ABSTRACT

This thesis reports on the experimental investigation on the heat transfer and

pressure drop characteristics of Al2O3-Cu/water hybrid nanofluid in a circular tube under

turbulent flow conditions. The experiments were conducted under turbulent conditions

with Reynolds number varying form 9500 – 23000. Al2O3-Cu hybrid nanoparticle is

synthesized by reducing Al2O3-CuO in the required ratio and reducing the nanocomposite

by hydrogen reduction in the furnace under Argon atmosphere.

Al2O3-Cu nanoparticles possess favorable properties such as high stability and

chemical inertness etc, but it has relatively lower thermal conductivity compared to metal

nanoparticles such as copper. Nanofluids were prepared by sonicating the nanocomposite

with de-ionized water as the base fluid. Five samples of the hybrid particles are

synthesized in this experimental work by varying the proportions of Al2O3 and CuO

nanoparticles in the initial mixture. Hybrid powder sample 1 is synthesized from Al2O3

and CuO nanoparticles mixed in 80:20 proportions, Hybrid powder sample 2 is

synthesized from Al2O3 and CuO nanoparticles mixed in 70:30 proportions, hybrid

powder sample 3 is synthesized from Al2O3 and CuO nanoparticles mixed in 30:70

proportions, hybrid powder sample 4 is synthesized from Al2O3 and CuO nanoparticles

mixed in 20:80 proportions, hybrid powder sample 5 is synthesized from Al2O3 and CuO

nanoparticles mixed in 10:90 proportions. Characterization of Al2O3-Cu hybrid

nanoparticles was done by X-ray Diffraction (XRD), Scanning Electron Microscopy

(SEM) and Energy Dispersive Spectroscopy (EDS).

i
 Heat transfer and pressure drop studies were conducted using 0.1% Al2O3-Cu

/water hybrid nanofluid in a straight circular tube under constant heat flux conditions.

Heat transfer and pressure drop studies were conducted using 0.1% Al2O3-Cu /water

hybrid nanofluid in a straight circular tube with wire coil inserts of pitch ratio 4 under

turbulent conditions under constant heat flux conditions. Heat transfer and pressure drop

studies were also conducted using 0.1% Al2O3-Cu /water hybrid nanofluid in a straight

circular tube with wire coil inserts of pitch ratio 2 under turbulent conditions under

constant heat flux conditions.

Experimental results show that thermal conductivity of nanofluids significantly

increase with increase in copper concentration. The viscosity also increases with the

increase in copper concentration.

Keywords: Heat transfer enhancement, Nusselt number, Friction factor, wire coil

inserts, Pitch ratio.

ii
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

With deep regards and profound respect, I avail this opportunity to express my
deep sense of gratitude and indebtedness to Dr. S. Suresh, Assistant Professor,
Department of mechanical Engineering, National Institute of Technology (NIT),
Tiruchirappalli for his inspiring guidance, constructive criticisms and valuable
suggestions throughout this project work.

I express my sincere thanks to Dr. J. Sarangan, Professor and Head of

Department, Department of Mechanical Engineering, for providing me with this
opportunity and his constant support and encouragement throughout the project.

I sincerely thank my project coordinators Prof. S. S. Arulappan, Associate

professor, Department of Mechanical Engineering, NIT, Tiruchirappalli and Dr. R.
Anand, Assistant Professor, Department of Mechanical Engineering , NIT,
Tiruchirappalli.

At the outset, I take this opportunity to thank our beloved Director of National
Institute of Technology, Tiruchirappalli (NITT) for directing us and enabling us to
enhance focus towards research and development.

I would like to place on record the continuous support, encouragement, advice

and help throughout the project by parents and friends who contributed to my efforts and
growth in many ways and shall continue to be grateful to them forever.

I take this opportunity to thank all faculty members and staff of Mechanical
Engineering Department for their support and encouragement in accomplishing this
work.

RAJIV.K

iii
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

ABSTRACT.................................................................................................... i
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ........................................................................ iii
TABLE OF CONTENTS ............................................................................ iv
TABLE OF FIGURES ............................................................................... vii
ABBREVIATIONS ...................................................................................... ix
NOTATIONS .................................................................................................x
SUBSCRIPTS ............................................................................................... xi
CHAPTER 1................................................................. INTRODUCTION
1.1 GENERAL..............................................................................................1
1.2 SCOPE AND OBJECTIVES .................................................................4
1.3 THESIS LAYOUT .................................................................................4
CHAPTER 2 ..................................................REVIEW OF LITERATURE
2.1 GENERAL..............................................................................................5
2.2 SUMMARY OF LITERATURE REVIEW ...........................................8
CHAPTER 3 .................. SYNTHESIS AND CHARACTERISATION OF
NANOPARTICLES
3.1 SYNTHESIS OF Al2O3-Cu HYBRID NANOPARTICLES .................9
3.2 CHARACTERIZATION TECHNIQUES USED ................................11
3.2.1 X-ray Powder Diffraction (XRD)..................................................................................... 11
3.2.2 Scanning Electron Microscopy and Energy Dispersive Spectroscopy (SEM/EDS) ......... 14

3.3 SYNTHESIS OF HYBRID NANOFLUID FOR PROPERTY

STUDIES ....................................................................................................17
iv
 3.4 THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY MEASUREMENTS..........................19
3.5 VISCOSITY MEASUREMENTS .......................................................22

CHAPTER 4................................................................. EXPERIMENTAL

4.1 EXPERIMENTAL SETUP ..................................................................25
4.1.1. General......................................................................................................................... 25
4.1.2 Technical Details of circulating pump ........................................................................... 27
4.1.3 Details of Wire coil inserts ............................................................................................ 28

4.2 EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE.......................................................29

4.3DATA REDUCTION ............................................................................30
4.3.1Heat transfer calculation ............................................................................................... 30
4.3.2 Friction factor calculation ............................................................................................. 31
4.3.3 Thermal performance evaluation ................................................................................. 31

CHAPTER 5 ............................................... RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

5.1 VALIDATION OF THE EXPERIMENTAL SETUP .........................32
5.2 HEAT TRANSFER CHARACTERISTICS AND PRESSURE DROP
STUDIES OF Al2O3-Cu/ WATER NANOFLUIDS ..................................34
5.2.1 Heat transfer characteristics of Al2O3-Cu/water Hybrid nanofluids ............................. 34
5.2.2 Friction factor characteristics of Al2O3-Cu/water Hybrid nanofluids ............................ 38

5.3 THERMAL RESISTANCE VS PUMPING POWER .........................40

5.4 THERMAL PERFORMANCE ANALYSIS .......................................41
CHAPTER 6 .....................................................................................................
...................... CONCLUSION & SUGGESTION FOR FUTURE WORK
6.1. CONCLUSIONS .................................................................................44
6.2. SUGGESTIONS FOR FUTURE WORK ...........................................45
REFERENCES ............................................................................................54

v
 LIST OF TABLES
Table No Title Page No
Table 4.1 Specifications of experimental setup 37

