact
member, as being subdivided into concentric shells, each ofwhich (with
§ 11. Electrodynamic repulsion in a symmetric contact 55
::;2 [; 1~3.~~ + ! ]
Integrating through all shells we obtain an a- c resistance of
VeIn b + 4
:nb lfv B 1
2 ·101 (10.09)
!
1 3 Vf> 1 and
:os
In the case of 2 ~ ~ ~ 1 the skin effect in the constriction is
negligible.
The skin effect is counteracted by the repulsion which is treated in
§ 11, and is expressed by Eq. (11.04). This force is independent of the
frequency of the current, and even though it can compete with the skin
effect at small frequencies, it will be negligible at high frequencies.
J:r J
contoct plane B n/2
Fig. (11.02). The shaded
element has co-ordinates r,
Ir= P~~2 (1- cos#)sin#d#
e and dlmensions dr, r dll b 0
in the plane of the paper. where Ir is the total repulsive force between
A small extension perpen-
dicular to it may be lmag- the electrodes. The integration can easily be
ined; f = mechanical
force generated by the in-
carried out, and we find with Ir expressed in
teractlon of the magnetic newtons
fteld and the current ele-
B
ment dl dr; / 1 = compo-
nent of that force parallel
fr = 10-7 I2ln -b N (11.03)
to the cylinder axis
Eq. (11.03) is approximate. SNOWDON [2]
shows that within the limits of the approximation , one may put for
b, the radius a of the flat contact area; hence
fr = 10-7 12 In B
a
N (11.04)
(11.06)
I
The electrostatic attraction in the same contact is
r
f = eo U2r2j 2:n:xdx (x- a)2
1I
a 2 \X~ - a2)2 x2
a
= 5.35 . 10-12 U2 (: r N
' ___
\ I
3. In the intermediate space no ................
..,..",/
heat flows from one member to the
other because opposite points of the Fig. (13.01). Symmetry around contact
spots
members have the same tempera-
ture. See Fig. (13.01) where the thick lines, a, represent contact areas
and the dashed curve an isotherm.
The deduction is independent of the shape of A 0 which may be
coherent or consist of several contact spots.
Fig. (13.02) gives a qualitative picture referring to one contact
member, which for simplicity is considered as having a single contact
Notice: A condition for Eqs. (13.03) and (13.06) isthat no heat is accu-
mulating anywhere in the constriction, and the process has reached the
equilibrium state.
Eq. (13.06) is the general expression for the qJO-relation. Applied
to a clean contact with the total voltage U between the end surfaces
of a long constriction, thus the end surfaces at the potential ± U/2,
we have according to Eq. (13.06)
(13.07)
Often a suitable mean value (!A of (!A can be computed and then the
simple form lJ2
eJ8=- s (13.08)
can be used.
§ 13. The relationship between electric potential and temperature. . . 63
C. Justification of the assumption that the electrical and thermal
currents fl.ow in the same patlws, implying that any equipotential sur-
face also is isothermal: Consider the shell on the equipotential surface
A and try the assumption that it is isothermaL Let flow tubes be chosen
so as to cut out, from the shell, elements with the same electrical re-
sistance, dR, thus carrying the same current. These elements then,
also have equal thermal resistances, dRfgA.. Consequently the same
heat is produced in each. Begin with a shell between A 0 and a conse-
cutive surface A 1 . It is evident that A 1 is isothermaL Now applying
the deduction to the shell between A 1 and a consecutive A 2 one con-
cludes that A 2 is isothermaL Repeating the procedure one finds that
all equipotentials are isothermal, which means that the assumption is
reasonable. There is no reason to expect another solution.
Remark. Consider the condition when the heat flow has wider crose
sections than the electric current. When heat flows over the mantle
surface, for example, then, only a portion of the heat q;I reaches A;
l
consequently Eqs. (13.03) and (13.07) change to
J
e T8
giving hfa. For example with members of platinum and copper one
finds hfa = 0.593.
A consequence of this dissymmetry is that opposite points of the
members at the interspace between them no Ionger have equal tempe-
ratures. This disturbance is smaller between metals than it is in a
carbon-metal contact. This is treated in Oase C and it is found that the
dissymmetry in the carbon-metal contact causes an error in e of less
than 10%. In a metallic contact the error is much smaller, i.e., practi-
cally negligible.
The calculation of voltage and temperature differences in a bi-metal
contact is discussed in § 20.
Case C. Conta.ct between electrodes whose conductivities dilfer largely;
for instance, copper and graphite. The poor conductor is primarily re-
sponsible for the contact resistance, while the other, in this case copper,
plays the role of a perfectly good conductor. Therefore, with respect to
the graphite, the contact surface is approximately equipotential and
isothermaL It behaves as Ao in Fig. (13.02). However, the condition
that opposite points in the intermediate space have equal temperatures
is no Ionger satisfied.
Example. Consider the contact in one of the a-spots (radius a) be-
tween a carbon brush and a stationary copper ring. The thermal con-
ductivity in the brush may be Äb = 25 Wfm 0 K. We assume that the
5 Electric Contacts, 4th Ed.
66 Stationary Contacts
J J J
a ~ e
eÄdif = ~ cp2 - dcp atd# (14.10)
6 0 6
where
~ = f1t Ä.t = L T 1 (15.01)
L""' 2.4 · 10-s (VtK) 2 J
anode and cathode, and the condition for continuity of the electron
current through the ·contact is automatically satisfied by the pictures
of the equipotential surfaces in the electrodes. The voltage in the end
surface of either member may be called ± U.
Another simplification will be made with respect to the film. The
existence of a film causes an approach to Problem B in § 5 and it makes
the inhomogeneity ofthe current density within the contact area, A 0 ,
smaller than in a clean contact. The second simplification consists in
assuming U1, {}1 and the electric current density, J, tobe constant all
over the film. Then, the heat which fiows into the anode, is
I U1 - ).11J1A,. (15.02)
where the first term is the heat carried by the tunneling electrons and
the second term is the portion that fiows back to the cathode through
the' film. According to the assumption above, the heat fiow that is ex-
pressed by (15.02) has a constant density, i. e., it is proportional to J,
which is the condition for Eq. (14.04).
Evidently U1 - A,~A. plays the same part as Y in § 14. Thus,
applying Eq. (14.07) to the conditions in the anode we have
! U + (Ur- A,~A·) U
e+
fe).d{} = e).8+ = 2 (15.03)
0
The corresponding equation for the cathode is
rur-=e
). .Q
I -11,U1
Li, ).
(15.06)
Inserting in (15.05) gives
U1 U
f}f = (15.07)
1 n
II" 2U + u,
§ 16. The infiuence of the Joule heat on constriction resistances 71
or assuming U1 < 2 U = U, the total contact voltage, roughly
#r "., Uf_ ( 1 __
2le
!!!)
v (15.08)
eÄ e+ ! U + ; u, u + ! uj 1
"., 2
(15.09)
eÄ8_ "., ~ U + ; U U- ! Uj J
2
1
(15.10)
that is
(16.02)
d!Ji(lloÄo)
d!Ji(eA) = e
llo
(16.03)
= dq;(eoAo) = U (eoAo)
0
or, since R (el)f R (e0 ~) equals the ratio between the resistance R(8)
of the actual body at the respective current and its resistance R (0)
at small current, we have for a long bi-constriction
(16.04)
(16.06)
and obtain1
(16.07)
surfaces. In the special case of .A0 being an ellipse lt may be the para-
meter of Eq. (4.10). It is obvious that in general
R,.{eoÄu) IP{l'oÄu) (16.08)
R,.{el) = IP{el)
and by substituting in (16.07) we finally find
(16.09)
and
eoÄo=LPo
Substitution in Eq. (16.09) yields
Rp{l'oÄu)
-"-""'-"--.::.:. =
R,.(eA) VTlt-
Po
Tl
I VT&-
Te
d.T
PI
=
VT~- PI
T0 . T (16.11)
arccos-
Te
T
u = 2}/L vP~ - P~
Inserting this in (16.12) we obtain
Observing tha.t
9'((.JÄ) = VL(T~- T 2 ) =I
Rp (!? Ä) R~' (e J.)
The difference R' (e0 .f.o) - R~ (e0 .f.o) is the resistance R,_. (e0 Ä.o) in the actual
constriction when unheated. Hence, we finally have with Rl'(e0 Ä.o) and
Rl' (eA.) referring t.o t.he actual, not extended member
(16.21)
or
Rp (t?o Äo) = 1fL T o (arc cos .!.__ ·.- arc cos _Te] (16.22)
Rp(t?l) 'P(t?l) T, T.
where according to (16.19) and (16.20)
(16.26)
(16.27)
with corresponding changes of (16.22) and (16.24).
Example C. Integration ol Eq. (16.09) without using Wiedemann-
Franz law. This is valuable because some metals, nicke! for instance,
deviate considerably from this law. For non-metals the law is not valid
at all. The Integration is easily obtained1 with the assumption that
both members are of the same material with
el = eolo(1 + e1J)
and (16.28)
where the coefficients e and ß are regarded as constants and where the
index 0 refers to the temperature of the end-surface A •.
Note that {} is measured from the temperature of the end-surfaces,
thus e and ß may differ from the values given in standard tables.
According to Eq. (13.06)
e
cp~(1J)=2eolos/(! +D)dfJ=eoloe((! +8r -(! +DrJ (16.29)
(I
cp eo o - v-e V(-+9)-
( l ) - 1/eo'-of
1
(1+{J{})iJ{}
(I
2 (-+{}
1 )2
e e
--- !. + {}
=8 {J 1/eoÄoarccos-
8 - - + _f!__P(el)
V
-
e e 1 a 8
-+""
e
= 8 - fJ 1/lio'-oarctg
8 V e
VH- + ey- (-} + {}Y + i!__cp(el>
1 {} e
-+
e
Hence,
Wehave
(~r
and
= 2eoA.oe
1 As for the symbols R11 (eoÄo), R11 (el) eto., see § 16.
§ 17. Distribution of the temperature in a. symmetric constriction. . . 79
and by division
(17.01)
giving
(17.02)
whereR" (eoÄ.o)/ Roo (l!oÄ.o)is used to define the location in the constriction.
Disc·ussion of Fig. (17 .04). Eq.
lO
(17.01) is illustrated by curve 1 in ~
the figure . Its course is the same ~
for any e. Eq. (17.03) is illustra- ~
ted by curve 2, calculated for ~'<!
e = 1000° and To = 293 °K. ~as 2~
Although a considera bly !arge ~ ~
value of e has been chosen for '\
the calculation of curve 2, there is i'\
only a small deviation between 1\
curve 2 and curve 1. This indicates \
that in many cases fairly good com- 0 as 1.0
HpJ9o '-oJ/R<»(9o 'J-.oJ-
putations can be based on curve 1.
In case of a circular, flat con- Flg.(17.04). Curvel illustrates Eq. (1 7.0l)
and curve 2 Eq . (17.03)
tact surface with radius a, the
introduction of position co-ordinates is generally made by means of
(17.08)
where (eÄ)t that belongs to the film, is of the order of 10"' with o: > 1.
Even with a considerable Y, of for example 5 V, 0 - {}m is small. In
other words, the film is practically isothermal up to high Y-values.
This surprising conclusion results from the fact that the high value of
(eÄ) 1 is based on a high e that keeps the current and U very small; Ä is
of the order of 1 watt per m °K.
differences constitute the SEEBECK effect; see below. Now let a current
move electrons from B2 to B1 • These electrons evidently belong to
higher average niveaus than the average niveau in B 1 • In order to be
adapted to the average Ievel in B1 , they give off energy in the form of
heat. In other words, the electric po-
Negolife
tential energy is converted into heat at potenliol
the junction. An opposite current pro-
duces a corresponding cooling. This is
the PELTIER etfect.
In the case of metals, the distribution
of electrons on energy Ievels is of the
FERMI type, which complicates the picture
8oHon:
although the effects still resemble the
description above. However, in metals, Boliom ----"' - - -- '--L
both PELTIER and SEEBECK effects are
relatively weak because, owing to the
degenerated partitionl, the carriers Fig.(18.01). PELTIER effect. Equilib·
change their average energy very little rium between two semiconductors
B 1 and B2 where B, has a higher
with the temperature. electron density than B,. The den-
of electrons on any energy Ievel
It is evident from the foregoing that sltyls plotted as abscissa to the le!t !or
the PELTIER and SEEBECK effects are B 1 and to the right for B 2
related to each other. The relationship
shows up in the formulas (18.02)and (18.03) which refer to Fig. (18.04).
The conductors a and b of different materials constitute a circuit that
contains a voltmeter v8.
If the junctions are held at different temper-
atures T and T 1 °K with T > T 1 , the voltmeter indicates a SEEBECK
voltage that may be written
T Eba(T)- T 1Eba(T1 ) (18.02)
Eba is a slowly varying function of T and is called the differential
SEEBECK coefficient. It is termed positive when Eba is directed to move
a positive current from the lower temperature T 1 to the higher tem-
'perature T in the conductor a.
The PELTIER heat at a junction having a temperature T has the
amount
II T Eba ( T) I watt (18.03)
This junction is cooled when the SEEBECK voltage T Eba (T) tries to
move its own current in the direction of the circuit current2 I. With
respect to the PEL'I'IER effect, T Eba(T) is labeled Ilba(T) the PELTIER
coetficient.
The THOMSON etfect appears when the carriers are moved along a
temperature gradient within a conductor, if the distribution of carriers
1 See §II. 2[ cancome essentiallyfroma battery, notsketched inFig. (18.04).
6 Electric Contacts, 4th Ed·
82 Stationary Contacts
on energy levels varies with the temperature, i. e., the carriers have
heat capacity. In the shell between a section of the conductor at the
within the respective shell; see Eq. (14.08). The THOMSON coefficient
fit is positive when the carriers run in the direction of the current I,
viz., are holes (as in zink).
The THOMSON coefficient fit is zero when either the distribution of
carriers is independent of the temperature or when positive and nega-
tive carriers cancel their THOMSON effects. If this happens in both con-
ductors of Fig. (18.04) the differential SEEBECK coefficient Eba is in-
dependent ofT, cf. § 66B.
B. The problern of temperature distribution in the case of Peltier
heat in the contact. We will consider t.he condition that Eba =~ constant
which means (as said above) absence ofthe THOMSON effect. Regarding
the rough approximation
Conr/ucfor made below, we state that
it makes little difference
I
'I whether or not both PELTIER
and THOMSON effect are in-
lAe volved, which affects only the
I average distance the thermo-
I
I electric heat flows.
{/ Fig. (18.06) illustrates po-
Q sitions of niveau-surfaces
Fig. (18.06). Symbols for niveau surfaces around the contact between
the metallic members M and
M1 ; the latter being the poorer conductor. Symbols are marked on
the figure. The maximum temperature, 8, is located within the poor
conductor. On this niveau-surface the potential is put = 0.
§ 18. The (equilibrium) temperature distribution in the constriction... 83
Fig. (18.07) shows the temperature distribution in the contact
illustrated in (18.06) . Because both members obey WrEDEMANN-FRANZ-
law, the distribution is essentially symmetric around the hottest niveau-
surface. We assume that a PELTIER effect develops in the contact sur-
face at the rate of I T.E watt where I is the electric current and Tc the
actual temperature in the contact surface. E is the differential SEE-
BECK coefficient that, for sim-
plicity is regarded tobe independ- T
["K]
ent of the temperature. In the
Te
event of PELTIER heat consump-
tion, E is negative.
The thermal gradient is di-
rected from the contact surface
into the good conductor. The
total PELTIER heat therefore
0
ßows into M, constituting a I
thermal current that causes a 0 wll iJ
temperature increment Z at the Fig. (18.07). Temperature distribution in the
contact surface. This adds to the constriction of a contact between different
temperature produced by JoULE metals both obeylng WIEDEMANN-FRANZ law.
The symmetric parabolatype of the distribution
heat, whereby ls correct if no thermoelectric effect interferes.
The existence of a positive PELTIER effect lilts
Z =I (T.- T 0 ) E W (18.08) the contact and maximum temperatures to
higher niveaus, causiug a small dissymetry that
with W = the thermal resistance is neglected in the ftgure.
in the constriction M. Thus,
l
only T. - Z is produced by JOULE heat. The following equations1
result from the cr*-relation according to Eq. (13.12).
U2 = L (~ - T~)
V 2 = L(T~- T~) (18.09)
(V+ tp) 2 - V2 ,." L[(T.- Z) 2 - T~j
U = U + V + 'P + T.
( - T 0) E (18.10)
lJ'
W ""I L(T. + T 0 )/2
Hence
(18.13)
and
or
(18.15)
ve
supertemperature of about 8/2. Thus, the relative influence of the E-
term on U and R approaches zero as does. Since Eis of the order
of to-s VtK, we see that a measurement of the resistance of a bimetal-
lic contact is generally only slightly influenced by the PELTIER effect..
However, the additional temperature Z can reach the order of 10% of
the contact temperature Tc. Therefore, the PELTIER heat plays a part.
for resistance welding.
The contribution of the PELTIER effect in resistance welding was
first described by S. SCHOLZ [1]. He observed with gold-palladium
contacts a change of UfU0 of the same order as calculated in the above
§ 19. Temperature distribution in the constriction of a contact ... 85
l
2~ye 1 ~ AB
(9- {}) + 2~ + A v8 - () = 2~ + .a (19:06)
(~r = 2g1Ä.l 81
Further successively improved appro:ximations to V, (U- V),{} and
8 must be calculated until Eq. (19.05) is satisfied.
Example that has a bearing on Table. (27 .11 ). Assumptions: M con-
sists of nicke! with e = eo(1 + 0.004{}) where l.>o = 8 .1Q-SQ m, and
Ä = 80 m~K ; M1 consists of graphite with et = 9 · 10-6 n m and
Ä.1 = 40 m~K ; the contact temperature is near melting, i. e., {} = 1400°.
With the method described above one finds directly 8 = 1870°;
{} = 1400°; u = 1.16 V; V= 0.582 V; V' (e0 Äo) = 0.0155; V' (e.l.)
= 0.059. Fig. (19.01) shows the temperatures plotted against volt-
ages. The total voltage is U + V + V' = 1.8 V.
1 For the meaning of V'((), Ä) and '1'(1/oÄo) see § 16.
§ 20. Resistance-voltage characteristics of clean symmetric contacts 87
--
D H arereversible branches 2 •
In order to attain a t~ /
1This chapter is mainly based on R. HoLM [4], and R. HoLM and E. HOLM [5].
2 ÜHOUDHURI et al. [1] give good information applicable to Fig. (20.01) and its
discussion.
88 Stationary Contacts
sharp voltage limit, but rather a narrow range of the voltage that
corresponds to the temperature range ofrecrystallization. Wespeak of
this as the softening voltage . For copper, the softening voltage is about
0.12 V, with 8 = 180° as is indicated in Fig. (20.01).
After the softening drop, the characteristic rises again between D
and E. However, the slope is very seldom ideal, since some further
softening seems to be effective. In order to obtain the right resistance
it is also necessary to use fairly short current transients since creep
may cause resistance drop. Only with transients of about 2 seconds
was it possible to obtain the steep branch of curve II in Fig. (20.02)
that corresponds to D-Ein Fig. (20.01). For the soft gold in the same
figure , the transients obviously have not been short enough.
Notice that the curves of Fig. (20.02) and also those of Fig. (20.03)
were obtained with small loads that would produce only elastic de.
formation in a contact
afJS
with smooth surfaces. The Ohm
fact that nevertheless the
P- __... V
A""'o.
softening drop which is
always caused by plastic
*'9 I
~/
yielding, appeared , can be tfectn?{ytkl1~ nfcki:jJhteri Ni·~ /
explained by the manner
of preparing the rods. To P-tg I -o.
guarentee clean contacts,
the members were scraped
pvt't"j'g oltl
~ ~
~a~~-+---+--~--r---+--+--~~~--1
~
·~a~~~~~---h~---+--,_~~~r-_,
'
Fig. (20.03). R U-characteristics of a nicke! contact measured in vacuum, 10-• Torr. The upper
setwas measured with the temperature 220 •c in the bulk of the contact members; consequently
the slope of the reversible curve is comparatively small
the current since the hardness changes with the temperature. Actually,
the contact has been welded during stage F, and for this reason the
area remains cons.tant during the current variation. It is even possible
to obtain fairly good reversible characteristics when starting from a
contact temperature far below the melting point, for instance the dashed
curve D-H of Fig. (20.01). This is explained by the cold weld which
appears in every clean metallic contact; see § 29. Thus the contact of
the dashed line may also be regarded as welded, although it has not
been subjected to a temperature higher than the softening tempera-
ture. Such contacts are very sensitive to agitation because of the small-
ness of their load carrying areas. Extremely delicate experimenting is
necessary torecordreversible ideal characteristics.
§ 20. Resistance-voltage characteristics of clean symmetric contacts 91
During these tests the Ioad shall be constant. This requires that at
least one contact member is movable, so that it can approach the other
member during softening or melting in the contact. The current must
also be maintained1 for at least 1 ms in order to produce equilibrium.
E. Measurements of RU-characteristics. Figs. (20.02) and (20.03)
show measured R U-characteristics with reversible curves indicated
either by arrows to the left or in both directions. Every nieasurement
was made with a current transient of about 2 seconds. In that short
time creep in the nicke! was ineffective. Consequently, even a new
contact has a fairly ideal characteristic. Gold creeps more rapidly and
therefore shows initial and reversible characteristics with very different
slopes.
The lowcr curves of :fig. (20.03) illustrate reversible characteristics
commencing at different voltages. 'l'his does not appear to greatly in-
fluence their slope.
In Fig. (20.03), characteristics calculated according to (16.31) have
also been 'plotted and it is obvious that they are not quite parallel to
the measured curves. Very likely the reason for this is that (!, Ä., a. and
pwere not determined for the nicke! used. However, the variation ofa
with {} was taken into account.
In order to show an optimum agreement between measurement and
calculation, when (!, Ä., a. and p are exactly determined for the metal
used, we cite Table (20.04) taken from R. HoLM and STÖRMER [6]. The
calculations are made with Eq. (16.31) which enables the individual
variations of (! and Ä. to be considered.
}·~
1.42 1.83 2.22 2.62 2.96
R(eo~) welded contact
observedonanot per- reversible
R(eA)
ceivably adhering 1.42 1.83 2.24
R(eo~) contact
by means of diffusion. This may require more time than heating the constriction
in the member.
§ 21. Development of the temperature in a metallic current constriction 93
Table (21.01). Survey ofthe relevant literature, hereby briefly characteri?-ing the methods
and aims of the papers. The following Diagrams (21.04) to (21.06) account for the
information from all the papers
it can carry the Ioad and the current without further melting. The
heating reaches an equilibrium state characterized by a contact super-
temperature e
in accordance with Eq. (13.06), and a temperature
distribution on equipotential and isothermal surfaces in accordance
with Fig. (17.04).
During the initial heating, isotherms within the constriction(par-
ticularly those near the contact surface) deviate from equipoten-
tial surfaces and steadily change their form while in distances r, great
compared with the radins a of the contact area, any isotherm coincides
fairly well with an equipotential surface.
The initial calculations by R. HoLM for the case A, can not indicate
the particularly rapid increase of the temperature near the rim of the
contact area because they are based on the b-model where the current
density at the b-sphere is uniform and the equipotential surfaces remain
isotherms also during the initial heating period.
R. HoLM, nevertheless, used the b-model throughout the initial
calculations for all cases A, B, M and S. This means a great simpli-
1 b-model refers to the artifact in Fig. (1.02) with b = radius of the infinitely
great conducting sphere.
2 The solution is given in the form of a series without application to numerical
calculations.
3 Important for the treatment of temperature distribution around a moving
heat source (friction).
4 Gives HOLM's solutions in a handy form.
§ 21. Development of the temperature in a metallic current constriction 95
(21.03)
v-;
constriction. In Diagram (21.04) the curves for the contact surface
and its neighborhood (say for = 0, 0.5a, a, 2a) give only median
temperatures at different z, as long as z is relatively small. The iso-
v-;
therms in this region deviate considerably from the equipotential sur-
faces but very little 1 when z grows beyond 100. Curves for greater
than 2a may represent isotherms in cases when z > 10 . The case A 8
is included in Diagram (21.04).
1.0
- -
I--
v__....
A\,\1>~\\o;l).
/_,
V ?
lll'-" - r-
/ /
I zo. v
/ 3(1. I--
-
~.L
~ ""/
v_ f- --
/ / nsa. .....-
0
I/" :..-/
07 10
rr 100
z-
Flg. (21.04). Case A: Symmetrie contact heated by the current through the constrictlon
temperature rapidly in the beginning. That is why, atz < 2, the curve
for v;= 0.5a runs higher than the curve for = a which is the iso- -y;
therm that finally represents the hottest section .
1.0
I t stct;on - r-
--,__
I \\0~~
..~ 0.
~~~·
-~-
...-:17 vV
-
// ~0. /
_/ / ./
ov at
_"/
/ ~,.; V
.....
V
V
~
f-
10~ -
1 10 100 1000
z-
Fig. (21.05). Case B: Asymmetrie contact heated by the current through the constriction. One
member. has moderate conductivity and the other an inftnitely great conductivity
I /
I tiSllrfo&e
~r;.lf>C ::::;- -
4"~
/ f-f-
/ J!..
V V
~f-
-~--"
_,_.
0
1 10 1()0 1000
z-
Fig. (21.06). Case S: Semi-inftnite body at rest wlth a clrcular heat source
8 = al (21.07)
Diagram (21.06) starts at z ""' 0.04 where the value {) (0, t)/8 is
already considerably great. For smaller z, the following approximation
is recommended
D~t) = 1.6 (z- 2.24z (21.09)
Case (A and S) for very small z-values. Diagram (21.10) shows
{) (p,, t)/8 as a function of z for very small z-values. The lower curve
v;
is a continuation of the curve for
= 0 in Fig. (21.04). The two
upper curves are such continu-
t a~ ations concerning Fig. (21.06).
General remark. The Diagrams
Q:, aJ r--- - - t--7''--
~ (21.04), (21.05}, (21.06) and (21.10)
~ provide a handy method to solve
~~~-+--t~--r--1--~ many typical problems on the devel-
opment of the temperature in con-
tacts without the need for calcula-
tions other than these of a, 8 and
ato ms 010
z. As said above, the curves for the
z- contact surface are calculated di-
Flg. (21.1 0). Concerns cases (A and S)
rectlyfor a ßat circular area whereas
for very small z-values the curve for interior niveau-sur-
faces have been initially calculated
with the artifact of Fig. (1.02) and then geometrically corrected. They
have not been published before with their present accuracy.
1 See JAEGER [1] Eq. (31).
§ 21. Development of the temperature in a metallic current constriction 99
08
tz11/.1!·1 i
/ '\ ".......,
\
"
coo/Z?. ·/031G "z. v
1/ __\
1/ /' \ J.1C
'\
/ I \ 02 1\ ~
\ \ 31.C
01 /
"', '\.i
1--·-..l
01
&or fronf
I ~ 0
-z -1 0 1 z
-1 0
r/tL -
1 r/« -r/ra -
Fig. (21.11 ). Temperature distributlon in the Fig. (21.12). As Flg. (21.11) but referring to a
symmetry section wlthln and around a square reetangular heat sourcc moving in the direction
heat souree moving with the veloelty 11 on of its major extension. The diagram remains
a semi-inftnlte body. The dlagramm remalns unehanged when referred to an elllptic source
unchanged when referred to a clreular souree, with y1 = 10 except that the factor 1.1 mu~t
except that the faetor 1.1 must be omltted be omltted in the ordinate which then reads
11(1") II (r, t)
in the ordlnate whieh then reads a q/ i /(y). aq/i.. The reetangle is 10 times Ionger
than wide
perature is shifted toward t.he rear end of the contact. The calculat.ion
of such figures must be made by aid of graphical int.egration and is very
time consuming. Fairly good computations of the maximum tempera-
ture in the moving heat source can be made by application of Diagram
(21.06). The principle is to compare the heating in the source with the
transient heating of a stationary contact. Due to the motion the heat
source covers successively new points of its trail, and any point is con-
tacted only a limited time, t (v), where v refers to the sliding speed v.
The average contact time with a circular source is
- :n; a
t(v) =-- (21.13)
2 "
It is plausible that t (v) plays a similar part for the maximum tem-
perature in the moving contact as does the heating timet for a station-
ary contact. Diagram (21.06) should then give {}v (0, t) with the abscissa
z(v)
Ä.-
= ca 2 t(v) = 2
1t
cav
Ä.
(21.14)
7*
100 Stationary Contacts
o.<o. t.>
cav
e
z(v) according to
2Ä
Diagram (21.06) together
with Eq. (21.14) Figs. (21.11) and (21.12)
1 RHODIN investigated the oxide growth on different crystal faces and found
a rate about 3 times larger on 100-faces than on 111-faces. Table (22.03) contains
averages from all faces.
2 Concerning copper, VERNON [1] reports that copper which was exposed to
clean air at room temperature acquired an almost transparent tarnish that was
considerably protective. However, if unfilmed copper was exposed to air contain-
ing as little as one part in 35. 1()8 of H2S the tarnish was not protective.
.....
0
~
Table (22.03). Number of chemisorbed atomic layers of oxygen1 on initially clean melallic polycrystalline surfaces after exposure to air
the time t. Within brackest are references to the Iist above. Room temperature. All data are averages
1-2 h 6.0 (c1 ) 2.0 {e1) 2.0 (a2 ) 2.0 (d.) 2.5 (a4 ) 3.0 (a 4 )
f
2 days 1 (a 1 ) 2.0 (a 1 )
10.0 (c1 ) 2.0 (c1 ) :to (a4 ) 3.5 (a4 )
3.5 (e2 )
et al. [1].
110 Stationary Contacts
Pd 400 to 870 °C
Rh 600 to 1200 oc
Pt 900 to 1200 oc
oxides are stable only within relatively narrow temperature limits; see
Table (23.03) which is based on KEIL [8]. As to palladium see also
ÜHASTON [1].
Certain oxides are volatile at the higher limit.
§ 23. Growth of visible oxide films on metals at moderate to high temperature 113
.g 7tr'
7frG
0 soo
Fig. (23.04). Oxygen equilibrium pressure plotted against temperature for the following processes
2 Ag 2 0 +=:± 4Ag + Oz 2 Cu,O +=:± 4 Cu +02
4 CuO +=:± 2 Cu,O +01 2 NiO +=± 2 Ni +0 2
metals in normal atmosphere. Taking into account both the temper-
ature and the oxygen pressure, Fig. (23 .04) gives useful information.
The calculations were made using Eq. (23 .05)
F = - 4.58 T log p (23.05)
p. 122.
8 Electric Contacts, 4th Ed.
114 Stationary Contacts
about 1700 °K. It deposits around the arc spot, whereas the arc spot.
itself is covered only by a thin porous relatively easily fritted dark
oxide. The dark oxide results also from oxidation of the bot bridges
formed between the members in separating contacts. Wolframcarbide
(WC) behaves similarly, perhaps more favorably as regards conduction.
It is of importance in contacts whether or not the generated oxide
is a powder and consequently can be easily removed; e. g., the oxide
of very pure iron appears in contacts as a powder under circumstances
where a solid oxide would develop on commercially pure iron.
The degree to which the oxidation of metals is disturbant for contact
applications does not depend solely on the proneness of the meta! to
oxidize, but also on how easily the oxide is mechanically damaged in
the contact.
1 Other investigations of an early date are cited in BowDEN and THROSSEL [5]
2 Cf. R. HoLM [J) §§ 15 and 16; [4] § 13; [7].
3 Cf. EvANS, Corrosion Handbook p. 5, also Evans [2].
4 See for instance v. HIPPEL [J] p. 152.
8*
116 Stationary Contacts
on the delivery of agents for the chemical process involved; for example
upon the delivery of oxygen as a cathodic stimulator.
It is not necessary that these electrodes be of different metals. Pure
metallic spots on an iron surface can serve as anodes with other spots
covered with oxide or containing exceptionally large amounts of carbon
serving as cathodes. A water film must be present for carrying the cur-
rent between the different spots. Such a current-producing combination
is called a local cell. The current in the water is carried by positive iron
ions starting from the anode and by negative OH ions running in the
opposite direction. If many of them were to meet at the anode, thereby
forming a protecting film, all spots would soon become cathodic and
the current would cease. However, it happens that the iron and OH
ions meet between the electrodes and combine to form a hydroxide
with a spongy structure which is deposited as rust. The anodic spots
remain clean and continue to loose ions i. e., to corrode, and the hygro-
scopic rust aids the maintenance of the water film, the electrolyte.
This process works much more rapidly than the growth ofthe oxide
film described in § 22. That is why rusting is so detrimental.
The action of local cells is dependent on the presence of a water film
that is sufficiently thick and continuous to conduct electricity. It has
been found that rusting does not proceed at relative humidities1 below
70 to 80% because the waterfilm then is either too thin or not conti-
nuous. It is known that hygroscopic dust particles promote the for-
mation of local cells.
Sulphur dioxide in the air is a stimulator of rusting activity that
can increase its rate by powers often; seeVERNON [3], Fig. 6.
DIETRICH et al. [6], [7], using C14 as a tracer of the amount of depo-
sit, confirm essentially the results of HERMANCE and EGAN, although
their contacts supposedly did not rub. They found that alloying Pd
with 55% Ag diminshes the deposit by 90% .
Further investigations on " frictional polymer" formation have been
carried out particularly by ÜHAIKIN [1], [2], [3]. He states that the
formation also proceeds without friction, but very slowly. He found
Tetraethyl-lead (TEL) mixed into the benzene to be a promising in-
hibitor of the process. Cf. § 32. An informative survey of relay contam-
inants is given in LISH [1].
Recently, CHAIKIN claimed1 the use of vapors from compounds of
iodine and particularly of lower hydrocarbyl iodides as inhibitors of fric-
tional polymerization.
E.l ---0\--~
assumptions. This situation leaves its
marking on the following treatment.
__I Fermi I~Yel We are concerned particularly with
Plofet -s-=- flolet the current density of the tunneling elec-
Flg. (26.01). Potentlai hlll in the trons. To begin wit h, we elucidat e funda-
narrow gap (wldth B) between t wo mental aspects of the theory with refer-
plates of the same meta!
ence to Figs. (26.01) and (26.04). Imagine
two pieces of the same metal with their perfectly plane surfaces a
.small distance s apart. The interspace can be vacuum or a film.
Fig. (26.01) illustrates potentials within and between the metal
pieces. The FERMI Ievels coincide since no voltage is applied. The bound-
ary barriers at the surface of each metal extend into the interspace
1 United Sta.tes Patent 3 238 352 of March 1, 1966.
§ 26. Tunnel effect 119
and superpose. They form a potential hill whose height would be equal
to the work function (/> for a great width s, but is lower than (/> when s
is sosmallthat the barriers interfere to a finite amount with each other.
The height of the hill in any distance x from the left body is cp. We im-
agine an electron (mass m) moving to the right in metal1 and approach-
ing the barrier with the velocity component vx. We attempt to visual-
ize what will happen to it when it reaches the boundary. We denote
the component energy ~ mv! in mks units by eEx, where e coulomb
is the charge of an electron and Ex is measured in volts,
(26.02)
If Ex is larger than the height of the potential hill the electron will
jump over the hill and enter metal 2: thermionic emission. If Ex is
lower than the crest of the potential hill, classical physics precludes
finding the· electron in the interspace and predicts reflection with
certainty. The quantum theory informs us otherwise. The SCHRÖDINGER
function, 'lfJ, has finite values in the interspace even though the hill is
higher than Ex. This tells that there is a certain probability for the
electron to penetrate into the hill. Within the hill "P decreases with
approach to metal2 and finally, one gets the probability D (Ex) for find-
ing the electron in metal 2. D(Ea) is called the transmission coetficient,
and a well known approximate expression1 for it is
J
8
has the effect that these electrons have a relatively easy tunneling
through a low hill, namely the hill above their own Ievel.
B. General results in the case of room temperature and less.
For type I, SoMMERFELD and BETHE [1] Eq. (21.18), and also
HoLM and KIRSCHSTEIN [19] and [20] approached the rounded off hill
by means of a parabola. It is evident from Fig. (26.01) that this can
be a good approximation in case of a smalls. HoLM and KIRSCHSTEIN
used a differently defined parabola that better approximated the po-
tential hill. This resulted iri a correction of J by about a power of 10.
In case of a great 8 the hill assumes a skew shape as in Fig. (26.04).
Evidently this cannot be approximated by a parabola. Calculations
which have been made with parabolas make a too high when 8 is great.
Calculations of type II were first carried out by R. HoLM [35] and
later repeated and extended by SIMMONS [1] and [2] with deletion of
a certain term that HoLM had introduced in order to achieve consistency
with the formula for V ---+ 0 by SoMMERFELD and BETHE. This means
~onsistency with the deduction of Eq. (26.07) which we regard as more
reliable than any other formula presented for small 8. The respective
term becomes negligible for V> 0.5 V.
HoLM's essential calculations of type II belong to clas8 A with
er= 1, and adaptation to the imageforcewas achieved by a graphical
approximation. SIMMONS tried an algebraic method for a (8, (/J, er, V)
even for the case witb (/J1 =F (/)2 , but his formulas have deficiencies. They
do not approach a1(ifJ, X) correctly when e, = 1, andin case of small 8
they even make J negative.
Other calculations of a (8, (/J, e,., V) with comparison to experiments
have been published by FISHER and GIAEVER [1], STRATTON [1],
MEYERHOFER and OcHs [1], HARTMAN and ÜHIVIAN [3], and HART-
MAN [2]. A special category concerning the field effect will be treated
at the end of this chapter.
The published experiment8 on the tunnel effect through contact
films belong to two di8tinct group8: 1. concerning films with a thick-
ness of the order of 5 to 10 A; 2. concerning films 20 to 50 A thick.
The initial observations by HoLM and MEISSNER1 belong to group 1.
So do several other studies of films that are highly penetrable for the
tunnel effect and therefore are of practical interest. Of course, it is
desirable to test the tunnel effect on films with a uniform thickness
that can be measured. It is not possible to accurately d~ this with the
very thin layers. Aluminum oxide (AlPs) films on Al have been re-
garded as fairly uniform, and the thickness of AlPs in an AI-AI 20s-AI
sandwich could be measured by determination of the capacity between
the Al-electrodes. Therefore several experiments were carried out with
1 HoLM and MEISSNER [10] and [13]; R. HoLM [9].
§ 26. Tunnel effect 123
such sandwiches. The film thickness of group 2 is a consequence of the
fact that Al20 3 films stop to grow after reaching a thickness of about
50 A, as we learned in § 23.
Eq. (26.07) of ('lass B for a at V ---+ 0 was given by R. HoLM and
KIRSCHSTEIN1 with 8 in A, <P in e V and s,. = relative permittivity
. V .
hmy = a(8, <P, s"O) = - 2-. tABeABQcm2
V=O
t0-22
+
A2 l
with (26.07)
A = 7.32 ·10 5 ( 8 - $)
72
and B = 1.265 ·10- 6 V
<P- :~I
To cite other formulas by different investigators would exceed the
scope of this book; they are all more complicated than (26.07). It may
suffice to recommend Eq. (26.07)
for small 8, and Eqs. (48) to (50) of ~~----.---,----r--~8
QmZ
SIMMONS fl] for 8 > 15A.
On Fig. (26.08) the four upmost
curves are calculated using SIMMON's
formulas, the curves for 8 = 5 A and
the lower ones for 8 = 10A are ac-
cording to Eq. (26.07) and R. HoLM
[37] Fig. (III, 21). Intermediate
curves represent averages of differ-
ent calculations. The curves on Fig. -2
(26.08) are solid up to voltages at
which the film certainly would break -f
down. The dashed continuations of
the solid lines merely represent cal- -C
culations.
C. Details of Observations on the -8
tunnel effect at room and lower
temperature. -10
In 1928, GAMOW, GuRNEY and
CoNDON simultaneously explained -72
the a-radio activity as tunneling of
a-particles through the barrier of -100 -1'1
3 ~ V s
nuclei. The same year FoWLER anfi
Fig. (26.08). Tunnel resistivity a 11 plotted
N ORDHEIM 2 calculated the field against the voltage V across the film in a
emission as tunneling of electrons. metallic contact. Values of ~ and s are in-
dicated as parameters. Calculatlons of
In 1931, FRENKEL [1] propounded class II
the idea that the tunnel effect would appear across minute con-
tact gaps. However, a quantitative observation of this effect was first
made, in 1931 and 1932, by HoLM and MEISSNER1 and interpreted by
R. HoLM [9]. Because of the fundamental importance of these mea-
surements for the contact theory, they will be discussed to some
extent 2 • ·
(26.09)
±
temperature (subindex l) 4.2 or 20.4 °K indicated by *
I Contact Contact
resistance
Constriction
resistance
Film
resistance
Contact
Ioad
p
R,
I
R, er
2ar
I ·PI
2a1
a,
na:
I nafa,
g 10-• n 10-13 n m2
Au-Au 1.15 74 88 22;20 0.32;0.17 52; 54 88 I 4.6;5.71 3.7; 8
Au-Au 11 14.2 14.4 7.0 0.08 7.2 14.3 6.1 5.8
Au-Au 35 5.8 1.8 3.94 0.045 1.86 1.75 5.0 2.3
Au-Au 400 1.44 0.73* 1.16 0.014 0.28 0.72 8.6 10.6
Cu-Cu 35 94 610 7 0.45 87 610 4.6 23
Ni-Ni 35 199 305 45;36 20 154; 163 285 54; !)2 53
It was also stated that a for gold was independent of the contact
voltage U within the limit.s 10-5 < U < 0.018 V anrl for nicke]- and
copper contacts within the limits 10-3 < U < 0.035 V.
D. Evalution of film thickness, based on measured a, for the case
of small s. For his initial calculations HoLM assumed that the thin film
merely kept the contact members apart, electrically acting as a vacuum
gap. This certainly is not far from being so concerning the work func-
tion <P. A chemisorbed film does not diminsih </J as a solid semiconduc-
tor does when contacting the meta!. It rather increases <P or does not
change it. However, it seems incorrect to put the relative permittivity
er = 1 as it is for vacuum. The thin film certainly is able to make e,.
greater than 1.
Applying Eq. (26.07) with s = 5A = the thickness of a double
monofilm, </J = 5e V, e, = 3, we find a = 4 . 10- 12 Q m 2 in good agree-
ment with the data for copper and nicke! in Table (26.10). The smaller
a-value for gold is expected because on gold the film in the contact
may not be quite uniform but covering only some portions.
Because true surfaces are uneven one could expect a strongly vary-
ing thickness of the film. Actually the surfaces in contact will have
been weil adapted to each other by virtue of the repeated number of
contact closures in nearly the same spot (crossed rod contacts); and the
126 Stationary Contacts
film, which here is too thin and also too strongly bound to the metal for
flowing away at contact make, will define an interspace of modera-
tely uniform thickness.
It was important that the investigations by HOLM and MEISSNER
were completed by showing that the active film could be alternatively
evaporated at elevated temperaturein vacuum and redeposited. This
was done by WENT [ 1], [2] and particularly by KISLIUK [2]. They work-
ed with the hard metals molybdenum and wolfram which provide very
small contact areas and therefore dominating tunnel resistances at a
temperature as high as 78 °K. KISLIUK observed a a of a few 10-14 n m 2
after exposing a clean metal to one torr-minute oxygen at room tem-
perature; with increased exposure time a slowly increased. To remove
such a film within one minute required 1700 ° K. It is not probable
that a continuous film can generate assmall a aaswas measured. Cf. § 6.