Table 4.2 Specifications of Pump 38

Table 4.3 Specifications of Wire coil inserts 39
Table A.1 Nusselt number Validation 47
Table A.2 Pr drop validation 47
Table A.3 Heat transfer studies with 70:30 ratio 48
Table A.4 Heat transfer study with 80:20 nanofluid 48
Table A.5 Heat transfer study using 70:30 nanofluid with wire 49
coil inserts with pitch ratio 4
Table A.6 Heat transfer study using 80:20 nanofluid with wire 49
coil inserts with pitch ratio 4
Table A.7 Heat transfer study using 70:30 nanofluid with wire 50
coil inserts with pitch ratio 2
Table A.8 Heat transfer study using 80:20 nanofluid with wire 50
soil inserts with pitch ratio 2
Table A.9 Pressure drop study using 70:30 nanofluid 51
Table A.10 Pressure drop study using 80:20 nanofluid 51
Table A.11 Pressure drop study using 70:30 nanofluid with wire 52
coil inserts of pitch ratio 4
Table A.12 Pressure drop study using 80:20 nanofluid with wire 52
coil inserts of pitch ratio 4
Table A.13 Pressure drop study using 70:30 nanofluid with wire 53
coil inserts of pitch ratio 2
Table A.14 Pressure drop study using 80:20 nanofluid with wire 53
coil inserts of pitch ratio 2

vi
 TABLE OF FIGURES

Figure 3. 1: Control panel in the Furnace ........................................................................... 9

Figure 3. 2: Tubular hydrogen Furnace ............................................................................ 10
Figure 3. 3: Schematic representation of diffraction of X-rays in a crystalline material.. 11
Figure 3. 4: XRD Analysis results (80:20 sample) Al2O3-Cu Hybrid particles................ 13
Figure 3. 5: XRD Analysis results (70:30 sample) Al2O3-Cu Hybrid particles................ 13
Figure 3. 6: SEM image of 70:30 hybrid samples ............................................................ 15
Figure 3. 7: SEM image of 80:20 samples ........................................................................ 16
Figure 3. 8: EDS image of 70:30 samples ........................................................................ 16
Figure 3. 9: EDS image of 80:20 samples ........................................................................ 17
Figure 3. 10: Ultrasonic bath ............................................................................................ 18
Figure 3. 11: Samples for property studies ....................................................................... 18
Figure 3. 12: Amount of Surfactant used .......................................................................... 19
Figure 3. 13: KD2 Pro thermal properties analyser .......................................................... 20
Figure 3. 14: KD2 Pro Instrument (1-Test Tube, 2-Test Needle, 3-Septum, 4-Connecting
cable, 5-KD2 Pro Device) ................................................................................................. 20
Figure 3. 15: Comparison of Theoretical and Actual Thermal conductivitues................. 22
Figure 3. 16: Brookefield viscometer ............................................................................... 23
Figure 3. 17: Viscosity comparison between actual and theoretical ................................. 24

Figure 4. 1: Schematic of Experimental setup .................................................................. 25

Figure 4. 2: Photo of Actual Experimental setup .............................................................. 26
Figure 4. 3: Picture of the pump used ............................................................................... 27
Figure 4. 4: Wire coil inserts of pitch ratios 2 and 4......................................................... 28

vii
Figure 5. 1: Comparison of Experimental and Theoretical Nusselts values ..................... 33
Figure 5. 2: Comparison of Experimental and Theoretical Pressure drop values ............ 33
Figure 5. 3: Nusselt number Enhancement for plain tube ................................................ 34
Figure 5. 4: Nusselt number VS Reynolds number with wire coil inserts of Pitch ratio 4
........................................................................................................................................... 35
Figure 5. 5: Nusselt number VS Reynolds number with wire coil inserts of Pitch ratio 2
........................................................................................................................................... 35
Figure 5. 6: Convection heat transfer enhancement.......................................................... 36
Figure 5. 7: Convective heat transfer VS Reynolds number with wire coil inserts of Pitch
ratio 4 ................................................................................................................................ 36
Figure 5. 8: Convective heat transfer coefficient VS Reynolds numbers with wire coil
inserts of Pitch ratio 2 ....................................................................................................... 37
Figure 5. 9: Nu enhancement comparison in different cases ............................................ 37
Figure 5. 10: Friction factor comparison with plain tube ................................................. 38
Figure 5. 11: Friction factor VS Reynolds number with wire coil inserts pitch ratio 4.... 39
Figure 5. 12: Friction factor VS Reynolds number with wire coil inserts pitch ratio 2.... 39
Figure 5. 13: Thermal Resistance VS Pumping power (Plain tube) ................................. 40
Figure 5. 14: Thermal resistance VS Pumping power (Wire coil with PR 4) .................. 40
Figure 5. 15: Thermal resistance VS pumping power (Wire coil with PR 2) ................... 41
Figure 5. 16: TPR VS Re (plain tube)............................................................................... 42
Figure 5. 17: Thermal performance factor VS Reynolds number (wire coil PR 4) .......... 42
Figure 5. 18: Thermal performance VS Reynolds number (Wire coil PR 2) ................... 43

viii
 ABBREVIATIONS

AEM - Analytical electron microscopy

Al2O3 - Alumina

Cu - Copper

CuO - Copper oxide

EDS - Energetic dispersive X-ray spectroscopy

EG - Ethylene glycol

ID - Inner diameter

LMTD - Log Mean Temperature Difference

M.W - Molecular Weight

OD - Inner diameter

RTD - Resistance Temperature Detector

SEM - Scanning Electron Microscope

STIC - Sophisticated Test and Instrumentation

Centre

XRD - X-ray diffraction

ix
 NOTATIONS

A Cross sectional area (m2)

D Test section diameter (m)

h Convective heat transfer coefficient (W/m2K)

k Thermal conductivity (W/mK)

L Test section length (m)

V Voltage (V)

I Current (A)

ṁ Mass flowrate (Kg/sec)

Nu Nusselt number

Re Reynolds number

Pr Prandtl number

T Temperature (°C)

Q Heat input (W)

q Actual heat flux (W/m2)

μ Dynamic viscosity (kg/m2s)

ɸ Volume concentration (%)

∆p pressure drop (Pa)

ρ Density (kg/m3)

x
 SUBSCRIPTS

exp experimental

f fluid

in inlet

nf nanofluid

out outlet

w wall

s solid phase

xi
 CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1 GENERAL
Water is the most cost effective and widely used thermal fluid available with high
heat transfer efficiencies and easy to control. However, its main limitation is that at a
temperature above 100ºC it starts to boil, become steam and hence can only be used as a
pressurized system – imposing restrictions upon its handling and use to ensure safe
operation. The introduction of nano-sized particles to heat transfer fluids (nanofluids) is
an emerging thermal management concept with implications in many disciplines
including power generation, transportation, micro-electronics, chemical engineering,
aerospace and manufacturing.