E. Observations on tunneling at room temperature through rela-
tively thick films, 25 A and more. In 1952 I. DIETRICH(4) studied the
10
Q
I
V" ßi -
10
I
tot tJ1 I'
tJ ~'0:3
I I
1(JS
V' I
I
1()3
; I/
v;
1()2
tr' 11'
JI/ / ~ ~
11
lT /: y V !
~
I/
l•
lU
1fT'
I
'
II
0 20 ltO GO 80 1J() 1ZIJ 1'10 A 1GO
8-
Fig. (26.11). Dependence of the contact resistance n and the tnnnel restßtivity an m• on the ftlm
thickness s. Curve I ( x )with average values; curve II ( 0 ) with maximum values; curve 111 cal·
culated with resistlvity proper, r!f, of the film material; r!t "." 10' Cl m
that surmounts a certain strength. This is valid also for the field that
t.he current itself generates, which is stronger the narrower the current
path.
Let us consider an example: A lead-tin contact 1 that became super-
conducting at 1.2 °K, had at 4 °K a resistance that would require a
contact radins of 6 · 10-7 m tobe explained as a constriction resistance.
According to SILSBEE's formula, this is 1/4 of that necessary for a
superconduction that endures its own magnetic field with the current
used (I = 0.59 A). Thus, the current of the superconducting Iead-tin
contact flowed at least partly across the contact film which at 4° was
responsible for most of the resistance.
Twenty years passed without anything added to the introductory
observations by HoLM and MEISSNER. Then, in 1952, DIETRICH [4]
reported superconduction in sandwiches [Ta-Ti02-Ta] and [Ta-Ce02-
Ta] with a film thickness of 15 to 40 A; and, in 1958 and 1960, HANS
MEISSNER [l] and [2] published the discovery that sandwiches [Sn-
M-Sn] (where M stands foranot superconducting metallic film of the
metals Cu, Ag, Au, Pt plated on one superconducting member) could
be superconducting with a thickness of the plating up to 3500 A for
Cu, Ag, Au, and 750 A for Pt. Even ferromagnetic metal films, if
thinner than 200 A seemed to be penetrable for the tunneling super-
conducting electrons. DIETRICH and MEISSNER report on critical cur-
rents and temperatures also.
GIAEVER [1], also together with J. C. FISHER [1], made another dis-
covery on contacts of great value for the theory of superconductivity.
The samples consisted of a thin insulator layer sandwiched between
metal sheets which were kept at a temperature where the metal was
in the superconducting state. An applied voltage could produce a
tunneling current only when it surmounted a certain voltage of the
order of m V. The explanation for this behavior is based on the fact
(previously known) that an energy gap exists around the FERMI-level
of any superconductor. The superconducting electrons can tunnel only
if they are lifted on one side so that they can flow above the gap. The
width of the energy gap and the distribution of electrons near the
FERMI-level could be determined. Devices which use the tunneling be-
tween dissimilar mcmben; and display a negative dynamic resistance
(as EsAKI's tunnel diode does) have been suggested.
These discoveries about the penetration of superconducting electrons
into different materials and over the energy gap at the FERMI-level
are of fundamental interest for the presently very flourishing theory
of superconduction but lie beyond the scope of this book 2 •
1 Cf. R. HOLM [37] p. 129.
2 Readable surveys: E. HARTMANN [2], DIETRICH [9].
9 Electric Oontacts. 4th Ed.
130 Stationary Contacts
E x (E)
~
0 1.0000 10 11
z
0.05 0.9948 ~ Alm'
" \.""-
0.1 0.9817 "'-.. 10 70
0.15 0.9622 ~ r---_ ~~?(
0.2 0.9370 ....;,;..
'
0.25 0.9068 I
0.3 0.8718 ~
0.35
0.4
0.8323
0.7888 z ~ ~
0.45 0.7413 ~
0.5 0.6900
10 ~
0.55 0.6351
0.6 0.5768 &
0.65 0.5152 z ~
0.7
0.75
0.4504
0.3825 -~
0.8 0.3117 1 z J t A.V 5
0.85 0.2379 1/X-
0.9 0.1613 Fig. (26.14). Computed current denslty J veraus recipro·
0.95 0.0820 cal fteld 1/X at various temperature for tl> = 4.5 eV
1 0
The term exp ( -11600 VJT) is usually negligible compared with unity.
1 Fig. (26.14) is Fig. 3, p. 191 in Goon and MüLLER [1]. About the significance
of Fig. (26.14) for the theory of the arc, see §VIII and IX.
2 See BRAUN and BuscH [1], Drr..woRTH [1] and R. HoLM [35].
,r-:::
at V= 0.4 to 0.5 V, a trait that
i"-..J may be caused by the approxima-
Q~
1(/ fl)
. tions involved. Therefore, the ini-
Q· cm~
~ tialhorizontal portions of the curves
.. ""'-... r"\.
"'
~'0' have been indicated by the solid
Iines, justified since an ohrnie region
G "<. ~
11 of a according to these lines has been
'\ stated experimentally by A.BRAUN
and BuscH [1].
10
, '
i\ S•2flA
1 J. Tunnel current across a gap
.. ·· -...._J
..........
\ that surrounds a metallic contact
10 2
b-_~ 10 -t consisting of a circular spot with
......... s-1(}1. the radins a. The gapwill be narrow
enough in some environment
.JV around the contact spot as to enable
a tunnel current to flow across it.
Fig. (26.17). Due to R. HOLM [35]. Tunnel
resistivity, a, plotted agalnst the voltage This current adds to the current
across the film of an insulating material in through the conducting contact
a contact between semiconductlng members
spot. In order to calculate the addi-
tional current we must estimate the thickness of the interspace. The
estimation will always be crude, and therefore rough computations will
do .
As an example, imagine a sphere with radius r 0 contacting a plane
in a spot of radius a. Within the contact plane in the distance r from
thc center of the spot the gap is
8 ( r) = r_2_-_a_2 = (,__r_+_a=--)_,_(r_-_a_:_)
2r0 2 r0
or, since it turns out that r values to be considered differ from a only
slightly
a
s(r)""-(r-a) (26.18)
ro
u (r) = u 12
:re
vr- a
a
J JV:o
00 00
ds
exp (- 2s)-
(a
(26.19)
0
Hence
I ru
.....!.. :5: 2.25 • 105 .JL n (26.22)
I. - 8 a <::"
;;~8·10• 6
showing that here the tunnel current through a gap around the contact
spot is completely negligible.
The circumstances may be morefavorable for tunneling in case of
a nominally :fl.at contact. With the reasonable assumption of humps
with the radius 1 cm = 108 A and a = 104 A, we obtain
4-:- = 0.0225
on Electric Contact,ij ~ov. 1961, Univ. of Maine; seealso E. HoLM [15] and E . HOLM
[14].
138 Stationary Contacts
and
- 1/2
F - -- u 1.6 .1()-19 -- 1·45 ' 1o--15 -u N"/IOn (27.04)
n Va v2.5 . 1Q-9 Va
Examples: 1. With a channel width of 2a = 1000 A, and U = 0.8V
(as it well can be an instance during the fritting action) we find
spot; i. e., decreasing and again inereasing the current below the value
it bad at the end of the A-fritting. The characteristic shows a positive,
metallic temperature coefficient cx. After B-fritting, starting from exist-
ing a-spots, R U-characteristics with a positive temperature coefficient
cx are also measured. However cx may be relatively small indicating
some contamination on the spot; see for example Fig. (27 .13). E. HoLM
had indications of films remaining in the spot. after A- and B-frittings;
cf. Section J.
F. Observations on A-fritting. A thorough study of the initial pro-
cess of fritting has to be made with a large series resistance R,. Typical
measurements 1 carried out on copper oxide films with R. :::::: 108 n are
shown in Fig. (27.07). The crossed
rod contact (each rod 3 mm dia-
meter) was formed between copper
-- 0 carrying the tarnish film (thickness
I
""""'-
8 \
~
several100 A) and soft gold. With
the copperrod as anode, Ris essen-
s \ tially constant at small voltages.
t
)\ [\ With increasing current, R may de-
crease by apower of ten until frit-
v· ) ting sets in. This is indicated by a
s C· / sudden drop of film resistance and
.f"O voltage, as is marked by the branch
C. The branch begins at a point
(1.8 V; 5 . 105 Q) when the voltage
s ! is still increasing. Sometimes one
1 succeeds in following the characte-
1 ristic t.hrough a maximum (at
~a()f o.tJt a<!l' at tu as f t s V f() a bout 3 V in the figure) and fritt-
l<'ig, (27 .07). R U -characterlstlcs of a crossrod ing appears first when the voltage
meta! contact (copper agalnst gold) witb a
film, llnaUy subjected to A·frltting. Hard· has begun to decrease with further
ness of Cu-rod was 5 · 10• NJm' and tbat increase of current; see brauch D.
of Au 1.6 · 10• Nirn'. P = 3.2 · w-a N
Up to ariy point before fritting
sets in, the characteristic is rever-
sible within 10 to 20% of the resist.ance. Certainly, the voltage drop
along the reversible A is caused by tunneling between the metal and
the conductive band in the oxide; cf. Section B, and Fig. (26.23) where
the forbidden gap width L1 has to be replaced by the work function (/Je
of Fig. (33.01). The drop can not be caused by a temperature effect,
since no high temperature appears in the undamaged film. This is dis-
cussed in§ 17, Example C.
1 R. HoLM [29] Fig. (23.01).
§ 27. Fritting of tarnish films 141
With the parent copper as cathode, the dashed Iine B was measured.
This is near the Iine A for which copper was anode. Thus, rectification
is insignificant in such a relatively thin film as investigated here. The
branch C in Fig. (27.07) demonstrates t.hat A-fritting starts at Ur
= 1.8 V and R = 5 · 105 with a series resist.ance R, about 108 Q. When
the process has ceased, R has dropperl t.o 5700 Q and U to about 0.3 V
~~ Uh. It. is essentially a constriction voltage. R would have been di-
minished still more in t.he ennt. of a smaller R,.
Fig. (27.08) summarizes in a statistical fashion observations of the
fritting valtage U F at many different point.s of a nickeloxide film I about
1250 A t.hick. The nicke} rod
carrying the oxidewas crossed I •
with a soft gold rod, both of fi!SOA
colors; see R. HoLMet al. [8]. This method has not always been employed with
accurate estimation of the reflecting power of nicke!, an error that was avoided in
this paper. In order to increase the accuracy the calibration was controlled with a
NiO film on glass (obtained by completely oxidizing a nicke! deposit) once ~ith
the NiO film uncovered and another time with the same NiO film covered by a
nicke! film sputtered on it. Exactly the same thickness was found without and with
the sputtered film, of course with different colors.
142 Stationary Contacts
higher and the lower accumulation regions are plotted against film
thickness. The points arrange themselves along straight lines through
the origin, indicating that the field strength is decisive for the frit-
ting. With the upper line in Fig. (27.09) is associated a fritting field
of XF = 1.42. 108 Vfm and with the lower line a field of 1.1 . 108 V jm.
~-------.-------.------~-----,-------,
~"
"00
Load Film Fritting Frit·
No.
Tar·
nish g:;.:
·~" bearing
area
resistance voltage
Film
new Polar·
ting
field Remarks
ftlm or old ity
8 Ab Rf UF XF
A 10-,.m• 10• n V 108 V/m
1 cu.o• 680 - - 4.05 - - 0.6
2 940 2.5 - 5.45 - - 0.58
3 " 240 2.5 4 2.5 new Cu+ 1.0 graphiteascount<r
" electrode
4 240 2.5 4 4.1 new Cu- 1.6 do.
5 " 940 2.5 7 5.5 new Cu- 0.58 do.
6 " 1480 2.5 (12) 4.2 new Cu+ - do.
"
7
"
1110 2.5 0.5 ± 0.3 3 ± 2 new Ag- - Cu 2 0 deposited on
Ag
8 NiO 125 3.3 1.6 1.5 old Ni± 1.2
9
"
275 3.3 - 4 old - 1.45
10 300 3.3 (5) 3 to 6 old Ni± 1.5
11 " 1250 3.3 10 to 50 17.5 old Ni± 1.4
"
12 1250 3.3 - 13 new Ni± 1.05
13 " 2400 3.3 50 to 100 33 old Ni± 1.38
"
14 cu.o• 450 1.5 5.5 - new Cu± in air, 20 °C
15
"
450 1.5 6 - new Cu± after 1 day in
vacunm at 20 oc
16
"
450 1.5 250 - new Cu± after heating
50 hrs. at 150 oc
in vacuum
17 450 1.5 6.2 - new Cu± again in air, 20 'C
18 NiO 1250 3.3 6 17 old - in dry air, 20 oc
19
"
1250 3.3 20003 34 old - 2.7 in vacuum at
18 °C to 100 oc
after heating
at 300 oc
20
"
1250 3.3 0,073 1.1 old - in vacuum at300'C
1 The greater part of the data of this table are taken from figures and tables in
R. HoLMet al. [8]. The rest are based on other measurements in Siemens' research
laboratory.
2 Cf. critics on p. 142.
3 Cf. HOLM and collab. [8] Table (5j).
144 Stationary Contacts
Table (27.10) summarizes not only fritting voltages but also obser-
vations on film resistances R1 before fritting showing their dependence
on the film thickness. The NiO films were generated by heating the
metal in air at high temperatures; the Cu 20 films were prepared1 elec-
trolytically. The thickness of the NiO filmswas determined by means
of interference colors 2 and that of the Cu 20 films by means of a titration
method after dissolving the film in a suitable liquid. The Ioad bearing
areas of the contact are greater than according to Eq. (7.01) because
they are partly produced by elastic deformation.
The R,-values recorded in Table (27.10) are denoted as normal since
they belong to a clear group of most frequently appearing readings.
Markedly small breakdown voltages are noted and explained in
Section J.
We revert the discussion to some phenomena that are exemplified
by Table (27.10). Heating the film in vacuum deprives it of excessive
oxygen that is, of acceptors3 (see Appendix Il). This manifests itself in
an increased resistivity, cf. nos. 16 and 19. Heating also seems to in-
crease Xp, cf. no. 19. But, according to tests in the Stackpole Labo-
ratory, simply varying the temperature of NiO in dry air between
- 150 and about 100 oc affects XF very little. If there is an increase at
the low temperature, compared with room temperature, it certainly
is below 20%. In vacuum, beyond 100 to 200 °C, Up and thus Xp be-
gins to drop rapidly with rising temperature, see no. 20.
The humidity ofthe air seems to have no infl.uence on XF. The con-
tact duration affects X F, though not to that extent as is indicated in
Fig. (6r) of HoLM at el. [8]. It may suffice to say that one finds Xp
lower the Ionger the duration of the contact. Possibly, this is an effect
of fatigue by vibrations, since Xp is sensitive to mechanical stress. If
both contact members possess tarnish films the fritting Yoltage, UF,
usually corresponds to the entire film thickness.
Film resistance. Calculating 12 = R1Abfs and XF= Upfs with data
from Table (27.10) one finds that the evalues have a much !arger spread
than the X 11 values. This possibly means that fields from space charges
interfered with the measurements of R1, which were carried out at
small voltages; and that the same fields could not noticeably have
affected the much stronger fritting fields.
Fritting with alternating current. When applying alternating current
to thin films, it was found4 that at frequencies of 500 up to 106 Hz the
rms fritting voltages agree with the corresponding values for direct
cnrrent. At low frequencies of, for instance, 50 Hz the crest voltages
1 Prepared by R. STÖRMEB. 2 Cf. footnote p. 143.
3 Cu 20 and NiO are p-conductors.
~ HoLM, R. et al. [8] § 6.
§ 27. Fritting of tarnish films 145
of the a. c. agree with the d. c. fritting voltages. Evidently the duration
near the maximum suffices for the fritting process. Notice that the de-
scribed fritting with alternating current is without overvoltages. How-
ever, with more rapidly increasing tension overvoltages may be em-
ployed and then fritt.ing may proceed in microseconds or less.
Oessation voltages at A-fritting. Table (27.11) is the basis for the-
statement (Section B) that with NiO-films the cessation voltage can
approach U1 • Correspondingly the cessation temperature in the con-
tact surface of an Ni-NiO-C contact approaches the melting point of
Ni. This is indicated by the contact voltage approaching the value of
1.8 as is calculated in the example of § 19.
Table (27.11)1. fJesaation voltagea UA. Direct currenf witk matrix nickel anodic
.R, = aeriea reaiatance
Contact I Ni against
NO on Ni
I Graphite against
NiO on Ni
Au agalnst NiO on Ni
""
Nfion at a contact tem-
perature of 130 to 300 °C. zo I'>
Surpassing 0.17 V with a c['"_
more metallic a-spot on 70
~
the same rod and under s
the same conditions as for
curve I exhibits an addi- z I
tional resistance drop, in 1
the voltage range of 0.19 P- ZG.7g ~
to 0.27 V at about 500 oc
when the material within
L~ ""-- ~
the constriction softens. 7 )..
This is marked U8 on the 1 -
figure. Softening will surely h
enlarge the contact area;
probably only the smaller o.oz
Scroped u
Jl,
areas on elevations1 (5 to P-1.1g _.o,
OJJ1
10 of them) can obtain an
average pressure equal to 0.00'S - -- - '
the respective hardness. ~/
O.fXJ.'Z
Thus even lapping with -:.", t1" 10G3'J
of Eqs. (4.15) and (1,2). With hardness = 19 . 108 N/m 2 and modulus of elasticity
= 20. 101 0 Nfm 2 one finds r tobe about 10-3m.
148 Stationary Contacts
1
2
I
'i..Ue
J.
I US N.I
.
L.
05 crossed
~
~~
Ot
......,-·"" r:;--~ ..u.u.
-· /~
---- / ::?
][
r - - -·
01
tooo·c
I
700
I
~ 300
I
JOO"C
00!
001 0.0! 005 01 0.2 05 V 1
u-
Fig. (27.14). R U-curves, due to E. HOLM, private communication, with nicket rods (0.32 cm dla·
.m eter) lapped with flnest diamond paste. P ""'0.12 N. Curve l i is transferred from a U I-oscillo·
gram taken with quickly varied current I.
AB = 2 a1 and DE = a2
(27.16)
10
,,MJinxAg~l I ~ ~~
~ Sulfitfer/ Ag IJS cleon Ag
erate, forming electronically
conducting bridging filaments
from electrode to electrode.
,
70 w This is evidently what hap-
I / pens when the matrix rod is
3 / anodic. The matrix rod is
able to deliver ions into the
t I'
/I
/ film that has grown on it,
but the clean silver rod, when
1
j {jht
~
I ......_
used as anode, is unable to
give off ions to the film on
~
;~ p the other rod, at least not in
'?> a sufficient number for the
10 0
.~ r'
effect described.
7 ;-:-r IF
u
~
10 G
Ag ~ w
~ ........ Sulfided s11rer usgrophile
I
t
~g l!l """-<
IJU/
I
J
~~~
I .
1/
, ~u;;
~~
~
10 ' ~ "::;
~
01 1 V 10
ll-
Fig. (27.19). Due to E. HOLM [15]. Typical R U-curves between crossed rods, one sulftded silver,
the other clean graphite. The dashed curve is calculated (Eqs. [19.02] to [19.06]) in accordance with
the temperature coefftclent of the resistivity of the graphite'.
duct by a tunnel effect. We know from Fig. (26.08) that the tunnel
resistance, a, increases with decreasing voltage. Later increase of the
current beyond the cessation value leads to B-frittings apparently
without affecting the respective thin film in the contact.
Fig. (27.19) refers to the same sulfided silver rod as was used for
Fig. (27.18). Butthis time a counter electrode of graphite is used1 • By
this change, neither the fritting voltages u;. and Uj;. nor the cessation
ature and about 2.6. 10-5 n m at the elevated temperatures; heat conduction
~ "" 27 wattfm °K which probably decreases to 16 wattfm °K at high tempera-
tures; hardness H = 1.8. 108 Nfm 2 and modulus of elasticity E = 52. 108 Nfm 2•
152 Stationary Contacts
voltage 1 U~ are affected. The only difference is that the cessation volt-
age Uh, after A-fritting is high, namely about 2 V. This is simply the
consequence of the graphite member taking over the greater part of
the contact voltage; cf. the example in § 19. Again, the reversible in-
dicates a thin film remaining in the-a-spot produced by A-fritting.
Contrary to this, with Ag+, a fairly ciean final contact seems to be pro-
duced. The straight line indicates that the contact is not heated.
Evidently the matrix rod alone is responsible for the difference
between u-p and U"F which are independent of the material in the
counter electrode. This was stated with different materials in the latter
electrode.
The nominally flat contact between a graphite brush and a silver
ring behaves quite in accordance to Fig. (27.19). This has a bearing
on the theory of the brush-ring contact, treated in § 42.
The contact between polished copper rods, one clean and the other
one carrying an oxide tarnish shows qualitatively similar effects as
described above, only this time, the ration U"FfU"F is about 3 instead
of about 100.
Remarkl. The portionoftheR U-curves in Figs. (27.18) and (27.19)
until the breakdown occurs is reversible. The conduction seems to be
carried for both polarities by electrons tunneling at low temperatures
from the metal into the conducting band ofthe semiconductor whereby
the resistance, R, decreases with increasing voltage. This is similar to
the reversible portion (A) in Fig. (27.07). Cf. the remark made there
about a low temperature within the undamaged film.
Remark I I. It is significant for the correct judgement of the phe-
nomena described in this section, that films of 50 to 400 A, or even
several 1000 A thick do not have sufficient semiconducting bulk to
deliver the carriers for a rectification effect; cf. text following Eqs.
(33.02) and (33.03) about their validity for rectification. Furthermore,
U. B. THOMAS[2] and E. HOLM[15] observed that a current reversal does
not at once show the effect characteristic for the reversed polarity while
a rectification process is instantaneous. Fig. 5 in E. HoLM [15] shows
that the respective effect on current reversal needs about 1/3 sec to
be produced. This is a clear indication that here semiconducting recti-
fication is not essentially involved.
1 The fact that U h with Ag+ is the same whether the counterrod is of silver or
graphite makes it apparent that the metal diffuses into tlte graphite making the
constriction resistance small.
§ 28. Adherence in dry contacts which arenot heated... 153
y
or no reason for the shear-
01. ing and sliding to proceed
Vmale
in a surface different from
the initial contact surface.
V I~
V
The adhesion wear is small,
but wear by virtue of inter-
Au /"( locking may occur.
~oSn Cu
W e shall pursue these
so ideas into numerical details .
In Fig. (28.02), the vapori-
~~ zation heat, r, in calories
0 s 10 TS ZIJ ·tJBNfm• t.f
per mole (i. e., the total
Ball intlenlulion hortlness ofonniJQ/td put: melul bond strength) is plotted
Fig. (28.02). Relation between vaporization heat and against ball indentation
hardness of annealed metals
hardness of annealed met-
als. Notice that the ball
indentation hardness actually measures shearing strength, although
it is directly observed as the average pressure in the indentation; cf. §I.
One reads from Fig. (28.02) that the hardness of the annealed meta!
is roughly proportional to that part of the vaporization heat which
adds to the vaporization heat of the softest metals. As remarked above,
1 Plasticity and hardness of metals are known as effects of dislocations; see § I.
(28.03)
Cf. § 70 C and D.
B. Experimental verifi.cation. Relevant experiments on friction and
wear will be treated in § 36. A thorough investigation of how a cold
weid in a soft metal contact depends on the temperature seems to be
missing; but an informative demonstration was made long ago by
1 It seems that the force with which the contacts are pressed together plays a
minor part for the strength. Cf. the discussion about experiments by HOLM and
KIRSCHSTEIN in § 37.
2 See the end of § I E.
a If free valences are not present, the development of the covalent bonds seems
to depend on activation energies of the order of 1 eV. See, for example, ERDMANN·
JESNrrZER [J].
156 Stationary Contacts
in air. For examples of cold welds in contacts just scraped and observed
in air, see Fig. (9.02).
Elastic peeling of cold welds. It is an old experience that the ad-
herence against lifting a contact apart is smaller than expected from
comparison with the shear strength of the contact, i. e., with friction.
Therefore, many earlier investigators did not even believe in the ex-
istence of cold welds. The inconsistency is due to the interference of
elastic forces. An instructive example of how these forces act is ob-
tained from the ball indentation test.
Compare Fig. (28.06) with Fig. (I,10). A hard ball has been pressed
by the load P against a flat member into the position ABC. After re-
moval of the ball the indentation would
recover to ADC if adhesion were absent:
ABC DA represents the elastic deforma-
tion that canied the load. If the surface
had been clean, a cold weld would have
been produ0ed in the entire indentation Fig. (28 .06). A ball having been in·
dented to ABC by the Ioad P, is
ABC. Butwhen theload is removed,elastic released from P so as to be lifted.
forces interfere with the adherence in the The bottom of the indentation re-
covers to A D C whereby the ball
weld. Fig. (28.06) demonstrates a moment adheres only to EDF
during the lifting of the ball. In the region
near the rim of the indentation, elastic tension has prevented material
of the flat member to follow the ball through the gap designed. In the
middle region, EDF, adhering material has been lifted to a small
deviation from A D C. Then the corresponding small elastic counter-
forces have not been able to peel the weld. The observed weld strength
corresponds to the final small area E DF. In hard metals the elastic
forces usually dominate over those in the cold weld and the adherence
is too small tobe observed. The very soft indium represents the other
extreme. It may adhere to the indenter with a force that is stronger
than its own elastic reaction, and the weld strength corresponds to the
total indentation; cf. BowDEN and TABOR [4] p. 306ff. In addition:
In the case of a soft flat member, the radius of ADC differs relatively
little from the radins of the indenter. This means that the peeling force
is weak. This has been calculated by McFARLANE and TABOR [1]
p. 231ff, K. L. JoHNSON [1] , and particularly BowDEN and TABOR [12]
p. 93ff.
There has been speculation on whether a weld between different metals
depertds on their mutual solubility. MACHLIN and YANKEE [1] report
that iron and silver do not solidphase weld. However, in their experi-
ments, the friction coefficient f was below 1 in all cases. This indicates
the presence of physi- or chemisorbed films. A more extensive explora-
tion of the weldability of various metals with iron has been reported
158 Stationary Contacts
in summary by RoACH and GooDZEIT [2]. They claim that for a metal
t.o form a good bearing against iron, i. e., to seize only a little, it is
required that their atomic diameters differ greatly. The idea is that
relatively few atoms in the contact will have mutualpositionsfav orable
for adhesion. However, one has to wait for a more complete report on
the experiments before taking a stand with respect to this theory.
C. Location of the weid break. So far, the discussion has been con-
ducted as if the weid would break in the initial contact surface. This is
Fig. (28.07). Due to E. RABINOWICZ [2). Autoradiographs ol copper surlace alter indentation by
radioactive copper hemisphere under a Ioad of 100 A. (a) Clean. Mctal transfer ~ 6 · l o-a N.
(b) Burface covered with cetane. Metal transfer = w-u N (exposures have been adjusted to give
equal intensities of balckening)
Material
I Fe Cu IBrass I Ag
Iw Pt
I Au wc Ag onPt Pt on WC
Adherence
begins at 0.10 0.35 0.60 0.25
uoil 0.35 0.10 0.35 0.24 0.60 0.40 0.060 1.0 0.30 0.70to0.90
the softer member can touch the harder one; that is, the contact volt-
age must attain the value U8 of the harder member1 • Silver on plati-
num adheres when the softening temperature of platinum, 530 °C, or
[l, = 0.25 V is reached. The contact of platinum on wolfram carbide
adheres at the softening temperature of tungsten carbide, 1000 to
1-500 °C.
Table III in BowDEN and TABOR [12] p. 100 shows that the onset
of strong adhesion between thoroughly clean metallic members in air
occurs between 0.4 T 1 and 0.5 T 1 (°K) where T 1 is the melting point
of the metal. This is the temperature of strong softening.
Gontact adherence after the melting point has been reached or nearly
reached in the contact surface has been inv€stigated by E. HoLM and
R. HoLM [7], and MAu [1]. Before discussing MAu's results we present
a theory for the event that 1) the melting temperature has been reached
in the contact; 2) the contact has had the possibility to adapt its area
to the current assuming a temperature only slightly less than the melt-
ing point. This surely is an idealized picture since in reality the contact
adapts its area to a temperature that often lies considerably below the
melting point.
In order to produce the melting temperature in the contact, the
current must exceed a certain limit I(P) that is determined by the
quality of the metal and the initial contact area which in its turn
depends on the load P. Thus, we assume that when the melting point
is reached, the material yields and the contact members are free to follow
the yield until the contact area A becomes sufficiently large to conduct
the current in the solidified state, that is, without being heated beyond
a limit slightly below the melting point. We denote the ultimate area
by A (I) since, evidently, it is a function of I alone. The role of the load
Pis largely to move the movable contact member in the moment when
melting occurs. To meet this purpose, it is required that P be larger
than the electromagnetic repulsion according to Eq. (11.04). If P cor-
responds to this requirement, its exact value is of little importance,
since the molten metal does not resist any pressure.
I The softening temperature appears in the hottest section of this member,
which is just as e:lfective for the yield as softening in the contact surface; cf. § 18.
11 Electric Contacts, 4th Ed.
162 Stationary Contacts
Z = ! HA(I) (29.04)
(29.05)
while MAU used the pulse of one single half cycle. However, in case
the repulsion force was weil below the Ioad and the current high
enough, a reasonable confirmation of Eq. (29.05) was obtained by the
HoLMS (using silver contacts) and by MAu (using copper contacts).
Taking into account the shortness of time for the high voltage, one
calculates that only about 90% of the melting temperature was reached.
p I Weidstrengtbin N
N A measured I accord. to (29.05)
4.5 2000 4 5.1
11.2 3000 8 11.3
18.0 3360 0 14.0
~' ig. (29.07). Due to MAU [J]. l!'ig. (29.08). Two plates, b, b,
Weid strength as a function of tbe mecbanicalload P to be welded are pressed be·
(in N); amplitude Im= 7270 A tween the electrodes E, E
the contact area became large enough to endure thc current, as seen
from the resistance, the adhesion was small; namely, if expressed as
percentage of the value given by Eq. (29.05)
for Ni steel Mo w
about 35 10 4 3%
Fig. (29.07) is due to MAu. It demonstrates that the weld becomes
weak when either the repulsion approaches the Ioad P or, at relatively
n•
164 Stationary Contacts
high load, the current is unable to heat the total area to melting during
the pulse. The observation is typical for variation of P at a constant
current.
Resistance welding1 is the only deliberate welding method with high
temperature that is related to the contact theory as it is treated in this
book. For details ofthe methods, we refer to Welding Handbook 2 chap-
ter 30. We add interesting conclusions from application of the <pD-rela-
tion and ofFig. (21.04). A typical arrangement is shown in Fig. (29.08)
where b, b are the plates to be welded together and E, E the water-
cooled electrodes which produce pressure and conduct the current.
They are softer than the plates in order to provide good contact.
In the beginning there is metallic contact only in very small spots,
giving a contact resistance favorable for rapid luiating. Mter a milli-
second, the resistance in the weld-surface will have reached its mini-
mum. Further heating is required in order to obtain the greatest ten-
sile strength of the weld.
During the whole welding process the original contact spot remains
the warmest section, not only because it offers the greatest resistance
in the circuit, but still more because this section is most distant from
the cooled electrodes.
The high temperature entails a high resistivity that is favorable for
concentration of the heating to the weld.
Table (29.09). Spot-welding of rnetal plates
Amplitude of contact voltage U V
I
Contact Amplitude
Welding Ioad of current
contact between electrode
N and plate between tile plates A
Fe plates
Al plates
700
700
0.7
0.3
0.3
0.1
I 5000
13000
A thorough calculation of the temperature distribution is obstructed
because no temperature equilibrium is reached during welding. There
is also insuf:ficient space for long constrictions to develop. Therefore,
the temperature cannot be computed from the voltage using the <p{}-
relation. Typical a. c. amplitudes of voltages during welding are given
in 'l'able (29.09).
for the plating. Good platings showed a greater tensik ;-;tl"ength than
the basicmetals Aland Ag.
When "permanent contacts" are constructed so that they do not
breathe, their life is practically infinite. RICHTER ancl ScHADE [2] ob-
served that clamped Al-contacts which were good the first year re-
r
mained fit for use 20 years more, at least. MASON 1] computes that
Bell Telephone's wrapped contacts will well have a life of 40 years. His
conclusion is supported by MILLS [1].
A remark about plastic flow in a nominally flat contact. If the con-
tact members approach perfect smoothness, plastic flow would require
a pressure about equal to the yield point in the total area. The much
smaller apparent pressure applied in practice would not be able to rup-
ture the tarnish film. That normal a-spots with metallic portions
develop is due to the actual waviness and asperity of the surfaces.
Fig. 5 in WILLIAMSON [2] illustrates this fact by showing that low con-
tact resistances (little varying with the roughness) appear at rough-
ness amplitudes above 0.5 [LID; but with smoother surfaces, tarnish films
remain because the resistance rapidly increases with decreasing rough-
ness amplitude. One sees that very smooth contacts can be unwelcome.
Metallic contact members can be adapted to each other by repeated
make and break of the contact, without current, and in the same posi-
tion. This results in flattening the surfaces. At further contact make,
the members meet in points with a relatively small curvature, and the
contact spots may be produced by merely elastic yielding. In this state,
their films endure the deformation without rupturing; they add their
resistance to the constriction resistance and are able to prevent any weid.
A note on the elfect ofthe thickness of alien films in the formation of
fissures. Fissures probably appear as easily in thick alien films as in thin
ones provided the basic metal yield plastically. Does this imply that the
thickness of the film has no influence on the final contact resistance? The
most elementary experience contradicts this supposition. It is self-evi-
dent that a good contact is not seenred by fissures alone. but that metal
from the members must be squeezed into the fissures. This surely is more
difficult, the thicker the film. In very thick films, the fissures are merely
channels into which only air can enter, promoting further oxidation.
C. Separable contacts of high mechanicalload. Plug-socket contacts
often have visible oxide films which would insulate if undamaged at
make. The actual conduction is produced either by mechanical rupture
of the film at closure or by fritting. The available voltage of 100 V or
more guarentees frittings. The final adaptation ofthe a-spots may leave
the contact voltage at the order of 0.1 V. The contact is correspond-
ingly heated rendering the socket warm to the touch. This, however,
can be tolerated.
§ 30. About stationary contacts in practice 167
Terminal contacts of ammeters, etc. must have sma1J resistances ,
i. e., their contacts must have metallic or quasi-metallic a-spots in
both members. The clamps are made of brass and are usually slightly
greased in order to prevent oxidation . A Ioad of several hundred
Newtons is reached; cf. Table (30.03). This Ioad and a twist secure a
sufficiently small resistance between clamp and copper wire.
Plug and socket connections in 'Telephone Selectors with a load of
.1 to 3 N and voltages of the order of 5 V provide insufficient means to
break tarnish films. Palladium plated, they function satisfactory; cf.
Section E.
D. Resistance measurements of clamped contacts 1 with force produced
by a scrcw. The contact between a conducting wire and a tPrminal screw
is suitably i.nvestigated in a cricuit sketch-
ed in Fig. (30.01) in which the resistance
of the wireisnot contained in the measured I
resistance. Asufficiently exact calculation -----l
of the screw pressure can be made accord- '--~-'
ing to Eq. (30.02). M in Nm denotes the
torque, h m the pitch and 2 r m the diameter Fig.(30.01). Wiring diagram for mea-
suring the cont.a ct resistance be-
ofthe thread 2 and / 1 and / 2 the coefficients tween a wire and a terminal screw
of friction in the thread and screw head
respectively. In one revolution, the torque does the work 2nM which
suffices for: 1. The displacement h m of the head (equal to the com-
pression of the wire) corresponding to the work hP, where Pis the
contact Ioad; 2. the work of friction in the thread of about 2nr1 P f1 ;
and 3. the friction work between the head and the compressed wire
2nr2 Pf2 , where r1 and r 2 are average values of the axial distance of
the contact spots at the thread and head respectively. The contact load
in both the thread and the wire is assumed to be constant during
one twist. If during this time P varies, one may consider a sufficiently
small part of one turn whereby the factor introduced finally cancels.
Since r1 is somewhat smaller, and r 2 somewhat greater than the radius
of the screw, say r 1 = rf1.1 and r 2 = 1.1 r, we finally obtain
where now H may refer to member I. Tlw particle can not prevent thc
contact at A1 when the load Pis great enough to satisfy (30.07).
We conclude from this discussion that a partide with the cross
seetion AP is likely to cause open contact if
p < APH l
but will not be able to do it if ~ (30.0S)
P>APII J
Fig. 7 in WILLIAMSON et al. [1] shows that Eq. (30.07) is essentially
true. In practice ll is of the order of 109 N jm2 and dust particlesl have
AP between the limits 2 · 10- 12 and 2 . 10-lo m 2, corresponding to about
Ag I 1 3 20 3
Cu 10 I 100 >1000 10
Ni 10 100 200 15
w I 3000 I 5000 6000
1 The epilamen was manufactured in the organic laboratory of Siemens & Halske
A. G. Berlin, Germany.
§ 30. About stationary contacts in practice 175
With an epilamen formed of stearic acid, a resistance increase
similar to that noted for epilamen-covered contacts after 1/2 year in
Table (30.10) appeared within 2 months.Thus different lubricants have
different protecting power. This has been stated also by ÜHIARENZELLI
et al. [l] operating with thin lubricating films. Whether they were
monomolecular or not was not discussed. These authors found a mix-
ture of paraffin and syntetic oil to be a promising protector. They made
the tests with sliding contacts.
I. Contacts in measuring apparatus 1 • In this context, it will be
appropriate to mention lever resistance contacts (Kur belkontakte) and
wire rheostats, although they have certain qualities which would motiv-
ate their treatment in Part III of this book. For obvious reasons the
resistance material can not be of noble metals. The good conduction
in the contact has to be secured by the slider scratching the tarnish
film, if the device is used in air without a protecting lubricant. If a very
low contact resistance is required, greasing is recommended. Lubri-
cation should be renewed once a month because the grea;se deteriorates
in the air; perhaps partly because of catalytic action of the metal.
The wear of such contacts is of interest. Typical data are given in
Table (30.11).
Table (30.11). Typical numbers for sliding contacts in measuring apparatus. Both
wear, expressed by 2 Z, and hardness Hin 10 8 Nfm 2 refer to the softer member
Rotary switch I p R
z
slider 1 stationary contact 1 N to-a a
Bronze or silver Brass or silver
H=8 H= 10 10 0.3 0.8 greased
11 = 8 H= 10 10 0.3 16 dry
Wire rheostat
slider 1 wire
h = (7 + 400v) (31.05)
Since one centimeter is about the conventional thickness for bus-bars
we assume this dimension for y. Inserting into Eq. (31.04), J = 1000 A,
(! = 1.8 . 10- 8 Q m, valid for copper, y = 10- 2 m, {}1 = 35°, and with
v = 0, one obtains
b = 0.061 m = 6.1 cm
This is the order of magnitude adopted in practice.
1 Cf. e. g. Handbuch der Experimentalphysik, Bd. IX, Teil I, p. 311, Leipzig
1929.
1:.! Elertric Contacts, 4th Ed.
178 Stationary Contacts
{} (x)--
1 RJ2
e
V
-X
'2h
:;;:-
Y
2 - 2 V2hAb2y
{} (0) = 1 RJ2
2 2 V2kAb 2 y
The quantity {}2 (0) was assumed to be 35°, and inserting the other
. 1 va1ues an d 11.,
numeriCa =
380
m watt
oK , t h e va 1ue c~or copper, we ob ta~n
.
R = 3.1 · 10- 5 Q
(31.06) gives
(1000 R) 2 = 8 · 3.8 · 1.8 ·10-6 • 87.6 Q 2
thus
R = 6.9 · 10-5 Q
1 Breathing is described in § 22 G.
12*
180 Sta.tionary Conta.cts
f' 'J.
conilensel'
fööoooo· choke
=t
.Fig. (32o02)o Wiring diagram for a micropbonc Figo (32o03)o Wiring diagram for a mlcrophoue
circult with local battery circuit with central station battery
lying about a power of ten above that for baked carbon in Figo (8001)0
In order to assess the energy that the rnicrophone delivers to the
eornmunication circuit (electrie Ioad) we discuss Figso (32002) and
(32003)0
Microj>hone circuits belong mainly to two types illustrated in .Figso
(32002) and (32o03) where R is the microphone resistance and R 1 the
Ioad resistanceo The terminal voltage across the microphone may be U,
182 Stationary Contacts
I=~E~ (32.04)
Rz+ R
is superposed by the audio current with the amplit.ude
LJRE
LI I= (Rz+ Rf (32.05)
1 R ( A I) 2 _ 1 J2 Rz ( R) 2
(R 1 + R)2
A
2 1 LJ - 2 LI
1 The figure refers to the same numerical assumptions as have been used for
Fig. (11,22).
2 The lifted FERllfi Ievel is not marked on Fig. (33.01)
§ 33. Contact with semiconductors. Rectification. Static electrification 187
I
tf1egolive
polef11i'al
so as to canse atoms of the electrodes
t.o diffuse into the silicon lattice,
I wherey the aluminum atoms become
acceptors and the antimony atoms be-
come donors.
D. The silicon controlled rectifler
SCR (in German: Silizium-Strom-
tor) has 4 differently doped layers
p-n-p-n. The first three constitute a
t.ransistor. The last p-layer is con-
Ä nected to the metallic gate Iead . The
'
p- comluclol' n.-comluclol' voltage applied to it has a triggering
effect, so that the device can serve as
Fig. (33.04). Potential distrlbut.ion
around a p-n-junctlon an on and off switch beside being a
rectifer. The trigger current of 50 mA
applied for only a few microseconds may initiate conduction for any
current from a few mA to hundreds of amperes . The SCR is a kind
of solid state equivalent of thyratrons.
Table (33.05). Properties of important rectifiers1
ReetHier type Se·contact Si-junction
turers: General Electric, Westinghouse, Internat. Rectif. Corp., etc., also Siemens
ZS, vol. 36 (April1962) 211 ff.
§ 33. Contact with semiconductors. Rectification. Static electrification 189
1 See§ 13.
"BRAUN and Busen [1]; JoNES, ScoTT and SILLARS (1]; E. HoL.l\1 (6].
3 See LoEB [3].
190 Stationary Contacts
The discs appear flat; but, surely, the waviness of the surfaces is a
condition for the variation of the contact resistance in accordance ·with
the Ioad. Dust within the pile must be avoided because it would change
the resistance.
Metal powder at high pressure1 • Imagine the powder pressed by
means of a punch in a cylindrical hole. With rising hydrostatic pressure,
p, the contact areas become !arger, disturbing films are damaged and
the conductivity of the powder increases. This effect usually is partly
compensated for by the breaking of the grains into pieces, thus in-
creasing the number of contact spots in series. At high pressure, the
contact spots will have dimensions of the same order as the cross-
section of the grains. This consequently does not provide enough
volume for long constrictions 2 • ThusEqs. (4.15), (8.07) and (8.08) are no
Ionger valid.