Nanoparticles have thermal conductivities that are significantly higher than base
fluids. They also remain in suspension and contribute to the thermo-physical properties of
the system while mitigating problems associated with erosion, sedimentation and
clogging, observed for suspensions of micron size particles. A large variety of
nanoparticle suspensions with different nanoparticle materials, shapes, sizes and
concentrations have been extensively studied in last decade; the majority of studies have
been conducted in polar base fluids such as water, ethylene glycol (EG) and their
mixtures. However, there are just a few studies on nanofluids in organic and mineral oils
for heat transfer applications.

Many nanoparticles are being dispersed in the basefluids to get the nanofluids. Of
these the commonly used materials are Alumina, copper oxide, titanium oxide etc.
Hybrid nanofluids mainly incorporate the advantages of two or more nanocomposites. It
is an upcoming research area in the nano field to increase the thermal conductivity and
stability of the nanofluid.

1
 Nanopowders are produced by physical or chemical methods. Physical methods
include inert gas condensation and mechanical grinding. Chemical methods include
thermal spray, spray pyrolysis, chemical vapor deposition and arc sputtering.

Nanofluid preparation can be done in two methods. They are one step method and
two step method. In one step method, preparation of nanofluid and their dispersion in the
base fluid will take place simultaneously. In two step method, the nanopowder is
prepared in the first step using any of the methods mentioned above. The nanofluid is
prepared by magnetic stirring and ultrasonicating the nanoparticle with the base fluid.

Stability of nanofluid is the key issue of nanofluid preparation. Sedimentation and

aggregation are two critical phenomenon for stability of nanofluid. In stationary state, the
sedimentation velocity of small spherical particles in a liquid follows the Stokes law.

2𝑅 2
𝑣= 𝜌𝑠 − 𝜌 (1.1)
9𝜇

Where v is the sedimentation velocity of the particles; R is the radius of spherical

particles; μ is the viscosity of the liquid medium; ρs and ρ are the density of particles and
liquid mediums; g is the gravitational acceleration. So the factors affecting settling
velocity are radius of the particle, viscosity of the fluid and density difference.

The main reasons for heat transfer enhancement are:

 The suspended nanoparticles increase the effective thermal conductivity of the

fluid.

 The suspended nanoparticles increase the surface area and the heat capacity of
the fluid.

 The interaction and collision among particles, fluid and the flow passage
surface are intensified.

 The mixing fluctuation and turbulence of the fluid are intensified.

2
  The dispersion of nanoparticles flattens the transverse temperature gradient of
the fluid.

Nanocomposites are composites in which at least one of the phases shows

dimensions in the nanometer range. According to the matrix material, they are classified
as Ceramic matrix nanocomposites, Metal matrix nanocomposites and Polymer matrix
nanocomposites. In this study we are preparing nanocomposites by Thermal reduction
method.

In the case of heat exchanger applications, heat transfer enhancement has been
achieved by a variety of ways. Heat transfer enhancement in heat exchangers is gaining
industrial importance because it gives one the opportunity to reduce the heat transfer
surface area required for a given application and thus reduce the heat exchanger size and
cost, increase the heat duty of the exchanger for fixed surface area, reduce logarithmic
mean temperature difference (LMTD) for fixed heat duty and surface area, and reduce
pumping power for fixed heat duty and surface area.

Active techniques rely on external power source, such as electronic or acoustic

fields and surface vibration. Most of the active techniques are abstruse and intractable
with the surrounding.

Passive techniques employ special surface geometries for enhancement such as

surface coating, intrinsic fins, surface roughness, swirl flow devices, obstruction devices
and treated surfaces. The passive techniques help us to overcome the limitations faced by
the active techniques.

Here in this project we are trying to combine the effects of swirl flow devices
along with the use of hybrid nanofluid. The swirl flow device used for the thermal and
pressure drop studies is wire coil inserts. The nanofluid used for the study is Alumina-
copper nanofluid. Alumina can be easily dispersed with water as the base fluid. But
Alumina has low thermal conductivity. Copper cannot be dispersed with water as the
density is very high. Copper has very high thermal conductivity. The hybrid nanofluid
combines the advantages of alumina and copper. This compound enhancement will
drastically reduce the size of the heat exchangers used in different process applications.

3
1.2 SCOPE AND OBJECTIVES
The scope of work in this project is an experimental evaluation of enhancements
in convective heat transfer and pressure drop in straight circular tube and plain tube with
wire coil inserts of pitch ratios 2 and 4 due to hybrid nanofluids.

The main objectives of the present study are

I. To synthesize and characterize AL2O3-Cu hybrid nanofluids in 80:20, 70:30,

30:70, 20:80 and 10:90 ratios by hydrogen reduction method.
II. To study the thermophysical properties of the above mentioned ratios wit 0.1%
volume concentration.
III. To investigate the heat transfer & friction characteristics of 0.1% volume
concentration hybrid nanofluid in a straight circular tube with constant heat flux
under turbulent conditions.
IV. To investigate the heat transfer & friction characteristics of 0.1% volume
concentration hybrid nanofluid in a straight circular tube with wire coil inserts of
pitch ratios 2 and 4.

1.3 THESIS LAYOUT

General introduction, overall objective of the present investigation and outline of

thesis are presented in Chapter 1. In chapter 2, a review of literature on the experimental
investigations on thermophysical properties and convective heat transfer enhancement of
nanofluids are discussed. Chapter 3 includes the discussion on preparation and stability of
hybrid nanofluids and the details on measurement of its thermal conductivity. Chapter 4
details of convective heat transfer experimental setup, procedure and experimental
calculations are reported. In chapter 5 details of the heat transfer and pressure drop
studies under turbulent flow conditions are given in the graph. Chapter 6 contains
summary and major findings of the work presented in the thesis.

4
 CHAPTER 2

REVIEW OF LITERATURE
2.1 GENERAL
Suresh et al [1] investigated the heat transfer and pressure drop characteristics
through an uniformly heated circular tube using Alumina-Copper /water hybrid
nanofluids under fully developed laminar flow conditions. In this study, the hybrid
particle was synthesized in a thermo chemical route. The volume concentration used was
0.1% and the composition used was 90% Alumina and 10% Copper. The nanocomposite
powder was obtained using hydrogen reduction method and the nanofluids was prepared
with the base fluid as water. A maximum enhancement of 13.56% in Nusselt number was
obtained for a Reynolds number of 1730 when compared to Nusselt number of water.
The friction factor was compared with that of alumina-water nanofluids and was found to
be slightly more.