In view ofthe complications arising from the varying size and shape
of the grains, the following computations will be sufficient. As the
simplest case we imagine clean spherical grains (average diameter D)
and apply Problem A of § 4, designating b the radins ofinlet and outlet
contact. In accordance with Eq. (!,17), we suppose b ~ l/pfH. Eq. (4.07)
.
g1ves th e res1s
. t ance m . R = e (b-
. one gram, 1
n
D1 ) wh ereg1s
· th . .
. eresistiV·
ity of the grain; we find the resistance per cm 3 of the powder to be
o
-P
= const [AVIi- _.!._]
p D
= const VH [1- -
p
1
AD
Ii-~]
V H
where A is a constant and the index p refers to powder. The last term
of the expression within brackets is very small. Thus
r
rising p the conducting areas increase at a greater rate than the Ioad-
hearing areas, say proportional to (~ where 1/2 < 8 < 1' instead of
1 The numerical data of this section are given by SKAUPY and KANTORO·
WlCZ [1], HoLM et al. [8] and [29], KANTOROWICZ [1], BRUNNER and HAMMER-
SCHMID [1]. Earlier investigations are cited in these papers.
2 .As for Iong and short constrictions see end of § 4.
192 Stationary Contacts
where / 2 (p) is a small quantity of the same order as fdP) . In fact Eq.
(34.01) expresses the results of KANTOROWICZ [1], and of BRUNNERand
HAMMERSCHMID [1].
Mter having varied the contact load repeatedly between a high
and a low Iimit, KANTOROWICZ found an increase of resistance of the
powder, which was prob-
Table (34.02). ably caused by breathingl
Ratio of resiativitiea of powder and Bolid material8
of the contacts, i. e.,
in relation to tke kardnea8 Hof tke Bolid material.
D designates average diameter of the grains oxidation of contact areas
to which the air had free
B D
Material 10• Ntmt access during the period of
low pressure and which
Fe 185 14 25 remained covered by oxide
Ni 18 to 150 16 30
layers at the renewed large
Cu 90 6 20
Ag 7 2.5 10 pressure. At decreasing
Sn 1.1 0.3 10 pressure a hysteresis of
Sb 10 to 25 2.5 100 the resistance was obser-
w 114 to 420 20 5 ved. It is explained by
Pt 100 7.5 2
Au 7 to 12 2.5 8 adherence in metal con-
Pb 1.7 to 3 0.3 10 tact points, which was
Bi 8 0.5 50 discussed in connection
Graphite 3.2 1.5 8 with Fig. (8.12). Without
citing further examples, it
seems likely that other observed details can be explained by the
contact theory expounded in this book.
Table (34.02) compares the resistivities (!p of powders with the re-
sistivities e. of the solid metals.
There is an evident parallelism between the colums (!p/(! 8 and H.
Certain deviations are easily explained. The e11 /e, values for Fe, Cu, Sb,
and W have been somewhat increased by oxide films. The platinum
powder had very small grains and therefore relatively large resistivity.
The reason for the relatively small (!p/(!, values for silver and gold is,
of course, the absence of oxide films.
1 See §22G.
Part li
Thermal Contacts
FRIED [2], Fig. 6.1 lower curve, stainless steel; Fig. 6.3 average, alu-
minum.
RüGERS [1], Fig. 3 upper curve, aluminum.
SHLYKOV et al. [1], Fig. 4 curve 2, stainless steel; Fig. 5, duraluminum.
STURSTAD [1], Fig. 27, stainless steel; copper; aluminum.
"
~
lO · Gair = 25 W t K. Thus, a ...::: ~
......
fluid in the gap will dominate
the heat conductance. However,
the effect of the air can be made
1Q-l
I ~
' 1-
P= JJt
2r f
whcn the screw has the diameter 2.2 r m and I is the friction coefficient
between screw and nut. A normal value for I on a screw that still has
a thin layer of grease left on its threads is I = 0.3. Hence in our example
1250 = M(0.6r or
M = 750r Nm
Notice that it may be necessary to apply the pressure across a
washer in order to prevent decrease of the pressing force and the con-
ductance when the material creeps.
Example V, showing that the short-circuiting radiation in a metallic
contact is negligible.
Consider a poorly conducting metal as stainless steel. Let P be
p c= JOO N and the temperature Oll both sides of the gap be T and
T -- -&. With the emissivity being s and the gap area 10-4 m 2 , the
radiation across the gap amounts to
Sliding Contacts
Fig. (36.01). Contact spots formed Fig. (36.02). Contact spots between a hnmp
where tops of asperities meet on one member and a valley on the other
greater contact areas for the same Ioad than according to Fig . (36.01) .
The specific depth may be much smaller thau 0.03 and therefore Jl
much smaller than H , sayl
where
p = UI l (36.0:J)
~< 1 I
In very smooth contacts values of g down to 0.02 have been found .
cf. § 7. One reason for g < 1 will be expressed in Eq. (36.15). We
also refer to contact models by ARCHARD [2], and GREENWOOD and
WILLIAMSON [4] , [8] , constructed so that they provide a small and
constant g, particularly a contact without any plastic deformation ;
cf. p. 31.
Another very useful concept is the specilic lriction lorce, 1p , in
points of the true sliding Ioad bearing area Ab . When the specific fric-
tion force is Iabelied f{! , its average character is emphasized. We have
(36.04)
Ab appears in a similar manner as in Eq. (I,17) which we now repeat
as (36.05)
p = gnA 1, (36.05)
(36.08)
f = PF = 'P
H = constant
of ten smaller than in an ideal lattice. This means that tp is not uni-
quely connected to properties referring to the ideallattice, as are the
melting point and the surface energy.
Inhomogencity of the materials, hardening etc. pre,·ent the types
of gliding defined above from being purely realized.
C. Experiments where type I I gliding is expected to be a ppcoached :
Contacts between clean outgassed metal::; are cold welded and sliding
is expected to approach type II. The static tp should approximate the
normal shear strength of the material and the kinetic tp should be
smaller. This is particularly true with hard metals because the kinetic
tp is generated by metallic bonds, whereas the covalt>nt bonds have
t.ime to contribute before static friction is observed: cf. § 28.
Sliding experiments with clean , outgassed metal~ were performed
in nlCcuum by HoLMet al. and by BowDEN et aP . They showed high
friction because the friction force caused
material flow and new contact spots
accord.ing to Fig. (36.09). This preceded
an increase ofthe contact area. the reason
Fig. (36.09). A is an Initial contact
area. The applied friction force F for which these workersdid notdetermine.
bends thc upper member wlth th~
effect that an additional contact spot However, CocKs' [1]. [.2], [3], [4] recent
at R can appear experiments with nominally flat mem-
bers provid.e 2 the possibility to determine
the real sliding area and its tp (as CocKs
hirnself indicates in CocKs [2] p. 814).
Weshall use hisexperimental results for
interest.ing calculat.ions. CocKs did not
F'ig. (36.10). Schematic picture of a employ vacuum, but he cleaned the
wedge in a sllding contact as ob·
served by COCKS members to wettability and used a Ioad
sufficiently high (order of 10 X) to scrat.ch
away films that could interfere. Disct·ete lumps or wedges of a rela-
tively simple shape were built up between t-he members. This was
transferred material which had. hardened by d.eformation. It could be
photographed. In Fig. (36.10) a wedge, W , is schematically pictured.
The members are slightly separated by the wedges and glide over them.
Consider that a wedge as in (36.10) approximates the shape of a
short cylinder, and Iet its cross section be A. It is loaded by a vertical
force P and acted on by the tangential force F. The total contact Ioad
1 See R. HoLM [37] § 38 where references are given. The contact in all cases
was a hollow cylinder hanging on a straight wire and being able to glide along it.
2 ANTLER [2] has also observed the building-up of wedges and prows on sliding
contacts, but under circumstances not equally suitable for the present theoretical
treatment - a.s are the Observations by CocKs. Some of his results are discussed in
the addendmu to this section.
§ 36. Survey of fundamentals 203
'f.. P and the total friction force 'f..F are carried by such lumps. They all
will be rleformed and hardened to about the same degreP: thus
EF F
{co=-o.o-- (:36.11)
' EP P
Eq. (36.14) deviates slightly from the theory of v. MISES. His equn.-
tion (1,8), gives tp = Y instead of 0.67 Y: see end of § ID.
Addendum, concerning special observationt' by ANTLF.R [ 4] on tlw
generation of wedges.
"' I I
p
I p H 0.11 H
Contact
I
f
Test
I N 10• NJm•
0.33 I
in portions of the contact area the members are covered with monomolecular liquid
films and that no portions are completely uneavered by the liquid. On the one hand,
the hydrodynamic wedging can not work with as little as two adhering monolayers
of liquid and, on the other hand, it is im probable that a pure boundary lubrication
without uncm·ered Bf')ts ever appears. Instead, the lubrication will be mixed.
§ 38. Boundary lubrication 211
past that?} can be varied through a range of more than one order of
magnitude without causing any considerable influence on the friction
coefficient I in boundary lubrication. BuRWELL and STRANG [2] found
I independent of both the Ioad (after a small correction) and 'Y), with
17 being varied from 0.08 to 3.9 poise. 0. H. ÜLARK et al. [1] report a
similar constancy of I with 17 varying between 0.04 and 0.5 poise, and
the relative velocity varying between 1 and 16 mfsec. BoYD and
RoBERTSON [1] made interesting experiments with nominally llat con-
tact members at high Ioad. They measured I ""' 0.05 to 0.1 with various
kinds oflubricants as castor oil (YJ = 10 poise), machine oil (?} ~ 1 poise).
oleic acid and Iead oxide; the apparent pressure varying between
1 and 25. 108 Nfm 2 had little influence on the friction coefficient. ThP
true prcssure will be discussed later.
Even with a soft metalas lubricant, I appears in the order of 0.1,
if the metal film is sufficiently thin. The film must be so thin that the
Ioad bearing area is defined by the elasticity and the hardness of the
bulk metal alone. Such a film is unable to exert any measurable groov-
ing resistance against sliding. Examples: Films of cadmium or of tin on
copper surface, as reported by HEATON et al. [1]. Possibly Fig. 44 in
BoWDEN and TABOR [4] referring to a film of indium on steel furnishes
another example of this kind, although it is not evident that the film
of indium was sufficiently thin.
Proposition(38.02). The wPar during boundary lubrication is often
about 1/10 of the wear that appears on dry smooth contacts sliding in
humid (relative humidity ;;:;:;70%) air and having 0.7 <I< 1. This is
concluded from direct measurements ofthe volume that is worn away;
represented by Nos.12 and 13 in Table (41.09). The wear noted corre-
sponds to 1 to 3 ·to-s gfcm in Fig. 1 of RABINowrcz [4], and consti-
tutes the normal amount of wear under the circumstances considered.
With very good boundary lubricants, it can happen that the wear is
10 times smaller.
l-MING FENG [3] points to an interesting phenomenon that has
been studied only a little and shall not be discussed here. He states
that a lubricant performs better ifit contains dissolved gas (as oxygen)
which maintains a surface film to some degree.
Proposition ( 38.03). In case of a good boundary lubricant providing
a smooth motion, I usually rises slightly when the relative velocity of
the members increases at starting within a range of small velocity as
is shown by the lower curve of Fig. (38.05), which is due to KLUGE [1],
or in Fig. (38.06) due to RABINOWICZ1 .
Proposition (38.04). The electric conduction of a lubricated contact
under boundary condition is considerable.
1 RABINOWICZ [3] where earlier Iiterature is cited.
14*
212 Sliding Contacts
0
I
i
1 2 J
I
a strong effect would reduce j. The
Hmfsec.f exclusion of the hydrodynamic
Fig. (38.05), Due to KLUGE [1). The coeffl. effect as being the Ioad-hearing
cient of frictlon I between contact members
at boundary lubrication, at low speed3 agent allows the conclusion to be
made that the Ioad-bearing area is
determined by the hardness of the contact bulk meta I in conformit.y to
Eq. (1,17), since a liquid lubricant would yield to any static Ioad by
flowing away.
Second, Prop. (38.04) indicates that, in the boundary state,
metallic or quasimetallic 2 spots exist. Thus, if one makes the hypothesis
that a film of lubricant covers an essential portion of the a-spot.s (mak-
aro
o tool.rleel
tJ. filonium RC !JQA
II
I 6
V
v lilonium RC' 1308 o oo o
~ lungslt:n coPIJide
V
I,P~c~~ _.o'! 0--q~
ß'
~
Q(l8
0::
t
~ a:;l>
0
~
0
au6' n
Q05
lJ.<
/ 0
..-- ~
0
0 ~
~
11.0'1
I
10 V 10 -·
10 -
velocity-
10 cm.fsec
Fig. (38.06). Due to RABINOWICZ [3]. Frictlon-velocity plot for varlous riders (all as hard as mild
steel or harder) slldlng on mild steel. Load 10 N. Lubrlcant copper palmihte•
1 R. HoLlll [28] Section VII. 2 The term quasimetallic is defined in § 2.
3 The friction coefficient f is labeled lt-
§ 38. Boundary lubrication 213
can be considered as fresh, which means that the shape of the average
elevations ofthe members has not changed considerably by wear. These
assumptions involve simplifications for the discussion, but do not
severely endanger the conclusions. Because of the present provisory
state of the theory, the simplifications may be allowed, and modi-
fications of them are not discussed.
First we imagine the contact as being dry . Then the load bearing
area is defined by P = ~ Aill, i. e., Eq.(36.05). We shall prove t hat a
lubricant does not alter Ab . The
factor ~ will be essentially inde-
pendent of the metal. On Fig.
(38.12) the diameter of Abis (ah).
For simplicity the figure has Fig. (38.12). Diagrammatic scct.ion through con·
tact area a t boundary lubrication
been designed for an ideally hard
and smooth member C, and the actual unevenness is represented by the
waves on member B. The tops of these waves have been fiattened by
the pressure from member C. The fiattening action is limited in a
certain manner by the counter-pressure of the lubricant which we
imagine to be locked up in the valleys around and between the eleva-
tions . It is of fundamental importance for the discussion that., at equi-
librium, the hydrosta.tic pressure must be the same in the lubricant
and on the asperity tops, as is evident from the following.
The pressure on the tops is ~H, which is a function of the mechan-
ical strength of the metal. However, it is evident tha.t the tops alone
are not able to carry the total load, that in the dry contact would
generate a load-bearing area with the diameter (ah) in Fig. (38.12): That
the lubricant assists them is easily seen if we imagine what happens a
short time before the equilibrium is established. There will be a moment
when the pressure on the lubricant is !arger than ~H, and this of course en-
ables the lubricant to fiow out from the valley over some elevations, a
process that continues until the pressure in the lubricant attains the value
of the pressure on the tops. Then , at established equilibrium, the overall
pressure is the same as in the dry contact, and we conclude that the
load bearing area preserves its diameter (ah) also in the lubricated state.
It is to be noted that this argument and conclusion is indcpendent
of the hardness of the contact members. The tops have been fiattened
so far that the depressions containing lubricant are closed ; i. e., none
of the lubricant fiows out of them. This means that, on an a verage, the
tops ha ve been lowered by a certain percentage of their initial height;
this percentage probably is independent of amplitude and wavelength
of the elevations. The deformation is defined purely geometrically and
therefore is independent of the hardness of the metal. Hyp. (38.11) can
now be expressed as follows .
216 Sliding Contacts
Hypothesis (38.11) assumes: First, that the ratio between the sum
of the top areas and the totalload bearing area (ah) in Fig. (38.12) is
Iargely independent of amplitude and wavelength of the surface une-
venness. Second, that this ratio is of the order 1/10 to 1/20. Third, that
the friction on areas which are covered by the lubricant is negligible
to the first approximation. Fourth, that the friction on the tops is of
the kind that in dry contacts1 .makes f"" 1. All of these assumptions
are plausible, and if Hyp. (38.11) be factual, it would explain Props.
(38.01) to (38.04) as shall be shown below.
It may be appropriate to begin with citing observations by RABI-
xowwz and TABOR2 which support the second statement ofHyp. (38.11).
These authors made one contact member radioactive and observed by
means of autoradiographs that metal was transferred to the other mem-
ber; on one band, when the contact is only closed and opened ; on the
other band, when sliding occurs. The authors compare the transfer in
dry and boundary lubricated contacts and find pick ups which are
6 to 50 times smaller in lubricated than in dry contacts. This indicates
that the lubricant reduces the metallic areas by a factor of the ordet'
that is assumed in Hyp. (38.11).
Furthermore, we mention that a determination of the average spe-
cific shear force fji between two monolayers of a lubricant (calcium
stearate) has been made by BAILEY and CoURTNEY-PRATT3 • They find
fji = 0.025. 108 Nfm2 which lies about two orders of magnitude below
the shear strength of those metals that are used for the contacts dis-
cussed above. Where the lubricant has a greater thickness or perhaps
acts hydrodynamically, its contribution to the friction is still smaller,
and we conclude that the total friction force on the lubricant is about
10% (or less) ofthe friction force on the metallic tops. We thus justify
the statement that the friction on the lubricant is negligible compared
with that on the metallic tops in Fig. (38.12), the case considered in
Hyp. (38.11).
Fig. (38.12) has been described particularly for the case of contact
closing, but it also applies reasonably weil to the formation of any
momentary contact during sliding without galling. We are now pre-
pared to show how the Props. (38.01) to (38.04) are explained on the
basis of Hyp. (38.11).
Concerning Prop. (38.01). Since the friction force is mainly referred
to the top areas it must be reduced by the same factor of 1/10 to 1/20
by which the top areas are smaller than the Ioad bearing area. This ex-
This is a typical friction coefficient for non-deformed metallic contacts.
1
RABINOWlCZ and TABOR [1] and RABINOWlCZ (2]; cf. Fig. (28.06); cf. also
2
studied by BowDEN and collaborators. They have emphasized that the adherence
is relatively good on base metals, particularly in presence of oxygen and humidity,
but is relatively poor on noble metals. See BoWDEN and TABOR [4], Chapter X and
[12] Chapter XVIII, and later publications as MENTER and TABOR [1], BoWDEN
and MoORE [6] and DANIEL [1].
218 Sliding Contacts
formance has been gathered, the theory of the brush contact, never-
theless, is still ineomplete. Equally incomplete is the theory of lubri-
cation by means of powders, e. g. graphite. Various materials qualify
for easy sliding in a manner similar to graphite, for instance, MoS2 ,
WS 2 , Cdl 2 , Pbl 2 , CdCI 2 , Hgl 2 • Allare characterized by a laminar st.ruc-
t.ure with relatively weak bonds between the basal planes. This ob-
viously constitutes a primary but not a sufficient condition for the
lubrieat.ion ability.-It also plays apart that some planes in a crystal
glide eat:~ier than others; see below. The idea of laminar lubrication re-
quires parallellamina to glide over each other.
We envisage the circumstances in the contact of a carbon brush
sliding on a collector ring. On the surface of both the brush and ring,
carbon films are deposited1 • They have been investigated by several
workers by means of electron diffraction and microscopy. We parti-
cularly mention JENKINS [1] whose results have been eonfirmed by
MIDGLEY and TEAR [1], and T.F.J.QUINN [1]. The wear fragments of
carbon brushes seem to be disintegrated into platelets of single cry-
stals. The dimen~üon of their basal planes can be as small as 25 A.
Their thickness certainly is smaller than the basal dimension. The
platelets are mainly orientated with their cleavage plane fairly parallel
to the sliding interfact> with an average inclination of up to 5° against
the sliding direction. It seems very likely that they are bent during
8liding so that actually cleavage crystal planes glide over each other.
Surely, the coherence is not the same between allhexagonal (basal)
planes within a crystal. That is why wear particles never eonsist of
singlebasal planes but ofplatelets containing many ofthem. We expect
that in those partial regions of the crystal where the bonding is rela-
tively weak, the distance is increased by interstitial alien atoms or by
dislocation 2 • Based on theoretical calculations by BRENNAN [l] and
observations on cleavage forces in ultrahigh vaeuum by BRYANT et al.
[ 1] we conclude that the normal bond between basal planes in a gra-
phite crystal is about 0.3 eV per earbon atom. In air, oxygen atoms
seem to enterat least some interspaces and diminish the average bond
to about 0.06 eV. Cf. Section B.
Rem.ark. Run-in copper collectors are covered by a film of orien-
tated gra.phite platelets over a thin layer of copper oxide. The brush
glides mainly on the graphitefilm at least during smooth sliding. Since
the brush carries a similar film, sliding is essentially between basal
planes of graphite. The orientated graphite film on both brush and
1 The carbon film deposits on a layer of copper oxide; see v AN BRu:sT and
SAVAGE [1].
2 Cf. TsuzuKu [1], PATELand BAHL [1] where earlier Iiterature is cited, and
HENNIG [1).
§ 39. Theory of friction and wear of carbon contacts. Lubrication... 22:3
copper collector can reach a thickness 1 of the order of 1000 A. The
insulating oxide film does usually not exceed 2 100 A. When a pre-
viously cleaned collector ring begins to rotate, the very first readings
show the low friction of f::::: 0.1, indicating that the deposition of an
efficient film proceeds in seconds. This means that a film much thinner
than mentioned above is sufficient for easy gliding.
B. Bond strength in a sliding contact between graphite members.
E. HoLM computes 3 the bond strength in a (nominally flat) sliding
contact between graphite members from the dependence of the fric-
tion coefficient on the contact temperature under circumstances4 that
guarantee a constant contact sarface, A 0 • The experimental results
support the assumption that the friction is essentially due to adhesion
forces and that the temperature diminishes the average bond strength.
The average bond strength perpair of atoms across a contact sur-
face, A 0 , is assumed tobe !peV at temperatures low enough to havc a
negligible influence on the bond. At influential temperatures, the
average thermal energy of those two degrees of freedom (kinetic and
potential) that are vertical to A 0 , subtract from (/J· Thus, at the tcm-
perature T, the average bond energy at A 0 is
qJ-kT (39.01)
where k = 1/11600 e V per °K. If the friction force, F, is entirely used
to shear the bonds in A 0 , the friction coefficient, f, is strictly propor-
tional to the specific friction force 1p = FjA 0 = ffi, where p = PjA 0 is
the average pressure with P =' mechanicalload. Eq. (39.01) then leads
to
/(T) = 1p(T) = c(rp- T/11600) (39.02)
where c is a constant.
The validity of Eq. (39.02) requires that sliding occurs in the coH-
tact surface A 0 • This clearly is the case after the mem bers ha ve been
run in a relatively long time because the wear then is negligible; namely
about 10- 12 cm 3 per revolution on a sliding track 0.4 cm wide aml
220 cm long, independent of the current.
The necessary requirements were realized when the interdependent
and simultaneously measured variables j, T and U remained constant;
1 VANBRUNT and SAVAGE[1]; G.L.CLARK etal. [1], they also measured a
A
8
I I
fofloJ flrophd~ -grophde
I
10.15
I
'O.W r-~~------r-----~~~~~~
ODS~~~~----~W~
0----~~~0---.~~~
T-
Fig. (39.03). Due to E. HoLM [JJ). Friction coefficient, f, and contact voltage, U, vs contact tem·
perature, between an electrographite brush (0.3 cm• sliding face) slidlng at 10 A and a ring (7 cm
diameter) of the same material. Formaterial constants see p. 151, footnote I. Curve A: run-in time
"" I 0 hours; curve B: run-in time "" 60 days. P = 2.4 N, speed about 2 rn/sec. The end of sliding
in and start of ambient heating is marked by / 0 (T0 )
fo(TqJ
~ r-N Grophile-grop/Jile
()
foflo)
·;.
'S
~~
0 ~ =--- _""_
r=-
0.0
so 100 150 "C zoo
r-
Fig. (39.04). Due to E. HOLM [12) and [13). Simllar to Flg. (39.03) but wlth extended measure-
ments. Curws A and Bare reproduced from Fig. (39.03). Curve C: I (current) = 5 A; curve D:
I = zero
§ 39. Theory of friction and wear of carbon contacts. Lubrication... 225
water, should have the ability both to neutralize freed valences anrl
also lubricate the basal planes.
DEACON and GoODMAN [l] emphasize (with respect to lubrication)
the superior role of edge valencies getting occupied. BrssoN et al. [1], [2]
observed a good lubrication with non-outgassed graphite at 500 °C,
although the orientation of the platelets was lost. At 300 °0 the Iubri-
cation was poor inspite of a good platelet orientation. They be1ieve
that oxide developing on the copper enhances lubrication by facili-
tating the adherence of lubricating graphite platelets.
It is evident that the theory of HAE has not reached its final stage.
Since MoS2 has a laminar lattice structure, it should lubricate simi-
lar to graphite. But, it has been shown that MoS2 lubricates up to a
merlium vacuum and V. R. JoHNSON [1] and [2] found that humidity
even impairs lubrication. HALTNER [l] could not confirm the bene-
ficial role assumed to be played by adsorbed sulphur vapor in the
lubrication mechanism, since sulphur evaporizes at temperatures when
MoS2 still lubricates. They think that surface contaminat.ions are re-
sponsible for the neutralization of edge valence. MoS2 lubricates up to
500 °0 in vacuum but in the presence of oxygen it oxidizes to MoO~.
This is a poor lubricant and welds form.
An important property of any solid lubricant is its adherence to
its meta} member in order to remain in the contact during sliding. MoS2
is superior to graphitein this respect; but talc, although slippery, fails
as a lubricant because it is too loosely bound to the members1 •
D. Adjuvants. Adjuvants are mixed into the brush material in order
to diminish the severe wear at high altitude conditions. Lubricating
organic impregnants that were initially tested, evaporated or in any
case did not remain in the contact. Then ELSEY [1] introduced impreg-
nants of metallic halides with promising effects. He was guided by the
idea that the adjuvants become decomposed in the sliding contact
.and help to build up a convenient collector film. However, only un-
changed halides have ever been detected in the collector films. Actually
the chemical reactivity of the adjuvants seems to have no influence on
their lubricating and wearing quality. For instance, Cdl 2 although
having a lower heat of formation than BaF2 , is nevertheless less effi-
cient as an adjuvant than BaF2 • It seems that the action of the ad-
juvants is mechanical.
MoS 2 is the best known high altitude brush adjuvant. MoS 2 powder
is mixed with a binder, rolled and then carbonizcd. This results in a
relatively hard mass where MoS2 is distributed as fine streaks within a
1 Reviews ofliterature on MoS 2 are given in BowDEN and TABOR [12] p.196ff.,
STOCK [1], McCABE [1], and Molysulfide Newsletter published by Climax Co.,
New York.
15*
22S Sliding Contacts
the friction force. This compensates for the damping which occurs
during each cycle of the vibration and thus keeps the vibration going.
Let us now eliminate some of these simplifications. The real brush
face can not be represented by the single point b. Because of its ex-
tension, it may have some contact during the entire oscillation, but
with diminished pressure during the movement between b and c. Tbe
amplitude of the vibration of the brush endissmall (order of magnitudE'
10-s m and less). On slip rings in practice the maximum vibration
velocity of the brush end is small compared witb tbe velocity of thE'
ring, up to 50 or 100 times smaller in SHOBERT's experiments. Th11s
tbere is never any static friction.
The explanation of the whistling given above, does not include or
require that the friction coefficient decreases witb rising relative veloc-
ity between brush and ring, but it requires f) > a. certain minimum.
The investigations have stated the existence of a minimum for @. A
maximum, 6"" also exists, beyond which the impulse in b would Iw
directed essentially along ba and contribute too Iittle to tbe mainte-
nance of tbe vibration.
Testing brushes with the face narrowed to simulate the line ab.
SHOBERT could determine the angle fJ fairly weil. He found, with
different brusb grades, P ""' 1 N and v = 0.5 to 24 mfs, t.bat whistling
appeared in a fJ-range of little over 0° < fJ < 10 to 15°.
The frequency, about 3100Hz, corresponded to transverse vibra.
tions of a bar clamped at one end, baving the mechanical properties of
the brush, and being clamped where t.hc brush is fixed at tbe holder
(at its upper end).
This is true for ""whistling" contacts. As running time increases,
whistling degenerates to "chatter" with several frequencies super-
posed, for instance, a ·'wabbling" frequency defined by tbe loading
spring and the moment of inert.ia of the brush; see SHOBERT [7] p. 84
and VOLKMANN [1].
BoWDEN and TABOR [12] p. 79, referring to RABINOWICZ [5], diseuss
stick-slip under circumstances corresponding to fJ = 0. That is, under
the assumption of different static and kinetic friction coefficients. The
tests were made with a speed so low (order of 0.1 cmjs) that "stick"
evidently meant no relative velocity between the slider and base mem-
ber.
Investigators have observed the electric conduction through the
contact during the stick-slip. Just as one would expect. t.he conduction
is highest at moments of strongest friction. If during the slip a real
separation occurred in the contact, this would be apparent from the
contact voltage reaching values as high as that in arcs. Brush chattcr
is usually observed wit.h voltage peaks of the order of 2 t.o 3 volts, but
230 Sliding Contacts
actual separations have also been recorded 1 • Also the contact temper-
ature has been observed with contact members that constitute a ther-
mocouple (see below). The temperature increases during the high speerl
slip 2 •
A condition for regular periodicity of the stick-slip is that the pro-
cess is about the samein every period. Plastic flow can obliterate this
condition, and make the phenomenon very irregular. Another change
occurs when a certain crit.ical speed is attained. Then, the sliding pro-
ceeds relatively smoothly.
The Contraposition of a heavy basal member and a light slider is not
a principal condition for stick-slip. This combination was chosen only
to simplify the description of the phenomenon. Stick-slip may also
occur between massive members. Then the elasticity of their bulk
materials may replace the elastic bending of the slider.
Contacts with a strongly adsorbed lubricant film slide with a smooth
motion. But if the temperature of the lubricant exceeds a certain limit3
its surface melting point - the motion proceeds in jerks.
B. The Temperature in currentless sliding contacts. Stimulating in-
vestigations are due to BowDEN and collaborators. A survey of their
results is given in BOWDEN and TABOR [4] chapter II and BowDEN [7]
and [9] with reference to the literature. Quite high temperatures ofthe
order of 100 to 1000 °0 appear surprisingly often in sliding currentless
metallic contacts in spite of the good heat conductivity of the metals.
The reason is that the heat generation is concentrated in small contact
spots. Because of their size, theyexhibit considerable thermal resistance.
BowDEN and RIDLER [1] used bimetal contacts as thermocouples for
indicating the rise of temperature generated by the sliding work in
contact surfaces. With rising speed the temperature increased, andin
some cases an upper Iimit was found. A further increase of speed gave
no change in the thermo-current. It was suggested that the melting
point of one member in the contact bad been reached. Fig. (40.02)
shows two of the curves that were recorded. The temperatures plotted
are averages. In a later work cathode-ray oscillograms4 showed that
the friction may be able to cause temperature flashes of high values.
Several attempts have been made to compare the measurements of
BowDEN and RIDLER with calculations of the kind described in § 21.
However, the available experimental data ar not sufficiently complete
for such calculations. Particularly, one does not know which fraction
1 In the Stackpole Laboratory.
2 MoooAN, MusKAT and REED [1] and [2].
3 It is remarkable that this limit seems to depend on the device used, see
T. P. HUGHES and WHITTINGHAM [1) p. 23.
4 BoWDEN and TABOR [ 4] Plate III p. 33.
§ 40. Stick-slip motion. The temperature in currentless sliding contacts 231
of the contact area is metallic and which is covered by oxide. Consider
for example the Observations that are represented by Fig. (40 002). With
f = 1, ~ = 1 in Eqo (I,17) for the determination of the circular contact
area and employing Eqso (21.09) and (21.14) under the assumption that
70 to 80% of the heat dissipates into the iron, one calculates tempera-
tures about half as high as were measuredo This was in spite of the
assumptions being chosen as favorably as possible to give high temper-
a ture valueso The main reason for the
discrepancy probably is that the friction
work in reality was not uniformly distri-
buted over t he bearing contact area as is
assumed for the formulaso Better agree-
mt-nt between observations and calcula-
tion has been reported by Eo HoLM and 't;
R 0 HoLM 1 working with contacts of nickel ~rooH-7--T----+---~
against brass and nicke} against tino Under (:3
the circumstances, realized in their experi-
ments and also in the investigations by 0 1100 800 !6C 1200
Vr:locify
MoRGAN et al. [1] the supertemperature
Figo ( 40o02)o Temperature iu a slid-
in the contacts never surpassed 50° 0 It ing contact between Iead and mild
should be noticed that the high temper- steel at different velocities, accord·
ing to BOWDEN and RIDLER [1 ]
ature flashes reported by BowDEN and
collaborators have been obtained with high sliding speed (several
meters per second) and are not general characteristics of sliding
metallic contactso
ARCHARD [7] made measurements with a steel pin gliding on a
steel ring (hardness 25. 108 Njm 2).A marked decrease in the wear rate
was attributed to the formation of martensite. This requires a quench
following a temperature rise of at least 700° and was observed with
P = 10 N and v = 2 mfs. Assurne steel to have a heat conductivity of
47 Wjm °K, a friction coefficient of f = 0.7 and all heat entering the
ring . Using Eq. (I,17) (with ~ = 1/2}, Fig. (21.04) and Fig. (21.10}, we
calculate a temperature rise of 1300° in the hottest point of the contact
area. This, according to Fig. (21.11}, corresponds to an average tem-
perature of about 1000° in the same areao ARcHARD finds 900° with
rougher approximationso
BowDEN and HuGHES 2 proved that the sliding of skis on snow is
due to a lubricating film of water that is melted by friction heato
Recently BowDEN and FREITAG [8] demonstrated an analogous pheno-
menon between steel and copper contact memberso In the latter case
t.he rate of heat production must be very high, viz., the sliding veiocity
must be extremely high, namely of t.he order of 1000 mjsec. Table-
(40.03) summarizes some typical result.s, particularly that at sufficiently
high veloeity the frict.ion coefficient is very small in both kinds of con-
tact..
Table (40.03). Approximate f-values
Contact
material Air temp. - 130 - ;) 20 20 cc
Velüf·ity ~low 5 150 •'iOO m fseC'
~ki-snow l ....· 0.4 0.02
Cu-steel i ~ 1.5 0.2
STEIJN [1]. Those final fragments which constitute the major portion
of the wear become greater than the a-spots where the initial weid
occurred. During kneading, heavy deformation makes base metallic
fragments pronc:- to oxidize. This explains why analy?.Nl rlehris largely
consists of oxide according to KERRIDGE [1].
Adhesive wear Ieads t.o roughness of the contact. surfaces, providing
the opportunity for interlocking and further wear of the abrasive type.
There is an important exception from this development. Boundary
lubricatcd pistons and cylinder walls are smoothed as if loosened par-
ticles, protected against oxidation by the lubricant., have thP oppot·-
tnnity to fill depressions and adherc there.
Wear types d·istinguished with respect to the depth of the wear 8ra1'.
lt has heen shown experimentally by R. HoLM (see Tahle [41.071},
HmsT and LA:~WASTER [3], ARCHARD and HmsT [3] aml others tlmt
for a given type of contact the amount of wear is fairly weil propor-
tional to the Ioad. P, to the distance of sliding, s, and essentially itt-
Jependent of the apparent area of contact, A". The iatter fcaturP is
:mrprising. One would expect that the nurober of spots incrPascH atHl
t he average specific depth D decreases with increasing A", then•hy
reducing the wear. However, we recall a counterpart to this indepeud-
ence of A," from the behavior of the resistances of nominally tlat eou-
tacts. They also appear to be fairly unequivocal functions of P, inde-
pendent of A", as is illustrated by the curvcs for nomina.lly ftat piates
in Fig. (8.01) and by Fig. (:~5.10). Considering that under simiiar con-
ditions, hard materials wear less than soft oneR, we expeet 1/11 to lw a
eharacteristic factor in any wear formula.
Summarizing: In any type of wear we expect. the amount of \war.
W, to bP exprPssiblP approximat.ely as
where
W oZ~ l (41.02)
z = WH
Pa
f
Z is a dimensionless number. R. HoLM1 has shown that 2. tooz }1as
an illustrative significanee. Imagine the total volume W of the frag-
ments that. are worn off on passing the slider once, as being uniformiy
spread on the true sliding track as a coherent film. We express the
thickness of the imagined film as a number, Z, of atomic layers. That
is, we express Z in the unit of one ntomic spacing. Then Z equals
approximately 2 · 106 Z. We use Z to signify the wear types with re-
spect to t.he character of t.he wear scar and call it a dimensionleAs rept·P-
1 R. HoL~r [.31'] p. 24 7.
234 Sliding Contacts
with brass against steel, confirming the earlier result.s with the added
feature that a small back t.ransfer complicates the proct>ss. In argon,
strong brass lumps are built up on the steel. In air the brass layer is
weak and interlaced with slightly oxidized surfaces.
It is remarkable that, in argon, thP transfPr is great, but the n<>t
wear relatively small; see STEin< [1].
C. The inßuence of adhesive wear on frietion in elean metallic con-
tacts. Naively thinking, one would expect wcar to always increase
friction. However, this is not generally true. As illustrat.ed in Fig.
(41.01) and described in Section A, wear grains can be produced by
cold welds in contact spots when the weid need a grt'ater force for
shearing than any other surface. Then, sliding will occur in t.he surface
of easiest shearing, for example, in A1 in the figure. Later, the particle
between A0 and A1 (double shaded) may hreak off from Band form a
wear grain. If the exchange of thc sliding surfaees, A0 and A1 , does
not Iead to an increase of the shear force beyond that in the initial
spot, the friction coefficient f will not be affect.ed. Besides t.he work
for shearing, the friction work will comprise the deformation energy that
is required to break off grains. Howeyer, the latter may be relatively
small. Where an increase of f, combined with wear is obserYed, it will
often be a secondary phenomenon resulting from a change of the cha-
racter of the contact surfaces by the wear. For inst.ance, this happens
when the contact surfaces become roughened by wear which Ieads to
interlocking.
D. Why liquids, even the deposit from air humidity, are able to
strongly inßuence wear, without appr~ciably aß'ecting the friction coeffi-
cient. The transfer of a fragment from one contact member to thc
other, which is the introduction to adhesive wear, is illustrated in Fig.
(41.01). It is supposed that the shear force is smaller in the section
A1 than in the initial contact spot A0 • Let us now imagine the picture
changed so that A0 no Ionger represents an undisturbed weid. A number
of alien molecules or groups of such molecules, for inst.ance water mo-
lecules, may in some way be inserted in the interface A 0 • Even if they
cover only a small fraction of A0 , t.hey will diminish the ewerage shear
strengthin A0 • Very likely a moderate decrease of t.his strengt.h will
suffice to make A0 the sliding surface inst.ead of A 1 • The loosening of
the wear grain between A0 and A1 thereby is prevented. It is plausible
that a sufficient number of water molecules is provided from the nor-
mal humidity of the air; cf. No. 3 in Table (41.09).
It may be noticed that RÄDEKER [J] and [2] observed a minimum
of metallic wear at temperatures which are high enough to aceeierate
oxidation but sufficiently low to prevent softening of the metal (for
iron between 200 and 350 °C). At higher temperatures, when the metal
236 ~liding Contacts
becomes soft., wear increases. Probably, the cause for the mmmmm
wear is an oxide film so thin that it contaminates the contact surfaces
just enough to diminish their tendency to weid; thicker oxide films
t.hat are able to produce abrasive wear debris seem to increase wear.
E. Frictional wear in currentless sliding contacts; represented by z
which is calculated according to Eq. ( 41.03) as a function of the hardness,
11, of the softer member. Tables (41.07), (41.08) and (41.09) summarize
observations of wear expressed by Z. The values of P, Hand Z are
t.abulated, and thus the rate of wear, Wfs, that has been observed, can
readily be calculated from the tabulated data. All observations refer
t.o the run-in state, meaning that Wfs was considered as remaining essen-
t.ially constant during the test period 1 .
Thc major portion of the data are due to R. HoLl\1 2 • He used a
device that is sketched in Fig. (41.06). R is a rotating ring against
which the slider B glides. The
holder of B is carried by the
Iever H that is controlled by the
springs Y, Y. The friction force
can be determined from the de-
viation of H along the scale S, or
from a compensating regulation
of thc springs so as to keep H
horizontal. In order to facilitate
Fig. (41.06). Devicc for measurement of wear and
thc determination of the wear
friction coefftcient in the contact between a brush somet.imes such means was used
Band a ring R. Tbc edges of the brush are faceted
in ordcr to facilitak thc det.ermination of the wear
as : 1. faceting the slider in its
edges, thus providing a small
area subjected t.o wear for the geometrical determination of the wear,
2. making the slider glide along a wire stretched round the wheel R.
The wire could easily be removed from the wheel for the determination
of its wear by weighing. A correction was introduced in most cases for
the initial wear, which usually was greater than the wear in the run-in
stat.e. Data of inYestigators other than HoLM are signified by foot-
notes .
Disc-u8sion of Tables (41.0i) and (41.08). The following major in-
format.ion is to be noticed.
1. Under otherwise equal conditions, Z is seen to be independent of
P. In other words, the wear rat.e is proport.ional toP, cf. ARCHARD and
HIRST [3].
Table (41.07). Mechanic(tl wear in cu1·rentleaa alid·ing contacta rep1·eaented by Z for the
softer contact member; wire or ring. Run-in state. Speed v, of t.he order of a few m/s
in hydrogen
in H 20 or alcohol
steel, 62 1.23 6 30
Ag,9 1.23
I I I I I 10
in hydrogen
Rteel 1.2 10 0 0 +
--
Ag 1.2
I1 I8 I I1 I 1
in water or alcohol
~teel 1 •) 2 0.6
I I
.~
Ag 1.2 I I I 0.4
2. The barder contact member wears much less than the softer one 1 •
If both members have about the same H they have fairly equal Z-
value~>, forexample Ag (H = 9 ·108 Nfm 2 ) against Cu (H = 6. 108 Nfm2).
The more pronounced, but still small difference between Ag (H
= 9. 108 N fm 2 ) and Ag (H = 5. 108 N fm 2 ) suffices to diminish the wear
of the barder member by a factor of about 4.
3. The data by BuRWELL and STRANG [3] on steel in hexadecane are
represented by only two points on their curve. The purpose of citing
these observations is to show the order of magnitude of the observed
wear. It lies in the range ofmicrowear a.ccording to Table (41.05), prov-
ing that the liquid has acted as decribed in Section D, above2. Partic-
ularly noticeable is the following result. As long as the average pres-
sure Pa, referred to the apparent surface (i. e., load P divided by the
worn-in surface) in the contact, was below H/3""' 7-108 Nfm 2, Z was
independent of P and Z ""' 0.05. But raising Pa (by increase of P) be-
1 BoWDEN and HUGHES, sec BowDEN and TABOR [4] p. 62, emphasize that the
hardness data must refer to the temperature of the contact. It happens that a
material, that is harder than another one at room temperature, is the softer one
at a high temperature.
2 The coefficient f probably was of the order 0.5 to 1 or otherwise the authors
I I I
~0-1
Type
Contact Hardness Speed Contact
loadP z Remark Observer of
material
108 Ntm• rn/sec N
I I wear
iron 15 1 1 1800 in dry air HOLM
1 severe
on iron (15) et al. [24]
- ---
2
iron 15 1 1 5400 in dry air HOLll severe
on iron (15) at 200 oc et al. [24)
-- 15 1 1 in damp air
---
3 iron 12 HOLM small
on iron (15) et al. [U)
--- ---
brass 15 220 110 KERRIDGE
4 on 0.045 and LAN· severe
steel 80 CASTER [2)
---
brass 10 1.8 10 40 ARCHAl\D
5 Oll and mellintn
steel 80 HIRST [3)
brass 10 1.8 3 7 ARCHARD
6 on
steel I 80
and
Hrnsr [31
small
gold RABINO•
7 Oll 0.1? 0.5 180 WICZ [7) severe
gold Fig, (6.27)
-- ---
gold RABIXO·
8 Oll 0.1? <0.04 ""'0 WICZ [7) micru
gold Fig. (6.2i)
---
brass 14 air CORXELIUS
9 Oll 3 40 160 760 Torr and severe
steel 90 ROBERTS [1)
Fig. (2)
---
brass 14 CORNELIUS
10 Oll 3 40 1.1 10-• Torr and
ROBERTS [1) tnicro
steel 90
Fig.(2)
-- ---
iron wire 10 2 in dry air R.HOLll[28) micro
11 Oll 0.03 1.5 and F. L.
white meta! 3 24
Wl\1 80 small
---
iron wire 10 0.6
12 Oll 0.03 1.5 in damp air HOLJ( [28) micro
white meta! 3 20
WM80 small
---
steel on 20 12.3 1.2 boundary KLUGE [2) micro
13 lubr.
cast iron
---
iron 15 boundary
14 Oll 0.2 1 0.4 lubr. HOLM [28) micro
iron (15)
---
electrographite 2.6 1. w-a HOLM
15 brush on 10 5 et al. [24) micro
copper ringt 8 0.1. 10-• Table (44.03)
metalgraphite 1" 0.05 HOLM
16 brush on
copper ringt 8
110 5
0.05
et al. [24)
micro
1 In the case of hydrodynamic brush lifting, the air pressure force has to be
subtracted from the applied Ioad P in order to obtain the accurate load for Z.
Cf.§ 44G.
240 Sliding Contacts
Table (41.10)
Linear dimen-
Bardness sion of typical
No. Contact Speed Load z
II wear fragments Author
material
10' N/m' rn/sec N w-· m
brass 15 .0045 220 110 9 KERRIDGE
1 on and
steel 80 LANCASTER [2]
4
brass
on
15 0.65 220 160 1 I and
BIRST
steel 80 LANCASTER [J]
9
gold
Oll
- - <0.04 9 - RABINO-
WICZ [7]
gold I Fig. (6.27)
16a Electric Colltacts, 4th Ed.
242 Sliding Contacts
not have time to reach equal values as in the stationary case with the
same current. However, the sliding contact is heated not only by the
current but also by friction.
The particular contact between a carbon brush and a copper collector1 in
air. The greater part of this cha pter is devoted to the discussion of this
important contact. Thereby, the problern of the familiar darkfilm on
the copper collector comes to the fore. Although the film is regarded
as essential for the performance of the brush, no general accepted name
has been given to it. W e shall call it collector film. It will be proved
that the theory 2 which R. HoLM proposed in the early thirties is sub-
stantially correct. He said that the film is practically insulating where
it is undamaged and that the conductivity through the brush contact
is essentially a result of fritting the collector film. The fritting Ieads to
metallic spots the size of which is dependent on the current in such a
manner that the contact voltage assumes values of 0.5 to 1 V.
B. Early investigations about the conduction mechanism in the
brush-ring (copper) contact. A question that was the subject of
h 9
Fig. (42.01). Voltage records of two electrographite brushes (anodic and in parallel) running in
the same track on a copper ring. Under one brush a portion of the collector film on the copper
ring bad been strongly fritted. The other brush did not respon<l to the fritted regions
adays we would say that the a-spots had adapted themselves to the
respective current by B-frittings.
A more complete demonstration1, due to R. HoLM, is given in
Fig. (42.01). It records contact voltages of two electrographite brushes
A and B (both anodic) placed diametrically opposite each other on
the film covered copper ring, but running in the same track. On a short
portion of this track brush A had been loaded with a strong current,
producing a low resistance. Every time brush A, now carrying a much
smaller current, passed this position (labelled fritted in the record) its
contact voltage feil to nearly zero. One expected the brush B to behave
in the same manner as it passed this discrete region; but it did not.
This shows that every brush essentially2 met its individual group
b 272
Fig. (42.02). Voltage record of a sliding contact between a graphite brush and a copper ring
covered by a highly resistive film. P = 4 N , I = 0.8 A, 810 rpm. The records 2, 5, 270 and 272
(figures refer to the number of revolutions) are placed one under the other for comparison. The
initial voltages before fritting are recorded in the part called start. Repeated imptovement of the
conductlon by fritting can be followed at a, a, a, a. At (b, b. b) a returning peak indicates a portion
on the ring that obviously did not frit
1 R. HoLM [30] Fig. (41.04).
2 Only the voltage drops labeled g and h appear in both records.
§ 42. Electrical performance of carbon brushes on rings and commutators 245
10
( ~M aA !AJI\\
as - --- -· ·~· ...... .
:::, 0
-05
-1.0
Fig. (42.03). Due to E. HOLl! [15] Fig. 1. Simultaneous L"·l·rec:orclR with a strong polarity effect
having developed after 1 hour of sliding on oxidized copperring (film about 150 ..\ thick). Voltage
tluctuations ( U+) appear under the brush on anodic ring between 0.4 and 1 V indicating strong
oxidation anrl thus fritting. Under the brush on cathodic ring oxidation can not develop and c-
is almoet enmtant = 0.4 V
1
Q
as l
I
I
i
I
I
! I'
2 I
i'
! ! ·JA
t:
,
0
1 '-., SA
<>:: !
I
I
I
..........
00. ....
0
I I-10A
l o ..............~
z1A 0 ....
0
00'2
O.D1 I
I i
I
01 01 o.s 2 s
P-
Fig. (42.04). R P-curves between nominally flat members; - - - b etween graphite membe" at
rest; o o obetween graphite brush and copper ring freshly cleaned, at rest; x x ~ sliding I km
between graphite brush and copper ring previously cleaned; the solid horizontal lines - refer to
t
the brush on cahodic ring, sliding at different currents (separate tests) until a polarity difference
in U bad developed as r ecorded in F ig. (42.03). See Fig. (42.05)
:F' ig. (42.05). Due to E.HOLM f 14], Fig. S. Simulatneous U·l·records with graph ite brushes (deftned
on p.151, footnote 1) after slid ing about 10 km on copper ring, previou s l~· cleaned for each measure-
ment. The pictures are thc middle parts of completc records aki n to th" rccords in Fig. (42.03)
Under the brush on the cathodic ring , voltage peaks also appear, but
they are lower and soon disappear; u- decreases to an almost constant
value of 0.4 V. The polarity effect as shown in Fig. (42.03) ha8 devel-
oped. This effect appears at various Ioad P , various brush grades 1 and
currents I. Fig. (42.05) shows the effect with different I at constant P.
The solid horizontallines in Fig. (42.04) show the long known fact that
the contact resistance becomes smaller with increasing current and
independent of P.
The explanation of the polarity effect is given by E. HOLM as fol-
lows: Frictional oxidation obviously is considerable under the brush
on the anodic ring indicated by the voltage fluctuations above 0.4 V.
It seems that many contact spots are insulating at encounter with the
brush and have to be fritted for adequate conduction. It has been des-
cribed in § 27 J that positive ions from the matrix metal 8,re moved
through the resistive film forming metallic filaments between the mem-
bers. This time dependent process requires obervoltages during sliding.
1 See Fig. 9 in E. HoLM [14]. It shows the polarity effect for brush grades on
a lamp black base as weil as on a petroleuro coke base, also for a pure natural gra-
phite grade.
248 Sliding Contacts
During sliding, the metallic filaments break and and their clean
ends being rubbed for a short time, rapidly oxidize. This can explain
the occurance of transient high voltages whenever fritting is needed.
Mter current reversal, the appearance of the polarity effect in ac-
cordance with Fig. (42.03) takes an appreciable time dependent on the
current (both sliding and stationary). This indicates that rectification
due to semiconducting films is not involved.
In vacuum, the voltage fiuctuations disappear, andin addition, the
voltage ofboth brushes decrease below 0.4 V .Fig. (42.06) shows that U
of both brushes has decreased
7.0 to about 0.25 V~ The de-
crease below 0.4 V indicates
that a protecting film has been
worn off the a-spots resulting
in an enlargement of the con-
ducting area.
-ID
The existence of a thin tun-
nel-conducting film an the a-
Time - spots during sliding (when the
Fig. ( 42.06). Simultaneous U ·l·records with the temperature in the contact is
brushes in vacuum on oxidized copper ring (film
about 150 A thick). Both U+ and u- decrease to about 50 °0) always is indi-
about 0.25 V ( < 0.4V in air) similar to Fig. 10
in E.HOLM (1 5].
cated by the shape of the re-
versibles; see E. HoLM [14]
Figs. (5) to (7). This film is not worn off during smooth sliding 1 in air.
B-frittings leading to adaptation of the a-spots to the C'urrent. When
sliding has developed to the stage pictured in (42.03), a sufficient num-
ber of a-spots are produced on the ring and adapted to the current. The
lowest adaptation voltage in air is about 0.4 V corresponding to a
temperature in the contact surface far below the softening temperature
of copper (I< 20 A per 0.3 cm 2 brush face). Thus adaptation occurs
by virtue of the force F according to Eq. (27.04). This force seems to
be just able to permanently maintain conducting spots (under the
brush on the cathodic ring) by recessing overlying disturbing films
except a thin oxide film adjacent to the copper.
Under the brush on the anodic ring adequate a-spots characterized
by a low valtage are present only occasionally. This is seen in Fig.
(42.03) when u+ drops to about 0.4 V.
380 10-4 45
z = 3.4. 106 (5. 10-5) 2 • = .
This is a large z. From Diagram (21.06) one reads that 86% of the equi-
e
Iibrium is reached. Hence
{} = e. o.86 = 47°
This is a harmless supertemperature.
§ 44. Friction and wear with a carbon-brush collector contact 251
The supertemperature of the warmest isotherm in the brush can
be calculated by means of Eq. (13.06) and a figure similar to (19.01).
It is found tobe about 70° which is morethan {}. This result confirms the
statement that the thermal gradient at the contact is directed into the
collector.
Exarnple 11: Contact during a valtage flash. A flash is alwayscaused
by a conducting area which is decreased below adaptation size because
of reduction of the load. Assumptions: Flash time of 2 . 10- 5 sec. The
conducting area decreases by loss of contact spots so that one remain-
ing a-spot has to carry the whole current (8A). In addition the area
of this one spot decreases, say to a clean circular area of radius 1/3 ac
= 1.33 . 10- 5 m. As is readily checked, this means a constriction voltage
of U = 6.8 V. This voltage is called a flash: see § 45.
The electrically produced power is now 58 watt (instead of 0.8 watt
in Example I), of which at least 14 watt flow to the collector. The fric-
tion heat is diminished to approximately 2 watt. Therefore assuming
16 1 27 10to watt
q= (2. 10-5)2 = . . m2
{} = e .o.ss = 590°
{} is the maximum supertemperature near the center of the spot.
The average supertemperature during the flashtime is smaller, namdy
about 500° as judged from Fig. (21.11). With a bulk temperature of
70 °C, the contact temperature can reach 843 °K. This suffices to harm-
fully soften the copper if the duration of the flash exceeds a certain
minimum. This minimum is 7.5 . 10- 5 sec according to Eq. (17) of
R. HOLM [38]. This is more than the assumed flashtime of 2. 10- 5 sec.
However, flashes may occur several times in the same spot and the
softening effects partly add. Five consecutive flashes of the assumed
strength in the same spot can render the respective spot soft and prone
to increased wearl.
are important in practice. The present theory can not help much in this
situation. Therefore, the exposition will be mainly confined to summa-
rizing the empirical results obtained under fairly well defined condi-
tions. Threading (grooving) and copper picking of brushes as well as
blistering of the collector film will not be treated. Concerning these
phenomenas we refer to R. HoLM [37] p. 271, SHOBERT [7], and J. E.
THOMPSON [2] where further references are noted.
A. Mechanical wear with sliprings, no current. We suppose smooth
sliding, i. e., a mechanical system that does not cause such disturbing
factors as for instance vibrations. They could increase the wear tenfold.
We also suppose a graphite material without special grinding compo-
nents added. Then, friction and wear with a graphite brush and a cop-
per ring covered with its normal collector film are much the same as
with the same graphite brush and a ring of the same material. It does
not matter that a copper oxide film is adjacent to the copper. The
upper layers of the collector film always consist of graphite platelets
with their basal planes, placed essential horizontally along the sliding
track of the ring, either graphite or copper. A similar film also prevails
on the brush face.
When the brushes on a copper slipring have run in, the sliding sur-
faces are very smooth1 . This occurs when the three interdependent vari-
ables, friction coefficient, contact temperature and contact voltage,
have become almost constant (cf. Fig. [39.03] and text) and when the
platelet film with its characteristic coverage has been formed on both
members. The wear may then be represented by Z"" 10-3 • In prac-
tice, on commutators, Z "" 10- 2 is common.
B. Inßuence of the current on the wear (absence of arcs). The cur-
rent does not directly inßuence the brush wear except for an occasional
small electrolysis; but it may be the cause of a high temperature that
produces oxydation and eventually softening of the ring material. This
leads to increased wear. If brushes slide smoothly on a ring of graphite
or a non oxidizing metal (as gold) the wear remains largely independent
of the current and dependent on the load alone. However, when the
ring consists of oxidizing material such as copper, oxidation plays a
great role. It is well known that the cathodic brush weBrs about 2 to
4 times more than the anodic brush (individual tracks); cf. E. HoLM [15]
Table 1. The wear of the anodic brush shows little dependence on the
current. lt can even happen that the wear is less with current than
without 2 •
The difference in wear can be explained, according to § 42 C, by
1 See in E. HoLM [12] the replica pictures (10) and (12).
2 See R. HoLMet al. [24] chapter 5, also R. HoLM [30] § 42, and HESSLER [1],
[2], [3].
§ 44. Friction and wear with a carbon-brush collector contact 253
make contact with the commutator at a spot 0.5 mm behind the trail-
ing edge of the brush under test. The voltage between the normal and
the auxiliary brush were scanned by the counter. Fig. (44.01) illustrates
the voltage variation during contact with one segment. It is essentially
equal to the brush-bar voltage. Each testwas characterized hy records
of the number of flashes and arcs, and their duration. At the end of each
test, the wear of the brushes was
1Z
V measured. Several tests were per-
10 formed under normal commutation
circumstances; but it was necessary
to run other tests with a poor com-
mutation (altered strength of the
J. interpoles) in order to obtain a dis-
z rV\ I tinct influence of the flashes.
1/ \. _/ The sign of the current i (in
0 z 10sec J Fig. (45.01]) atthe final point of con-
Time tact between the brush and a com-
Fig. (44.01). Variation of the brush-segment
voltage during 3 · 10-• sec. A transient llash
mutator segment is dependent upon
appears between 1 · 10-• and 1.6. 10-• sec. the machine compensation. The
Another llash beginning at 2.6 · 10-• sec Ieads
to an arc with the duration of 4 · 10-• sec. cathode ofthe arc and the flash con-
At arc ignition, the brush has lost contact nected with the arc will be different
with the segment. As to t 1 see Fig. (45.01)
for over-commutation and under-
commutation, as is evident from Fig. (45.01). Because of the unsym-
metrical conditions in machines, some of the armature coils may be
und er- and others over-compensated; cf. SHOBERT et al. [3]. Thus,
evidently the arc and the last flash on a segment are not bound to the
particular main polarity of the brush, in other words, they do not follow
the general signofthe brush under consideration. Ares may occur under
the main brush with either their cathode on t he brush or with their
cathode on the ring.
The investigation by R. HoLMet al. [43] is regarded as introductory.
In tabulating arcs and flashes, the sign of the current was disregarded
Averages of the observations for all brushes independent of their polari-
ty, were used for the presentation in Table (44.03). The following vari-
ables are used :
P = total mechanical Ioad on a brush; I = current per brush ;
Q = charge in coulomb transported by arcs during 1 km of sliding;
Qw = volume evaporated from the brush under the influence of
the arcs. From earlier measurements, w was found to be about
2.5 ·10-6 cm 3 fcoul. This value ist used in the calculations. r (2) and r (5)
are fractions of the test time during which the voltage was over 2 and
over 5 V respectively.
Under normal commutating conditions, it is not feasible to vary
§ 44. Friction and wear with a carbon-brush collector contact 255
any of the variables P, I, r (2), r (5) and Q without influencing the
others. In other words, a direct separation of the variables was im-
possible and it, therefore, was necessary to express their mutual relation
by a formula. The chosen empirically based formula for the wear per
km tra vel distance is
ta = 0.03 Lj
General Electric aircraft generator; L = 5. 10- 6 H; Stackpole brush 124; brushface 1.1 X 2.54 cm2; speed 15 mfsec
1 20 10350 9 0.03 0 0 0 1.0 0
2 50 1 10400 9 0.13 0.01 0.9 5.9 5.9 0.05
[;!2
Westinghouse 25 kW Exciter; L = 9. 10- 6 H; brush 124; brush face 1.9 X 4.55 cm 2; speed 35 mfsec s:
~·
3 50 I 26500_116 I o.o31 I o.oo12 I o I o I o I o 1 2.8 1 2.4 0
Westinghouse 25 kW Exciter; L = 9. 10- 6 H; brush 189 resin treated; brush face 1.9 X 4.55 cm 2
~~
4 l_:oo . l_18ooo 116 1 o.oo861 __ <).000351 o.o16 1 o.8 1 o.ooo231 3.0 1 3.4 4.0 0.003
Westinghouse 3 HP generator; L = 10- 4 H; brush 124; brush face 0.95 X 1.9 cm 2; speed 8 mfsec
5 10 9500 4.5 0.065 0.004 0.025 1 0.001 0.3 0.47 0.55 0.15
6 10 7600 4.5 0.081 0.0025 0.03 2 0.005 0.3 0.55 0.53 0.15
7 10 4330 4.5 0.3 0.055 0:7 6.5 1.03 2.2 2.51 1.885 0.18
1 Both brushes, 124 and 189, have lampblack base and are molded; 124 has density 1.51 gfcm 3 , 11 = 1.9. 108 Njm 2 and E
(YouNo's modulus) = fi3. tos N/m 2; 189 (resin treated) has density 1.6 gjcm3, H ~ 5. tos Njm2 and E ~ 80. tos Njm2.
§ 44. Friction and wear with a carbon-brush collector contact 257
t.han other segments and the commutator becomes unsymmetric, caus-
ing vibrations of the brushes and other detrimental effects1 •
R, listed in the last column of Table (44.03), is the ratio between
the wear due to arcs and the wear due to fiashes. It is computed
according to
PgQ + wQ (44.04)
R = P01 L•(2l + 2.(5)]1
Applying Eq. (44.04) to the observations in Table (44.03), one .finds
that always R < 1, i. e., the wear due to fiashes was always greater than
the wear due to arcs. Both effects are called sparking. Strong arcing is
always accompanied by strong fiashing resulting in high wear. Thus
visible sparking indicates high wear or, as one says, poor commu-
tation.
Table (44.05) shows properties of brush grades resulting in fairly
good performance with respect to f, U, and W0 when used on the kind
of machines noted.
D. Abrasion of the slip ring. The total volume worn from the ring
by electrographite brushes is smaller than that of the brushes sliding
on it (about 10 times smaller). Since the wear is distributed over the
whole ring track, it is very small referred to the unit area. In the
case of metal-graphite brushes, the total volume worn from the ring 2 ,
is about equal to that worn from the brushes. A consequence of these
facts is that the ring surface changes very slowly. Therefore, even a
brush that is sliding a long time (days) touches the ring only insmall
bearing areas on the humps and the indentation deformation of these
is merely elastic.
E. Friction between an electrographite brush and a ring. The dis-
cussion is con.fined to normal conditions with the friction coef.ficient, f,
within the range of 0.05 < I< 0.25. Engineers have ample expe-
riences concerning I, but the results give incomplete understanding of
the physical process.
The friction coef.ficient is proportional to the product of the load
bearing area, Ab, and the average speci.fic friction force, ip; cf. § 37.
A great 1 does not tell whether this value is caused by a change in Ab
or in ip; i. e., in the nature of the sliding surface. In (37.01) nos. 14
and 15 show variation of Ab with time at constant 'lfJ, while nos. 16
and 17 show variation3 of 'lfJ with temperature at constant Ab. No
further determinations of 'lfJ in brush contacts are available. As for
1See for instance TöFFLINGER [2].
2Cf. Table (41.09).
a The result was obtained with a contact between an electrographite brush of
H = 2. 108 Nfm 2 (face about 0.32 cm2 ) and a ring ofthe samematerial at P ~ 2.4N.
1 7 Electric Contacts. 4th Ed.
'l'able (44.05) Average values 1 referring to several similar brush grades for the application noted ~
H = indentation hardness (average of values for different directions}, E = modulus of elasticity (a great difference refers to different di- 00
rections}, S = breaking strength. The friction coefficient, f, refers to a contact temperature of 50-70 °C. W0 is the wear without current.
If the averagetotal voltage from brush to brush is 0.5 to 1.5, or 1.5 to 2, or 2 to 3, it is called low, medium or high respectively
Lampblack base electrographite impregnated; 1.6 1.6 46 0.18 4.5 0.15 1 medium
on many d. c. machines 4.5 82 0.4 4.5 0.18 1.5 medium i
Lampblack base electrographite; large power ~
machines at high speed 1.4 1.5 43 0.14 6.5 0.2 0.5 high
Lampblack base electrographite, usually with
impregnation; on large industrial motors and
generators (steel mills), also on main generators
on Rail Roads 1.6 4 88 0.42 . 6.0 0.23 high
Graphite with adjuvants, carbonized hinder;
high altitude (about 27 km) 1.65 3.5 0.27 2.0 0.25 1 medium
Metal graphite (copper or bronze) ; low voltage
a. c.and d. c.machines, commutators and sliprings 3.3-5.0 3.5 100-600 0.6-1 0.1-0.5 0.23 0.7-1.0 low
1 The values werc obtained by mcasurement~ in the Labaratory of the Stackpole Carbon Co. Cf. SnoBERT [7].
§ 44. Friction and wear with a carbon-brush collector contact 259
17•
260 Sliding Contacts
l
the total current, 2 I , to the brush.
Mter r seconds, segment (2) is in this
·S very position, and the current i has
changed from - I to + I, viz., the
current i has been commutated. The
0 lower diagram in the figure illustra-
tes how the currents i in the windings
Fig. (45.01). Schematic, showlng symbols and i 1 in the riser (1) vary with time;
and variatlon of current in a coll durlng
commutatlon the time scale conforms with the
corresponding positions of the front
of the brush in the top figure. If the variation of i and i 1 respectively
follows the solid curve that ends exactly at i = +I (or i 1 = 0) at the
time r, the commutation is called ideal1 • In reality, the brush will
leave its last contact with segment (1) at a time t1 before r when i 1 is
not zero. The current Variation may be similar either to the dashed
curve in the event of undercommutation or to the dashed-dotted curve
at overcommutation.
1 The realization of ideal commutation succeeds only under special fll.vorable
At t1 when the contact opens between the brush and segment {1),
the current, i 1 (t1 ) has a finite value j. This value is positive at over-
commutation and negative at undercommutation. The Separation of
the contact memhers usually does not mean a sudden interruption of
i 1 . An arc may ignite through which current continues to flow a short
time. The current i 1 (t) for t > t 1 decreases rapidly accompanied by a
corresponding swift change of i .
Three circuits are considered. They are sketched in Fig. (45.02).
First is the commutating coil (RL), R being its resistance , L its self-
inductance, and i the current.
Second, the remainder of the
armature.Togetherwith the Ioad,
it is represented as (R1 L 1 ) with
the resistance R 1 , the self-induc-
tance L 1 , the mutual inductance
. .lf1 ver sus (RL), and a current
y1 ± I whose values will be dis-
cussed below.
Third is a circuit (R2L2 ) re-
presenting the pole coils. They
have the mutual inductance M 2
versus (RL) and the current
Y + y2 ; Y is the average steady \.
current driven by the voltage E
of the machine ; y2 is added be-
cause of inductance from (RL). sidered Fig. (45.02). Diagram indicates the clrcuits con-
in Eqs. (45.05). 1t shows symbols and di·
The mutual inductance between rection of positive currents and relative motion
(R1L 1 ) and (R2L 2 ) is neglected.
It is assumed that. the coil (RL) experiences overcommut.ation
(undercommutation leads to mathematics similar to that for over-
commutation). W is the voltage induced into (RL) when it mows
across the interpole field. Meanwhile, the voltage E of the machine
does not produce any current through (RL). The variation of i causes
induction into (R1L 1 ) increasing the current beyond +I on the left
side (from the Ioad) and decreasing the current on the right side. During
the interval between t = 0 a nd t = ~ , the process is fairly symmetric
so that one may s et the currents in (R1L 1 ), on the left and right sides
respectively
and
+ I+ ydt)) (45.03)
- I + YI (t)
and use y1 (0) = 0 as initial condition.
262 Sliding Contacts
(45.05)
J
with the initial conditions i (0) = -1, y1 (0) = 0, y2 (0) = 0.
The emf E (of the machine) does not drive a current through the
coil just commutating as it is in a so-called neutral position. In the
circuit R 1 L 1 , equal but ·opposite currents are driven by E through the
halves of this circuit cancelling each other with respect to the fiow
direction here considered and marked in Fig. (45.02). For these reasons
E does not appear in the first two equations of (45.05).
The integration of(45.05)is carried out in R. HoLM [41]. There it is
shown that the third of the equations can reasonably be simplified to
L2 dyz = - M2 di
dl dt
B. A ßrst integral, slightly simplified, is as shown in R. HOLM (41),
(45.06)
-W -. U-(·1 + --2
M)
L1
""' (1 - -M21
LL1
-
M2)
-2
LL2
v
2 I L ---
s
(45.07)
for t < ta (arc life). This means i. a. that the arc current decreases
Jinearly until the minimum arc current Im is reached. At Im the arc
extinguishes and I suddenly drops to zero.
However,in the event of considerable arcing, Im is so much smaller
than j that one may calculate with an arc current decreasing linearly
with time from j to zero. In this event, the arc life is expressed by the
equations
where
(45.08)
1 The arc life is of the order of 10-s sec; see Table (44.04). Special arcs burning
about to-a sec as studied by SWINNERTON et al. [1] grow in length increasing
their voltage.
264 Sliding Contacts
~= 0.5to0.6 (45.10)
2
Va is about 12 volt under the positive and 24 volt under the negative
brush. Hence the rule of thumb
0 ' 55 L.
ta"" 18 1 = 0 • 03L.1 (45.11.)
E1 = ! i v t = 5 ·10- v, ~
1 11 5 (45.14)
EL = 0.3LjJ (45.15)
I
3.8 12.9 19 5 9.3 8.3
6.25 12.9 12 5 9.6 8.3
3.8 12.9 23 10 11.5 16.6
266 Sliding Contacts
E. Each brush makes contact with more than two segments. When
a brush contacts more than one segment, more than one coil is short
circuited. Two situations appear: 1. when a coil (RL) is engaged in
commutation, a second coil (R,L.) lying in the same slot is short cir-
cuited by the brush; and 2. no coil in the same slot is short circuited
but a coil (R,L8 ) in an adjacent slot is. The discussion is confined to
one coil (R,L,). Extension of the problem to several coils of this kind
is easily conceived.
In case 1, the magnetic connection between the coils (RL) and
(R 8 L 8 ) is strong. Practically the total energy, not commutated in
(R L), is tranferred by induction to (R8 L 8 ), thus lost for the arc. This
energy is soon consumed in the resistance of (R8 L.}. DREYFUS [1] intro-
duced the designation of dependent (in German: unselbständig) commu-
tation for this process.
In case 2, the magnetic connection between these coils is weaker
than in case 1. As shown in R. HoLM [41], this has the effect that the
inductanceof(RL)appears tobe reduced to about 0.75LandEq. (45.11)
to
ta = 0.75·0.03Lj = 0.0225Lj (45.18)
Clearly, these effects require that the brush not only covers the seg-
ments concerned but also that the brush has true contact spots on each
of them simultaneously; cf. Section F.
F. The importance of the elasticity of the brush for the commutation.
Since the same interpole field shall produce the commutation on every
segment, it is necessary for good com-
mutation that the brush makes contact
for an equal time on each segment. This
means that the a-spots must be fairly
uniformly distributed over the entire
face of the segment, when brush and
~
segment are positioned as illustrated
I
in Fig. (45.01). In other words, the brush
I
I
I
I
must fit very weil to the curvature of
I
\
I
I
the commutator1 • The requirement of a
good adaption is particularly apparent in
Fig. (45.19). In the point Ba brush the case when it is required that the brush
with thc radius of curvature r,
tonches a ring with the radius '• contacts several segments simultaneously.
Recalling that a commutator never is
perfectly round, and that the wear can adapt the brush only to the
least curved portions of the ring, one understands that the unstrained
brush face always has a radins r 1 that is greater than the averageradins
1 Cf. TöFFLil'WER [2].
§ 45. Theory of com.mutation with special regard to voltage flashes and arcs 26i
r2 of the commutator. The difference will be increased by unavoidable
wabbling ofthe brush. From these considerations it is evident that the
reasonably good fitting of the brush which actually occurs must be
produced by elastic deformation. A formula for the elastic deformation
of the brush shall now be deduced.
Fig. (45.19) shows the unstrained brush just tonehing the ring in
a line at B. It is supposed that .the load P N (per meter of the brush
width) deforms it so as to produce contact spots from A1 to A 2 , i. e.,
along the distance 2 b. This corresponds to a lowering of the brush face
at A1 and A2 by <52 - <51 • Closing the gap requires1
(45.20)
(45.22)
(a few a-spot radii). In the rest of the brush the current density and
voltage gradient are small. This means that the essential voltage be-
tween the spots a,_ and l':! is located within the two constrictions, and
that the current fiowing in the intermediate regions consumes a negli-
gible energy compared with that of the contact resistances. Cf.
R. HoLM [37] p. 285.
That it may be suitable to provide the brush with a relatively high
resistance in the rear portion is another question. This means increas-
ing the constriction resistance r1 in relation to r2 • The voltage r1 i 1 is
then able to dominate the quantity U in Eq. (45.06). That this is
favorable is evident from the discussion above on r1 i 1 achieving
the right sign for resistance commutat.ion. Cf. R. HoLM [ 41].
Shoe
Germany Carbon 75. 8 30 150 2
Sweden Al+ 10% Cu 40. 8 80 0 27
Sweden Al+ 10% Cu 40. 8 80 70 58
Baltimore Carbon 160. 18 32 120 2.5
Wheel
Baltimore Bronze 160. 8 32 120 1
Wire
Baltimore against shoe 160. 8 32 120 1.5
Baltimore I against wheel 160. 8 32 I 120 8
§ 47. Electric noise in contacts 269
details of its action are not known. Table (46.01) shows results of
wear measurements under fine weather conditions.
Measurements of the kind presented in Table (46.01) have not been
made with sufficient variation of the variables. Therefore, the effects
of arcs and voltage fiashes can not be separated, as was achieved for
the brush-collector contact by means of Eq. (44.02).
A rough estimation of the wear of the carbon collector Ieads to the
following values for Eq. (44.02)
W0 = 25 ·10- 7 cm3 /Nkm: 0 1 = 8 ·10- 7 ; -r(2) + -r(5) = 0.2
(47.01)
(47.05)
As for the deduction of how parallel rows co-operate, we assume a
set of n parallel equal resistances q. First we imagine that only one of
these resistances varies, then we consider how random variations among
all of them co-operate. If the first considered resistance changes from
q to q (1 + a) the conductance of the total set becomes
q (1 ~ a) + ~ + ··· ,." ~ (1 - :)
In other words, when one of the resistances varies by the small frac-
tion a, the total resistance varies by the smaller fraction afn. With
random phases of a the n parallel resistances co-operate so as to make
the total resistance vary on an a verage by the fraction
~rn=~
n y-n
Substituting jerV;, for a we find that the total noise voltage of the
microphone is
. lfm
Jer V-n (47.06)
But, since the current in the single row is j = I fn, we finally obtain the
result that the total noise voltage i&
(47.07)
which corresponds to Eq. (33) of HETTICH [1].
272 Sliding Contacts
Actually, r will not be the same in all single contacts, and should
be considered as an average value.
The fractional Variation e has appeared in the order of a few 10-4.
D. Contact trembling or agitation produces an electric noise in
current carrying contacts. This kind of noise plays a great part in
practice. The elastic counterforce against the load in the contact, to-
gether with movable masses, define mechanical eigen-frequencies which
cause variations of the contact resistance and, indirectly, variations
of the currentl.
Let L1 P be the amplitude of mechanically generated load variations.
Then, in a contact, L1 PfP (and according to Fig. [8.01]) also L1 RfR)
usually is greater, the smaller the load P. On the other band, at great
P, friction force and wear are great. To find an optimum for L1 Rf R
means to compromise.
E. Noise generated by sudden changes in, or interruptions of, the
contact. The concept of the contact area as composed of discrete spots
suggests the idea that the fl.uctuations of the conduction and of the
friction of sliding contacts is referred to the random appearance of the
spots. Since every conducting spot performs a solely transient ser-
vice, (which is true for the a-spots ofboth members) the beginnings and
endings of the activity of the discrete a-spots appear as more or less
sudden changes in registrations of the voltage of a sliding contact.
Calculations concerning features of noise of this type are cited in
R. HoLM [37] p. 240-242. The basic frequency, Iahelied 1/T in § IV,
should equal the number of a-spots passed per second, and the noise
spectrum should shift to higher frequencies with increasing speed.
EPPREOHT [1], investigating carbon-brush-copper-ring contacts, states
that the shift does not happen. Evidently, the noise observed did not
correspond to the exchange of a-spots, but was mainly caused by
effects independent of 1fT, as contact trembling and fritting, which
may have overshadowed the a-spot effect.
Radio noise is of partiewar interest. It is electrical noise that inter-
feras (usually by means of induction) with radio reception in the fre-
quency range around 106 to 107 Hz. Its generation by sparking commu-
tators and switches has recently been the subject of several investi-
gations2. Fig. (47.08) shows a typical noise spectrum of a switch malring
and breaking 1 to 4 A at 30 V. The bandwidth of the analyzer was
1000 cycles. The similarity with Fig. (IV,20) is evident. The spectrum
for 0 < nfT;;;;; 1 in Fig. (IV,20) 3 is seen between 0 and 2. 107 Hz in
1 BRANDMÜLLER and HEUMANN [1], and VoLKMANN [1].
• See Final Radio Interf. lEE ReportNo.4012; BENEDICK andMERCHANT [1];
MoTTER [1); FOBSTEB [1].
3 For Symbols t: and T see Eq. (IV,19).
§ 47. Electric noise in contacts 273
Fig. (47.08), rendering Tf-r = 2 · 107 • The maximum around v-rfT = 1.4
corresponds to that around 2.8 · 108 Hz in (47.08) and belongs to the
radio range proper. Its strength indicates sudden current changes as
they appear when arcs chop the current.
When an arc "chops", its current drops suddenly from a finite
value to zero 1 . The preceding variation has a relatively insignificant
noise effect. Therefore, the specific
radio noise practically disappears if ttr 7
the switch operates on a current V
below the minimum arc current. to·t
Vacuum arcs chop at relatively great
I and therefore produce a very ro- Jl \
disturbing radio noise.
Commutators produce noise spec- 1Q· '~
tra similar tothat ofFig.(47.08). The
exchange of the a-spots is of minor t/J!i ~ V\Z.
influence, but chopping by the com-
mutation arcs is a major distur- 7/JG
~ ,/ -
..
bance.
Possible means to reduce the 7
l
noise are: 1. To use several brushes 10 -7fl 1 70
·1 1
70 10 10 MHz 10'
in parallel; 2. To avoid arcing; 3. To Fig. (47.08). Typical noise spectrum of a
contact switching 1 to 4 A at 30 Y
nullify the causes of brush bounce.
This is more difficult, the higher the peripheral speed of the armature.
Using n equal contacts in parallel is expected to lower the noise
Ievel by the factor 1/V;;; cf. Eq. (47.06). GLOSSBRENNER et al. [1] found
a somewhat stronger effect on miniature sliding contacts.
Nowadays a speed of the order of 150 mfsec appears on slip rings
(not on commutators) in turbo-prop engines aimed at supersonic
velocities. As FoRSTER [1] and [2] reports, a new brush material has
been developed for these machines. The brushes are made of a com-
pliant material - molybdenum wool - that consumes impact energy
and therefore absorbs mechanical shock 2 • These brushes have a good
conductivity. Running on pure silver rings they show a negligible tend-
ency to weid with the ring. About the use of mercury contacts on high
speed machines see § 68.
1 See §51.
2 Thin wires werc felted together and compressed to form circular pads.
§ 48. Introduction
We term a contact a switch when we wish to emphasize that its
beha vior on breaking or malring is of primary interest. The general
problern in Part IV is confined to cases where the members move at
right angles to the contact surface; very little attention is paid to
tangential components of the movement. The treatment is also limited
as regards the energy of the circuits. The ma.jor interest is concentrated
on relay contacts, where the switching energy is small enough to be
taken up by a condenser of manageable size.
In most switches arcing is significant. This motivates the occupation
with the theory of the arc in this book. Reference to any Handbook
would not do because important parts of the theory are too little agreed
upon to be adequately represented in handbooks concerning arcs in
switches. As in earlier editions of this book, we begin with a short
survey ofthe appearance and treatment of arcs in a few typical medium
and high-duty switches. No complete discussion about types 1 of these
switches and contactors is pursued.
The arc produces vaporization ofthe electrodes. Apart ofthe vapor
again deposits on the electrodes, but at least one member loses material.
We call this effect material transfer by arcing. It is treated in § 64.
Preventing arcing does not mean absence of any wear. The bridge trans-
fer of material caused by the current remains. It appears mostly as
cavitation in the anode and a corresponding elevation on the cathode,
and is especially inconvenient when the elevation interlocks in the cra-
ter. §§ 65, 66, 67 are devoted to these phenomena.
1 As to types see Standard Handbook for electrical engineers, McGraw-Hill
Book Co., 1957. A valuable, easily read theoretical survey is given in KESSEL·
RING (J].
§ 49. lgnition of arcs in switches 275
efficient at the cathode for the Iiberation of electrons than the photons. The ions
work less by impact than by the so-called Auger-effect, see LOEB [2] Chapter IX,
p. 775.
276 Electric Phenomena in Switching Contacts
some arcing.
3 See the survey article GERMER [12]. Cf. HAWORTH [1], [2], ATTALLA [1].
KISLIUK (1).
§ 49. Ignition of arcs in switches 277
without a preceding contact. Further significant Observations stat~d
that arc ignition during closure appears much more readily and at low
voltages (300 V down to 50 V), if the contacts were "activated". Acti-
vation is generally caused by carbon from organic vapors or deposits.
Their carbonization is produced by previous discharges. Polymer de-
posits of the kind described in § 25 Iead to activation.
For the explanation of arc ignition at low valtage without a preced-
ing contact, several ideas were propounded. For example, it was as-
sumed that the strong field in the gap moves carbon particles, gathering
them to conglomerates with high peaks, at which the field is enhanced
by a very high factor. lt was furthermore supposed that the field
emission at the peak produces a current that is able to heat and evapa-
rate a portion of the conglomerate and that an arc ignites in the hot
and ionized vapor.
KISI.IUK [3] considered a phenomenon called 1-effect in §IX as
essentially aiding the ignition. Fig. (49.02) elucidates the 1-effect. The
boundary barrier of the metal, and the wall of the potential well of
an adjacent ion (on its way to the cathode) define a narrow potential
hill through which electrons from the metal can tunnel. On the energy
level that is indicated by a dashed line, the electron is able to escape
over the right side hill of the ion well, which is bent down by the f>trong
field . This electron is thus emitted by aid
of the ion. An electron tunneling on a Ek~~{
level lower than the right side hill, is
captured and neutralizes the ion.
The present writer has objections
agairrst these theories as explaining the arc Melu/
ignition. It is not probable that a field
emission which certainly cools the peak,
0
would nevertheless be able to produce such
3: current in the solid asperity as to heat
· · · F
it to evaporation and 10n1zatwn. or means of a positive ion adiacent by
Fig, ( 49.02). Electron emission
to
the 1-effect, it will be shown in § IX the metat
that this effect aids the electron emission
in a regular arc, where enough ions are available for the effect. But it
is not probable that the 1-effect can be decisive during the beginning
establishment of an arc.
However, since the time the cited papers were published, we have be-
come familiar with whiskers; see §VII. It is reasonable to assume that
in GERMER's experiments the following happened. Activation powder
and metal vapor produced at a contact operring or perhaps at a make
elongate an asperity peak into a hair-like whisker directed by the field.
When hit at the next consecutive closure, it is immediately heated to
278 Electric Phenomena in Switching Contacts
time-
its dependence on the rate of change of current and the opening speed
may be neglected1 • The infl.uence of the shape of the electrodes is also
neglected2 • These simplifications are permissible owing to the rough
approximations. The approximations are in turn justifiable due to the
rather great spread of observed arc durations and with respect to the
uncertainty of the circumstances met with in the practical work on
switches for which we wish to predict the average behavior of arcs in
switches. The observations refer to arcs shorter than 2 mm. Longer
arcs seldom appear in communication reiays delt with here.
80r----------,---------- -.-----------.----r----- ----- .
cunYel'flence(/f
Vol.t __._
flOVol.t Au.
manner between fiat electrodes and normal electrodes (according to definition §56)
and even between somewhat pointed electrodes,
§ 50. VI -characteristics of the stationary arc in air 281
minimum current, I",, and minimum voltage, V 111 , both functions of the
cathode material, I 111 also of the contact shape; see § IX,I.
It is shown that the lines I= Im and V= Vm are asymptotes to
VI-characteristics and that the point (Im, Vm) does not belong to any
characteristic. The asymptote I= Im is common for the family of
VI-characteristics1 belanging to the metal with this particular-1"., the
different curves for one metal being' discriminated by a different arc
length, 8. The line V= V". is an asymptote merely concerning the
shortest arc. For all arcs with finite length 8 the characteristics run at
voltages higher than V".. Fig. (50.01) is presented as a typical example
for a family of VI-characteristics. To begin with, we describe how the
plotted points were determined by measurements.
B. Observations on breaking contacts in an ohrnie circuit. Current, I,
voltage, V, and length, 8, are simultaneously measured. The rnethod is
to draw the arc slowly enough to simulate stationary conditions at
each state passed. An opening speed v < 20 cmfsec was found 2 to be
sufficiently slow. The observations can be made with oscillograph
records similar to the voltage record in Fig. (49.03). Because the circuit
is ohmic, the current oscillogram is the reversed image of the voltage
record. Therefore, it suffices to trace either one of these records. Pairs
of values ( V,I) for times t1 , t2 etc. are read from the records. The corre-
sponding arc lengths are approximately
8 = vt (50.02)
provided the opening speed v may be considered as constant. The
determination of v and 8 will be somewhat inaccurate, particularly at
incipient opening.
Fig. (50.01) contains straight lines beginning on the voltage axis
and ending on the ampere axis; for example the one beginning in the
point (60 V, 0 A) and ending at (0 V, 2 A). Such so-called re8i8tance
line8 play a considerable part in the following. Let us analyze what
they mean. .