Chandrasekhar et al [2] conducted experimental and theoretical investigations of

the effective Thermal conductivity and viscosity of Al2O3/water nanofluids. The
nanoparticles in this study, was prepared using microwave assisted chemical precipitation
method and then dispersing them in distilled water using sonicator. During the
experimental investigation it was noticed that both the thermal conductivity and viscosity
values increase with that of the nanoparticle volume concentration. Theoretical values
obtained were in good agreement with the experimental results. The maximum thermal
conductivity obtained was 9.7% for a volume concentration of 3%.

Hwang et al [3] investigated the pressure drop and convective heat transfer
coefficient of water based AL2O3 nanofluids flowing through a uniformly heated circular
tube in fully developed laminar flow regime. The experimental results show that the data
for nanofluid friction factor show a good agreement with analytical predictions from the
Darcy‟s equation for single-phase flow. However, the convective heat transfer coefficient
of the nanofluids increases by up to 8% at a concentration of 0.3 vol% compared with
that of pure water and this enhancement cannot be predicted by the Shah equation.
Furthermore, the experimental results show that the convective heat transfer coefficient

5
enhancement exceeds, by a large margin, the thermal conductivity enhancement. In this
study, based on scale analysis and numerical solutions, they have shown the flattening of
velocity profile induced from large gradients in bulk properties such as nanoparticle
concentration, thermal conductivity and viscosity.

Suresh et al [4] synthesized Al2O3-Cu hybrid particles by hydrogen reduction

technique from powder mixture of Al2O3 and CuO in 90:10 weight proportions obtained
from a chemical route synthesisAl2O3–Cu/water hybrid nanofluids with volume
concentrations from 0.1% to 2% were then prepared by dispersing the synthesized
nanocomposite powder in deionised water. The experimental results have shown that
both thermal conductivity and viscosity of the prepared hybrid nanofluids increase with
the nanoparticles volume concentration. The thermal conductivity and viscosity of
nanofluids have been measured and it has been found that the viscosity increase is
substantially higher than the increase in thermal conductivity. The experimental
measurement of thermal conductivity showed a maximum enhancement of 12.11% for a
volume concentration of 2%. The experimental results have been compared with the
classical theoretical models available in literature.

Andic et al [5] synthesized nanocomposite Al2O3-Cu hybrid powder by thermo

chemical method and sintering with a comparative analysis of the mechanical and
electrical properties of obtained solid samples. Nanocrystalline Al2O3-Cu powders were
produced by thermo chemical route through the following stages: spray drying, oxidation
of precursor powder, reduction by hydrogen and homogenization. Characterization of
powders included differential thermal and thermo gravimetric analysis, XRD and AEM
coupled with EDS. Size of the produced powders were 20-50nm with noticeable presence
of agglomerates.

Murshed et al [7] conducted combined experimental and theoretical study on the

effective thermal conductivity and viscosity of nanofluids is conducted. The thermal
conductivity and viscosity of nanofluids are measured and found to be substantially
higher than the values of the base fluids. Both the thermal conductivity and viscosity of
nanofluids increase with the nanoparticle volume fraction. The thermal conductivity of
nanofluids was also observed to be strongly dependent on temperature. Two static

6
mechanisms-based models are presented to predict the enhanced thermal conductivity of
nanofluids having spherical and cylindrical nanoparticles. The proposed models show
reasonably good agreement with the experimental results and give better predictions for
the effective thermal conductivity of nanofluids compared to existing classical models.
Based on the calibration results from the transient hot-wire method, the measurement
error was estimated to be within 2%.
Chandrasekhar et al [8] investigated fully developed laminar flow convective heat
transfer and friction factor characteristics of Al2O3/water nanofluid flowing through a
uniformly heated horizontal tube with and without wire coil inserts is presented. For this
purpose, Al2O3 nanoparticles of 43 nm size were synthesized, characterized and dispersed
in distilled water to form stable suspension containing 0.1% volume concentration of
nanoparticles. The Nusselt number in the fully developed region were measured and
found to increase by 12.24% at Re = 2275 for plain tube with nanofluid compared to
distilled water. Two wire coil inserts made of stainless steel with pitch ratios 2 and 3
were used which increased the Nusselt numbers by 15.91% and 21.53% respectively at
Re = 2275 with nanofluid compared to distilled water. The better heat transfer
performance of nanofluid with wire coil insert is attributed to the effects of dispersion or
back-mixing which flattens the temperature distribution and make the temperature
gradient between the fluid and wall steeper. The measured pressure loss with the use of
nanofluids is almost equal to that of the distilled water.
Keblinski et al. [16] suggested that the microscopic motion of nanoparticles, the
surface properties, and the structural effects might cause enhanced thermal conductivity
of nanofluid. In nanofluids, the microscopic motion of the nanoparticles due to Brownian
motion, van der Waals force, and electrostatic force can be significant. The surface
properties and structural effects were not confirmed as potential mechanisms for the
anomalous increase in nanofluid heat transfer, and these mechanisms are:
 Brownian motion of nanoparticles
 Liquid layering at the liquid /particle interface
 Nature of heat transport in the nanoparticles
 Effect of nanoparticle clustering

7
2.2 SUMMARY OF LITERATURE REVIEW

In order to increase the heat transferred in heat exchange devices, the best method
that can be employed is to enhance the thermal conductivity. At higher heat flux
conditions the conventional fluids have low thermal conductivities which will result in
lesser heat transfer. In the literature there are a number of nanofluids that can be used to
enhance heat transfer. There are papers in the literature that uses swirl flow devices to
enhance thermal conductivity. In this study the combination of the two methods are
applied.
The objective of the present investigation is to estimate experimentally the
Nusselt number in the turbulent flows of Al2O3-Cu/water hybrid nanofluids through a
circular tube under constant heat flux condition. Another objective is to estimate the
Nusselt number in the turbulent flows of Al2O3-Cu/water hybrid nanofluids through a
circular tube with spring coil inserts under constant heat flux condition.

8
 CHAPTER 3

SYNTHESIS AND CHARACTERISATION OF NANOPARTICLES

3.1 SYNTHESIS OF Al2O3-Cu HYBRID NANOPARTICLES

The synthesis of Al2O3-Cu hybrid nanoparticle is synthesized by electrochemical

reduction method. The reduction was done in a tubular type furnace has been supplied by
VB Ceramics Pvt.Ltd (Model: VBCC/FUR/1400°C-60/10-11). The furnace tube is made
out of recrystallised alumina which has withstanding capacity of 1800°C. Insulation zone
is constructed with CUMILAG 29 high grade alumina insulation brick and backed by
mechanically compressed zirconia fibre blocks. This type of insulation helps the furnace
for the fast rate of heating and serving for long soaking hours. Six carbide rods are fixed
horizontally, three on each side to even distribution of heat.. There are ports where gases
like hydrogen and argon can be connected. The hydrogen tank is connected through an
automatic mass controller. The argon gas tank is connected through flow meter. The
furnace has a Main on/off and Furnace on/off switch. A mixing chamber has been
provided just outside the furnace entry which sends a uniform mixture of argon and
hydrogen gas into the furnace.