Assurne an ohrnie circuit with the emf E = 60 V and the short-
circuit current I 0 = 2 A. In this circuit an arc is drawn. The observed
{V,I)-points referring to the arc arrange thernselves on the resistance
line. This line is called so because it is characterized by the ohrnie
resistance of the circuit; namely R = E fI 0 = 60/2 . The theoretical
evidence of this fact is proved by the statement that the equation
E = RI + V (valid for the circuit) is satisfied by (E- V)fi = Efi0
= R, as the result of the geometrical position of the resistance line.
1 The famous equation by Mrs. AYRTON is formed considering I,. as being zero,
The equation is not applicable for such short arcs as treated here,
2 See footnote 1 on p. 280,
282 Electric Phenomena in Switching Contacts
Two points on the line are particularly significant. The open circle
at 8 ~0 and I~ 1.45 A marks the arc ignition. The filled circle at
8 ~ 0.37 and I~ 0.65 indicates the situation when the arc is ruptured.
In this point the resistance line touches a characteristic corresponding
to 8 ~ 0.37 mm in the example. This 8 pertains to the greatest arc length
attainable by the line. Thus, it is the greatest arc length that can appear.
The idea of the resistance line was coined by W. KAUFMANN, in 1900.
The lowest arc voltages, on any resistance line, pertain to ignition
voltages ofthe arc at a gap whose width is too small to be determined.
The curve that connects such points is regarded as the characteristic
of the 8horte8t arc.
As remarked above, the voltage peak with which record (49.03)
begins, is not real. It is caused by an oscillation of the moving system
of the DunDEL oscillograph. A better value of the ignition voltage is
obtained from the intersection of the nearly verticalline of the incipient
jump and the smoothed curve averaging the consecutive arc voltages.
Fig. (50.01) is due to R. HoLM et al. [27]. The circuit was ohmic 1
with an emf < 250 V. The electrodes were not particularly cleaned
but can be regarded as representing service conditions (metallic clean
contacts were employed by FINK2 ). V", is read from the horizontalline
and is fairly well defined, but the position of the asymptote I = Im is
indistinctive. It is sensitive to many circumstances, some of which are
uncontrollable.
The minimum current Im is found to be dependent on the relative
humidity, h, of the air and properties of the electrodes. Usually, it
seems to have a minimum at h ~ 0.4 and assumes higher values (often
up to 50% higher) at very low or at great humidity3 ; cf. Table (X,3).
Evidently, it must have been the cleanness of the contacts that was
responsible for Im-values in FINK's measurements having been higher
than those judged as normal in.Table (50.03). A further influence on Im
has been observed by BuRSTYN [1_] who succeeded in increasing the
minimum current from 0.4 to 0.95 A on silver contacts by switching at
slowly increased currents. Determinations of I". and Vm made by various
observers with practically clean electrodes are summarized in Table
(50.03); cf. § IX,I.
The I 111 -values are to be regarded as averages during the noted
circumstances. Actually, variations in the cathodic arc basis steadily
change the conditions for Im resulting in a random character of the
duration of the arc. This will be discussed in §51.
1A resistance mat, SaHNIEWIND asbestos grid, was used.
2FINK [1] drew each arc from freshly clean spots of the electrodes and thereby
secured a small spread in the records under equal circumstances.
3 ,Accordin$ to observations br R. HoLM and collab., h = 0,4 means 40%,
§50. VI-characteristics of the stationary arc in air 283
Table (50.03). Determinations of Im and V min normal atmosphere, by various observer8;
electrode diameter ::P diameter of cathode spot; cf. Table (X,3)
Im Vm
A y
)Jaterial
I lYES I FIXK
I HOL)! lVES I GAULRAPP I FIXK
I HOL)!
I Electrodes I Mo Pt
70
- 50Vo1.t.+~
I
Im.+2Am:p -- ~,tOVo1.t.+~
--JOVo1t+~
20Vo1.t.+~
20
0 J Amp
the contact metal. They are defined by the plasma that, at small cur-
rents, burns in an atmosphere which is essentially characterized by air1 .
Diagram XI contains curves with such co-ordinat.es (I - I",) and
(V- V",). It has to be placed on a co-ordinate diagram so that its ordi-
nate axis coincides with the asymptote 1 =1111 and its abscissa axis with
V = Vm for the respective metal. Then the family ofits curves represents
approximately a diagram of the kind in Fig. (50.01), but this time for
the metal chosen.
1 The plasma is not. strictly independent of the meta!. In R. HOLM [37] p. 313
rules are given for certain relevant corrections. Because of the poor accuracy of the
method these rules are not repeated here.
§ 50. VI ·characteristics of the stationary arc in air 285
On Fig. (50.04), a basic system of co-ordinates is seen. We begin by
marking its scales on a mm-squared paper where an ordinate of25 mm
correspond to 10 V, and an abscissa of 50 mm to 1 A. Then we apply
the cut out Diagram XI for representing the characteristics of silver
at normal atmosphere (relative humidity "" 0.5). The asymptotes for
this case are Vm = 12 V and Im= 0.4 A'. Diagram XI is placed upon the
mm-squared paper so that its asymptotes coincide with V = 12 V and
I= 0.4 A, as it is seenon Fig. (50.04). It is now ready for application
of the resistance line. Fig. (50.04) illustrates the employment of the
resistance line, represented by a ruler, that is shown in a position
corresponding to E = 60 V and I 0 = 2 A, the current with the contact
closed. We read an ignition current of 1.6 A from the point where the
ruler intersects the lowest characteristic. We also read an arc length
s1 = 0.44 mm at rupture for the very characteristic that the ruler would
touch (not drawn). Supposing a constant v = 10 cmfsec, the duration
of the arc would be t = 0.0044 sec.
Table (53.08) in R. HoLM [37] shows that measurements of arc
durations at different currents and opening speed can be weil consistent
ifthey are madeundersuch circumstances that Imremains constant. It
is quite otherwise if Im can vary. In the text following the table, a
drastic example is given. It demonstrates how a possible variation of
Im can influence the arc duration. Another example is obtained from
the curve for 0 2 of Fig. 5 in FARRAL and CoBINE [2]. The change in
the slope of the curve could be referred to a change in Im from about
0.4A to about 0.7 Afor the short circuit current I 0 > 1 A. An Im= 0.7
lies between the values reported in Table (50.03).
D. Use of the resistance line together with arc characteristics for the
problern of how a constant current is shared between an arc and an
ohrnie resistance both in parallel. In the foregoing we
have assumed the absence of any inductance in the
contact circuit. Now we treat the other extreme
case where a !arge inductance, L, is inserted (see
Fig. [50.05]) in the circuit, so that the total current,
I through L, is practically constant throughout the
life time of the arc to be considered. As indicated
by the figure the arc is shunted by the ohrnie resist-
ance R. We shall find in § 63 that such cases are Fig. (50:05). Are
of practical interest. We ask in which portions I is ghunted by the re-
sistance R. Constant
shared by the ohrnie resistance and the arc, and current
when the arc ruptures.
Suppose for example that the short circuit current is I 0 = 2 A,
R = 30 Q, and that the arc has been drawn between silver electrodes
at t = 0. Fig. (50.04) can be applied. The ruler isplaced so as to inter-
286 Electric Phenomena in Switching Contacts
Numerical data for the comparison are obtained from three refer-
ences and noted in Table (51.01).
We shall perform some instructive calculations concerning the
following concept of bursts. An ion in a suitable position at the cathode
surface provides passes for electrons from the metal. It may happen
that it accommodates several electrons, but it may also be that no one
uses the opportunity to escape. On an average the number of electrons
that passes through an ion will be smaller than the ratio (electron
current)/(ion current). It can not be much less, since (as shown in §IX)
the ions passing through dominate the emission of primary electrons1 •
Oalculalion. The following assumptions are made for both, vacuum
arcs, and arc$ in air with constant gap:
L All bursts have the same duration, A sec, equal to the duration
of a suitable ion position.
2. The observation time is divided into intervals A; we calculate
as if each hurst starts at the beginning of an interval.
3. The average number of bursts per time interval A is y = fj I for
the vacuum arc and y = I · fJ I for an arc in air; I is a numerical factor,
and I is the current.
4. Tlie probability p(x) of x bursts on one interval A is given by
PorssoN's formula
11'
p(x) = zlexp(y)
Hence
p(O) = exp(- y)
5. The arc extinguishes when x = 0 and consequently has the aver"
age duration
ta = Aexp(y) (51.02)
The condition that fJ shall satisfy the observations for the vacuum
arc noted in Table (51.01), yields
fJ = 2.27 and L1 = 5 · 10-s sec (51.03)
Note that the rather rough calculation is based on measurements
that are afflicted by a great spread. KrNGDON. [1] p. 1356 uses a more
sophisticated calculation and computes the hurst duration on indium
to be 5 · 10- 7 sec. The difference between the two different compu-
tations lies within the Iimits of uncertainty.
Using the values in Eqs. (51.02) and (51.03) with the data of
Reference 2 in Table (51.01), one finds that I varies from 2 to 4. This.
1 Kingdon refers the bursts to the AuGER e:ffect. This e:ffect, however, as we
know from the theory ofthe glow (cf. § IXA) would pass less than 0.1 electron per
ion; i. e., much too little for the hurst e:ffect.
§51. Vacuum arc; particularly its extinction 289
is always great enough to indicate that the air ions produce at least
as many bursts as the metal ions, in spite of the air pressure being many
times (about 15 times) smaller than the pressure of the metal vapor.
This makes it comprehensible that gas dissolved in the metal has
a great infl.uence on the stability of the arc. The contact metal of a
good vacuum switch must be degassed.
C. Current chopping by vacuum arcs. Consider an opening vacuum
switch in which an arc ignites. The current decreases during the lifc
of the arc and induces voltages in circuits that are magnetically con-
nected with the circuit of the arc. Much higher voltages are induced
when the arc finally extinguishes and the current suddenly drops to
zero. In this event the arc is said to chop the current. The high voltage
can be harmful in many respects, i. a., as noise impulse or in damaging
insulation. The chopping induces less distarbing energy, the smaller
the chopping current. It is of great practical interest to find means to
make this current small. We gain clearification of the description by
employing concepts and formulas of Section B.
Consider the case that the switch arc is ignited at t = 0 with thc
current I = I 0 and the arc current decreases as I (t) = 10 exp (- tf-r)
where -r is the time constant of the circuit.
At the average duration time, t", of tbe arc, the current is
D = 1.27 cm D = 5cm
cm recovery time in microseconds
0.076 7 1
0.23 11 4
0.46 25 12
Let p 1 = X I 1 be its value at t1 when X starts its rise before the arc
looses its current. The speed of the continued cooling has been computed
as follows. It is assumed that the cooling follows the formula
(52.02)
rH
dQ = - Qe = - pdt
(52.03)
t Cf.§ 28A.
294 Electric Phenomena in Switching Contacts
(52.04)
the adjacent plates as electrodes. Each subarc has its cathode and
anode fall. Together they greatly increase the voltage that the sub-
divided arc requires. During zero current interval the short subarcs
are swiftly de-ionized so that each gap requires about 200 V for re-igni-
tion by means of electron avalanches; cf. § 52A. In order to have a
safety factor, enough barriers are usually used so that the total voltage
tobe mastered per gap corresponds to about 100 peak volt. As regards
the heavy de-ion breakers (>15000 V) see ÜOBINE [1] p. 394 and
DICKINSON [1].
The rate of cooling within the gaps (width = s) is proportional to
8- 2 (FRIND [2]). The de-ionization proceeds essentially by ambipolar
diffusion of carriers to the walls, when the temperature is < 3000 °K
and s < 4 mm. A higher temperature is able to produce ionization that
compensates for the losses (RIEDER [1)).
In case of short arcs as those between the barriers of a Deion, it is
necessary that the arc spots cool quicker than the plasma. The cooling
of W and C is too slow, particularly due to their relatively great arc
spots and thus small z in (21.02). This has been shown experimentally
by Tonn and BROWNE [1], MACKEOWN et al. [2] and others1 • See also
R. HOLM [ 37] § 51 E.
Recently, the cooling influence of the electrodes was investigated
for gaps ofthe order ofmm by WHITTAKER and EnELS [1], EnELS and
ETTINGER [1] and NösKE [1]. WmTTAKER and EDELS show that a gap
(between carbon electrodes) with the width of 2 mm and the dia-
meter of 4 mm can cool a currentless plasma from 5500° to 3000 °K
(the temperature of the electrodes) in about 10- 4 sec. NösKE finds gaps
of 1 mm width particularly efficient. The reliability of the switching
process was not investigated.
Electrodes of silver containing cadmium oxide are known to ha ve
a kind of arc extinguishing ability; see KEIL [4] p. 152 and 184.
SNOWDON [1] and [3] showed that contactors with electrodes of sin-
tered Ag + 10% CdO had an interrupting capacity of 200 V at 300 A
up to 350 V at 60 A, while electrodes of silver or coin silver without
CdO, managed only half these powers. Internally oxidized cadmium
material was about 10 '7;, less effective than the sintered metal. No con-
vincing theory of this effect with CdO has been published.
E. Contact rectifter2 and synchronous switch. Considering the extent
of the difficulties in preventing re-ignition, one may wonder whether
or not it would be possible to arrange a "respite interval" around the
moment of zero current, and let the contact open just in this interval.
1 See CoBINE [1] p. 352 etc. where various references are made.
2 References: KESSELRING [3], KoPPELMANN [1], [2], [3]; seealso R. HoLM [37]
§57 D and RoLF [1].
§ 53. Breaking direct current 297
Actually, this is done in the "contact rec#fier" that mechanically
blocks every second half-cycle of an a. c. current. By ingenious inventions
the current is quenched to almost zero during a "respite interval" at
which time the contacts move together bouncelessly in less than
6. 10- 4 sec. Several such rectifiers are in use, but it seems that semi-
conducting rectifiers wHI provide simpler means.
f f
t. t.
W= Vaiadt= ~ LI2 + (EI- RI2 )dt (53.01)
0 0
t.
where _!_ LI2 is the inductive energy of the system, JEI dt is the
2 ~ 0
energy that the system produces during i., and J RP.dt is the energy
0
that is consumed in the resistance, R, of the system. Evidently, during
a sufficient interval, V. must be greater than E. The greater Va, the
smaller is ta. This means the advantage of a relatively small heat devel-
oped by the arc. However, the dielectric strength of the insulations
defines an upper Iimit of va.
1 Informative literature: BoEHNE and JA.NG [1], KESSELRING [J].
2 Cf. Fig. (52.07).
298 Electric Phenomena in Switching Contacts
(54.02)
holds. Subtraction of the first equation from the Jatter one gives
d2 I
dVc = L a,,2 dt + Rdi + dV.
- dQ =I
dt
Hence
{54.03)
,t_ . a v.
. _ R .-BI (54.04)
2L)2
1 ( r L 1
LO< or ---- < -· (54.05)
Or~ 4
Diagram XI gives
for oase (1) (2) (3)
av. -3 -9 -230
aT
henoe rl 6 0 -140
and acoording to aperiodio undamped swinging up to }arger
Eqs. (54.05) and (54.06) osoillation osoillation and larger amplitude
§ 55. Bouncing
Contact make is usually not finished at the first touch, but as a con-
sequence of bouncing the members make and break their contact several
times before they reach a permanent state of contact. The bouncing of
relay contacts brings many disturbances with it. The exactness of con-
t act make is lost, and the material transferred by arcs and bridges is
increased since each bounce means a n ew switching operation. A clos-
ing contact is particularly exposed to darnage by rebounce when the
current begins with a high inrush as is the case of a circuit containing
wolfram filament lamps. The cold filament has a much smaller resistance
than the glowing one, and the initial current may be 8 times the normal
lamp current.
However, the contact break at a bounce may not entail the same
wear a& anormal switching operation. \Ve imagine, for instance, bounc-
ing on switching a circuit accord-
Impad forct- ing to Fig. (61.01). Let the first
tlllSiic contact make be at t = 0. At t1
t:DIInkrforce
the first rebounce commences.
With t1 < L j R , the current I 1 at
Time the moment t1 has attained only
a fraction of the short-circuit
current I 0 • We assume the time
Fig. (55.01). Variation of the impact force during constant r 0 to be much smaller
the time of an impact
than ti . Consequently at the
moment t1 the condenser is completely discharged and therefore has
its total ability to quench the arc. Thus only the relatively feeble cur-
rent I 1 which is interrupted at t1 , could possibly cause arcing which,
however; would be quenched. The ratio I 1 ji 0 depends on the circuit.
The impact has two phases, penetration and restitution. Fig. (55.01)
illustrates how the elastic counterforce varies. It rises to a maximum
at maximum indentation and reaches again zero when the contact
opens at the rebounce. The momentum of an impinging body with
mass m and velocity v varies from v m to zero during penetration and
§ 55. Bouncing 301
from zero to v.m during restitution where v. is the velocity of begin-
ning rebounce. The quantities vm and v.m are given by the respective
areas between the curve of Fig. (55.01) and the abscissa axis. In case
of perfect elastic deformation these areas would be equal, thus v. = v.
Actually, the curve is unsymmetric as indicated in the figure; v.< v.
This means that some impact energy is cousumed by plastic defor-
mation or lost because restitution of some portions of the elastic de-
formation is delayed.
The total impact time, t;, usually is of the order of 10- 5 to 10- 4 sec.
Eq. (1,6) shows how to calculate t; for a ball hitting a heavy anvil, both
members perfectly elastic. With members
shaped otherwise, the coefficient in (1,6)
changes but little, whereas the factors within
the brackets remain essentially unchanged.
Note that the velocity appears as v116 and
thus usually has a; small influence.
The elastic counterforce that is able to
return the impinging body during the short
time t;, is quite great. often 3 magnitudes Ami/
greater than the weight of the body.
As far as the above discussion goes, v. is Fig. (55.02). Movable holder H
with ball m. When m hits the
finite and thus a bounce will always appear. anvil and looses contact with
In order to oppress the bounce, a special the latches of the holder, the
spring Sp excerts a Counter-
pressure must act during the restitution. Fig. force against bounce
(55.02) demonstrates the principle by means
of an example. The figure shows details of a device that was con-
structed by N. C. SH.AW [1] for the study of bouncing. The ball m
is held in a holder H between the spring Sp and latches ofthe holder H.
In a test the holder, fixed to a turnable Iever, is released and falls until
the ball hits the anvil indenting it. The holder is then stopped by a
Jatch 1 and the ball soon tries to bounce. But its movement is braked
by the "stored" force in the spring that starts to act just during the
impact time. Means are provided to record the movement. lf the stored
energy is great enough, the ball is not able to open its contact with
the anvil. This means that the contact remains closed. It becomes
stationary after some damped undulations of the contact pressure.
In SH.Aw's device for analyzing bouncing, the spring Sp can be
adjusted to no bounce or to Iet the ball bounce with more or less energy.
However, practice desires simpler means against bouncing even though
they would be less effective.
Friction is often applied to dissipate impact energy of spring contact.
The principle is shown for the butting type in Fig. (55.03). The movable
1 Not seen on the figure.
302 Electric Phenomena in Switching Contacts
arm A carries two plate springs / 1 and / 2 • The moving contact member
k 1 is attached to / 1 . On its impact with ~ the springs, / 1 and / 2 , become
bent and slide with friction against each other, thus
consuming a portion of the impact energy1 •
At closure of a knife type contact the friction
effect is considerable, particularly if the blades be
preloaded by elastic pressure 2 • But, of course, a
good symmetry must be provided in order to make
the closure instantaneous.
Another method consists in increasing the Ioad
during rebound. It can be materialized by using a
hollow movable member containing a heavy powder
in the cavity. At contact impact, the powder conti-
nues to move a short distance and then exerts an
Fig. (55.03). Spring
impact pressure at a moment when the contact
contact closing wlth without the powder would bounce. Cf. the effect of
sliding between the
springs / 1 and / 2
Spin SHAW's device, Fig. (55.02).
KEsSELRING avoids the darnage of bounce by
using several contacts in parallel. The contacts are operated so that
when the first one rebounces the second just penetrates and so on. He
also used the method 3 , illustrated in Fig. (55.04). The upper mass M is
exposed to the downward directed force F (for instance, a magnetic
attraction). After moving the distance h under the inßuence of F, M
hits another mass m that is carried by the ßat spring f. The strength
of f is defined so that a deviation x of m from the position designed
corresponds to the application of a force - 0 x on m. During impact,
M and m move in contact with each other.
The contact willremain closed (pro ba bly loos-
ened) during the rebound when m is able to
follow M up again . This is achieved when the
relationship
mF(
O<kM i + 2M
m) (55.05)
observed welding after an arc at the first impact. The weid prevented
bouncing. He has indications that the closing contact was hitting some
protruding asperity which melted (occasionally owing to an arc) and
provided the material for the weid.
MERL [6] using SHAW's device (cf. Fig. [55.02]) investigated welds
after discharge of a capacitor (C = 1.7 · 10- 3 and 10- 2 F, each charged
to 100 V) at closing Ag contact (velocity = 12 cmfsec). The strength
of the welds was very erratic. Averages were of the order of 0.2 and
1 N at initial current of 25 and 95 A respectively, little dependent on C.
1 The ear!ier used terms "plasmaless arc" and "plasma arc" are abandoned
onotle colllode
platinum
0,5mm
onode cotl!ode
Fig. (56 .01). The effect of bridge transfer enhanced by the action of anod~ dominated arcs, after
millions of operations. A pip on the cathode, a crater on the anode
always receives more heat than the cathode (cf. Eqs. (IX,8] and [IX,11])
and consequently evaparates more, provided this spot is not consider-
ably larger and thus much more cooled than the cathode spot. Since
the anode spot increases with the gap, the transition from type I to
type II appears when the gap length surpasses a critical value.
20 Electric Contacts, 4th Ed.
306 Electric Phenomena in Switching Coiltacts
Flg. (56.02). Bridge and short arc material transfer in the shape of a core or dome
on the cathode, magnifted 8 fold.
J
ta
W= wldt=wq (56.03)
0
where q coul is the quantity of electricity that has passed through the·
arc, and iö is a certain average value of w, which is a function of the
current (as will be seen).
The only directly observed quantity is the difference, G, between
the total evaporated volume and the redeposited volume; hence
G= W -·D (56.04}
It is an agreeable experimental result for the calculation that G
is fairly proportional to w so that we may write
G= yq (56.05)
below the straight line for copper. This shows it is the oxygen that
considerably affects the silver arc because, in nitrogen and vacuum,
y is as high as with copper in air and vacuum. An additional (maxi-
SwAI
Jfi
I ~\Nz
EH I / V
Yoculm {><~ A~
1/
r;;:,< 11Ag.15%CdO
. 1 Olr 0
1 I" Cob-_ lsw ,- f--
I/' Au NA?%~ I lsinler
Kox~~ V{. I _I 1
1
tOl 703 A w>
I-
Fig. (56.09). Rate of evaporation in m3 /coul of the cathode as a function of the arc current; 0 refers
to silver, --o to (Ag, CdO), x to copper, 0 to gold. Air means normal atmosphere, 100 % N 2 means
pure N2 • Drawn arcs.
100
'KJ"G 1 To2WJO
g/lilul
I
JJ_
lJt)
\
1\
t)f-----
"§
t
!\>
· 11otts
·~· \
I
I \ I
11
\ ~ V
- ~~er1~--- I ~ -----
[.2::.pneS!..,-
10
0
N
10 20
i""
1 Air
30 WJ 50
_:;...-
f1}
--;c\\0350~
II
70 80 90% 10.'0
Oxygen (remoinder f111rogen)
Fig. (66.10). Due to SWINBHART [3). Effect of oxygen on arc erosion,
gas pressure = 1 atm. Fine silver
Flg. (56.11). Due to SWINEHART [3). Fine silver in 100% N•• Total arcing Operations 80; aver-
age arc amperes = 160; each. arc duration = 3.5 millisecond ; arc voltage = 28 at arc Iength
= 0. t 27 cm. The surfaces are very rough. AfinP black powder completely coats the cylindrlcal part
()f the anode (not visible on the ftgure) while the corresponding part of the cathode (right slde)
remalns in its original condition
Flg. (66.12). Due to SWINEHART [3). Fine silver in 100 % oxygen. Total arcing operations 16;
average arc amperes = 160; each arc duration = 3.5 millisecond; arc voltage = 19 at 0.127 cm
length. Very smooth arced surfaces. The areas adjacent to the arced surfaces have a black deposit
ances always exist which oppose a sudden change of the current, and
therefore arcing begins with the current I 0 that was flowing in the
moment of opening. The purpose of the quenching is to quickly di-
minish the current during the life of the arc. Quenching methods are
described in §§ 61 and 62.
D. Mechanical wear produced by the hammering e:lfect of switching
contacts. Besides the electrically produced wear (discussed above), a
purely mechanical wear appears in switching contacts. It is a minor
effect and usually negligible, but, in the contact rectifier it is of
great significance. KESSELRING and coworkers1 , when engaged in the
development of a contact rectifier~, used fine silver because a small
contact resistance was required. In order to keep bridge tranRfer3 as
small as possible, the switching was made in moments when the cur-
rent, I, was very small; namely I~ 0.3 A <Im. Usually material was
transferred to the cathode indicating that bridge transfer nevertheless
was involved. But, it also occurred that material was transferred to the
anode, which showed the presence of a new phenomenon. When the
contacts operated without current at all, elevations appeared at random
on the one or the other member. The amount oftransfer was about the
same as with the small current.
The very light movable member had merely to close and open a
narrow gap between two terminals. Nevertheless, by virtue of the high
velocity of about 0.5 mjsec at contact closure, the members hit each
other with a kinetic energy of about 5 · 10- 3 Nm. A material transfer
of up to 10-10 m 3 was produced in 108 operations.
The workers suggested the following picture ofthe process. Fatigue,
because of repeated impact and of some sliding, leads to loosening of
silver scales at the contact surface. Such particles assemble, probably
by means of a suction at contact opening and form a compaction on one
member under the influence of hammering. The other member (oppo-
site to the elevation) suffers an increased stress, and therefore the trans-
fer continues in the same direction, enlarging the elevation. The small
bridge transfer (at small currents) merely defines a preference for the
direction of the start of mechanical transfer. The compaction could
easily be removed as a whole from the u.nderlying silver. No sign of
weid could be. detected. However, a strong adherence, at least in very
small spots, must have taken place because a lubricant, even the thin
water deposit from a very humid atmosphere diminished the material
transfer 4• The relative loosely attached particles can bc removed by
i See HÄMMERLI [1].
2 Cf.§ 52E.
3 See§ 65.
'Cf. the inHuence of very thin liquid films on frictional wear; Table (41.09).
§ 57. Discharge transients 313
air blasts at contact opening. No compaction is then formed, and any
visible transfer by hammering is avoided. In vacuum where suction is
excluded, the surfaces become roughened, but no concentrated build
up appears. The authors ' succeeded in making rectifier contacts ser-
viceable for 108 operations by means of lubrication and blasting.
-0(){)
+200
..
~ 2
6
~
~0
ti 2
~
6
8
0 at 02 03 a~
milliseconds
Fig. (57.02) records the current of a series_of discharge transients similar to those of Fig. (57.01)
~
....;:: -3001
~ 0
+200
0 zo 30
microseconds
Fig. (57.03). Voltage record of a single discharge transient with a resolution high~r than the re-
cords in Flg. (57.01). The ftgure shows the formation of a. sudden bridge over the gap (proba.bly
a Whisker)
0 10 20 30 so
micl'oseconds
Fig. (57.04) shows detalls of such transients as in Fig. (57.01) but with a higher resolution
5000
c.p.s.
time
Fig. (58.01). Due to R. HoLM. Voltage record of an arc during contact closure: using rough silver
electrodes at P = 1 N and v ""0.1 rn/sec. The voltage drops from 110 V to zero at the first touch
with a protuberance. The tJIOtuberance evaporates producing a vapor-tllled gap in which an arc
ignites at 22 V. This arc extinguishes after w-• sec at 11 V
hit, shortcircuits the gap, thereby exploding and igniting an arc1 . This
means an ignition similar to that of caEe 2. It is a special question if the
arc finally produces floating as decribed in §59.
The final closure after arc ignition according to 1, 2 or 3 without
floating often takes place after the movable member has travelled about
10- 5 cm to solid contact. In relays the movement is usually not per-
ceptibly braked by the vapor, and the closure may appear 10- 6 to
10- 5 sec after arc ignition. This is then the duration of the arc.
Section B contains formulas that are useful to have at band for
trea.tment of several pertinent contact problems (not only those treated
in this book). Thereby an important task is to calculate the quantity
of ele?ti-icity, q, transferred by the arc because q determines the amount
of material transfer according to Eq. (56.05).
B. Calculation with respect to the wiring diagram (68.02) with
initially charged capacity. This case is encountered in the problern of
1 See p. 277.
§ 58. Are duration during contact closure with voltages below 200 to 300 V 317
the quench circuit of § 61. The arcs at contact closure are short and have
a voltage that differs only slightly from the minimum arc voltage V m·
Therefore, calculations can be made with the assumption of a con-
stant arc voltage = V".. The wiring diagram in Fig. (58.02) to which
the calculations are referred, may have no other inductance than the
small inductance l resulting from inevitable loops in the wiring. How-
ever, the function of this circuit when it is used
r l
as a quenching circuit, is surprisingly dependent
on this small inductance.
It is assumed that prior to closure the ca- ~
pacity has the voltage E. Due to l, the current Fig.(58.02). Wiringdiagram
is una.hle to begin with a finite value, but rapidly
grows from zero tu a maximum I max. We are particularly interested in
the ratio of this maximum to the current I 0 that would initially appear
in the arc if l = 0. This ratio I maxiI 0 is a function of lj0r2 which we
labe! ß. The .calculations as weil as Fig. (58.09) are formed so as to
emphasize this relationship.
We investigate the variation of the voltage, V, across the capa-
citor, 0, and of the current, I, in the circuit during the time the arc
is burning in the closing switch. Although the mathematical problern is
weil known, it is appropriate to arrange the formulas so as to fit the
present problems. The initial conditions are: in the moment the arc
ignites in the closing contact, i. e., at t = 0, V = Vm and I :::::: Im (mini-
mum arc current). Simplifying, we put Im = 0. Let the momentary
charge on the capacitor be Q.
The capacitor voltage obeys the equation
Q dl
(58.03)
V= 0 =ldt+ri+Vm
Since
dV
l = ·- 0 - (58.04)
dt
Eq. (58.03) can be transformed to
~ r d 1
dt2 (V- Vm) + T dt(V- V'")+ Cl(V- Vm) = 0 (58.05)
the well-known equation for damped oscillations. With the initial con-
ditions mentioned, and using the following symbols
1 r
e=--
2 l
(58.06)
m- Ve - Ci -- Tr 1'2 .,
- lr::;:-1 I _ E-Vm.
o- r '
318 Electric Phenomena in Switching Contacts
tm =time when I has its maximum, Imax' and I 0 = initial current that
would ßow through the arc if l = 0, we obtain the f.ollowing solutions:
E-V . I ___!___..!_. t
I= ---"'e-etsinwt = _!!e 2 fi Or sm 1'1 -
wl y1 ß Gr
Imax = I ~exp ( - tan-
1 2y) 1 for~
t ß
= -tan- 1 2y 1
Vß, 21'1 Gr y1
Crt = ßln ß;
1 .
lmax = I 0 ß/J
At t = 0 we have generally
di = E- V,. thus _!-_[__ = I 0 (58.08)
at z a(d.) ß
possible under the condition of the arc burning. This has been done in
order to make the figure available for other contact problems leading
to the same differential equation. The straight dashed lines in Fig.
(58.09) show slopes at zero current according to Eq. (58.08).
In arc quenching circuits l will be smaller than 10-5 H and ß
smaller than 0.1. Thus one would not expect oscillations with I pas-
tOrr--~--~---r---r---.--~----r---,
-azo~--~1--~~--~3--~~~--~5--~~~--~7~~
t/Cr-
Fig. (58.09). Variation of the current in the circuit of Fig. (58.02) after closing the contact at
t = 0. In case of {J = 0 the current would begin with the value J 0 •
ing its zero value during the life of the arc. However, we shall find that
the arc introduces a negative resistance (cf. §54) that subtracts from r
and renders oscillations possible, see § 61.
The solutions (58.07) and Fig. (58.09) are applicable to the case of
an instant contact make at t = 0 without previous arcing, by putting
V m = 0. Here the curves are valid throughout their whole extent.
C. Inductance l = 0 (thus fJ = 0) in the circuit (58.02). This means
infinitely rapid arc ignition, i. e., the initial condition is I = (E - V m)fr
= 10 • The sequent current decreases super-aperiodically according to
Eq. (58.10) and to the curve that begins at the ordinate 1 on Fig. (58.09)
t
_E--V,. -er
I - ---e (58.10)
r
E V ta - -
t ( --Ia)
q =~Je Cr dt = C(E- Vm) 1- e Cr (58.11)
0
320 Electric Phenomena in Switching Contacts
Hence
(58.14)
Particular cases :
If l = 0 we ha ve
(58.15)
r
If T t. 4:. 1 we have
(58.16)
§ 59. Floating
With respect to arcs, we speak of "fioating" when evaporation pro-
duced by the arc is so abundant that, for a while, a certain gap can be
maintained in spite of the mechanical contact Ioad. In this gap the
arc burns. This phenomenon has been observed during contact closure
by R. HoLM et al. [16]. NEUKIRCHEN [lJ observed a similar pheno-
menon, but with initially closed contacts. In the first event, the voltage
was not exactly measured but merely stated tobe ofthe order of 10 V.
As soon as the current decreased below a certain Iimit (that depended
on the load), the contact closed. The loadwas 0.2 to 1 N. HoLM used
the term floating 1 to express that the electrodes are held separated by
the vapor produced by an arc.
1 R. HoLlii [30] p. 280. The electrodynamic repulsion according to Eq. (11.03)
was negligible, namely less than 0.01 N.
§ 59. Floating 321
In NEUKIRCHEN's experiment, carbon members made contact in
the center of their slightly curved faces. The contact was subjected
to transient pulses of 6.4 V and about 90 A with the duration of a few
seconds. When the mechanical load was less than 2.7 N, the contact
was pushed open by the vapor developed in the overheated contact
Anode Cafhode
and by the arc that burned at 5.6 V. One may ask why the contact
area did not yield and adapt itselfto carry the current without boiling.
It is evident that the totalload bearing area conducted. Since carbon
does not melt before sublimating, no increase of the co,n tact ·area hap-
pened. As indicated by Fig. (59.01), the materialtransferwas directed
from the anode. A Ioad of 5.1 N was needed to prevent any evaporation
at 90 A.
The vapor pressure during floating is tremendous. In Fig. (59.01a)
the two pits on the anode (both certainly did not simultaneously serve
as anodes) show a deposit beyond their area of 0.04 cm diameter.
Since the material is carbon, the deposit must derive from vapor. Thus,
21a Electrlc Contacts, 4th Ed.
322 Electric Phenomena in Switching Contacts
the high pressure is located only within the pit area. This pressure is
L15/n (2 . 10- 4 ) 2 ""' 107 Nfm2 or about 100 atm.
In the gap between the metal electrodes in HOLM's experiment,
the vapor pressure probably was even higher. It is evident that this
arc has other properties than the normal arcs described in § IX. The
small arc voltage of 5.6 V in the carbon arc during floating indicates
that a normal cathode fall did not exist. It is very reasonable to assume
that the whole arc consisted of a plasma-like, highly heated and dense
vapor. The current transit through this vapor is, nevertheless, here
said to be carried by an arc because a voltage of 5 to 10 V is required.
In HoLM's experiments the source was a capacitor. In order to cal-
culate the charge q that passes through the arc, such oscillograms as
300 illustrated by the Dia-
Amp gram (59.02)were usedl. A
Z50 current of 300 A passes
zoo
'( through the initial un-
adapted contact spot. A
\ very short time later a
150 1\.
lf '
'\ kind of arc burns requiring
100
' ~Is
" ........_
a certain voltage andlower-
ing the current to 240 A .
Mter 3.2 · 10- 5 sec, at
50
--.... r-- r- 1 8 = 85 A, this arc is no
0 1 z J 'f 5 8 7 8 •10. 5sectQ Ionger able to keep the
Flg. (59.02). Cu.rrent varlatlon in ca se of tloatlng movable contact member
floating, and the contact
closes as is perceptible by the sudden rise of the current.
Using the oscillogram (59.02), q is calculated as follows. We apply
the symbols of Diagram (58.02) and neglect l since it has here practi-
cally no influence. At the instant of I = I8 , the capacitor voltage is
V= I,r + Va where Va is the voltage of the arc, about 6 V; the
charge is then
q=C(E-I,r-V.) (59.03)
(60.02)
fV to t.
f Ir l
0
Idt = j(E- Rl)ldt-
0 Io
Lid!
j (60.06)
[(E-
t.
= RI)ldt +! L(I~- P,)
t.
The integral J (E- Rl) I dt gives the energy supplied to the arc by
0
the battery during ta. Eq. (60.06) shows that the arc also dissipates the
inductive energy 1f2L(Po- .Pr)
which will be nearly the whole
energy of the inductance if
I~~ I~; cf. §53.
The general integration of
Eq. (60.05) is difficult. A sim-
plified stepwise, algebraic me-
thod combined with graphic
integration is proposed in
R. HoLM [37] § 59C. For the
examples, given there, the time
intervals chosen are too great
to give exact results. Amended
calculations Iead to the curves
\ in Fig. (60.07). By virtue of L,
\
the arc ignites with the current
0 as 10 1.S z.o E f R that flows at the begin-
Fig. (60.07). Are characteristicsln case of inductive ning of opening (we neglect U,
circuits; silver electrodes, FJ = 54 V, R = 54 n, se- the contact voltage). But, if the
paratingspeed = 5cmtsec;I.. = 0.4A, Vm = 12V,
Curve A : L = 0.1 H; curve B: L = 5 · 10-a H time constant is very small, sa y
1 Here the ignition current is Iabelied 10 instead of 11 in order to obtain agree-
ment with Fig. (58.09).
§ 61. Quenching a drawn arc by means of a capacitor... 325
Lf R < 3 · 10- 4 sec, the influence of L has a short duration and the nor-
mal resistance line describes the continued process as is indicated by the
curve B of Fig. (60.07). Curve Ais obtained with LfR = 1/540. Both
curves refer to an opening speed of s = 5 cmfsec, Im= 0.4 A and V m
= 12 V, the normal values for silver cathodes.
C. The quantity of electricity that ßows through a drawn arc with
the life time ta. Calculation of the material transfer caused by arcs
requires a knowledge of q. For rough approximations Eq. (60.02) can
be used. If ta is unknown, the following method is often convenient.
During ta, the current source and the inductance deliver the energies
qE+ ~ L(Ji -.Pr}
On the other hand, the arc and the resistance R dissipate the energies
t.•
qV +f I 2 Rdf
0
where V is an average arc voltage. Hence
qE+ 21 Lm-Pr)=qV+
- f t.
I 2 Rdt (60.08)
0
The last term often is small enough to be treated as a correction for
which an approximation suffices. Putting I= I;(1 - tfta) in the re-
spective term, one obtains
t.
ji Rdt=!Rfita
2
f
t.
renders I 2 Rdt = ~ R/l = : qE
0
r'- E ;3
L J?- J2
q "." -2- (60.09)
T
clrcult
immediately after contact opening,
and V.fr A would fiow into the
capacitor, where v.is the (varying)
Fig. (61.01). Inductive main circuit, and 1 b h 1 d
quench circuit with capacltor c, reslstance r vo tage etween t e e ectro es.
and the arclng contact. Two possible positions Thus, the current a vaila ble for
of r in the circuit are 1ndicated as a and b.
· v. = arcvoltage any spark would be ! - :· = I8•
The spark can develop to an arc only if V.> Vmand I.> Im (when
Vm = minimum voltage and Im = minimum current of the arc). lf
! ,. .- ~"' < Im, no arc can develop.
As mentioned above, l never is nil and therefore the current avail-
.able for the arc immediately after contact opening is I 0 = EfR. An arc
then ignites if EjR >Im, as it is supposed tobe in this chapter. Thus,
quenching by a capacitor does not prevent the ignition of the arc. Its
purpose is to shorten the duration of the ignited arc. This fact is often
neglected in the literature. It is evident that the queuehing is more
ef:ficient as r becomes smaller.
Earlier, one used a constant r and had to consider that, at contact
closure, a small r permits 0 to deliver a strong discharge current which
may cause a detrimental material transfer. and welding. One had to
compromise. The optimum is achieved when the material transfer is
the same at opening and closure. The problern to calculate the condi-
tions for this optimum is treated in R. HoLM [37] § 67. We do not
repeat .it here because nowadays one usually does not apply a con-
stant r. Instead, one uses a semiconducting device that exerts a small
resistance, r, against the current at opening and a high resistance
against the current at clo"'ure 2 •
1 See R. HoLM [.17] p. 327. 2 Cf. PARRISH [1] and GonsAY [1].
§ 61. Quenching a drawn arc by means of a capacitor... 327
E Io L 0 r V t. lO•Ge y
obs.
10-6 cm3
V A H ~>F n -cm
sec
ms 10-6 cm3 - -
coul
Silver contacts
114 1.14 0.1 10 33 6 8 110 0.22
110 2 0.1 150 15 6.5 1.7
61 1.5 6.2. 10- 5 2 15 6.5 1.5
61 3 0.0012 300 22.5 6.7 3.5 180 0.17
109 2 0 140 19.5 6.7 2.6 110 0.38
8.5 4.05 0.0012 10 3.5 8 Oto0.4 22
Platinum contacts
110 2 0.1 2 23 6 7.5 1000 1.4
113 2.02 1.0 77 25 7 2.5 300 1.6
110 2 0.3 150 40 6.1 5.0 440 1.0
110 2 0.1 150 65 4.8 2.7 445 1.0
110 2.3 0 2 20 6 10
8.6 4.05 0.0012 10 5.21 8 Oto0.2 38
110 3 0 70 16 7 Oto3
110 9.3 0 1 0.13 7 (2.2) 370 1.5
500 cps
.
0
.
0,07 6!C
.
0 O,Oisee
()' - - -- - -
Fig. (61.03). Due to R. HOLM. Oscillations excited by an arc in the quench circuit, increase their
amplitude until they are able to cancel the arc current
The number of oscillations in the circuit (C,r, l) until the arc ex-
tinguishes is of the order of 10, usually during about 10-4 sec. The
capacity C should be great enough to be only partly charged by the
current E ! R during this time, say to the voltage of E j2. Hence
l
The maximum of V. is
v.' ,. - E_ ...L
VG Rr e-«t,. -_ E [ 1 + L-V0 Rr e-"'tm]
, 11 L-
LG R LO
with (62.02)
1 [:n; - -;ac + VL/0
00 tan- -;- + rp ""' 00 2 1
t111 =
1 [ w ] 1 R- "]
8
0 ß J 'I s
t .-
C(H+rl
Flg. (62.04.) Fig. (62.05)
><E '
r-... I
S.'J
• I 1\
I I
'1. f -fJrC'
'f:O
I; r-.. \ 1- i- JH -7'
J.S Jl \ i\
\,~-1
1\ IV-:~ \
'\_p-J \! '
1.!i
E
~},,,1\\ -- -;v~-7 (
~'/J-f .\
I
). ~8 t/trV
91- 10 n/ 1/J
O.!i jl-o
1 i ß .J
i
'I • 1Z I'·
r
0
.I f .J_Lf~7Ai
I t:/H+r - L
" ' 3
____l_-
f:(H+r)
'I !i G
Figs. (62.04) to (62.07). Variation of the voltage between the electrodes after contact break in
the clrcult shown in Fig. (61.01), if no arc lgnites.
§ 62. Ca.pacitive queuehing when no arc is dra.wn 331
.lfig. (62.07) shows a particular case characterized by r = Rand by the
aperiodic curve being a straight line V= E, obtained if
L
R2 = 75 (62.08)
l
Denoting the voltage between the electrodes by V., one obtains as a
condition for no breakdown
In this time, 0; 3 1.32 · 10- 4 = 2.10- 5 coul pass through the glow. In the
glow, the volume of cathode material evaporated per coulomb depends
on several <;:ircumstances 2 • A reasonable value 3 is 10- 6 cm3fcoul. Applying
this we find that the wear per operation would be 2 · 10- 11 cm3fcoul.
This is about 1000 times more than the bridge transfer could produce
(independent ofwhether the quench is used or not). The wear would be
detrimental after less than 106 operations. An optimum would require
an arrangement that causes the glow to burn away bridge deposit.
rr vr-h
with a given contact material r
I
----c===r-----1 I
so as to keep the duration of
the arc as short as possible.
This problern will now be dis-
cnssed.
I
EL
~pos:ton
rin
l
§ 62 we calculate with L = constant, chosen as a suitable average.
The solution is
. R )
i = E _ V,._2V,.(t-e-Lt (63.04)
a R r R
The arc life, t., will be the time until i. becomes too small for the arc.
This time usually is so small that ~ ta ~ 1 and (63.04) can be written
i = E _2V,._2V,.t (63.05)
a R r L
t
a
= .!!._
V,. R
(E _ i _ 2rV"')
r
(63.06)
where the second term is smaller than the corresponding term in (63.04),
making ia greater. Hence, we conclude that as far as the amount of
i 4 is concerned, position a is morefavorable than position b. But, this
may not be true in other respects. For instance, if it is required that
no current shall flow in the main circuit in times of open circuit, r must
be placed in position b.
(64.06)
10 1; ta ~ ~L.ij or ta ~ 1~ Lh (65.01)
1 Cf.§ 56.
§ 65. Bridge transfer and short arc traDl!fer at contact separation 339
where Ibis the current when the arc ignites; thus lbf2 is a good approxi-
mation ofthe average arc current (the subindex b means bridge). One
sees that ta is proportional to L for given lb. Therefore, ta can be re-
presented by L which is measured easier than ta; observers usually
plot the transfer as a function of L.
The time of the development of the bridge can not be calculated
in the samesimple manner because thf) bridge voltage varies until the
rupture. Nevertheless, in Figs. (65.03} and (65.04} we Iet L represent
the time to a certain extent, also during period I, being ·weil aware
that this is a very rough representation.
We introduce the concepts of slwrt and long bridges. A bridge is
called long when it attains a length similar to its diameter; it is short
when rupture occurs at a length small compared with the diameter. We
shall see that the length has a significant infl.uence on the bridge trans-
fer, even on its direction.
The long bridge can attain a kind of equilibrium whereby its shape
is dominated by·the surface tension and similar to the liquid equilibrium
figures calculated by GAuss and studied by PLA'I'EAU more than 100
years ago. So shaped bridges have been photographed by DAVIDSON [2].
Their rupture can be caused by boiling in the hottest section, but prob-
ably more often mechanically. Also then, boiling and ignition of an
arc in the hot vapor may occur, but this boiling is an attendant pheno-
menon.
The skort bridge does not attain an equilibrium shape. Its rupture is
not always accompanied by boiling or by an arc, according to obser-
vations by the LLEWELLYN JONES' group and by HENTSCH [2]. He
presents statistics showing a considerable spread of the contact volt-
age at rupture with one maximum at the melting point and another
maximum at the boiling point.
In the following we frequently refer to Fig. (65.04} which will be
di!Jcussed with reference to average, somewhatsimplifiedcircumstances.
B • .A classical example of a long liquid bridge between platinum
members is pictured in Fig. (65.02} due to DIETRICH and RüCHARDT
[1]. The hottest section is displaced toward the cathode. Reversing
the current, reverses the displacement. Accordingly, the transfer
was found to be directed from the cathode; it was observed that
rupture of the bridge resulted in a cathode loss immediately after
switching off the current. It was also shown that with either external
heating of the anode, or with a certain non-symmetry in the apparatus
this electrode was much less cooled than the other. Then the transfer
in the contact was diminished or even reversed as was confirmed by
JUSTI and SCHULTZ [1].
The shape of a molten metal hridge is seldom visible to that extent
340 Electric Phenomena in Switching Contacts
t -
distance
d!slonce
•I
--
d!slollce
(Jil(lt/e cgl/;ode -
tilslonce
OllOde coi!Joo'e
§ 65. Bridgetransfer and short arc transfer at contact separation 341
as on Fig. (65.02). Often only its central portion can be seen and the
luminous bases are hidden behind the material of the members.
C. Methods of determination of the rate of transfer. Two distinct
methods are used:
I. Determination of the volume of pips and mounds formed by the
transfer, either microscopically or by weighing. R. HOLM [15] described
the formation of pips and spires (cf. § 67) by bridge transfer and intro-
duced the term "Feinwanderung" for this phenomenon. The present
chapter summons only the most thorough relevant measurements made
after World War II: GERMER et al., particularly LANDERand GERMER
[2]; E. and R. HOLM [8]; RIDDLESTONE [1]; lTTNER [1]; MERL [1], [2],
[ 3]; see also KEIL and MERL [3].
II. Determination of the material transfer by means of radioactive
tracers. One electrode is previously bombarded by neutrons so as to
produce radioactive atoms in it. Using this electrode as anode (or ca-
thode respective!y) allows the amount of metal migration to the other
electrode tobe measured by means of a GEIGER-MÜLLER counter. The
net transfer is the difference between the migrations in both directions.
This method was used by LLEWELLYN JoNES et al., see especially
LLEWELLYN JONES [4] p. 142ff., (5]; HOPKINS [3], [4]; DIETRICH et
al. [7), [8]; HENTSCH [1], [2].
The amount of transfer during periods I and II is very small with
current intensities as they appear in relays. In order to obtain reliable
averages, it is necessary to observe the effect of a great number of
operations. The number usually was of the order of 106 with method I,
and 50 to 1000 with method IL
Method II reveals peculiarities of the migratory process that are
not accessable to method I, particularly the fact that the movement of
the molten material is not confined to the net gain of one electrode.
About one order of magnitude more material is usually exchanged by
tränsfer in both directions1 during any one operation. This means that
the visible pip may contain material from both electrodes and the
amount transferred to the pip from one electrode alone cannot be re-
liably measured by the difference between anode and cathode losses.
Only in the case of a sharp transfer peak that grows at its top into a
crater of the counter electrode does the latter electrode alone deliver
all material migrating to the pip.
For the function of relays, the height of a peak is a serious reason
for trouble, whereas the amount transferred in the form of a fiat mound
is relatively harmless. Therefore, a determination of the transferred
volume alone is not sufficient to characterize the phenomenon. Its
/ /. .1/ien/i [1~
frt1
/ .
l!J·t.GA
_,.... 3.S3
uv Iv·/
1.$.
",
~ '/
~ Niddlesfone [1}
I
tr1Z
.....
~ :.-:.c
13.2"' ~
1--' -- ~- ~lrins et ol [3}
I
//
_",lo" ··s Iot t(nd f(q'm(al: fHne([1]
1 [ondN.Ho!m[6};londeronrllltrmer{t j
" tr' tJD 1Q1
lnduclonce offlle circuif
Fig. (66.08) Materlai transfer per operatlon in openl1111 allver contact& expressed 88 cathode galn in
cm•, dlvtded by Il (lt gtven by Eq. [66.06]) and plotted agalnst the lnductance L of the circult
1!1
10
.I [8 ,_
· - ~ Eond1.R. Holm
pressed as cathode gain or cathode loss
respectlvely incm•devided by IlUtgiven
by Eq. [65.06]) and plotted against in-
U7 Nz ductance L of tbe circuit. The horizontal
--~-- Une at 10-u devides the diagram into
an upper half for cathode gain and a
20A \ lower part for cathode lose. Solid lines
10 -l~ 11)•1 100 1-LH 10 1
refer to RIDDLBS!rONB, dashed lines to
HOPKINB and pointed llnes to E. and
R. HOLlll
§ 65. Bridge transfer and short arc transfer at contact separation 343
2 6 6.5 3 2 3 6 Ag
6.5 4 6 Pt
tpcm/sec
Fig. (66.07). Due to HENTSCH [1]. Material transfer per operation as a fnnction of the inductance
L in the circuit in openlng sßver contacts, at different speed. I~ = 3.5 A, emf = 6 V.
short that they still possessed the temperature distribution due to the
KoHLER effect generated by an oxygen film in the -previous solid state
ofthe contact (as pointed out above). At L = 0.8 f.I.H the bridge became
long with dominating migration
from the cathode when Ib sur- JO
I..-
10- llr:rJ
passed 7 A. 25 /
o%
In pure nitrogen at 0.14 fLH )
"'
~ ..........
iQ Fig. (65.04). F::::::: -...;::
I"
Finally we emphasize that
every extremum of the transfer ~ ?.*'% 1\
curve (positive at about 0.1 fJ.H,
\ \
negative at 1 fLH, positive again 17.3'1\ \
beyond 10 f.I.H) marks a state
where a different process begins to
\ \
cut down the volume transferred I
\ \
\
01 S11sec
'10
1fT12
lo/lice .1 i
cm 3
J'0
I ,
Jrregulor k
I q _/
~ I
\
\ I
'0
f
~
Hegu/or 1_.,.... I
~
1 _L .I./
0
'0
I I \~
_,_ AuCo 97/J 9oo"G \
- AuCo 97/J soo-c
emfi GV ,lrJA I
'0
'0
01 0.2 0.5 1 l
l-
Fig. (65.09). Duc to DtlRRW.iCHTER and MERL [I). Materialtransferper operatlon at contact open
ing as a function of the inductance L of the circuit. The uppermost scale refers to the duratlon t.
of the arc
not known. MERL has found another alloy with an extremely flat
characteristic, namely (Au, 3 Co). According to Fig. (65.09), this alloy
produces a transfer not higher than about 2. t0-13 cm 3JA2 per
operation with 4.3 A. This is true in the entire range of L between 0.1
and 10 fl.H when the alloy has been heat treated at 500 °0, resulting
in a regular lattice of Au and Co.
If the Co atoms are in random positions in the Au lattice, the trans-
fer is up to 10 times higher. Simultaneously, thermal and electric con-
ductivities are about 4 times lower than inthe case of a regular lattice.
KEIL, DüRRWÄCH1'ER and MERL1 find an explanation for the low trans-
fer in the high thermal conductivity 2 •
The flat characteristic of (Au, 3 Co) was observed in air. PuLLEN [1]
also reports fairly flat characteristics for Re and W in air although with
1 See KEIL [4] p. 243, and DÜRRWÄCHTER and MERL [1].
2 Cf.§ 66.
§ 66. Theory of the bridge transfer 347
a transfer about 10 times higher than with (Au, 3 Co). The flatness
continues into the region of the cathode dominated arc. But, with a
nitrogen atmosphere, PULLEN finds that the cathode dominated arc
produces the normal transfer, i. e., from the cathode.
Investigations by E. and R. HOLM with alloyed contact materials
with pronounced flat transfer characteristics led to a patent! concern-
ing voltage regulators and the like. One ofits claims aimed at a balance
between anode and cathode Iosses in an arc. It is proposed to use a
noble metal as anode and a cathode formed from about 2% Pb, a few
percent of material selected from the group Cd, Bi, Sb, Mn, Cr and the
balancenoble metal. This material is able to produce a high anode fall.
Transfer of material from the cathode may dominate during an initial
series of switching operations. This results in a deposit on the anode,
which promotes a high anode fall and thus a migration of the deposit
back to the cathode establishing a balance on an average.
I -10
~~0 ~--~~------~
Fig. (66.01). Determination of the THOl!lSON elfect by LANDBR [1], solid curves, and EOKBRS et al
[1], dashed curve. The THOHSON coefftcient a 1 !s plotted aga!nst KBLVIN temperature
confined to platinum because the THOMSON effect has not been investi-
gated for other metals in the molten state. The PELTIER effect could
also be involved and will therefore be treated for completeness. Owing
1 U. S. A. patent 2,770,700 ofNov.13, 1956.
348 Electric Phenomena in Switching Contacts
I
for solid platinum an = - r 1 e A.
(66.03)
for molten platinum a 12 = r2e Ä
l
R (e0 , A.o), U (l?o, A.ol etc. The real bod y . has Fig. (66.04). Sketch of a
molten meta! bridge in an
R(e,A.), U (e,A.) etc. In the model the resistance opening contact. For sym·
r (eo, j\0 ) of the sought volume n a2 x is bols see the text
Based on Fig. (66.01) with eA. according to Table (X,2), one calculates
for platinum, T1 = 0.36. It is consistent with Fig. (66.02) to put T2
= T1 • If boiling occurs in the hottest section,
However,
U~((!,Ä)- UHe,A.) = (U1- U2HU1 + U2) = [Ul(e,Ä)- Uz(e,A.)] Ubz
and since in the case ofboiling the voltage~; in the real platinum body are
higher than in the model by a factor {J = 10
{J [U1 (eo. Äo) - u2 (eo• Äo)] = 0.066. Ta llfz (66.11)
and
(66.12)
Considering that
(66.13)
the radius, a, of the bridge can be eliminated from (66.05), and one
finally obtains
= 0.325 ß T, ;o
s
325 Tz eo
8J3 SJB
:7t a2 X b = b (66.14)
ubl Uf,
Notice that ~q. (66.14) refers to an equilibrium state of a long liquid
':Jridge. The time to attain this state is not represented in (66.14) and
has no special influence on a 2 x.
It will be understood from the deduction that Eq. (66.14) is valid
for different metals except for a minor change of the factor 325. In the
§ 66. Theory of the bridge transfer 351
e:
case of silver, 1: is smail and is extremely small. This means that with
silver the inßuence ofthe THOMSON effect may be expected tobe negli-
gible, as Fig. (65.03) actually indicates.
Remark concerning the values of a and x. From electrode marks
left after single operations with Pd-electrodes, RIDDLESTONE computes
a::.:: 10- 6 Ib. Assuming the same formula for Pt, we calculate for / 6
= 10A:
(66.15)
where C = 325 for platinum and slightly different for other metals.
We expect that within a range of smail inductances L, the
THOMSON effect is responsable for the drop from higher ordinates into
the ordinate weil on Fig. (65.04). In Fig. (66.16) such values of drops
taken from RIDDLESTONE's curves in
NT"
Fig. (65.04) are marked by point.s • · cm 3/AJ
The circles o represent observations by
E. and R. HoLM on Pt-electrodes in
N 2 ; see Fig, (65.05). There is a clear
tendency of the transfer, reduced by
the factor I!/ , to vary proportional to
.
1U'
Ib as required by (66.15).For/b= 10A , 0
dominates and causes the observed cathode gain. But the measure-
ments plotted in Fig. (65.05) show that the cathode gain observed with
ambient air, does not appear with ambient nitrogen. This fact compells
us to seek the reason for the cathode gain in the KüHLER effect which
has the right direction and would not appear in nitrogen. The reason for
the difference between air and nitrogen is that the oxygen of the air
chemisorbes1 whereas nitrogen does not chemisorb on platinum2 • That
the KüHLER effect has the right magnitude for the explanation, is shown
in Section D.
D. Kohler e:lleet. If the KüHLER effect 1 causes material transfer in
repeated opening of contacts, we expect the process to be as follows.
During open contact an oxygen (mono-) film deposits and chemisorbs
on the members. It remains in the closed contact. When during a sub-
sequent opening the current density becomes high in
the last contact area, the KüHLER effect develops
heat in the anode. It is to be considered firstly, that
subsequent closures on exactly the same spot are very
improbable, secondly that a chemisorbed monofilm
of oxygen develops rapidly, cf. Table (22.03).
Calculating the amount of the bridge transfer that
the Kahler effect might produce. With reference to
Fig. (66.17). Illu- Fig. (66.17) we describe the temperature distribution
stration of symbols
close to the film (situated in the contact A 0 ) as follows.
On the cathodic side of the film the temperature may be T. Then the
temperature on the anodic side 3 is T + fJ1. In A 1 that has the distance
x from A 0 , the temperature may again be T. Thus the volume xna2
of the anode is hotter than any portion of the cathode and is likely to
be twice the transferred volume.
We calculate xna2 by stating that the temperature difference {}1
{}, 1
moves the heat current (I U f - eA. u, I)~ 2 I U 1 through the thermal
resistance x j1ea2 A.. Hence
or
We insert
o 2a
u,=-1
2 na
and -1=
e ub,
1 See§ 15.
2 EHRLICH[1].
For the definition of {}1 see § 15. The subindex f refers to the KoBLER e:lfect a.e
3
being caused by a film.
§ 66. Theory of the bridge transfer 353
in which reasonable values are
e = 5e 0 = 5.5 ·10- 7 Om; Ub = 0.6 for platinum,
and a is the tunnel resistivity of the film. We obtain
~66.18)
respectively. The thermal resistance against the PELTIER heat flow is,
with sufficient accuracy 4 l. !
t See BARDEEN et al. [1].
23a Electric Contacts, 4th Ed.
354 Electric Phenomena in Switching Contacts
for (1) and a similar equation for (2) with negative x and E. The sum
(8 + 300) is the absolute temperature in A 0 • Subtracting the equation
of type (66.21), valid for (2), from the corresponding equation, valid
for (1), neglecting x2 and considering that
8 = llßeo
32a2 A
we obtain
I
4.45@x = (8 + 300) 2 ~ Els
.and :finally
(66.22)
1 A pip formed during period I is not always cutdown during period II. ln-
8tead ot this, it happens that during period II a moat is digged around the pip.
356 Electric Phenomena in Switching Contacts
the jet rotates and the wheel is stationary. The jet moves through an
insulating liquid.
B. Medium duty switches with a pool of mercury forming one elflc-
trode. The mercury is enclosed in an hermetically sealed chamber.
Metal electrodes are sealed in, and the mercury can form a bridge be-
tween them. Rupturing the liquid connection (by inclining the vessel)
breaks the circuit. Because of the vapor pressure of the mercury, such
interrupters cannot work as vacuum switches, and arcs are easily
drawn out. In order to give the arc a high plasma gradient, causing it
to be extinguished at a smalllength, the vessel is filled with hydrogen
or other neutral gas to a pressure of one half up to some few atmospheres.
The arc-extinguishing power of hydrogen is especially appreciated for
d. c. switches. SuiT~ [l] found it possible to interrupt 100 A d. c. by
means of a switch filled with hydrogen, whei'eas with nitrogen or helium
only up to 1.4 A could be interrupted. Though such figures depend very
much on the construction of the switch (for instance, on the quantity
of mercury moved) they illustrate the high interrupting ability of
hydrogen, caused by its large plasma gradient in consequence of the
great heat conductivity. Arcing occurs in mercury switches also on
making contact. The mercury vapor generated at the first touch keeps
the liquid electrodes separated for some little time and causes a kind
of ßoating; cf. § 59. The mercury switch is operated by inclining the
vessel (tilt angles of a few down to one degree are practical); or by a
plunger which displaces the mercury and causes it to flow over to the
other electrode ; or by heat-
ing the filling gas and thus
altering its pressure on the
mercury, etc.
If the mercury is not
quite pure, or the walls of
the · vessel not quite clean,
products are generated
under the influence of the
arc, which form conduct-
ing, disturbing films on the
walls. Therefore, it is impor-
tant to purify the mercury
from alien metals, oxygen, Fig. (68.01). A type of mercury switch
sulphur, carbon, etc.; and
the vessel must initially be carefully degassed. In order to protect
the glass walls against the arc, protecting porcelain trays are some-
times used as shown in Fig. (68.01).
Small currents can be interrupted by means of plunging eJectrodes
358 Electric Phenomena in Switching Contacts
V ,.. '
'""' I>""
external inß.uence, as illustra-
ted by Fig. (69.01). At orders
lO
of readings greater than 11 the
variation around the median
!5° 5 '0 %,.o'eru~reol~ JO JS 110 are reasonably random. This
Fig.(69.01). Due to CAMPBELL [2]. Contact resistance can be easily checked by
measurements at random points on a clean silver plotting the readings with
surface
higher numbers than 11 on
a probability paper; see § IV,B. For orders of reading 1 to 11 on
Fig. (69.01), resistances were observed which clearly are out of sta-
tistical control. They belong to a long run above the median. The reason
for this particular run was that the movement of the movable contact
member was impeded by friction. Frequently, runs of high resistance
as in Fig. (69.01) are caused by a dust particle that enters the contact
and eventually is removed by the mechanical action of the contact.
1 Mean time between fa.ilures.
§ 69. Applica.tion of statistics to contact operations 361
B. Some numerical results of tests. Under the aegis of ASTMt, fai-
lures of relays have been investigated statistically. Fine silver and
coin silver contacts, when tested in air immediately after cleaning in
sequences of 1000 operations, have behaved as well as gold contacts,
with less than 0.1% failure at P = 8 g and emf = 0.07 V. Probably
the failures were caused by dust particles. Oxidation of the coin silver
one hour at 300 oc produced insulating films which required fritting
voltages between 0.5 and 2 V.
Wolfram contacts are poor when operating against a soft member,
for instance, gold. Such contacts required fritting voltages of 2 V and
then exhibited less than 1% failure. For these tests the load played a
secondary role because the conduction was produced by fritting. Oxi-
dizing wolfram one hour at 300 oc had a small influence on the fritting
voltage. Wolfram operating against itself or a hard platinum alloy
behaves better because films are then mechanically damaged.
When the data of the ASTM tests were investigated with respect
to the distribution of the deviations it was found that they were not
controlled by anormal distribution. Evidently, external agents as dust
particles or vibrations of the testing device exerted an influence which
appeared to be different in various laboratories. The previous ex-
perience was confirmed that the disturbance by dust particles is
largely eliminated when the contact load exceedes 20 g. At loads
higher than 20 g, the contact is apparently able to produce conduction
in a spot adjacent to the dust particle; see § 30 G.
C. E:lfect of twin contacts. Imagine a relay contact consisting of a
stationary member and a movable member carried on the end of a
fl.at spring. The spring defines the load P that may be small enough
to make the contact sensitive to single dust particles. Thus, a dust
particle can cause a failure of contact make. A failure is called an open
when it appears electrically as if the contact were not closed. In the
following we shall discuss only dust particles as the cause for opens.
The consideration of other agents would not essentially change the
theorypresented.
Imagine a second relay, similar to the first one, but with the mov-
able member replaced by two contact pieces (twins), each on its own
spring producing the load P /2, the total load for the twins together
being P. Such a pair of contacts is called a twin contact. A dust particle
in the surface of one of the twins may cause an open, but not an open
of the other twin. Evidently the probability of a total failure is smaller
than with the single contact; but the gain is diminished by the fact
that, because of the relatively small load of P/2, each twin is more
sensitive to dust than the initial single contact. We shall now give
mathematical expressions to these facts.
Assurne that the dust particle somehow leaves the contact after the
time -r:(P) (on an average) where -r: is written as a function of the Ioad
P. An attempt to determine the function -r:(P) has been made by
ATTALA and Cox (2). The observations showed a skew distribution of
the duration, strongly preferring long durations.
A quantitative treatment of the twin problern is indicated below.
The probality p(P) of an open at contact closure is considered to
be p = 1 (i. e. 100% failure) at P""' 0, and p = 0 for a great P, and
to vary between these values for 0 < P < great. The empirical formula
(69.02) satisfies these conditions
.A. Permanent contacts, a.s plug a.nd socket, cla.mped or bolted con-
tacts. As discussed in § 30 the requirement for a.lasting good conduction
through a. conta.ct is tha.t metallic spots are genera.ted by plastic de-
forma.tion a.t the initial contact make and that subsequently, the con-
ta.cting area.s a.re not exposed to air, for instance, by breathing which
implies a. tra.nsient partial opening of the contact; see § 22 G..Silver is
practically insensitive to short brea.thing, and silver plating of contact
members is an effective mea.ns to provide Iasting contacts1 . Silver
when alloyed with less than 9% copper is so fa.vora.bly hard as to di-
m.inish strong welds, a.nd loses only slightly of its high conductivity.
Alloyed with more than 30% palladium, silver is fa.irly resistant
a.ga.inst a.tta.ck of sulfur. This alloy has a. considerable ha.rdness; see
Table (X,1). About Pd-plating see BEATTIE [1].
Plating with relatively hard silver alloys is to be preferred to plat-
ing with pure silver. Silver deposits, produced electrolytically or by
other means, a.re used on contacts in the radio industry. The thickness
ofthe deposit is less than 10- 3 cm. Unfortunately, ba.se metals are able
to diffuse through these thin films of silver (or gold) and produce a
disturbant tarnish on the outer surface of the noble meta.l. Certainly,
the silver itself can tarnish when exposed to an atmosphere containg
sulfur. The use of members of different metals for permanent contacts
is to be avoided when electrolytic corrosion is to be expected.
B. Microcontacts. The concept of microconta.cts ha.s been defined
in§ 30A and discussed in § 30G, where it also is emphasized that only
gold a.nd noble a.lloys on a. gold basis give satisfa.ctory surety of contact
ma.ke in dust-free air 2 • Dust on the conta.ct must be prevented. Con-
tact opening can be impeded by a.dhesion (cf. §§ 9 and 28) and by inter-
locking between a. spire and a cratP-r, see § 67. There is mentioned, as
a. remedy a.ga.inst these disturbances, the proposa.l by DALLAS a.nd
STUELPNAGEL [1] to use a. rotating conta.ct member, which tearH apart
the a.dhering contact without the a.id of the small Iifting force, and in
addition prevents anyformation of spires. STUELPNAGEL [1] has shown
that contact oscilla.tions (called contact frying) can be produced by
electrosta.tic a.ttraction in sensitive relays working with 100 V. As a
remedy against frying, contact members so shaped that the apparent
contact a.rea is very small, are recommended; then the electrostatic
attraction is correspondingly small.
As rega.rds sensitive relays, it is a difficult problern to prevent
harmful contamination by vapors (e.g., backstreaming from vacuum
pumps) by lubricants and other deposits, left by tools used durng manu-
1 Cf. W. R. WILBON [I] and P. QUINN [I]. About both tin plating and silver
plating on aluminum, see p. 165 and R. HoLM [37] p. 160.
• AA for platinum, see also end of § 7 A.
364 Electric Phenomena in Switching Contacts
1 See KEILet al. [3) and KEIL [4] p.1541!Jld pp. 234-239.
§ 70. The choice of contact material; contact shape for practical applications 365
with the radius a, given by Eq. (1,1). Eq. (1,1) gives the general for-
mula for different members (1) and (2}, with r = radius of curvature
(positive for a convex and negative for a concave surface), p = PoiSSON
ratio between lateral and longitudinal strain under the condition of
longitudinalstress, E = YouNG's modulus of elasticity and P = Ioad.
Fora~ r1 and r 2 (cf. below the reference to STOREY}
a= V 3
-P
4
1 - -"'~+1-
(-
E 1
"'~) ( -
- - 1 ,' -
E2
1
r1 r2
)-1 (1,1)
V-
material with PoiSSON ratio1 of 0.3.
a = 1.1 ~ r (!,2)
1.5Pp
bearing area A 11 , the pressure is
P =na
--
3 a-x2 (I,3)
(1,5)
where yj2 is the sum of the indentations and the other half of y is due
to elastic deformation in the bulk of the spheres. When not complete
spheres but only spherical humps produce the indentations, the elastic
deformation in the bulk is smaller than yj2. The distance y is often
labeled "compliance". Eq. (1,5} is also valid for negative r.
For a contact between a sphere and a plate, the plate is required
to be at least 6y thick; otherwise a deviates considerably from (1,1).
The formulas (1,2 to 1,5} are also valid for the contact between two
crossed cylindrical rods with the same r and E, and p = 0.3 for both
members.
The more complicated formulas for the elliptical contact area of
crossed rods of different radii and materials are given in RoARK [1]
p. 289. He also treats the contact between parallel cylindrical rods, a
case which is difficult to realize in practice.
1 Actual values of J.': 0.28 for Fe; 0.36 for Cu and Ag; 0.39 for Pt.
§ I. Elasticity, Plasticity and Hardness 369
According to SHTAERMAN (see C. STOREY [1]), Eq. (1,2) is theoretic-
ally valid up to considerable elastic deformations, even beyond the
actual Iimits for elastic deformation. For instance, when {1,2) gives
a = 0.4r, the complete formula gives a = 0.396 r.
Eq. (1,6) gives the time, ti, of a perfectly elastic impact1 of a sphe-
rical indenter (radius r and mass m) hitting a heavy flat anvil with the
velocity v mfsec:
ti =
m2)0.2 (-1 +-1 )0.4 sec
(vr
2.74 - {1,6)
E1 E 2
Fig. (1,10). Ball Indentation with a = rad!us of the mouth area and h = depth
plastic yielding. The heavy line represents the indentation before re-
moval of the ball. The finally remaining deformation of the surface is
1 According to Eq. (I,S) a hydrostatic pressure has no influence on the shear
force. It adds the same quantity to any stress a1 , a 2 and a3 which cancels out in
Eq. (I,S).
2 See Am. Inst. of Physics Handbook (1963) p. 2-62 to 2-68. Cf. § 36C.
24*
372 Appendices
indicated by the dashed linet. The space between these two lines cor-
responds to the elastically deformed portion of the indentation. The
stress is most inhomogeneous at the rim, and plastic deformation in the
contact surface begins close to the rim2 • That is why the mouth ofthe
indentation remains visible and can be measured even though the
Ioad was insufficient to produce plastic deformation overall in the
load bearing area Ab.
Fig. (!,11) sketches the slip lines under the ball3 for the case when
the plastic deformation is either still in progress or just at the end,
::.... ::.... :.... finally reaching the broken line at
..,
Fressure '7 'i".... a d epth of about 1f2a. The pressure
at the ball surface is not uniform,
but distributed according to the
values marked; cf. TABOR [1]
Fig. (I, II ). Slip llneslnan indentatlon, Fig. 27.
and pressures vertical to the wall Imagine that we follow the slip -
of the Indentation
line xy in Fig. (!,11) and note the
changes in the vertical principal pressure p along it. At x this pres-
sure is zero. The horizontal pressures at x , which are responsible for
the slip, are obtained from Eq. (!,8) to be Pt = Y . The horizontal pres-
sures vary slowly along xy and still are of the order of Y at point y.
There the plastic deformation requires p > Pt , namely at least sat-
isfying 2 (p - Y) 2 = 2 Y2 or p = 2 Y.
This roughly simplified analysis suggests why (in the ball inden-
tation test) the average pressure against the indenter turns out to be
larger than the yield point Y. Actually, in the event of a specific depth4
of about 0.05, pisnot only 2 Y but about 3 Y; cf. HILL [1] chapter IX,
also TABOR [1] pp. 37, 55, 73 and 104.
F. The ball and pyramid indentation tests. Hardness. The ball inden-
tation test; see Fig. (!,10). A ball with the radius r is pressed against a
flat sample producing an indentation. To begin with, regard the ball
as infinitely hard. Then r is the radius of curvature of the indentation.
Call a the radins of the circle defining the mouth of the indentation, A
the area of the mouth, and S the area of the curved surface of the inden-
tation; dA and dS are elements of A and S. The normal to dS makes
an angle oe with the direction of the load P. If the pressure force per-
1 About the effect of strain hardening on the indentation, see BoWDEN and
TABOR.(l2) p. 336.
2 The pla.stic deforma.tion ca.n not begin exactly at the rim when still p = 0
according to Eq. (1,3), cf. Fig. (1,11).
3 under the condition tha.t friction between the ball and the base member does
P = fpdA=pA
where p is a kind of average of the pr.essure against the wall of the
indentation. Hence, since A = na2
- p
P""' n;a2
1/
with the average pressure p
plotted against the specific I I I
depth D are shown in Figs. f J s f() - z
(1,13) and (1,14) 3• The defor-
o--
Fig. (1,13). Due to E. HOLK, R. HOLK and SHOBBRT
mation is purely elastic up [5]. Average pressure fJ plotted agaln speclllc depth;
to the yield point p = Y, fJ along the thlck llnes is called coutact hardness. Steel,
straln hardened: I, allghtly annealed; II; not annealed
see Fig. (1,13). The corre-
sponding small variation of D is not marked on this figure. All
points refer to a visible indentation mouth; thus to plastic yielding
at least at the rim of the indentation. The pressure, p, increases stead-
ily with D and does not have any strict maximum; but after D has
reached a value of about 0.03, the further increase in p is small.
1 This is an expression of MEYER's [l] similarity law.
2 Cf. TABOR [l] Fig. 34.
374 Appendices
With respect to the moderate accuracy attainable in calculations
about contacts, p in the range of D > 0.03 may be regarded as de-
fining the hardness of the material. The definition must be completed
by the stipulation that the indentation pressure shalllast about 20 sec
f.-- ....-
JO
--
'10
-
2.--
--
Jtl
!- ~
- 30'~'fi.
...
t
!i1!
·~
I~
- fO
aos O.f ai! o.s f.IJ u S.O·V -z
o--
Fig. (1,14). Same measurements as for Flg. (1 ,13) but plotted in logarithmic co·ordinates
(1,17)
where S is the curved surface area of the indentation (not the mouth).
The reference toS is an artifice without a physical meaning. However,
it p:J;ovides a maximum of p, as seen on Fig. (1,13), and it is this maxi-
mum which BRINELL used for his hardness definition. The correspond-
ing D lies between 0.05 and 0.07.
VICKERS' diamond pyramid indenter has the merit of always
producing the same specific depth (D:::: 0.06) practically independent
of the load P. VICKERS calculates with Eq. (1,20) and obtains hardness
numbers nearly equal to HB as a consequence of the choice of the
angle of 136° between opposite planes of the pyramid. KNOOP uses a
pyramid which produces an in dentation that is 7 times Ionger than
wide 2 •
1 See MULHEARN and TABOR [1].
2 For details concerning VICKERS and KNOOP hardness see TABOR [1] p. 164 and
p. 100 respectively.
376 Appendices
One may ask why the ball indentation hardness and not the pyramid
type is chosen as "contact hardness". The reason is that the load bear-
ing areas are generated by surface elevations acting similar to indent-
ing balls but not to pyramids.
Z.O r--------.-------.~------~-----.
108
N/ml
+
1.5
II:>.,
s KJ
o-
Fig. (1,21). Average pressure fJ on artlftcial graphite plotted against speciftc depth D; contact
hardness""' 0.85 ·10• Ntm• at D o:. 0.10. Ball radlus r : o o ,0.079 ; x x , 0.158; + +. 0.316 and
o o, 0.632 cm
(I,22)
of atoms proceeds in jumps and any such jump requires: 1. that the
thermal motion of the atom has a suitable phase which will reappear
with a certain frequency v, so that, during the observationtime oft,
this phase appears v t times; 2. that in order to jump, the atom must
be in a state with sufficient energy to overcome a certain activation
energycp, for which the probability1 is exp (- cpfk T), where T = KELVIN
temperature and k = BOLTZMANN constant. Combining both factors, we
obtain for the probability, B, that a certain atom jumps from one posi-
tion to a more probable one in the interval dt:
B = vexp (- cp/k T)dt (I,23)
We now imagine the following simplified picture: 1. The surplus
hardness, which results from strain hardening of a body, is at the time
t = 0 characterized by x 0 atoms being in strained situations. 2. If each
of these atoms makes a single suitable jump, the surplus hardness dis-
appears. 3. In an interval dt, at the timet, with x atomsstill in strained
positions, every atom has the probability B of jumping. This means
that xv exp (- cpfk T) dt jumps will occur during dt. This is the decrease
d x during dt or
- d x = x v exp (- cp / k T) d t
Integration yields
ln Xo = vtexp (- cpfk T)
X
or with cp measured in eV
chapter IV.
§ I. Elasticity, Plasticity and Hardness 379
Tangential forces, i. e., friction forces along the surface of the inden-
tator are not taken into account since they contribute very little to
the deformation considered, cf. section G.
RABINOWICZ 1 has pointed out that a term must be added to W of
Eq. (!,25). This term represents the increase of surface energy when
wear grains are produced. Because it represents a surface effect,- the
part it plays compared to W (a volume effect), becomes greater the
smaller are the wear grains. At very smallloads ( P ~ 10- 5 N) the grains
would be very small, and the additive term can become so dominant
that any formation of grains is prevented, as stated by experiments.
Example 1. To calculate the work done by a perfectly hard ball
indenter, radius r, when producing an indentation with the final mouth
radius a and depth hin a ßat body, with finalload being P, see Fig.
(!,10). During indenting, the load increases from zero to P; the average
value being Pj2. Thus the total work W is PJ2 h or, since P = na 2H and
a 2 "., 2rh
W = nrh2 11 (I,26)
Considering that the volume of the indentation is V= n rh2 we state
that Eq. (I,26) conforms to (!,25).
Example Il. Grooving friction coetficient fur.
Let the indenter of example I be in the position when immerged
to the depth h. Imagine this indenter to be moved tangentially along
the ßat body the distance s producing a groove with the depth h and
the width 2a. The average pressure against the front of the indenter
is aboutH.Consideringthatthe cross section ofthe groove is ~ :3 , we
find the work done according to Eq. (I,25)
u·-
rr -
2 as
3 -.,-s H
This can be expressedas W = furPs with P = na2H giving
Igr = 0.1~
r VH
lfP (I,27)
Usual1y grooving does not appear in the total load bearing area and
/gl > /gr•
Cf. R. HOLM [22].
1 RABINOWICZ [6], and [7] p. 153 to 163.
380 Appendices
is usually used.
-
o=-
"
(II,3)
h
'7 =Sm
2 (3n'
n) 2/3
~ 3.65 .1Q-t9 n2/s eV (II,5)
If the electrons have an effective mass m* that is smaller than the nor-
mal mass m, m* must be substituted form in Eq. (II,5). The effective
mass m* is a concept introduced to account for the influence of certain
circumstances that affect the mobility of electrons. These electrons act
as if they had a mass m* smaller than the real mass m, cf. Section E.
Examples of n and '7 values of metals
for Na Cu Ag and Au Al
n 2.5 8.4 5.9 ·1ozs m-a
3.12 7.04 5.51 11.6 eV
§ II. Electronic conduction in solids 383
At finite temperatures, several electrons are lifted to Ievels above fJ,
and the electron distribution on Ievels E e V is changed from 2 per cell to
2
per cell (IL6)
1 + exp 11600(E-7])
T
lO
s TJ-C eV 7
ferrni /er8/
~'ig. (II,7) is designed for n = 6.5 · 10•• electrons per m• giving the FERm Ievel = 6 eV. From
this Ievel on the work function is counted
trons per cell; but around the FERMI-level the nurober of electrons per
cell decreases with increasing energy. This is shown by the S-shaped
branches of the curves. At T = 0, the distribution is represented by
the solid reetangle with the height 2 ending at E = fJ. This corresponds
to the distribution in a metal at zero temperature.
ÜQly the tails of the curves, far to the right side, play a part for
many calculations1 • There, the exponential function is much greater
than 1 and the nurober 1 can be neglected. Formula (II,6) then assumes
the simple form
2exp[- 11600(E- f})/ TJ (IL8)
2!:
V
exp (- 11600 YfT) (11,11)
11600 )
-n2- = vexp ( ---Lid (11,14)
N-n T
where N is the number of donors per m 3 , and Lide V is the gap between
them and Be.
Whether the conduction is of n- or p-type is shown by the sign of
the HALL effect. The amount of the effect indicates the number of
carriers. In the event of pure intrinsic conduction, the number of
electrons and holes would be equal. No HALL effect would appear in
the event of equal mobilities. But, the electrons usually have the higher
mobility and therefore dominate and display n-conduction. In some
carbons with intrinsic conduction it seems that many electrons become
trapped and lost for conduction; cf. §V.
F. Mobility of current carriers. Resistance. Theory shows that the
"free electrons" would move without resistance in a perfectly regular
crystal. But no such crystal exists. There are always lattice defects as va-
cancies, alien atoms, dislocations, crystallite boundaries and in particu-
lar, disturbances of the ideallattice by virtue ofthermal movement of
the atoms. All these circumstances produce scattering, combined with
energy loss for the electrons, thus a resistance to the current.
At room temperature and higher, the scattering by phonons, re-
presenting the thermal movement, is dominating by far in most pure
metals. The scattering is proportional to the cross section of the acting
subject. Thus, the scattering ability of atoms oscillating around regular
sites is proportional to the square of their amplitude, i. e., proportional
§ II. Electronic conduction in solids 387
to T. Consequently, the resistivity (! of these metals is fairly propor-
tional to T since the average velocity of the electrons (proportional to
v;J, see Fig. [II, 7]) is constant and does not interfere. In semiconductors
the average thermal velocity varies with '1' and the mobility therefore
varies more "V~-ith T than in metals.
To understand this behavior of the electrons in metals, we have to
keep in mind that the field accelerates the whole assembly of conduct-
ing electrons and thereby changes the average energy (which is about
0.6 71) very little.
The resistivity of a meta} can be written (! = (!1 T + (!2 where (!1 T
is due to the phonons and p2 to constant lattice defects as alien atoms,
dislocations etc. Notice that the
product of the temperature coeffi. 0~mcm fQ.1(i
1 ae
. d
Cient an (!, name1y e d T • (! = f!t
A
7r\
the mobility but also the number 1\
of carriers, and the resistivity be- ~
comes a complicated function of
i.'
1\
the temperature. Fig. (Il,15) illus-
trates some typical features of the
~V
f/}17
\
Y:18
resistivity (! of semiconductors.
The figure is reproduced from
E. HoLM [6] and refers to n-con- llo
~
ffiQO K &()()(,
0
ductor. The atoms in the surface define the lower part of the barrier in
the same fashion as free atoms define forbidden zones keeping their
electrons bound to them. The higher part of the potential barrier of a
metal is due to the so-called image force. Imagine an electron ernerging
from a plane metallic surface into vacuum and being x meter from the
surface. The electron induces a positive charge in the surface. It is
attracted by this charge in the same manner as the positive image of
E!t:ctron volts (ne_;alive)
the electron in the metal would
attract it. The distance to the
image is 2 x and the attrac-
tion, as is readily calculated,
corresponds to a potential of
3.6jx volt, with x in A units.
This potential means that
3.6 · ejx joule is required
to move an electron from x
to infinity.
Fig. (11,16). Potential barrler at the surface of a In Fig. (11,16), the curve
meta! and its deformatlon by an exterlor fteld.
<1> = work function. The FERMI Ievel 'I is the point
termed "normal barrier"
zero on the energy scale (eV). From there on the illustrates the potential hill as
work functlon counts
it appears at the surface of
the metal above the ~ERMI level. In the figure, it has a total height,
of 4.5 eV which is a typical value for metals.
The height of the barrier above the FERMI Ievel (</>in Fig. [11,7]
and [11,16]) is termed the work function, f/J. Thus f/J = 4.5 eV is a fairly
normal value. Weshall describe the role which the work function plays
for thermionic emission.