Figure 3. 1: Control panel in the Furnace

9
 Nanocrystalline alumina-copper hybrid (Al2O3-Cu) powder has been prepared by
the reduction of powder consisting of Alumina (Al2O3) and Copper oxide (CuO)
nanopowders by hydrogen reduction technique. The alumina nanopowders were
purchased from Alfa Aesar with average diameter 30-50nm. Copper oxide nanopowders
were purchased from Alfa Aesar with an average diameter of 27-37 nm. Alumina and
copper oxide powders were mixed properly in the desired proportions and placed in a
tubular furnace using alumina boats. The powder mixture was then heated at 400°C for
one hour in tubular hydrogen furnace in Argon atmosphere so that copper oxide is
transformed into elementary copper, and Al2O3 remains in the uncharged form.
Al2 O3 + CuO + H2 → Al2 O3 − Cu + H2 O (3.1)

Figure 3. 2: Tubular hydrogen Furnace

Five samples of Al2O3-Cu hybrid nanoparticles are synthesized in this
experimental work by varying proportions of Al2O3 and CuO nanoparticles. First sample
synthesized has the ratio of 80:20. Second sample synthesized in 70:30 proportions. Third
sample synthesized has the ratio of 30:70. Fourth sample synthesized has the ratio of
20:80. Fifth sample synthesized has the ratio 10:90.

10
3.2 CHARACTERIZATION TECHNIQUES USED

3.2.1 X-ray Powder Diffraction (XRD)

X-ray powder diffraction (XRD) is a rapid analytical technique primarily used for
phase identification of a crystalline material and can provide information on unit cell
dimensions. The analysed material is finely ground, homogenized and average bulk
composition is determined. When X-ray radiation is directed on a sample, the X-rays are
scattered (“diffracted”) by electrons present in the material. If the material is crystalline,
this scattering results in maxima and minima in the diffracted intensity. The signal
maxima follow Bragg‟s law nλ = 2d sin θ. Here n is an integer, λ is the X-ray
wavelength, d is the distance between crystal lattice planes and θ is the diffraction angle.

Figure 3. 3: Schematic representation of diffraction of X-rays in a crystalline material

Let us consider an X-ray beam incident on a pair of parallel planes P1 and P2,
separated by an interplanar spacing d. The two parallel incident rays 1 and 2 make an
angle (THETA) with these planes. A reflected beam of maximum intensity will result if
the waves represented by 1‟ and 2‟ are in phase. The difference in path length between 1
to 1‟ and 2 to 2‟ must then be an integral number of wavelengths. The interplanar
distance„d‟ can be calculated using Bragg‟s equation and the average crystalline size (t)
by using Scherrer‟s equation,

11
 Kλ
t= (3.2)
β cos θ

Where K is called shape factor and β is the full width a half maximum of the
strongest peak. XRD can be used for
• Phase Composition of a Sample

– Quantitative Phase Analysis: determine the relative amounts of phases in a

mixture by referencing the relative peak intensities

• Unit cell lattice parameters and Bravais lattice symmetry

– Index peak positions

– Lattice parameters can vary as a function of, and therefore give you
information about, alloying, doping, solid solutions, strains, etc.

• Residual Strain (macro strain)

• Crystal Structure

– By Rietveld refinement of the entire diffraction pattern

• Epitaxy/Texture/Orientation

• Crystallite Size and Micro strain

– Indicated by peak broadening

– Other defects (stacking faults, etc.) can be measured by analysis of peak

shapes and peak width

In this work the XRD analyses were carried were carried out in a Bruker AXS D8
Advance X-Ray Diffractometer at Sophisticated Test and Instrumentation Centre (STIC),
Cochin University of Science and Technology, Kochi. All the scans were recorded in the
2θ range from 10° and 80° degrees; the scan rate was 0.02° per second. Room
temperature X-ray diffraction patterns of all the prepared samples are obtained using the
Bruker AXS D8 Advance X-Ray Diffractometer and Cu Kα radiation (wavelength λ
=1.5406 Å).

12
Figure 3. 4: XRD Analysis results (80:20 sample) Al2O3-Cu Hybrid particles

Figure 3. 5: XRD Analysis results (70:30 sample) Al2O3-Cu Hybrid particles

13
 The Fig.3.4 shows the XRD pattern of Al2O3-Cu hybrid nanoparticles. The
reflection peaks in the diffraction pattern are identified using PCPDF software and the
patterns were identified based on the intensity. The average particle size is calculated as
40 nm using Scherrer equation.

The Fig.3.5 shows the XRD pattern of Al2O3-Cu hybrid nanoparticles. The
diffraction patterns are identified using PCPDF software and the patterns were identified
based on the intensity. The average particle size is calculated as 45 nm using Scherrer
equation. The intensity is more in the second XRD image showing that Cu is more in the
second sample.

3.2.2 Scanning Electron Microscopy and Energy Dispersive Spectroscopy

(SEM/EDS)
SEM and EDS were taken from STIC Cusat. 2 grams of the samples were taken
and separated and given for characterization.

SEM IMAGING CAPABILITIES

The SEM permits the observation of materials in macro and submicron ranges.
The instrument is capable of generating three-dimensional images for analysis of
topographic features. When used in conjunction with EDS the analyst can perform an
elemental analysis on microscopic sections of the material or contaminants that may be
present. SEM generates high energy electrons and focuses them on a specimen. Electrons
are speeded up in a vacuum until their wavelength is extremely short, only one hundred-
thousandth that of white light. Beams of these fast-moving electrons are focused on a
sample and are absorbed or scattered by the specimen and electronically processed into
an image. Most electron microscopes used to study materials can image down to about 10
angstroms (0.001 microns).

EDS ANALYTICAL CAPABILITIES

Viewing three dimensional images of microscopic areas only solves half the
problem in an analysis. It is often necessary to identify the different elements associated
with the specimen. This is accomplished by using the “built-in” spectrometer called an

14
Energy Dispersive X-ray Spectrometer. EDS is an analytical technique which utilizes x-
rays that are emitted from the specimen when bombarded by the electron beam to identify
the elemental composition of the specimen. To explain further, when the sample is
bombarded by the electron beam of the SEM, electrons is ejected from the atoms on the
specimens surface.

Figure 3. 6: SEM image of 70:30 hybrid samples

SEM image (Fig 3.6) of the sample shows that the particle shape is spherical. The
SEM image used for the sample has the ratio 70:30 ratio. The SEM images show that
there are agglomerations in the sample. The SEM image shows that the magnification
used is 20000 X magnification. The sizes indicate that the size of the nanoparticles are
less than 100 nm and are infact nano sized.

SEM image (Fig 3.7) of the sample shows that the particle shape is spherical. The
SEM image used for the sample has the ratio 80:20 ratio. The SEM images show that
there are agglomerations in the sample. The SEM image shows that the magnification
used is 20000 X magnification. The sizes indicate that the size of the nanoparticles are
less than 100 nm and are infact nano sized.

15
Figure 3. 7: SEM image of 80:20 samples

Figure 3. 8: EDS image of 70:30 samples

16
 In this work the SEM/EDS analyses were carried out in Jeol JSM 6390LV
SEM/EDS at Sophisticated Test and Instrumentation Centre (STIC), Cochin University
of Science and Technology, Kochi. Figure 3.8 and 3.9 displays the energy dispersive
spectroscopy (EDS) patterns of synthesized Al2O3-Cu hybrid nanoparticles. In tandem
with the scanning electron microscope, it is used to determine the chemical composition
of a microscopic area of a solid sample. The presence of Cu peaks in the EDS pattern
indicates that CuO particle solid nanoparticles have got reduced to Cu particles by
hydrogen.

Figure 3. 9: EDS image of 80:20 samples

3.3 SYNTHESIS OF HYBRID NANOFLUID FOR PROPERTY STUDIES

Nanofluids were prepared by dispersing calculated amount of nanoparticles in the
base fluid, distilled water, by ultrasonication in a sonicator. A sample of 50 ml of
nanofluid is prepared for property studies. Five samples of the above mentioned ratios
were prepared and tested for viscosity and thermal conductivity. Volume fraction used
for the property studies are 0.1 %.

17
 Figure 3. 10: Ultrasonic bath

Figure 3. 11: Samples for property studies

18
 The surfactant used for stabilizing the nanofluid was Acasia. This surfactant is
used because the amount of lather produced by the nanofluid prepared with this
surfactant was very less. Figure 3.9 shows the amount of surfactant that was used to
stabilize the nanofluids.

4
% Surfactant

Nanocomposite ratio(
1 alumina_copper)

0
0 1
80:20 2 3
30:70 4
20:80 5
10:90 6
70:30
Alumina Copper ratio

Figure 3. 12: Amount of Surfactant used

3.4 THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY MEASUREMENTS

The thermal conductivity of Al2O3-Cu/ water hybrid nanofluid was carried out
using KD2 Pro thermal properties analyzer (Deccagon Devices, Inc, USA). The KD2 Pro
is a battery operated, menu driven device that measures thermal conductivity and
resistivity, volumetric specific heat capacity and thermal diffusivity. It consists of a
handheld microcontroller and sensor needles.

The sensor needle used was KS-1 which is made of stainless steel having a length
of 60 mm and a diameter of 1.3 mm, and closely approximates the infinite line heat
source which gives least disturbance to the sample during measurements. The sensor
needle can be used for thermal conductivity of fluids in the range of 0.2 – 2 W/mK with
an accuracy of ± 5%.

19
 Figure 3. 13: KD2 Pro thermal properties analyzer

Figure 3. 14: KD2 Pro Instrument (1-Test Tube, 2-Test Needle, 3-Septum, 4-Connecting
cable, 5-KD2 Pro Device)
The schematic shows how the measurement of thermal conductivity is being
done. The calibration of the sensor needle was carried out first by measuring the thermal

20
conductivity of distilled water, glycerin and ethylene glycol. The measured values for
distilled water, glycerin and ethylene glycol were 0.611, 0.292 and 0.263 W/mK
respectively within ±5% accuracy. Nanofluid samples of 45 ml were taken in a vial of 30
mm diameter whose cap is equipped with a septum through which the sensor needle is
inserted. For accurate measurements, the needle was inserted fully into the fluid, and
oriented vertically and centrally inside the vial without touching the side walls of the vial.
Insertion of the sensor needle probe into the fluid in this orientation will minimize errors
due to free convection. In addition, the vial of nano fluid was turned upside down on the
top of the needle so that any bubbles in the fluid would float away from the needle.

Lichtenecker equation was used for finding the effective thermal conductivity of
nanocomposite.

ɸ ɸ
k e = k1 1 + k 2 2 (3.3)

Ke - Effective thermal conductivity

K1 & K2 - Thermal conductivity of samples

ɸ1 & ɸ2 - Volume fractions of samples

The theoretical value of thermal conductivity is compared using Maxwell‟s

equation. This equation is selected because the particle shape is spherical.

k nf k s + 2k+2∅(k s −k)
= (3.4)
k k s + 2k−2∅(k s −k)

Knf - Thermal conductivity of nanofluid

Ks - Thermal conductivity of solid particle

K - Thermal conductivity of bulk fluid

ɸ - Volume fraction

21
 0.87

0.85

0.83
K(w/mk)

0.81

0.79 K(the)
K(ACT)
0.77

0.75
0 1
80:20 2
70:30 3
30:70 20:80
4 5
10:90 6
Nanofluid ratios

Figure 3. 15: Comparison of Theoretical and Actual Thermal conductivitues

3.5 VISCOSITY MEASUREMENTS

Viscosity of the nanofluid was measured using Brookefield cone and plate
viscometer (LVDV-I PRIME C/P) equipped with a 2.4 cm 0.8° cone supplied by
Brookefield engineering laboratories of USA. The cone is connected to the spindle drive
while the plate is mounted in the sample cup. Spindle used was CPE-40 which can be
used for samples in the viscosity range of 0.3 to 1028 cP.

Viscosities of the experimental values are compared with theoretical values.

Einstein model

μnf = μ (1 + k1 ɸ) (3.5)

k1 - 2.5

μnf - Viscosity of nanofluid

μ - Viscosity of water

22
 Figure 3. 16: Brookefield viscometer
Brinkman Equation
𝜇
𝜇𝑛𝑓 = 3 (3.6)
1−∅ 2

Bachelor Equation

𝜇𝑛𝑓 = 𝜇 ∗ (1 + 𝑘1 ∅ + 𝑘2 ∅2 ) (3.7)

Where

k2 - 6

k1 - 2.5

ɸ - Volume fraction

μ* - Viscosity of water

μnf - Viscosity of nanofluid

23
 0.0014

0.0012

0.001
Viscosity(Ns/m2

0.0008
Einstein

0.0006 Brinkman
Batchelor
0.0004
Viscosity(Exp)

0.0002

0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
NANOFLUID RATIOS

Figure 3. 17: Viscosity comparison between actual and theoretical

Figures 3.16 and 3.17, the models of Einstein, Brinkman and Bachelor
significantly underestimate the nanofluids viscosity. This is probably because these
models considered only particle volume fraction, whereas nanoparticles in fluids can
easily from clusters and experience surface adsorption. Clustering and adsorption
increase the hydrodynamic diameter of nanoparticles leading to increase of relative
viscosity. The graphs indicate that the viscosity values increase with the increase in
copper composition.