Let the border of an emitting body be a plane yz. Those electrons
that hit the plane with the partial energy mv7ef2 > fJ + ifJ are then able
to escape over the barrier, thereby constituting thermionic emission.
The calculation is based on Eq. (11,9). This simplification is feasible,
since the respective electrons belong to the far end of the distribution
tail (see solid curve in Fig. [11,7]). One finds the current density J of
the emission to be (with <P in e V)
J = A p2 e- 11600<1>/T ~ (II,17)
m2
where A would be the same for all metals were it not for certain compli-
cations as reßection ofthe electrons at the boundary surface. Actually,
A lies .between 6.106 and 106 2 Ad for various metals. Eq. (11,17) is
m eg 2
called the RICHARDSON-DUSHMAN equation1 •
1 See for instance S11UTZ [1] p. 165.
§ li. Electronic conduction in solids 389
On Fig. (ll,16) the dash-dot curve illustrates how the barrier is
bent down by an applied strong field. The number of electrons able to
climb over the lowered barrier is increased by a factor deduced by
SCHOTTKY [1], [3], and is given by Eq. (II,18) with the field strength
being X V f A ;e, is the relative permittivity.
J = 11600
A T 2 exp [ - - - ( if> - -V - -10)]
I T1 2 se.
- if> - V
- A T 22 exp [ - -11600( - - 10)]
- A/m 2 (II,19)
T2 2 SE,
Ne!lfllire
Mergy
~..:>...::-- Bol/r;mDc
.__...._,~-+-T--------=:.""---ferrni
2 2 lerel
Eleclrons ~r ce/1
Semiconducfor
!
Bose A !.....--;;---::--'
BoseB 0
Fig. (11,20), Illustration of equili· Fig. (11,21). Electron distribution in the bulk around
brium between two metals with a metal·semlconductor contact. ""' counted to the
different work functions '1>, conta.ct· left and v, counted to the rlght slde are numbers of
ing each other electrons per cell in the phase space on any Ievel E
eV in the meta! and the semlconductor respectively
t Cf. Eq. (26.07).
390 Appendices
a metallic contact. At equilibrium, the FERMI Ievels coincide so that
equal numbers of electrons move in both directions. The difference be-
tween (/) A and (/JB does not inßuence the actual exchange. But, the free
surface of B assumes a positive potential V= (f/JB- f/JA)fe, the so-
called Volta potential above the surface potential of A. Without the
VOLTA potential the equilibrium would be destroyed by the thermionic
emission from B being greater than that from A due to a smaller (/).
The VoLTA potentialisnot directly observable. For its determina-
tion, the metals are arranged as plates of a capacitor with a thin di-
electric between them. Equilibrium is produced by tonehing both
plates simultaneously with a wire. Mter removing the wire, the plates
are separated and their charges generate an observable potential differ-
ence; cf. static electrification in§ 33F.
I. Metal-semiconductor contact. At first, we discuss the equilibrium
conditions for the bulk of the two members; after that, the features of
the boundary barriers.
Equilibrium between the bulk of the members requires that the
distribution per cell is the same in both members on energy Ievels
where electron exchange can proceed. This particularly concerns Ievels
that reach above the barrier. They are represented by the distribution
far to the right side in Fig. (II,7). The metal there has (according to
Eq. [11,9]) the same distribution as a semiconductor with the Be-bot-
tom on the FERMIlevel of the metal, providing the Be-band contains v
electrons as given by Eq. (II,10) 1 . If, however, the Be-band contains
less electrons, equilibrium requires that Be be "lifted" by a negative
potential, V1• This is above the FERMI Ievel of the metal with which
the FERMI level of the semiconductor shall coincide according to defi-
nition. Fig. (11,21) illustrates this situation: the FERMI Ievel of the
semiconductor lies eV1 eV below the bottom of Be, somewhere between
this bottom and the donor Ievels. (/)" is the height of the boundary
barrier in the contact. It is smaller than the work function (/) m of the
metal against vacuum. The condition for equilibrium is that the distri-
butions (shaded) above (/Je are equal.
The region of the boundary barrier. The barrier of the metal is not
annihilated as when · a metal to meta I co·ntact is made, but its
height is decreased to the order of (/Je~ LJj2, where LJ eV is the gap
between B 1 and Be of the semiconductor. (/Je is nearly equal to f/J 111 - C
with (/) m = work function of the metal for emission into vacuum. The
quanti~y Cis the electron affinity ofthe semiconductor. It is the energy
required to remove an electron near the surface of the body, from the
bottom of Be to infinity, viz, Cis about the width ofthe band Be. The
1 In this case, the FERMI-level of the semiconductor is just the bottom of B•.
§ li. Electronic conduction in solids 391
reduced work function, if>c, is typical for this contact. It is independent
of the potential distribution in the barrier of the semiconductor. The
image force contributes only little to if>c because its value (in vacuum)
is here reduced by the factor 1/s;.
Discussion of the potential distribution in the boundary region of a
semiconductor. We consider the boundary hill in an n-type semiconduc-
tor. The hill is formed between negative .charges in the metaland posi-
tive charges in the hill region of the semiconductor. The latter charges
originate from ionized donors. For simplicity following ScHOTTKY [2], we
assume that every donor in the barrier region is monovalent and
ionized (i. e., has given off one electron). Note that the donors are
immobile and thus are no current carriers.
The simplification is based on the fact that the donors have a great
probability to remain ionized. The barrier field moves the electrons
(appearing in this region) downhill into the bulk of the semiconductor.
Since the delivery of electrons from
the metal and over the potential
hill is small, there exists little op-
portunity for donor ions to become
recombined with electrons.
Fig. (II,22) is a picture of the po-
tential hill between a metal and a
semiconductor at equilibrium, i. e., Fermi Be boHom
without applied voltage. On the t.T'er~el;:--'--!o,----f--,.:----,J!:---·,10::-_,..-m-----:
:r:
side of the metal, the hill is very Xo
steep because sufficient lattice ions Melo/ Semiconrluclor
participate in its generation. This Fig. (11,22). Shape of the boundary hill at
side of the hill is represented by a the contact between a meta! and a semlcon-
ductor; with numerlcal values as glven in
verticalline. In the semiconductor the text
the slope is gentle.
Fig. (II,22) has been designed for the case of pure n-conduction
with the following assumptions: The height of the hill is assumed to be
if>,, = 1 eV; the FERMI levellies 0.1 eV below the bottom of the con-
ducting band; the density ofthe monovalent donors is n = 1022 per ma;
all donors are ionized in the barrier region; the relative dielectric con-
stant is er = 10.
The calculation is based upon the PoiSSON differential relation be-
tween the divergence of the potential gradient and the density (! of
the space charge. In mks units:
d,2 rp (! 1.6 . iQ-19 n
d :~;2 = - 6,6 0 = - 8.85 ·io-12 Er
with s0 = 8.85 · 10- 12 (permittivity of the vacuum). Integration from
392 Appendices
x0 = 3.2 · 10-7 m
(III,1)
The·kinetic energy Q, of the free electrons adds to Q4 and then the total
heat content is
(III,2)
C = Ca + C, = 3 N k + :~ (III,4)
394 Appendices
I
1.0 constant; for example1 ' e is for
copper 343°; for Wolfram 400°, for
J O.C 08 lO 12
0 graphite about 1500 °K.
Fig. (111,6) 2 shows the heat capa-
T/8-
city, ca, of the atoms plotted against
Fig. (111,6). Thermal capaclty of sollds at the ratio Tj8. The heat capacities
dl1ferent temperature°K plottedagalnst the
ratlo T/9 where 9 is the "DEBYB tempera- for C, W and Cu are marked on the
ture" that is characterlstlc for the meta!
curve. Because of the high 8 the
heat capacity of graphite is low at room temperature and does not
approach the final value until the temperature is of the order of
1 Cf. KITTEL [1] p. 129ff. 2 Scale Jjm3 deg for rough computations.
§ ill. Heat conduction. Wiedemann-Franz law (WF-law) 395
1500 °K; cf. Table (X,2). At room temperature Cu and Ag approach
their final heat capacity fairly close.
Concerning the contribution of c. to c, it is generally small at room
temperature. In semiconductors it is small because of the small number
of free electrons. In metals, only few electrons belong to levels close
to the FERMI Ievel where they can be affected by the temperature :·for
example at room temperature in Cu and Ag, c,jc ~ 0.008, in Fe and
Pt, c.fc ~ 0.05 andin Ni, c.fc ~ 0.08.
B. Thermal conduction. The mathematics for thermal and electric-
al conduction are the same. To the electric concepts of voltage (volt)
and current (ampere) correspond temperature and energy moved per
second (say watt) in the thermal problems. The unit forthermal con-
duction is watttK, for thermal resistance °Kjwatt. Thermal conducti-
vity, ;., is measured in wattjm°K and thermal resistivity in m°Kjwatt.
In order to apply contact formulas to thermal problems, one simply
replaces the electrical resistivity f2 by the thermal resistivity 1 j;..
Thereby Eq. (III,7) becomes evident when R is the electrical and W
the thermal resistance of a given contact geometry with constant f2
and ;. within the body considered,
R
W = eJ. (III,7)
Passing to a property of the thermal conductivity, interesting con-
sequences are met. Regarding phonons and electrons as the carrier of
the thermal flow, some fundamental features of the process can be
approximately expressed by Eq. (III,8) 1 • In this equation, c is the heat
capacity per m 3 of the carriers (phonons or electrons), v is their root-
mean-square velocity and A their mean free path,
Ä = 1/3 (Ce v.A. + Cph VphAph) = Äe + Ä~h (III,8)
Subindices ph and e refer to phonons and electrons respectively.
Table (III,9) gives typical values. The table compares observed .il.-
values with rough calculations. The data for W, WC and TiC are
added in order to indicate how a hard lattice can compete with elec-
tronic conduction with respect tothermal conduction; cf. § 70D.
Table (III,9)
Vph I Ve Cph I Ce Aph I Ae Äph I Äe I Acalc I
Äobser;ved hardness H
rn/sec J/m 8 °K A watt/m °K 108 N/m2
silve~f-
~ the decrease of c causes Ä to
~ I' sink again at the very lowest
70 1 ~Q(\
~tt ? '-"S'ttel temperatures. This behavior
/ l-§of~ltSS
700
/ of Ä is illustrated by some of
/
the curves of Fig. (II1,10) .
'KJ1 10~ 1{ 1)3 Notice that for medium
l!'ig (111•10). Heat conductvity of metals as a func- and high temperatures, A. of
tion of temperature, in oK pure metals remains essen-
tially independent ofT.
C. Wiedemann-Franz' Iaw (WF-Iaw). In its modern formulation
the WF-law states: The ratio Äe/u between the contribution Äe of the
free electrons to the thermal conductivity and the electric conduc-
tivity, u, satisfies Eq. (1Il,11)
Ä..=LTV 2 (1Il,11)
X °K
(III,17)
are deviations (errors). Fig. (IV,1) shows small equal steps around the
endpoint of i. Each step is :figured as a reetangle with the base LI, whose
height measures the nurober r (x) of deviations that end on the step
containing x. Such a :figure is called a histogram.
1----- - - - l
-:c • I .
+.:Z:
where Ll(x) is the base of the ractangle with the height r(x). If LI (x)
is chosen greater r(x) increases in the same proportion. Thus p(x) is
independent of the length of LI (x). Moreover, since
00
j p(x)dx = 1 (IV,4)
-00
(IV,7)
-3
Both functions 9' (:) and <P (:) are illustrated in Figs.(IV ,8) and (IV ,9)
respectively.
B. Probability paper. Checking whether or not a histogram indicates
a normal distribution is relatively easy with the aid of probability
400 Appendices
paper. This paper has a special abscissa scale that we explain referring
to Fig. (IV,10). On this figure the curve of Fig. (IV,9) is reproduced
(dashed) with changed directions of the axes. For the solid line the
abscissa scale has been ex-
panded at its ends so that
the dashed curve becomes
transformedintoa straight
line. The probability paper
has tbe a bscissa scale of the
solid line.
Directions for tke use of
the probahility paper to test
whetber or not a set of
measurements has a nor-
-3 0 z 3 :c.'d mal distribution.
Consider a series of n
Fig. (IV,9). The normal distributlon funetlon
measurements with obser-
vation points l + X;. Every
measured point is plotted
on tbe probability paper
l•2d J, X
with its l + X; as ordinate,
lJ I X
l+ d
4ft 80
for slfT!i§hl /int
S'J~
whereas the abscissa, tP;,
is the fraction (percentage)
of the nurober of observa-
BQ 100% lt
Ooshetf CUI'Yt tions that are smaller than
-
l +X; .
The plotted points cor-
05 11J <1 respond to anormal distri-
bution if, on the proba-
Flg. (IV,10). Demonstration of the co-ordinates
of probabll1ty paper bility paper, they lie on
the straight line that con-
nects the points (ordinate = [, t/J = 0.5) and (ordinate = l + a,
t/J = 0.84) or spread around this line with ordinate deviations smaller
than ± afVn. The spread afVn
represents the uncertainty of when a
n = total nurober of points. See, for instance, LEE [ 1].
The probability paper has no point for t/J = 100%. The last point
to plot has an inherent uncertainty of (1/n)% and may reasonably be
plotted at t/J = 100 - (1/n)%.
C. The Poisson distribution. In the applications here considered, the
problern concerns the frequency of random events (for example, ope-
rational failures among a nurober ofrelays) along a time scale. In order
§IV. Probability. Noise 401
to define the frequency, we imagine the time scale tobe cut into equal
intervals L1, suitably chosen. The events are assumed to appear in-
dependently of each other, but in such a manner that it is reasonable to
count with an average, y, of events per .1. The problern is to predict
how often x events will appear during .1, i. e., to determine the prob-
ability p (x) of x for this L1.
Notice, there is nothing that here corresponds to l of Fig. (IV,1)
although the deduction is similar to the deduction of the normal distri-
bution. The deduction Ieads to
p(x) = yz )
x!e'
hence (IV,11)
p(O) = e-Y
The standard deviation with y as the parameter is
(IV,12)
Notice that y depends on the choice of L1 and is proportional to L1.
N otice also that
a 1
-y=yy (IV,13)
x-
Fig. (IV,14). Function p(x) = xf:v for 11 = 3, 6, 15
This concept has· the merit of being independent of the choice of Ll,
since y is proportional to ,1.
Another often used concept is the reliability R (Ll) for a chosen
interval Ll. It is the fraction of the nurober of intervals without fail-
ure, hence
R(Ll) = p(O) = e-u (IV,17)
D. Electrical noise. The term electrical noise is applied to electrical
variations which produce acoustic or radio disturbance, particularly
when these variations have random character. The connection with
probability is evident. We shall not discuss how the electric energy
is converted to sound, but only the noise as electrically measured. The
variations may be registered as a voltage oscillogram; but more often
the noise is invcstigated by qetectors acting by means of resonance,
and apt to be adjusted to limited "bands of frequencies". They can
be used to scan the spectrum of the noise. Such a. detector contains. a
wave filterthat passes a certain frequency band, and finally an energy
indicator (for example a bolometer) with an amplifier between them.
§IV. Probability. Noiae 403
l
I(
f(t)= ~ a0 +a1 coswt+a2 cos2wt ... a.cos11wt ...
where
2n 2T IV 1
w = -T' ao =Ta 9)
and
sin(vnr/T}
a" = ao r/T
Fig. (IV,18) is drawn for T = 4 't'. The wavy curve approaching the
reetangular contour, is obtained as the sum of the FoURRIER terms up
to v = 9. The approach to
the reetangular pulses im- a7 fa 0
proves (of course) with in- 1.0
creasing v.
The spectrum of the
amplitudes a. is shown in 0.5
Fig. (IV,20). Consider
the spectrum range of
0 ~ nfT ~ 1. There, the 0
highest frequency 111 v gen- Fig. (IV,20). Envelop(spectrom) of the amputodes a. in
erally is 11111 W = 2 nf•, inde- the FOURRIBR series (IV,19)
product aT: is constant. The spectrum has its first a. = 0 at the fre-
quency
vw = 2nf•
independent of T, even at T ~ oo, i. e., with a single pulse
If the pulses are not reetangular but rounded, a change appears:
the amplitudes become smaller at high frequencies, nfT > 1. This
means that in practice the radio-disturbances also become small.
Surely, the volt variations of noise (in practice) never are of such
a regular type as the sequence of pulses in Fig. (IV,18), and the
.FouRRIER expansion appears otherwise than according to Eqs. (IV,19),
but act11ally only slightly different. In the noise from commutators
the amplitude drops from an a0 at audible frequencies (1000 to 10000
Hertz) to about zero at 105 to 108 Hertz, corresponding to nfT = 1
on Fig. (IV,20), and then rises to finite amounts at higher ranges of
nJT; cf. § 47.
Appendix V.
Structure, electrical and thermal conductivity of carbons1
A. Introdnction. Graphite lattice. Carbon is an important contact
material. It, therefore, is discussed in various parts of this book. For
different purposes very different grades of carbon are used, and the
manufacturers have known for a long time how to prepare various
useful grades. But, the physical explanation of the differences is of
recent date.
Carbon isabasicmaterial in organic chemistry, that owes its intri-
cacy largely to the manifold bonding-possibilities of the carbon atom
which thereby uses its four electrons of the L-shell. In the free carbon
atom two of these electrons belong to 2s-orbitals, the other two are in
p-orbitals. At chemical bonding, the involved orbitals are altered. The
electrons can be "hybridized". For instance, in CH 4 and in diamond
all four L-electrons are hybridized in such a manner that they produce
four equal bonds in a tetragonal arrangement. In the aromatic carbon
rings and in the graphite lattice only three electrons per atom are
hybridized into similar orbitals, namely the so-called u-electrons. These
orbitals belong to three bonds in a plane in directions 120° apart. The
fourth, the so-called n-electron retains a certain liberty. In an aromatic
molecul~ it runs around along lthe ring increasing the negative charges
1Monographies: UBBELOHDE et al. [1], the survey article WALKER [1] and
SHOBEBT [6]. For the mechanical properlies of carbons, the reader is referred to
these books and to HoWE [1]. Those properlies are not treated in the present book,
except in the remark on the hardness of graphitein §I, see Fig. (1,21).
§V. Structure, electrical and thermal conductivity of carbons 405
through which the ions are bound. This increase means strengthening
the bonds. That the n-electrons actually move around the ring is evi-
dent from the increased magnetic moment of such a ring. In the graphite
lattice, the 1t-electrons behave otherwise inasmuch as they are active
also perpendicular to the rings.
The regular lattice of a p erfect graphite crystal is illustrated in
Fig. (V,1). The 001 and 002 planes (basal planes) with their hexagonal
structure are typical for
this lattice. Any 001 plane ~ ~ -- --....;? -
pattern can be comprehend-
OOT-plot7e
•-' I
•
I
ed as the projection of the I
I
pattern of the other 001 I
b
Flg. (V,2). Two palrs of hexagonal rings become bound together
the c-axis. Due to this disorder, the stacks are called turbostratic cristals.
In them the average distance1 between adjacent mono-planes is slightly
larger than the spacing of 3.348 A in a perfect crystal.
At about 800 oc a large part of the initial hydrogen has been de-
tached and the substance treated has been transformed into a so-called
calcined or baked carbon, mainly consisting of turbostratic crystallites
with remnants of hydrocarbon chains bonded to the periphery. Evo-
lution of hydrogen or hydrocarbon gas still continues at higher tem-
peratures and apparently only at about 1300 oc is the whole periphery
of the momoplanes bare of hydrocarbon groups.
C. Graphitization 2• At temperatures of the order of 2000 to 3000 oc
the atom diffusion is lively. At least in so-called graphitizing carbons,
the mono-planes attain the ability to grow at the expense of the bond-
ing chains and finally even at the expense of smaller mono-planes in
a neighboring stack. However, according to FRANKLIN [1] and to the
experience of manufacturers, there exist also carbons that are resistant
to graphitization even at temperatures between 2500 and 3000 °C. The
carbon black and lamp black which are condensed from gaseous hydro-
carbons or from evaporized oil respectively remain turbostratic up to
3000 °C. TARPINIAN et al. [1] estimate the activation energy for graphi-
tization to 2 to 2.3 eV.
A physical picture of the constitutional difference between graphi-
tizing and non-graphitizing carbons has not been generally agreed up-
on. We, therefore, mention only two ideas that have been propounded.
RILEY [1] and [2] has propounded the idea that lamp black contains
many tridimensional cross-linked hexagons which mutually occupy
each others peripheral bonds, and therefore are unable to be built into
monoplanes. This idea is not generally agreed upon. FRANKLIN 3 finds
that also non-graphitizing carbons consist mainly of stacks of mono-
planes which she assumes to be randomly orientated. Due to the small
size ofthe particles and their dis-orientation, the crystallites are arrested
in their development even at high heat treatment. Graphitizing carbons
have their stacks initially orientated in such a way that adjacent stacks
have fairly parallel mono-planes and have relatively weak criss-cross
bonds. The non-graphitizing, so-called luJrd carbons have a glassy
structure and do not write on paper.
In order to graphitize carbons, it has been found necessary to start
1 See HousKA and WARREN [1], also FRANKLIN [1]. According to FRANKLIN,
with substances which remain fluid to above 400 °0, then solidify by
formation of three dimensional polymer bonding in a narrow temper-
ature range. Petroleum coke, after calcination, shows a flow pattern
apparently caused by the movement of gases liberated during heating 1 •
Platelike aromatic molecules are aligned turbostratically with their
c-axes vertical to these flow Iines. When upon heating above calcination
temperatures the mono-planes reach diameters of 100 A or more 2 , the
total directing force between them, which is proportional to the area,
is capable of aligning many pairs of mono-planes with respect to their
a- and b-axes inspite of obstructing bonds at the periphery. The planes
then attain the mutual position that is characteristic of a perfect graph-
ite lattice with the c-spacing between them diminished to 3.348 A.
With time and with increasing temperature more and moreplanes obey
this right-dress. The growth of crystals and their alignment in all direc-
tions is graphitization 3 • However, alignment does not proceed simul-
taneously for all planes within a stack and therefore the average c-
spacing as measured with X-rays, undergoes a continuous change 4 from
3.44 down to 3.348A.At the sametime the a-spacing increases from less
than 1.40 to about 1.42 A. It is conceivable that this is the result of
the action of the peripheral bonds being able to pull the mono-planes
closer to each other; the smaller the mono-planes, the greater the re-
action. Graphitization at 2500 to 3000 °0 may Iead to crystallite dia-
meters of the order of 1000 A. The material is then called artificial
graphite or electrographite since it usually is heated in electric furnaces.
D. Electrical conductivity5 of carbons. The interest of this book
with respect to carbon is particularly focused on the electrical conduc-
tion, the discussion of which shall be led with reference to the work of
S. MROZOWSKI and his collaborators6 .
The conduction is always performed by 1t-electrons lifted out of, or
holes left behind in the "filled" band of the 7t-electrons. The 7t-elec-
trons have this band on a fairly high Ievel with a small distance to the
conducting band; and the conduction of carbon is exclusively due to
7t-electron current in the conducting band and hole current in the
"filled" 7t-band.
1 WALKER [1].
The average crystai dimension in the c-axis is· about half of this; see G. L.
2
ature.
§V. Structure, electrical and thermal conductivity of carbons 409
s_
-1rr1 .Q·cm iA
i
\
, ~ \
J ~~ !'\.
\Ht
\
' .,
I B'-
"""" -------
' r'--\
\ C
------ -------
----- .P. ·':.:- .~
- -----
--
f- ~-
~
-
'-......~
f ------
------- I
Q - ~ --- ,
Q f OW
I
ZWfl <;J(}(}(J
r-
Flg. (V,S). Due to MRozowsKI [1]. Electric reslstivlty, 11. as function of temperature for a carbon
rod treated to temperatures ·: a, 1000; b, 1100; c, 2200; d, 2600; e, 3000 °C. Fullllnes mark the
reglon in whlch the actual measurements were performed (reversible); dashed llnes represent the
expected trend outside of thls region. Curve Ht glves the varlatlon of the resistivity during the
heat treatment of the carbon (irreversible)
zoo
Wa J
m.iiiög ('.
\
\
-,r-,
II
/
/
, ... --
~~
---
/
.c
I
0
I
/
....
0
-----
.fOO
8
1000 1500 3000 8500
TemperQ/111'(!
Fig. (V,4). Duc to 1\IROZOWSKI [2). Thermal conductivity for various heat-treated carbon. Treat-
ment temperature : for G 2700, for H 2000, for B 1100 •c
the liquid in the x-direction and '1 its coefficient of internal friction,
also called dynamic viscosity.
The condition for equilibrium between these forces , i. e., under the
assumption of negligible mass forces, is
fPv dp
(VI,2)
'1ay 2 = dx
1 See for instance SHAw-MAcKS [1] Fig. 5-15.
414 Appendices
dp =0 (VI,7)
at X= x1 is
dx
and h= hl
J
The curvature is such that
(VI,8)
i. e., 2y represents the curvature at small u.
W e refer to a length in the z-direction of 1length unit of the cylin-
drical member. With its curvatur~ in accordance with (VI,8), the picture
represents in a fairly general manner thick-film lubricated interspaces
ofsuch a.form that it can be predicted where the section with dpfdx= 0
willlie. Applying the expression for constant ßow
h 11,
J vdy j vdy
0
=
0
§ VI. Hydrodynamic or thick film lubrication 415
where the integral on the left side is to be evaluated at the position x
and that on the right side at the position x1 , we transformEq. (VI,4) to
(VI,9)
(VI,10)
l ' I
\
I
I
1l = q vh~ (VI,11) t l(J
I
I
I I
giving \
h (1 .:_yq2 )hl
II
= ~
3 f)V t(\
"f'''"-
p= 4 k-{•yO·•X(q) (VI,12)
:/ :-- -
X (q) is plotted as the full drawn curve on 0
Fig. (VI,13). Fig. (VI,IS). The functiotul X(q)
A similar calculation Ieads to an expres- and Y(q)
sion for the specific friction force 'lfJ. By differ-
entiatingEq. (VI,4)oneobtains dvfdy and an expression can be written
for 'lfJ,
dv
f]- = 'ljJ
dy
One finds different values of the specific friction force in. the vici-
nities of both members, namely,
4h- 3hl f
'lfJ= -f]W h2 or y =O
and
2h- 3h1
'lfJ = fJ w h2 for y = h
l
We employ as a kind of average
1jJ =
k- k 1 = -.",-;
4fJWk2 4'7W Y(q)
where
Y(q) = (1 +q2q2)2 I (VI,14)
J pdu
Zt
P= (VI.15)
U=O
J tpdu
Zt
F = (VI,16)
U=O
JXdu~ J Vf
Zt 00
Xdu= 2 (VI,17)
U=O U=O
and
J Ydu~ J Ydu=~
Zt 00
(VI,18)
U=O U=O
p = 1.5'1W (VI,19)
kly
and employing Eqs. (Vl,16), (VI,14), (VI,18)
F=3.2 1 ~ (VI,20)
ykly
(VI,21)
Appendix VIII.
Some fundamental formuias conceming electric discharges
A. lntroduetion. Kinetie fundamentals. An assembly of independ-
ently1 moving particles, for instance, a gas composed of molecules, ions
and electrons in thermal equilibrium is characterized by a M axwellian
energy distribution among the particles. According to this law, the
probability thst a particle in a given moment has at least the energy
rp eV is
exp (- rpfk T) = exp (- 11600rp/T) (VIII,1)
where T °K is the temperature of the assembly.
The average energy 2 per degree of freedom of the particles is (with
k = BoLTZMANN constant)
~kT (VIII,2)
2
ip=:kT
Hence with ip in eV
_ 3 T
rp = 2 11600
or T = 7730ip (VIII,3)
The free paths ofthe particles also obey a distribution law, but with
respect to the application in this book it suffices to recall that the mean
free p_ath A is inversely proportional to the density of the gas, and to
notice the data of the Table (VIII,4).
Table (VIII,4). Mean free path A of a gas moleeule at 0 °0
He H, air Hg
at 1 mm Hg, A =
at 760mm Hg, A = I 170013.7 I 11208.5 I 4.6
610
I 1.7
220
10-sm
A
The mean free path A. of a fast electron (with a velocity about
sufficient to ionize gas molecules) is 5.65 times greater than A of the
gas mo]ecules; at lower electron speed A. approaches 4 A.
1 Thus, not a "degenerate" assembly; cf. § liD.
2 Cf. §illA.
27•
420 Appendices
v=KX (VIII,5)
(VIII,6)
number of electrons
x = number of neutral atoms
i
by the charge of the electrons (small circles)
localized in the cathode face and thus move
::",.
towards the cathode. Lines of force are design-
ed as connecting one positive ion and one elec-
tron. The ions are accelerated in the described
z-
J field and thus constitute a moving space charge
and a current density J +· They are supposed
to be so numerous as to just occupy alllines
1 As for the influence of the initial velocity see, for instance, NoTTINGHAM [2]
p. 36ff.
2 See, for instance, LOEB [1] p. 317ft".
§ IX. Theory of the electric arc 423
In both cases, for ions and electrons as weH, represented by Eqs.
(VIII,11) and (VIII,12) the field strength X in immediate vicinity of
the electrodes to which the carriers move is given by
4 V
X=--
3 8
(VIII,13)
We refer to the lower picture of Fig. (VIII,9) also for expressing the
following expedient formula. Consider the field strength in the imme-
diate vicinity of the cathode. It is represented by parallel force lines
which end in equal numbers of electrons and ions. Let this number be
n per m 2 of the cathode surface. Then, with X in Vfm, a simple calcu-
lation shows that
108
n=-X
1.8
(VIII,14)
The AuGER effect uses the energy that is freed when an ion recom-
bines with an electron from the cathode surface1 • With this energy, a
second electron is liberated from the cathode. However, any primary
electron is bound to produce many ions (10 or more) in order to secure
one single secondary electron liberated from the cathode by the AuGER
effect. ·This explains the need forahigh cathode fall in the glow. The
AUGER effect is negligible for the arc.
The arc makes use of its high cathode temperature. In the case of
refractory materials such as wolfram and carbon, enough primary elec-
trons are thermionically emitted from cathodes which remain solid.
But, low melting cathodes require a complex process. The temperature
must rise beyond the normal boiling point, and energy must be pro-
vided to maintain the evaporation during boiling. This is possible
only when the cathode spot is small and thus the current density high;
namely several powers of ten higher than on refractory materials.
The high density of primary electron emission, in its turn, cannot
be produced by the temperature alone. A strong field at the cathode
surface is required. The average field, although strong itself, does not
suffice for the effect. But the field is enhanced at asperity peaks on the
cathode, and its inßuence on the emission is increased by the I-effect;
see below. In addition, the work function (/J of the boiling metal in the
cathode spot certainlyis smaller than that of a solid metal versus vacuum.
A very high efficiency is required from the aiding effects as they
have to explain about three orders of magnitude of the current
density. The theoretical situation is unsatisfactory because any basic
experimental data still Iack the necessary accuracy, and only rough
computations can be made. Field enhancing is an evident phenomenon.
But an equally direct knowledge about the mentioned diminution of
(/J has not been considered so far, and authors have preferred to cal-
culate with an unchanged (/J (namely (/J = 4.5 eV, the value for elec-
tron emission into vacuum) and accordingly have tried to make the
other effects responsible for the entire three orders of magnitude. For
this purpose, factors greater than probable had tobe assumed.
It will be shown that there are good reasons to assume an inßuential
decrease of (/J with the consequence that in doing so, a far reaching con-
sistency with experimental data is gained.
One distinguishes 3 sections o:f the arc, which will be treated sepa-
rately:
1. The- catkode layer identical with the region of the cathode fall;
2. The arwde layer; 3. The plasma, also called positive column, com-
prising all of the arc between the terminallayers.
1 For complete description see, for instance,. LOEB [1] p. 771ff., or LITTLE [ll
p. 651.
§IX. Theory of the electric arc 425
B. Cathode layer. The features of tbe terminal layers are largely
independent of the existence of a plasma between them. This is parti-
cularly true for the cathode layer. This layer receives heat conducted or
radiated from a thin, bot layer bordering the plasma where the primary
electrons give offtheir energy. But, the more distaut parts of the plasma
do not much affect the balance at the cathode. The border region bas
a negligible voltage. It will therefore suffice to treat the cathode layer
as belonging to a short arc with the total voltage V(::::::: Vm= minimum
arc voltage) equal to the sum ofthe cathode fall , V0 , and an anode part,
va' while the voltage of the plasma can be neglected.
Fig. (IX , I). Illustration of the positive space charge and the fteld in the cathode fall region
Fig. (IX,1) depicts a short arc between circular cathode and anode
spots with radii a,
and aa respectively1 • The cathode fall acts across
the cathode layer of thickness, 8 . The difference, V- V 0 , between the
total arc voltage and the cathode fall may be an anode fall, V4 ; but
it is of little significance whether or not this voltage deserves the
name of anode fall2. The only requirement isthat the arc is flat , i. e.,
much shorter than the diameter of the spots ; thus, with negligible la-
teral heat losses. This has the consequence that the arc voltage is of
the order of 10 V.
Fig. (IX,1) is schematic, and 8 is designed too !arge compared with
a0 • Actually the ratio a0 j8 may be several hundred. The plus signs in-
dicate· positive ions on their way to the cathode through the cathode
layer. It is weil known that the cathode fall is generated between those
ions and the negative charge of the cathode. This is indicated by force
lines having their bases in the ions. All force lines end at the cathode.
representing a strong field there. No Iines are reaching the anodicside
of the cathode layer, pointing to the fact that there the field strength
is negligible compared with the field within the cathode layer. The simi-
larity between this picture and Fig. (VIII,9) is evident.
1 The theory, here presented, applies to arcs with one single cathodic and one
of positive ions to neutralize the space charge of the electron stream proximate to
the anode; See FINKELNBURG and MAECKER (J].
426 Appendices
1 See§ 26H.
2 Much higher pressure appears during floating; see § 59.
3 It lies beyond the scope of the present survey to discuss how a moderate
J' = J_ (IX,3)
+ V1850M
We find for Example I
J: + J~ = 2.25 ·10 7 + 5.25 • 107 = 7.5 ·10 7 Ajm 2
and for Example II
J: + J~ = 1.34 · 106 + 4.6 · 10 6 = 5.9 ·106 Ajm 2
Only the not compensated part, J~, is responsible for the cathode
fall and the field in front of the cathode 3 • The total J: + J~ is involved
in the I-effect. Eqs. (IX,2) and (IX,3) are used for calculations con-
cerning Table (IX,5). J: + J~ turnsout somewhat greater than J _f200,
but all values lie witbin the uncertainty margin.
E. The rate of evaporation, ro, m 3fcoul. The metal vapor issued from
the cathod spot is heated by the current to a temperature high above
the temperature of the spot. This obstructs the evaporation to some
degree. Exact formulas for evaporation under such circumstances
are not available. Only a rough approximation can be obtained as
follows. Let p atm be the saturation pressure of the metal vapor at
1 Observations particularly by FRoOME [J], GERMER et al. [6] and SWINEHART,
private communication 1963.
2 American Institute of Physics Handbook (1963) p. 4--286.
3 Cf. Eqs. (VIII,11) and (VIII,13).
430 Appendices
the temperature of the cathode surface, and p 1 atm the actual vapor
pressure in front of the cathode. Then the rate of evaporation would
be1
ro = J440~
(!,
T (p- p 1 ) m 3 /coul (XI,4)
Table (IX,5)
Example
I T
Cathode
p A J+ I J_ x. w
I
II I 20
10'
I 2500
3500 I 20
4
I 164.8 I 0.59
7.5
1100.06 I 2.3
0.43
I 20
58
I 1235
G. Power balanee at the eathode. We consider a silver cathode spot
with the radins a•. The total arc voltage is V= 12 V with the cathode
fall V.=8V.
Energy gain. Any positive ion that enters the cathode gives off both
its kinetic and its excitation energy. Thus, a current /+ of single-
charged Ag+ ions gives off V)+ watt kinetic energy and VJ+ ioni-
1 Cf. 'nE BoER [1] p. 17 and 18.
2 Cf. p. 308.
3 The J _-values noted in the Table, are often measured. However, values up
to about 10lll A/m 2 have been verified with short arcs by GERMER et al. [6], see
their Fig. (3b); cf. "floating" in§ 59.
' Acoording to (VIII,13).
§ IX. Theory of the electric arc 431
zation energy, where V; is the ionization voltage. Since V;~ Vc, we
note the total power as 2 VJ+· This term is of minor importance in
Eq. (IX,8).
We shall find that a considerable fraction of the total arc power,
V I, remains unbalanced if we do not assume that it is transferred by
conduction or radiation to the electrodes. Transfer to the surroundings
certainly is negligible since the space of 'the short arc has a diameter
of about 2ac which may be 100 times larger than the width ofthe gap.
The total power transferred to the electrodes in this way is equal to the
total arc power V I minus the energies given off by positive ions to the
cathode and by electrons to the anode; i. e.,
(IX,6)
where Va represents the average energy of an electron impinging per
sec on the anode. It is reasonable to assume that the anode normally
receives a smaller portion of this power than the cathode by virtue of
its greater distance from the particularly heated section at the border
of the cathode layer. We calculate with the fraction LI to the cathode
and with (1- LI) to the anode.
Power losses. On calculating the electron emission from the cathode,
we apply formulas containing the work function (/) as a variable. This
does not meaq that each escaping electron can climb over the top of
a potential hill of (/) eV. The greater part of the electrons tunnel
through the hill. Therefore, the average evaporation energy of the elec-
trons is smaller than (/), on an average ß(/); and the total power the
cathode loses, owing to the electron emission, is ß(/) I. We do not try
to calculate ß. However, Table (IX,10) shows that the assumption of
ß = 1/3, which is reasonable, leads to a very good confirmation of the
equation for the energy balance at the cathode.
Weshall now express the heat conducted into the bulk of the cath-
ode. First, consider the heat fiow that starts in the_ cathode spot. This
spot is usually so small compared with the cross section of the cathode
that the thermal constriction resistance, W, is well given by the formula
W = 1J4a0 Ä. for a long constriction in one fiat member. Thus, the power
conducted from the cathode is about 4acÄ. ( T - T1), where T 0 _K is
the actual temperaturein the spot, and T1 (about 300°) is the ambient
temperature.
It is evident that RP heat is also developed within the constriction.
It contributes to T. However, we find that this contribution can be
neglected. The thermal resistance against the fiow of this heat is W/2.
The electric constriction resistance is fef4a 0 , where fe is the average
resistivity at the high temperature in the cathode spot with (} = 1.65
10- 8 Q m and the factor f ~ 6 in accordance with Fig. (16.14).
432 Appendices
(IX,7)
As pointed out above, Eq. (IX,S) is valid not only for short arcs but
also for arcs with a long plasma, if V means the sum of the cathode
and anodefalls alone, i. e., V= Vc + Va.
Transformation of Eq. (IX,S). From I= na~ Jwe obtain ac = V :niJ .
RICH [1]. Furthermore note that the calcUlation above is not valid in the case
of a narrow cathode, see Section (IX,I).
§ IX. Theory of the electric arc 433
tively, we calculatetheleft side and right side members ofEq. (IX,9),
as noted in Table (IX,10).
Table (IX,lO)
I
II
112.7 watt
5.6. 10'watt
I 4.21.
119.6 watt
10' watt
The agreement is satisfactory. This means that both Eq. (IX,8) and the
assumptions are reasonable, with all numbers nearly correct for a cer-
tain realizable arc. But not every arc has L1 = 0.7 and ß = 1/3. A very
short arc may have L1 = 0.5.
H. Power balanee at the anode. An equation for the power balance
at the anode is similar to Eq. (IX,8) and is readily composed. It
reads with Ta = anode temperature
V.I +(I- L1)(V I- 2 Vcl+- V.I) +([).I= 4a.J.(T.- T 1 ) +I war
. (IX,11)
The term l/Jal measures the condensation heat of the electrons. (/Ja
is not necessarily equal to l/J. The plasma can have somewhat differing
properties at the anode and the cathode. But (/Ja=(/)= 3 eV is cer-
tainly a good approximation. We notice that Eq. (IX,11) has two
important terms on the "gain" side: Valand l/Jal, whereas the only
corresponding term in (IX,8) is the negligible 2 V. I+· This means that
the anode receives more heat than the cathode. Whether this renders
the anode the warmer electrode depends on the amount of the term
4a.J. (Ta- T1 ). In case of a very short arc, aa is not far from being
equal to a0 • The factor 4aaÄ is then not so much greater than
the corresponding term in Eq. (IX,8) that it could compensate for the
stroriger heating of the anode. Consequently, Tabecomes greater than
the temperature of the cathode spot. But, as decribed in § 64C, when
the arc length exceeds a certain critical value, aa becomes much greater
than a•. The anode is correspondingly cooled and the cathode is the
hotter electrode.
I. Voltage-eurrent eharacteristics of ares. Are life. We begin with
discussing the minimum arc current. In Eq. (IX,9) we neglect the first
term, devide the rest by I and obtain
680
4.6- w 2.6 ·1010 = , , - (T- T1) (IX,12)
viJ
Let I decrease. The bala.nce expres.'3ed by Eq. (IX,12) a.nd (IX,8)
is automa.tica.lly maintained by cha.nges of the other variables, pa.rtic-
28 Electric Contacts, 4th Ed.
434 Appendices
refers to a cathode that has a much larger diameter than the cathode
spot. However, when the cathode cross section is of the order of the spot,
the heat conduction into the electrode is small with the consequence
thatthe aro can be maintained by a current smaller than Im. Cf. §49B.
In problems concerning relays, the current I belongs to the range
where the cathode fall is sensitive to I. Calculations are difficult. Valu-
able and subtile information is obtained from empirical voltage-current
characteristics of the arcs. How they are recorded and employed for
the determination of the duration of arcs, is described in § 50. Indi-
cations of the explanation of features of the VI-characteristics will
now be given.
The minimum current, Im, of the arc is never exactly attained but
plays the part of an asymptote; see below.
The valtage also has an asymptotic lower limit, V"., termed the
minimum voltage of the arc. The arc valtage can approach V m when the
arc uses only negligible valtage for maintaining a plasma. We there-
\
\
'
fore expect that V", is best approached when the arc is plasmaless. The
dependence of the arc on the cathode material is indicated by V 111 being
a function of the cathode material.
§ IX. Theory of the electric arc 435
Imagine the following experiment. An arc has been drawn by open-
ing a. current-carrying contact and is kept burning at I >Im in a gap
sufficiently short to make V~ V m. Mterwards, I is diminished by means
of a. series resistance. The discussion about the existence of Im implies
that the arc experiences increasing difficulties as I approaches Im. We
expect that these difficulties require an increase of the arc voltage, V.
Ac~ually, this is what happens. The characteristic of the shortest arc
does not consist simply of the straight lines V= V m and I= Im in
Fig. (IX,13), but, of a curve (dashed) that looks like a hyperbola. As
IvEs [1] has shownl, the characteristic ofthe shortest arc is approached
by a hyperbola
where Vp(s,I) and O(s) are functions ofthe arc length s, the current I
and also depend on the a.tmosphere.