24
 CHAPTER 4

EXPERIMENTAL
4.1 EXPERIMENTAL SETUP

4.1.1. General
The schematic diagram of the experimental setup is shown in fig.4.1. It consists of
a calming section, test section, pump, cooling unit, and a fluid reservoir. The test fluid is
directed from the reservoir to the calming section and then to the test section using a
pump. There is a valve and a bypass valve used to control the flowrate. The flowrate is
shown by paddle wheel flowmeter. The fluid after passing through the heated section
flows through a riser section and then through the cooling unit and finally it is collected
in the reservoir. The test section is heated uniformly by the electrical heating wire,
attached to an auto-transformer, by which the heat flux can be varied by varying the
voltage. Calibrated RTD sensors are used to measure the inlet, outlet and surface
temperatures at five different locations.

Figure 4. 1: Schematic of Experimental setup

25
 The pressure drop across the test section is measured using a U tube manometer
with mercury as the manometric fluid. An autotransformer is used to control the surface
temperature of heater. A plastic container of 5 liter capacity is used as the fluid reservoir.
The fig.4.2 shows the actual experimental setup.

Figure 4. 2: Photo of Actual Experimental setup

The experimental study on heat transfer and friction characteristics of Al2O3-
Cu/water hybrid nanofluid is carried out in a straight circular tube having specifications
as listed below:-

Metal of construction Stainless steel

Tube ID 10mm
Tube OD 12mm
Heat transfer length 1000mm
Entrance length 1000mm
Table 4.1: Specifications of Test section

26
 The test section is wound with ceramic beads coated electrical SWG Nichrome
heating wire of resistance 120Ω. Over the electrical winding a thick insulation is
provided using glass wool to minimize heat loss. Thermo wells are mounted on the test
section at axial positions in mm of 50, 100, 300, 700 and 950 from the inlet of the test
section for installing temperature sensors for outside wall measurements. Thermo wells
are also mounted at a distance of 15mm outside the inlet and exit sections for placing
fluid temperature sensors. Pressure tapings are made for connecting a u-tube manometer
at a distance of 20mm just outside the inlet and exit sections. Provisions are also made for
connecting a pressure transducer at a distance of 10mm just outside the inlet and exit of
the test section.

4.1.2 Technical Details of circulating pump

The pump used for pumping nanofluid is self priming centrifugal pump. The
pump gives a maximum discharge of 15 litres per min.

Figure 4. 3: Picture of the pump used

Type of Pump Self priming centrifugal pump

Power 0.5 HP
Size 25mm * 25mm
Head 6 - 24m
Table 4.2: Specifications of Pump

27
4.1.3 Details of Wire coil inserts

Figure 4. 4: Wire coil inserts of pitch ratios 2 and 4

Material used Stainless steel

Wire diameter 0.5 mm
Pitch ratios used 2 and 4
Length 1m
Diameter 9 mm
Table 4.3: Specifications of Wire coil inserts
Wire coil inserts are used to increase the turbulence by increasing the circulation
effects. Wire coil inserts were constructed from Kairali Springs.

28
4.2 EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE

1. All RTDs used for temperature measurements were calibrated.

2. Validation of experimental setup was done with water as the working fluid in
turbulent flow conditions. The experiment was conducted in the Reynolds
number range of 9000-23000 for turbulent flow respectively.
A. For heat transfer study
i. Centrifugal pump was used to pump nanofluid from the reservoir.
ii. The heater was switched on and autotransformer was adjusted to 140
volts.
iii. A valve is used to control the flowrate of the nanofluid.
iv. The heat flux was set by adjusting the electrical voltage with the help of
an auto transformer, and constant heat flux was allowed to continue till
the steady state is reached.
B. For pressure drop study
i. Centrifugal pump was used to pump nanofluid from the reservoir.
ii. The pressure drop was measured for each flow rate without switching on
the heater with the help of a U-tube manometer.
iii. The flowrates are varied and the pressure drop readings are noted after
the steady state is reached.
3. Experiments were conducted for heat transfer and pressure drop studies in
plain tube using Al2O3-Cu/water nanofluids of 0.1% volume concentrations.
4. Experiments were conducted for heat transfer and pressure drop studies in
plain tube with wire coil inserts of pitch ratio 4 using Al2O3-Cu/water
nanofluids of 0.1% volume concentrations.
5. Experiments were conducted for heat transfer and pressure drop studies in
plain tube with wire coil inserts of pitch ratio 2 using Al2O3-Cu/water
nanofluids of 0.1% volume concentrations.

29
4.3DATA REDUCTION

4.3.1Heat transfer calculation

The total heat generated by the electrical winding is calculated as,

Q1 = VI (4.1)

Where V is the heater input voltage and I is the heater input current.

The heat absorbed by the fluid is calculated as,

Q2 = ṁCp (Tout − Tin ) (4.2)

ṁ - mass flowrate of fluid Tin and Tout are the fluid inlet and exit temperatures

Q 1 +Q 2
Q= (4.3)
2
𝑄
𝑞= (4.4)
𝜋𝐷𝐿

The measured local wall temperature and heat flux are used to calculate the local heat
transfer coefficient defined by the following formula:

𝑞
ℎ= (4.5)
𝑇𝑤 − 𝑇𝑓

The subscript x represents axial distance from the entrance of the test section, q is the
heat flux, Tw is the average wall temperature, and Tf is the average fluid temperature

The average Nusselt number is calculated as,

ℎ𝐷
𝑁𝑢 = (4.6)
𝑘

Where D is the diameter of the test section, h is the average heat transfer coefficient, and
k is the thermal conductivity of the working fluid.

30
4.3.2 Friction factor calculation

The pressure drop (∆p) measured across the test section under isothermal
condition is used to determine the friction factor (f) using the following relation

∆p D
f= 1 2 (4.7)
ρv L
2

Where v is the fluid velocity, ρ is fluid density, D is the test section diameter and
L is the test section length.

4.3.3 Thermal performance evaluation

Usui and Sano proposed a performance evaluation analysis for the same pumping
power and this method used for present study for turbulent flow, performance evaluation
analysis for the same pumping power for turbulent flow was done by using the equation
Nu
Nu p t
Ƞ= 1 (4.8)
f 3
f pt

Where numerator is the ratio of Nusselts number of plain tube with wire coil
inserts to that of Nusselts number of plain tube and the denominator is the ratio of friction
factor of nanofluid with plain tube with wire coil inserts to that of friction factor with
plain tubes.