We make no use of algebraic expression for VP and 0; instead, em-
pirical diagrams are discussed in§ 50 where it is also shown that a simpli-
fied, diagrammatic representation can be based on the fact that V P
is a. function of the atmosphere but widely independent of the material
of the electrodes. On this empirical representa.tion is ba.sed a. simplified
methode to determine the life of the arc, also described in §50.
J. Pinch e:llect. We have seen that the arc needs a. strong current
concentration a.t the cathode spot. The pinch effect is one of the pro-
moters of the concentra.tion. In a. cylindrical current fl.ow with the
radius ac (= the spot radius) the pinch effect generates a squeezing
effect with a. pressure of
(IX,16)
where /Lo = 4n · 10-7 Hfm. In the event of Example I this means 0.2 atm.
This effect produces a. gas flow from the cathode2 •
1 The hyperbolic shape of the characteristic had also been observed early by
28*
'fable (X,1) t
~
(! ;. E H
Material Density Electrical
"'
temp. coeff. of IJ thermal conduc- YOUNG'S contact Softening Bolling
resistivity between 0 and tivity at 18 oc modulus hardness
I Melting I
at 18 oc 100 °C temperature
103 kgtm• 10-• !l m to-• watt/m °K 10'" N/m' 108 N/m' oc
------ ---·-- ------ ---- ----- -
Metals
Ag 10.5 1.65 4 418 7 3 to 7 180 960 2193 Ag
Al 2.7 2.9 4 210 7 1.8 to 4 150 660 2447 Al
Au 19.3 2.3 4 310 8 2 to 7 100 1063 2817 Au
Cr 7 20 2.5 67 7 to 13 1903 2642 Cr
Cu 8.9 1.8 4 380 11 4 to 7 190 1083 2582 Cu
Fe 7.8 10 6.5 60 20 6 500 1539 2887 Fe
Hg 13.6 96 1 11 -39 357 Hg ~
Ir 22.4 5.5 4.5 6 27 2443 4127 Ir
Mo 10 5.8 4.5 140 30 18 900 2610 3700* Mo
1
Ni 8.8 8 7 70 20 7 to 20 520 1453 2837 Ni ~
~
Pb 11.3 21 4 35 1.5 0.5 200 327 1750 Pb
Pd 12 10.8 3.3 70 12 4 to 10 1552 3560* Pd
Pt 21.4 11 3.8 70 13 4 to 8 540 1772 4010* Pt
Sn 7.3 12 4.5 64 5 0.45 to .6 100 232 2507 Sn
Ta 16.6 15 3 54 19 10 to 30 800 2996 5427 Ta
Ti 4.5 42 3 17 11 1668 >3000* Ti
w 19.3 5.5 5 180 30 12 to 40 1000 3380 5527 w
Zn 7.1 6.1 3.7 111 11 3 to 6 170 420 908 Zn
Alloys
Au, 24 Ag, 7 Pd 16 15 10 780
Ag, 10 Cu 10.3 3 300 6 I I 900
Ag, 3 Pd 10.5 3 300 4
Ag, 40 Pd 11 21. 30 9.5 1200
Ag, 60 Pd 11.3 42 10 I I 1300
Cu, 40 Zn 8.4 8.5 100 !) 10 950
Cu, 10 Sn 8.7 18 50 10 7 I I 1000
Constanta.n 8.8 50 23 17 8 to 20
German Silver 8.8 33 30 8.2 15
Cu, 60 Pd 10.5 35 12 I I 1200
Cu, 2.4 Be 8.2 10 110 13 35
Pt, 10 Ir 21.6 25 40 15 6 to 20 1780
Pt, 25 Ir 21.7 35 30 12.5 to 24 1830
Pt, 10 Rh 20 19 10 9 1830
Stainless Steel 7.9 55 to 70 17 15 to 30 16 1400
Steel 7.8 14 50 20 10 to 30 1430
Sintered Oompounda
W, 15 Ag 17 4
W, 25 Ag 15.8 3.5 230 20
W, 50 Ag 13.3 2.6 10
Mo, 25 Ag 10.3 3.2 18 '""'
Mo, 40Ag 10.3 2.9 13 I I I I ~
W, 35 Cu, 0.5 Ni 13.6 5.3 150 15
W, 70 Cu, 0.5 Ni 3.3
Carbides and Oarbona1
WC, 13Co 14 20 70 70 20 >2800
>1000 I
wc 15 43 40 55 20 >1000 >2800
TiC, Co 11 43 40 55 20 I >1000 >2800
Baked Carbon 1.6 20000 iRoom temp. 2 0.7 5
Electrogr. brush 1.7 1000to6000 Roomtemp. 30 0.3 1 to 2
Graphite 1.8 700 Room temp. 160 0.3
Graphite 550 500 °0
Graphite 700 1000 °0 55
Graphite 800 2000 oc 40
Graphite 3000 °0 20
Graphite 3500 oc 10 I I I I I I
~
1 Cf. Fig. (V,3). Note: Cu&RIE, HAliiiSTER and MoPHERSON [Z] call attention to the fact that for graphites and electrographiteR ooCI
Table (X,2)
r
Bulk at room temperature heat of evapo- LORENZ con-
Materia.l c
heat capaclty
u,
softenlng
I u,
meltlng
I Uu
boüing1
rizatlon at stants when
normal boil- much deviatlng
ing point from 2.4 · 10-•
10' JJm3 •K voltage 1010 JJm3
Appendix X
This appendix contains such physical constants characterizing con-
tact materials that are often used for computations on electrical con-
tacts. Considering that the experimental data which serve as basis for
such calculations· usually have rather wide uncertainty Iimits, the
tables contain averages of values which are met in practice. No difference
is marked between metals of high and low purity.
The data of the tables are expressed in mksa units and fit directly
into the equations of this book, without conversion factors.
In accordance with the choice of the units the contact hardness H
is expressed in 1()8 Nfm2 • BRINELL and VICKERS hardness numbers,
when given in kgfmm2 are to be multiplied by 107 in order to express
Hin Nfm2 •
Fig. (111,10) illustrates the thermal conductivity of some metals as
a function of the temperature. Several metals have a slightly higher
heat conductivity (up to 10%) at 600 °C than at room temperature.
It will be noticed that heat capacity, c, and evaporation heat, r,
are referred to unit volumes1 in this book, and that this choice provides
simplicity to the respective formulas. Melting and boiling tempera-
tures are cited from American Institute of Physics Handbook 1963,
except values marked by *; these are cited from KoHLRAUSOH: Prak-
tische Physik, 2 (1956).
Table (X,3) presents material constants or coefficients, Im, V"''
y for arcs at opening and closing contacts respectively, which can be
used for rough computations on the material transfer in arcs with
normal electrodes; cf. §§ 56 and 64. The values of r for anode loss in
cloliling contacts are valid for I < 100 A, those of r for cathode loss in
opening contacts are valid for I < 15 A. As to r at higher currents see
Fig. {56.09).
The Ietter n denotes normal atmosphere at roöm temperature with
a humidity of k = 0.35 to 0.60 (i. e., 35 to 60%). A humidity different
from this is always noted, e. g., k = 0.8. N 2 denotes dry nitrogen with
an oxygen content of < 0.01%.
Due to the considerable spread of observations on V m, the values
given have uncertainty Iimits of ± 0.5 V.
At closing contact, y is independent of the atmosphere because
the short arc bums in metal vapor.
1 This involves a dependence on density deviations. The values for graphite
Material Atmosphere Vm Im
"
cathode 1> 20A 1 < IOA
loss at during
opening, floating,
I< t5A'
volt amp 10-10 m•tcoul
c n 20 0.03 2 to 6 0.8
Al n 14 - 10 5
Ca No 10 - - 85
Cr n 16 - - 1.5
Fe, pure n 13 to 15 0.35 to 0.55 2 4
Ni N• 14 0.5 2 2.3
Ni, Carbonyl n 14 0.4 to 0.5 1.4 -
Cu n 13 0.43 0.8 6
Cu h = 0 and 0.8 13 0.6 - -
Cu No 14 0.6 0.08 -
Cu Ho 18 or 32 1.3 1 -
Cu oil ·15 0.4 LI -
Zn n 10.5 (0.1) 5.4 6
Mo No 17 0.75 0.3 1
Mo Ho - - L4 -
Rh n 13 (0.35) 0.5 -
Ag n 12 0.4 0.4 6 to 18 10
Ag h = o and 0.8 12.5 0.55 - -
Ag 120 •c 12 0.25 0.1 -
Ag Na 13 0.8 0.14 -
Ag H• 21 - 1 -
Ag oll 15 0.25 0.9 -
Cd No (H) (0.1) 12 29
Sn n 13.5 - - 31
Sb
W, pure
n 10.5 - (150) 150
4
n 15 1.0 to LI 0.04
W, pure No 16 0.9 0.04 -
Pr n 17.5 0.9 0.8 6 6
Au n and h = 0.9 15 0.38 LI 18
Au Ho 20 - 2 -
Stainless steel n 15 0.5 2 -
Stainless steel h = 0.8 15 0.2 - -
Bronze (Cu 8, Sn) n 13.5 0.31 (2) 25
Constantan n 14 (0.4) LI 11
Ag+ 40% Ni n 13 - 0.6 20
Ag+ 10% Pd n 11 0.3 0.15 15
Ag+ 10%Au n H 0.25 L1 15
Ag r (>50% Au) n 14 0.4 2 15
Widia(WC) n 14.5to16 0.65 to 1 2 2
Widia(WC) Nt 14.5 1.15 0.2 -
Pr-Ir n 201 0.74 1 9
Pr+ 8% Ni n 16 - 0.9 -
Au+ 5% Ni. n 15 0.38 2 -
Sintered W + Cu oll 18 - 0.5 -
w+ agalnst Ag- n 13 0.35 0.4 0.4
w- agalnst Ag+ n 17 0.2 -2 (3)
Ni+ agalnst Ag- n 13 - 0.3 -
Ni- agalnst Ag+ n 13.5 - o.s -
1 Cf. ITTNER et al. [2].
§X. 441
Appendix XI
This Appendix contains two copies of Diagram XI. One of them is
intended to be separated from the book and to be used according to the
+ I
I
I
\
Diagram XI
\
\
\
\ - SOVt-Vm..
\ \
'
\
\ \
\ \
\ \
\ \
\ \
\ \
\ \
\ \
\ \
:-.. \
\
\
\
''
' ' :-... -JPV+i/m
- aPV+Vm
tls
tlfl
()J
(}2 - tDVrVm
at
aos
+ -Vm
442 Appendicee
directions which are given in§§ 50C and 60.A. In order to facilitate the
separation the sheet is perforated.
Directions for t'IIR. aeparation of t'IIR. copy on M.avy pwper: Cut the dia-
gram along the two straight ünes :
1. Vertically through the centers of the crosses.
2. Horizontally through the center of the lower cross and the da.sh
beside vm.
The da.shed lines refer to arcs between carbon electrödes.
Diagram XI
+ I
\
\
\
\
\
\
\
\ \ -SOVt-1/m,
\ \
\
\
\
\
' \
\
\
\ \
\ \
\ \
\ \ - ' IOVt-Y""
\ \ Im~2 Amp
~ \
\
\
'' '
'' :-....
-JOV +It/ n
- aoV+I/m
((S
0.~
O.J
ti2 -tov~vm
at
aos
+ -Ym
Holm , Elect rlc Conta cts, 4th. Ed. Sprln aer·Ver!&~~ , Berlln /HeidelbcrgfNew
York
.Author and Iiterature index1
page
ÄDKINS, R. M. : Dry circuit contacts and the applica.ble theoretical phenomena.
Proc. Internat. Symposium on Electric Contact Phenomena. Univ. of Maine
(1961) 119
AIUMATU, H., H. KuRODA: On the substructure and the crystallite growth in
carbon. Proc. Fourth Carbon Conference, New York, Pergarnon Press 1960,
355 ..............................................•.............. . 405
ALBIN, A. L., E. BuscH: Miniaturized suppression components for relay inter-
ference reduction. Proceedings Relay Conference, Stillwater, Okla., April
1965, paper 21
ANDERSON, J. R., J. SAUNDERS: Stahle sliding connector contacts. Report,
Contract DA 36-039, sc-89150, Spt. 1963 ............................. 219
- mentioned . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
ANDERSON, 0. L.: see MALLINA
.ANDERSON, W. J.: see BISSON
.ANous, H. C.: [J] Surface illms on precious-metal contacts. Brit. J. appl. phys.
13 (1962) 58 .............................................. 46, 105, 107
- [2] Properties and behavior of precious-metal electrodeposits for electrical
contacts. Transact. Instit. Metal Finishing 39 (1962) 20 ................• 437
- [3] Platinum-metal electrodeposits as contact surfaces. Proc. Internat. Sym-
posium on Electr. Contact Phenomena. Techn. Hochschule Graz, Austria
(1964) 89 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
[4] Mechanical wear of lightly loaded precious metals. Instrument Practice
(March 1966) 241 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 437
ANTLER, M. [1] The lubrication of gold. Wear 6 (1963} 44 .................. 219
- [2] Metal transfer and the wedge forming mechanism. J. Appl. Phys. 34
(1963) 438 .............................................•.......... 202
-, L. V. AULETTA, J. CONLEY: [3] Automatie contact resistance probe. Rev.
Scientif. Instruments 34 (1963) 1317
- [4] Processes of metal transfer and wear. Wear 7 (1964) 181 .......... 202, 203
- S. J. KRUMBEIN: [5] Contact properties of conductive hard metals and of
tin nickel plate. Proc. Seminar on electr. contacts. Univ. of Maine (1965)
103 ............................................................. . 365
- [6] Wear and friction of the platinum metals. Platinum Metals Rev. 10
(1966) 2 .........•••...................•.........•........... 202, 219
ARCHARD, J. F.: [1] Contact and ruhhing of flat surfaces. J. Appl. Phys. 24
(1953) 981 ........................................................ 234
- [2] Elastic deformation and the laws of friction. Proc. Roy. Soc. London
.A 243 (1957) 190 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31, 200
1 A single bracket [ indicates that the numbers to the right of it refer to pages
in this book. "Mentioned" means mentioned in the text without referring to any
publication. Several informative papers are included without being cited in the
text.
444 Author and Iiterature index
ARCHARD, J. F., W. HIRST: [3] The wear of metals under unluhricated condi-
tions. Proc. Roy. Soc. A 236 (1956) 397 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233, 236, 239, 241
-, W. HmsT: [4] An examination of a mild wear process. Proc. Roy.
Soc. A 238 (1957) 515 ............................................. 241
- [5] A crossed-cylinders friction machine. Wear 2 (1958) 21 ............... 236
-, W. HmsT: [6] The wear of metals. Scientific luhrication (Nov. 1958) 3
- [7] The temperature of ruhhing surfaces. Wear 2(1959) 438 ............... 231
- [8] Single contacts and multiple encounters. J. Appl. Phys. 32 (1961) 1420 .. 241
ARNOLD, S. M.: Metal whiskers. Elec. Mfg. 04 (1954) 110 ................... 417
ATALLA, M. M.: [1] Arcing of electrical contacts in telephone switching circuits.
Bell Syst. techn. J., I: 32 (1953) 1231; II: 32 (1953) 1493; III: 33
(1954) 535; IV: 34 (1955) 203; V: 34 (1955) 1081 ....................... 276
-, Miss R. E. Cox: [2] Theory of open-contact performance of twin contacts.
Bell Syst. techn. J. 33 (1954) 1373 ....................................362
AULETTA,L. V.: see ANTLER
AvRAMESCU, A.: Beiträge zur Berechnung der Kurzschlußerwärmung. Disser-
tation. Dresden 1937 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
AwEIDA, J. I.: Analysis of contact design. Proc. Seminar on electric. contacts.
Univ. of Maine (1959) II ............................................ 362
AYRTON, H., mentioned· ............................................... 281
BAILEY, ANITA T., J. S. CouRTNEY-PRATT: [1] The area of real contact and
the shear strength of monomolecular layers of a boundary lubricant. Proc.
Roy. Soc., Lond. A 227 (1955) 500 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204,. 216
- [2] Oberflächenenergie und Adhäsion in lamellaren Feststoffen. Dechema
Monographie 51, 21 ................................................ 114
BAKER, R. G.: Studies of static low voltage contacts at the Bell Tel. Lahora-
tories. Proc. Internat. Symposium on Electric Contact Phenomena. Techn.
Univ. Graz, Austria 1964, 545 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
- see COMPTON
BAKER, R. M.: [1] The effect of mercury vapor on sliding contacts. Electr.
J. 29 (1932) 64
- [2] Electrical sliding contacts. Electr. J. 31 (1934) 359 und 448
- [3] Sliding contacts. EI. characteristics. Electr. Engng. 55 (1936) 94
- and G. W. HEWITT: [4] Brush wear in hydrogenandin air. Electr. J. 33
(1936) 287 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 253
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0. 0 0- 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0- 0 0 0 0
BBINELL, J. A., G. DILLNER: [2] Die Brinellsche Härteprobe und ihre prak-
tische Verwertung. Internat. Verbindung für Materialprüfung. Brüsseler
Kongreß 27 (1906) 1 ............................................... 376
BRISTOW, J. R.: see HEATON
BBODY, T. P.: Nature of the valley current in tunnel diodes. J. Appl. Phys.
33 (1962) 100 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
BROWNE, T. E. Jr.: [1] An approach to mathematical analysis of a. c. arc .
extinction in circuit breakers. Pwr. apparatus and syst. (Febr. 1959) 1508 .. 292
- [2] Extinction of long a. c. arcs. Proc. Internat. Symposium on electric
contact phenomena. Univ. of Maine (1961) 399 ........................ 295
-, see LINGAT
-, mentioned . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 292, 294
BBUNNER, J., H.IIAMMEBSCHMID: Über die elektrische Leitfähigkeit gepreßter
Graphitpulver. Z. Elektrochem. 40 (1934) 60 ..................... 191, 192
BRYANT, P. J., P. L. GUTSHALL, L. H. TAYLOR: A study of mechanisms of
graphite friction and wear. Wear 7 (1964) 118 ..... 28, 156, 222, 225, 405, 406
BUCKLEY, D. H., R. L. JoHNSON: Mechanism of lubrication for solid carbon
materials in vacuum to 10-9 mm of mercury. ASLE Transact. 7 (1964) 91
BURGESS, R. E., H. KBoEMER, J. M. HousTON: Corrected values of Fowler-
Nordheim field emission functions v(y) ands(y). Phys. Rev. 90 (1953) 515 .. 130
BUR.KIIARD, G., H. M. WEDELL, H. HILBIG [1]: Zur Kontaktmaterialwanderung
unter dem Einfluß des Lichtbogens und deren Messung mittels radioaktiver
Isotope. Wiss. ZS Elektrotechn. 2;2 (1963) 92 ........................• 195
-, E. WEBNER [2]: Über das Verhalten von Kontaktlenkverbindungen bei
großen Strömen. Kontakte in der Elektrotechnik. Berlin: Akad. Verlag
1965,252
BUBLEY, C. E.: Silver plated aluminium bus conductor. Pwr apparatus and
Syst. (Dec. 1958) 1024 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .• . . . . . . . . . . . . . .• 165
BUBSTYN, W.: [1] Neue Beobachtungen an SilberkontaktenETZ 62 (1941) 149 282
- [2] Elektrische Kontakte und Schaltvorgänge. Berlin: Springer 1950,
enlarged 1956 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 328
BURTON, R. L.: see CLABK
BURWELL, J. T., J. KAYE, D. W. VAN NYMEGEN, D. A. MoRGAN: [1] E:ffects
of surface finish. J. appl. Mech. 8 (1941) A-49 .......................... 417
-, C. D. STRANG: [2] The increment friction ooefficient- a nonhydrodynamic
component of boundary lubrication. J. appl. Phys. 20 (1949) 79 . . . . . . . . . . 211
-, C. D.·STRANG: [3] On the empiricallaw of adhesive wear. J. Appl. Phys. 23
(1952) 18 .................................................... 237, 238
BusCH, G.: soo BRAuN, A.
BusCH, H.: mentioned . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
CABBERA, N., N. F. MoTT: Theory of the oxidation of metals. Rep. Phys. Soc.
(Progr. Phys.) 12 (1948-49) 163 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . 107
CAMPBELL, W. E., U. B. THoMAs: (1] The electrolytic reduction method for the
analysis of films on metal surfaces. Trans. electrochem. Soc. 76 (1939) 303;
likewise: Bell Teleph. Syst. Techn. Publ. B-1170 ....................... 105
- [2] Use of statistical control in corrosion and contact resistance studies.
Trans. electrochem. Soc. 8 (1943) 377; likewise: Bell Teleph. Syst. Tech.
Publ. B-1350 (1942) ................................................ 360
-,RosE KozAK: [3] Studies in boundary lubrication. The wear of carbon
brushes in dry atmospheres. Trans. Amer. Soc. mech. Engrs. 70 (1948) 491
- [4] Solid lubricants. Lubr. Engng. (Aug. 1953) 195
448 Author and Iiterature index
F AIRWEATHER, A.: [1] The closure and partial separation of a metallic contact.
J. Inst. Electr. Engrs., Lond. 92 (1945) 301 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46, 50
- [2] The behavior of metallic contacts at low voltages in adverse environ-
ments. Proc. Inst. Electr. Engrs., Lond. 100 (1953) 174
-, D. G. M. SHIRLEY, R. E. FuDGE: [3] Contact closure. Internat. Symposium
on Electric Contact Phenomena. Graz, Techn. Hochschule, Austria (1964) 40 [377
FARRALL, G. A., J. M. LAF1!ERTY, J. D. COBINE: [1] Electrode materials and
their stabilit.y characteristics in the vacuum arc. IEEE Trans. Communi-
cation and Electronics 82 (1963) 253 ............................. 286, 289
-, J. D. CoBINE: [2]Stability of arcs in gases. J. Appl. Phys. 36 (1965) 53 [285, 286, 287
FARNEB, A.: see EKKERS
FENECH, H., W. M. RoHSENOW: Prediction ofThermal conductance of metaJ.Jlc
surfaces in contact. ASME paper No. 62-HT-32 Sept. 1962 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
FENG, I. Mnm: [1] Metal transfer and wear. J. Appl. Phys. 23 (1952) 1011 [44, 206
-, B. G. RIGHTMIRE: [2] The mechanism of fretting. Amer. Soc. Lubr. Eng.
Meeting (April1953) . . .• . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .• . • . • . . . . .• • . . . . . . 206
-, [3] The infiuence of surface activity on friction and surface damage. Wear
4 (1961) 269 ........•..............................•............•• 211
FEssENDEN, R. A.: mentioned . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . 60
FINCH, G. I.: The sliding surface. Proc. phys. Soc. Lond. 63 B (1950) 473 [218, 220
29E
452 Author and Iiterature index
FINK, H. P.: [1] Untersuchung über die Entstehung .von Kontaktbögen. Wiss.
Veröff. Siemens-Werk 17 (1938) 45 .......................... 279, 280, 282
-, H. KöRNER: [2] Messungen des zeitlichen Verlaufs der Erwärmung in einem
Kontakt infolge eines plötzlich einsetzenden Stromes. Wiss. Veröff. Siemens-
Werk 19 (1940) 280 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
- seeR. HoLM
F!NKE, H.: see ERK
F!NKELNBURG, W., H. MAEcKER: [1] Elektrische Bögen und thermisches
Plasma. Handbuch der Physik. XXII. Springer 1956, 254ff. [306, 421, 425ff.
- [2] Structure of matter. Berlin: Springer 1964 and Acad. Press, New York
F:rscHMEISTER, H.: see RöNQUIST
FISHER, J. 0., I. GlA.EVER: Tunneling through thin insulating layers. J. Appl.
Phys. 32 (1961) 172 ....................................... 122, 127, 129
FLOM, D. G., R. H. SAVAGE: Detection ofthin insulating films on metals. Gen.
Elect. Report No. RL-1188 (Oct. 1954). Shorter in Arm. New York Acad.
Sei. o8 (1954) 946 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111, 143
FoRSTER, G. A.: [1] Investigation of noise generated by electrical slip rings.
W ADC techn. report 54---125 (Apr. 1954) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 272, 273
- [2] Better electrical brushes. The Frontier 19 (1956) No. 3, i 7 . . . . . . . . . . . . 273
FOWLER, R. H., L. NoRDHEIM: Electron emission in intense electric flelds.
Proc. Roy. Soc., Lond. A 119 (1928) 173 .............................. 130
Fox, R. E.: see HwKAM
FoXHALL, G. F., J. A. LEWIS: The resistance of an infinite slab with a disk
electrode. Bell Syst. Techn. J. 43 (1964) 1609 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
FRANCIS, G.: The glow discharge at low pressure. Handbuch der Physik XXII.
Berlin: Springer 1956,53 ........................................... 332
FRANKLIN, RosALIND, E.: [1] The structure o' graphitic carbons. Acta Cryst. 4
(1951) 253 ................................................... 407, 408
- [2] Crystalline growth in graphitizing and non-graphitizing carbons. Proc.
Roy. Soc., Lond. A 209 (Oct. 23, 1951) 196 ............................ 407
FRANz, W. : Dielektrischer Durchschlag. Handbuch der Physik XVII. Berlin:
Springer 1956, 155 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135, 146
FREIER, R.: see TonT
FRENKEL, J.: On the electrical resistance of contacts between solid conductors.
Phys. Rev. 36 (1931) 1604 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
FREUDIGER, E., E. JosT: Kinetics and thermodynamics of the internal
oxidation of silver cadmium. Proc. Internat. Symposium on Electric Con-
tact Phenomena, Univ. of Maine (1961) 177 ........................... 308
FRIEn, E., F. A. ÜOSTELLO: [1] Interface thermal contact resistance problern
in space vehicles. ARS J. 32 (1962) 237 ............................... 195
- [2] Study of interface thermal contact conductance. Document No. 64
SD 652, General ElectriQ Spacecraft Department . , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .• . . . 196
FRIEDRICH, R. E.: see LEEDS
FRIND, G.: [J] Über das Abklingen von Lichtbögen. ZS. angew. Physik 12
(1960) 231 and 515 ................................•.............•.. 294
- [2] Time constants of fiat ar95 cooled by thermal conduction. IEEE Trans.
PAS-84 (1965) 112.5 .•.............................................. 296
FRITAG, E. H.: see BownEN
FRooME, K. D.: The behavior of the cathode spot on an undisturbed liquid
surface of low work function. Proc. Phys. Soc., Lond. B 63 (1950) 377 .... 429
FucHs, E.: see PFISTERER
F-uCHs, L. H.: see PRIMA l{
Author and literature index 453
FuDGE, R. E.: see F .AIRWHEATHER
FuJIMOTO, M.: Microstructure of metal transfer in electric contacts (Japanese).
Trans. Inst. Electr. Engrs. Japan 4 (1943) 477 ......................... 355
FUKUROI, T., Y. l\IUTO: Electrical contact resistance between metallic surfaces
subjected to various treatments. Sei. Rep. Res. Inst. Töhoku Univ. A 3
(1951) 281 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38, 46
FURMIDGE, J. E.: see TYLECOTE
HUNTER-BROWN, P.: Carbon brushes. J. Inst. electr. Engrs. 67 (1919) 193 •.. 245
HUTCHEON, I. C.: Contact resistance effects in mechanical choppers. J. Brit.
I.R.E.21(1961)153
JACOB, CH.: Über gleitende Reibung. Ann. Physik Lpz. 38 (1912) 126
JAEGER, J. C.: [1] Moving sources of heat and the temperature at sliding con-
tacts. J. Roy. Soc. NewS. Wales 1)6 (1942) 203 ..................•. 94, 98ft".
- [2] Approximation in transient surface heating Austral. J. Sei. Res. 5
(1952) 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • 94, 99
- [3] Pulsed surface heating of a semi-infinite solid. Quart. Appl. Math. 11
(1953) 132 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . 94
- see CARSLAW
J.AHNKE-EMDE: Funktionstafeln. Leipzig: Teubner 1938 ............... 17, 55
JENKINS, R. 0.: Electron diffraction experiments with graphite and carbon
surfaces. Phil. Mag.12 (1934) 457 ..................................•• 222
JoBLING, H. B.: A review of the manufacture and use of carbon brushes.
Trans. S. African Inst. Electr. Engin. 06, Sept. (1965) 211
JoHNSON, J. B.: Thermal agitation of electricity in conductors. Phys. Rev. 32
(1928) 97 ................................................•........ 269
JoHNSON, K. L.: A note on the adhesion of elastic solids. Brit. J. Appl. Phys.
9 (1958) 199 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .• . . . . . . . . 157
JoHNSON, R. L.: see BISBON
- see BuCKLEY
JOHNSON, V. R.: [1] Survey of the nature of the friction forces in molybdenum
disulphide lubrication. MRI Project No. 129-P-65 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • • • . . 227
-, G. W. VAUGHN: [2] Investigation of the mechanisni of MoS2 lubrication in
vacuum. J. Appl. Phys. 27 (1956) 1173 ............................... 227
JoNES, C. H.: see HoPXINs
JoNEs, C. R.: see LLEWELLYN-JONES
JoNEs, F. LL.: see LLEWELLYN-JONES
JONES, L. K.: Materials and process variables and .their effect on conta.ct
resistance. Proc. Seminar on Electric Contacts. Pennsylvania State Univ.
(1960) 52 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .• • • 29
JoNES, R. H.: see LLEWELLYN-JONES
JoNEs, T. K., R. A. ScoTT, lt. W. SILLARS: The structure and electrical
prope~ies of surfaces of semiconductors. Proc. Phys. Soc. Lond. A 62
(1949) 333 ..... '. . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . . .• • . . . . . . . .• • • • . . . .• . • . . . . . . . . . 189
JusT, G.: Die Durchschlagsfestigkeit äußerst dünner Ta20 1-Schichten in Ab-
hängigkeit von der Schichtdicke. Z. Phys. 82 (1933) 119 .••....••....••.• 146
JusTI, E., H. SCHULTZ: Neue Versuche zur))entung derFeinwanderung in
elektrischen Abhebekontakten. Abh. Braunschw. Wiss. Ges. t (1949) 89 [69,
71, 339, 344
Author and Iiterature index 461
KAMERLINGH-ÜNNES, H.: Further experiments With liquid helium. The per-
sistence of currents without electromotive force in supraconducting circuits.
Commun. Leiden 141 b (1914) 15 . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . .• . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
KANTOROWICZ, 0.: Zur Leitfähigkeit gepreßter Metallpulver. Ann. Phys., Lpz.
12 (1932) 1 0. 0 0. 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 19.!, 192
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
- see SKAUPY ,
KAPPLER, E., E. RecHARD'I, R. ScHLÄFER: Kontaktwiderstand in Abhängig-
keit von der Kontaktlast. Z. angew. Phys. 2 (1950) 313 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
KAUFMANN, W.: mentioned ...•..............•........................ 282
KEEFER, H. J., R. H. GUMLEY: Relay contact behavior under non-eroding
circuit conditions. Bell Syst. techn. J. 37 (1958) 777 . . . • . . . . . . . . . . . 170, 362
KEHOE, J. W.: Attaching contacts. Proc. Seminar Electric Contacts. Pennsylv.
State Univ. (June 1954) ........................................•... 176
KEIL, A., C. L. MEYER: [1] Die Feinwanderung an Kontakten aus Legierungen
mit Überstruktur. :Metallkunde 44 (1953) 22
-, W. MERL: [2] Über die Materialwanderung an elektrischen Unterbrechungs-
kontakten. Metallkunde 48 (1957) 16
- , - [3] Über das Schweiß- und Abbrandverhalten von Unterbrecherkontakten
aus Silber-Graphit. Metall12 (1958) 619 ......................... 341, 364
- [4] Werkstoffe für elektrische Kontakte. Berlin: Springer 1960 [176, 296,346,
362, 364, 366
-, C. L. MEYER: [5] Die mechanische Deformation von Kontaktstücken durch
den Schaltlichtbogen. ETZ, B 12 (1960) 309
-, C. L. MEYER: [6] Kristallwachstum bei Schwefeleinwirkung auf Silber und
beim Zerfall von Silbersulfid. Metallkunde ol (1960) 253
-, C. L. MEYER: [7] Über die Entstehung haarförmiger Kristalle auf me-
tallischen Oberflächen. ETZ B, 14 (1962) 697 .......................... 417
- [8] Über spec. ehern. Reaktionen an Edelmetall-Oberflächen. Metall 15
(1961) 655 0 0 0 0 0 •• 0. 0. 0 0 0 112 0. 0 0 0 •• 0 0 0 0. 0. 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0. 0 0 0. 0 •• 0 0 0. 0. 0
- see R. HoLM
462 Author and Iiterature index
KisLrux., P.: (1] Arcing at electric contacts on closure. Part V. The cathode
mechanism of extremely short arcs. J. Appl. Phys. 25 (1954) 897 ....•.... 276
- [2] Using contact resistance to measure adsorption of gases on metals. Bell
Syst. techn. J. 37 (1958) 925 ...............................•... 105, 126
- [3] Electron emission at high fields due to positive ions. J. Appl. Phys. 30
(1959) 51 . ·......•............................................•.•.. 277
- [4] Chemisorption of nitrogen on tungsten. J. Chem. Phys. SO (1959) 174 [ 104, 105
- [5] Calorimetric heat absorption-nitrogen on tungsten. J. Chem. Phys. 31
(1959) 1605 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .• . . . . . . . .• . . . . . . . 104, 105
Kr.rTEL, CH.: Introduction to solid state physics. Second ed. New York: Wiley
& Sons, 1956 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . 380, 395
KI.AunY, P.: [1] Eigenschaften und Anwendungsmöglichkeiten von Flüssig-
keitskontakten. ETZ 76 (1955) 525 ...................•.•...•.... 108, 358
- [2] Stromabnahme bei hohen Geschwindigkeiten. Maschinenbau und
Wärmewirtschaft 11 (1956) 315 ............................ 105, 108, 358
- [3] Fortschritte im Bau von Unipolarmaschinen durch Anwendung von
Flüssiglreitskontakten. Elektrotechn. und Maschinenbau 78 (1961.) 128 .... 358
- [4] Liquid sliding contacts. Proc. Internat. Symposium on Electric Con-
tact Phenomena. Univ. of Maine (1961) 49 ......................••..•. 358
- [5] Einigeneuere Untersuchungen an Flüssigkeitskontakten. Proc.Internat.
Symposium on Electric Contact Phenomena. Techn. Hochschule, Graz,
Austria (1964) 3. About the same subject: 'Ober Flüssigkeitskontakte, ATM
(1965) R97 ....................................................... 358
KLXm, R.: see ExxERS
KLE!NLE, A.: see HAASE
KLuGE, J.: [1] Schmierung als Grenzfl.ächenvorgang. Metallkunde 40 (1949)
386 ...•........................................................•. 211
- [2] Communication to the author . . . . .. .. .. . . . . .. . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . .. . .. 239
KMETXO, E. A.: Electronic properlies of carbons and of their interstitial com-
pounds. J. Chem. Phys. 21 (1953) 2152 ...••..............•........•.. 408
KOBEL, E.: Zusammenhang zwischen der Benetzung und dem elektrischen
Vbergangswiderstand zwischen Eisen und Queclrsilber. Schweizer Arch. für
angew. Wiss. Techn. (1948) 326 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
KoBITZSCH, R.: see SIEBEL
KoHLER, MAx.: [1] Thermischer Kontaktwiderstand von Metallen und der da-
durch verursachte Temperatursprung im Kontakt. Ann. Phys., Lpz. 38
(1940) 542 .....••. ·.........•.....•..........•.•..••••.....•...•••. 69
-, G. ZIELA.SEX: [2] Der zeitliche Temperaturverlauf in elektrischen Kontak-
ten. Abh. Braunschw. Wiss. Ges. 4 (1952) 117 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . 94
- mentioned .. .. .. • . . ... .. . .. .. . . . . . .. .. . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
KoBLRAUSCH, F.: Vber den stationären Temperaturzustand eines elektrisch
geheizten Leiters. Ann: Phys., Lpz.l (1900) 132 :. . . . . • • . . . . . . . .• . .• • . . 6i
KoBliiA.N, G. T., H. W. HERMANOE, G. H. DOWNES: Silver migration in electri-
cal insulation. Bell Syst. techn. J. 34 (1955) 1115 •..•...•.•.•...•.•.... 418
KoLLER, R.: FundameTJ.tal properties of the vacuum switch. Trans. Amer. Inst.
electr•.Engrs. 65 (1946) 59'7 .......................................... 308
KOPPE{.MANN, F.: [1] Der Kontaktumformer. ETZ 62 (1941) 3 ...........• 296
- [2] Der Kontaktgleichrichter der AEG. ETZ 4B (1952) 224 •...........• 296
- [3] Kontakt-Stromrichter für 16000A, ETZ-B (1953) 395 .......•.•.•.• 296
KOPPLIN, H., E. 8omm>T: Beitrag zum Dynamischen Verhalten des Licht-
bogens in Ölarmen Hochspanimngs-Leistungsschaltern. ETZ-A 80 (1959)
805 ...... ;· ...........•.....•....•..•............................. 295
Author and literature index 463
KÖRNER, H.: see FINK
- see R.HoLM
KOTTLER, F.: Elektrostatik der Leiter. Handbuch der Physik von GEIGER und
SCHEEL, Bd. 12. Berlin: Springer 1927 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14, 15
KoZAK, RosE: see CAMPBELL
KUHLMANN-WILSDORF, Dorus, H. G. F. WILSDORF: Dislocation movements in
metals. Science 144 (3 Apr. 1964) 17............................. 367, 370
KÜPFMÜLLER, K.: Einführung in die theoretische Elektrotechnik. Berlin:
Springer 1965 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
KuozoGI, E.: Die Halbleitertheorie der Schleifkontakte elektriscrer Maschi-
nen. Acta Techn. Hung. 49 (1964) 191 ................................ 187
Qunm, P.: Electroplated contacts. Engl. El.ectr. J.14 (1955) 48 ....... 165, 363
Qunm, T. F. J.: The preferred orientations withip. a contact film formed by·
the repeated sliding of an electrographite brush on a copper ring. Brit. J.
appl. Phys. 16 (1964) 513 ••.•••••...•...........•.....••..••••...... 222
RöNNQUIST, A.: [2] The oxida.tion of copper. J. Instit. Metals 91 (1962) 89 [105, 112
RoSHON,D.D.: sooBAYER
Ross, H. C. : Switching in high vacuum environment. IEEE Trans. Professio-
nal techn. group on component parts. CP-10 (1963) ••.................. 291
RowE, G. W.: Friction and metal-transfer of heavily-deformed sliders. Wea.r
7 (1964} 204 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234
- see G&EENWOOD
RücHARDT, E.: see DIETRICH
- see KAPPLEE
Ruu, R. J.: A study of nickel surfaces employed in the catalytic decomposi-
tion of formic acid vapor. Thesis Univ. of Michigan, Apr. 1954 ........... 105
RusSELL,M.N., S.KEILIEN: The vibration of electr. contacts. Trans. AIEE 83
( 1944) 153 . . . . .• . . . . . . . . . .• . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 302
RuTGERS, C. A. W.: see ter HoRST
TABOB, D.: The hardness of metals. Oxford: Clarendon Press 1951, [367,369, 372,
- see BOWDEN 373, 376
- see GREENWOOD
- see McFABLANE
- see MENTER
- see MULHEARN
- see RABINOWICZ
- see 8Trr.WELL
TABPINIAN, A., C. TEDMON: An analysis of carbon crystallite growth kinetics
during graphitization. Techn. Raport Wal TR 851 Ö/1 (1962) Watertown
Arsenal. . . . . . . . .• . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 407
TAYLOB, L. H.: see BBYANT
TAYLOB, W. G. A.: see CoLLIER
474 Author and Iiterature index
VAN BRUNT, C., R. H. SAVAGE: Carbon-brush contact films. Gen. Elektr. Rev.
47 (1944) 16 ............................................. 222, 223, 226
VAN DER HELD, E. F. M.: see BoESCHOTEN
VANDERSLICE, T. A.: see CoBINE
VAN DER ZIEHL, A.: Thermal noise at high frequencies. J. Appl. Phys. 21
(1950) 399 ........................................................ 270
VAN HoRN, R. H.: see MALL!NA
VAN LEEUWEN, C. J.: see VAN VLIET
VAN NYMEGEN, D. W.: see BuRWELL
VAN VLIET, K. M., C. J. VAN LEEUWEN, J. BLOK, C. R1s: Measurements on
current noise in carbon resistors andin thermistors. Physica 20 (1954) 481 . 270
VAUGHN, G. W.: see JoHNSON, V. R.
VERNON, W. H. J.: [1] Second experimental report on the atmospheric corro-
sion research committee. Trans. Faraday Soc. 23 (1927) 113 ........ 105, 109
- [2] A laboratory study of the atmospheric corrosion of metals. Trans.
Faraday Soc. 27 (1931) 255, 582; 31/2 (1935) 1668
- [3] Metallic corrosion. Research 5 (1952) 54 ........................... 116
VIEHMAN, H.: [1] Klemmverbindungen von elektrischen Leitungen aus Leicht-
metallitze. Jb. dtsch. Luftf.-Forschg. Teil III (1938) 24 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
- [2] Leitungen-, Klemmen- und Funkenstörung im Flugzeug. VDE-Fach.
Ber. 11 (1939) 70 .................................................. 169
VINARICKY, E.: Thermokraft und elektrischer 'Widerstand einiger Kontakt-
werkstoffe auf Edelmetallbasis. Metall 20 (1966) Heft 7
- see MERL
VINES, R. F.: Progress on noble meta! contact materials. Proc. Internat. Sym-
posium on Electric Contact Phenomena, Techn. Univ. Graz, Austria (1964)
475 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170, 362
VoGELPOHL, G.: Zur Klärung des Gleitreibungsvorganges. Öl u. Kohle 37
(1939) 720 ........................................................ 417
VoLKMANN, W.: Über Kohlebürsten-Schwingungen mit kleiner Amplitude.
ETZ A 86 (1965) 151 ......................................... 229, 272
VON MISES, R. : mentioned . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 370
p. 352:
e 2a
Bottom line, read: -2 I = U bl instea.d o f - I = U b.
a (}
p. 353: Read: U bl instea.d of U b·
Line 10, read: Fig. (65.04) instea.d of Fig. (65.03)
p. 358: Line 2, read: 100 A it is better to move the mercury a.wa.y from both
electrodes.
p. 381: Disrega.rd the last two sentences.
p. 384: Line 4 after Eq. (li, 11) read: 1J ~ : kT instea.d of 1J = : kT.
p. 386: In Eq. (II,13) read: ""'instea.d of =
p. 389: In Eq. (II,19) lowerterm, read: + V/2. Betterrea.tmentinR. Holm,
J. Appl. Phys. 39 (1968) 3294.
p. 394: Line 6 from bottom after capa.cties, a.dd: at room tempera.ture.
p. 396: Line 3 from bottom, read: with L forthebest conductors somewha.t•••
p. 397: Line 3 a.fter Eq. (II,16) rea.d: the fa.ctor tha.t increa.ses c of the elec-
. trons compensa.tes the fa.ctor tha.t diminishes A.
p. 400: Line 16 from bottom, read: or equa.l to i + xi.
p. 424: Line 14 from bottom, read: rp """4.5 eV.
p. 430: In Table (IX, 5) under J - read: 1 instea.d of 10.
p. 433: in Eq. (IX, 11) read: (1 -LI) instea.d of (I- LI).
p. 434: Line 14 read: §50 B instea.d of § 49 B.