31
 CHAPTER 5

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

5.1 VALIDATION OF THE EXPERIMENTAL SETUP
To validate the experimental setup, experiments were conducted with pure water
in plain tube with Reynolds numbers in the range 9000-23000 for turbulent flow. The
validation of experimental setup was done under constant heat flux conditions in the
turbulent flow conditions.

The experimental data for turbulent flow can be solved by Dittus-Boelter

equation given by

Nu = 0.023 Re0.8Pr0.4 (5.1)

0.6<Pr, 100; 10000<Re<1.25x 106; L/D >60

When Re<10000

Gneilenski‟s equation is used

 / 2(Re 1000) Pr
Nu  (5.2)
 0.5 3
2

1  12.7( ) (Pr  1)
2
1
Where  (5.3)
(1.58 ln Re 3.82) 2
Figure 5.1 shows the variation of Nusselt number along axial direction of
Reynolds number. For pressure drop study, experiments were conducted in isothermal
conditions. Figure 5.2 shows the comparison of experimental results in pressure drop
study with Blasius equation in turbulent flow conditions.

0.316 (5.4)
f=
Re0.25

32
 160

140

120
Nusselt number

100

80
Nu(TH)
60
Nu(act)
40

20

0
7500 9500 11500 13500 15500 17500 19500 21500 23500

Reynolds number

Figure 5. 1: Comparison of Experimental and Theoretical Nusselts values

0.045
f(Theo)
0.04 f(Actual)

0.035
Friction factor

0.03

0.025

0.02

0.015
7500 12500 17500 22500 27500 32500
Reynolds number

Figure 5. 2: Comparison of Experimental and Theoretical Pressure drop values

33
5.2 HEAT TRANSFER CHARACTERISTICS AND PRESSURE DROP STUDIES
OF Al2O3-Cu/ WATER NANOFLUIDS
Heat transfer and pressure drop studies were conducted for nanofluids under
turbulent flow characteristics. Experiments were conducted with plain tube, plain tube
with wire coil inserts with pitch ratio 4 and plain tube with wire coil inserts with pitch
ratio 2.

5.2.1 Heat transfer characteristics of Al2O3-Cu/water Hybrid nanofluids

The experimental data of Al2O3-Cu/water hybrid nanofluids of 0.1% volume

fraction were used to deduce the Nusselt number in turbulent flow regime. The Nusselt
numbers are calculated from the measured values of mean wall temperature and bulk
mean temperature and the actual heat flux. The reasons for such increases in Nusselt
number may be due to mixing effects of particles near the wall, thermal conductivity
enhancement, Brownian motion of particles, particle shape, particle migration and re-
arrangement, reduction of boundary layer thickness.

200

180

160
Nusselt number

140

120
Nu(water)
100
Nu(80:20)
80 Nu(70:30)
60

40
7500 12500 17500 22500 27500
Reynolds number

Figure 5. 3: Nusselt number Enhancement for plain tube

34
 200
180
160
140
Nusselt number

120
100
80 Nu(water)
60 Nu(80:20)

40 Nu(70:30)

20
0
7500 12500 17500 22500 27500
Reynolds number

Figure 5. 4: Nusselt number VS Reynolds number with wire coil inserts of Pitch ratio 4

250

200
Nusselt number

150

100
Nu(water)
Nu(80:20)
50
Nu(70:30)

0
7500 12500 17500 22500 27500
Reynolds number

Figure 5. 5: Nusselt number VS Reynolds number with wire coil inserts of Pitch ratio 2
The Fig. 5.3, Fig. 5.4 and Fig. 5.5 show the experimental results for the turbulent
flow showed average enhancements of 19.52% and 23.72% for plain tubes, 29.19% and

35
31.36% are obtained for wire coil inserts with pitch ratio 4, 35.91% and 37.56% are
obtained for wire coil inserts of pitch ratio 2.

16000

14000

12000

10000

8000
H(water)
6000 H(70:30)

4000 H(80:20)

2000
5000 10000 15000 20000 25000 30000
Reynolds number

Figure 5. 6: Convection heat transfer enhancement

18000
Convective heat transfer(W/m2K)

16000
14000
12000
10000
8000 H(water)
H(70:30)
6000
H(80:20)
4000
2000
0
5000 10000 15000 20000 25000 30000
Reynolds number

Figure 5. 7: Convective heat transfer VS Reynolds number with wire coil inserts of Pitch
ratio 4

36
 18000

16000

Convective heat transfer (W/m2K) 14000

12000

10000

8000 H(water)

6000 H(70:30)

4000 H(80:20)

2000
5000 10000 15000 20000 25000 30000
Reynolds number

Figure 5. 8: Convective heat transfer coefficient VS Reynolds numbers with wire coil
inserts of Pitch ratio 2
Figure 5.6, 5.7 and 5.8 show the convective heat transfer enhancement with plain
tubes, with pitch ratios 2 and 4.

40 37.56
35.91
35
31.36
29.19
30

25 23.72

19.52
Nu

20

15

10

0
Plain tube with Plain tube with wire coil 4cm wire coil 4cm wire coil 2cm wire coil 2cm
(80:20) (70:30) pitch (80:20) pitch (70:30) pitch (80:20) pitch (70:30)

Figure 5. 9: Nu enhancement comparison in different cases

37
5.2.2 Friction factor characteristics of Al2O3-Cu/water Hybrid nanofluids

It is necessary to measure the pressure drop of nanofluid besides the heat transfer
performance in order to apply nanofluids in industrial units. Hence, the pressure drops of
the hybrid nanofluid in a tube at different flow rates are experimentally measured for
turbulent flow under isothermal conditions. The pressure drop (∆p) measured across the
test section is used to calculate the friction factor. The average increase in friction factor
in the case of plain tube with 80:20 ratio is 8.7% and 70:30 has an increase in 10.34%.
The average increase in friction factor in the case of plain tube with wire coil inserts of
pitch ratio 4 with 80:20 ratio is 39.97% and 70:30 has an increase in 42.57%. The
average increase in friction factor in the case of plain tube with wire coil inserts of pitch
ratio 2 with 80:20 ratio is 55.61% and 70:30 has an increase in 62.3%.

0.04
70-30
80-20
0.035
f(water)
friction factor

0.03

0.025

0.02

0.015
7500 12500 17500 22500
Reynolds number

Figure 5. 10: Friction factor comparison with plain tube

The friction factor comparison show that the friction factor decreases slightly with
increase in Reynolds number.

38
 0.06
f(water)

0.05 70:30
80:20
0.04
Friction factor

0.03

0.02

0.01

0
7500 12500 17500 22500
Reynolds number

Figure 5. 11: Friction factor VS Reynolds number with wire coil inserts pitch ratio 4

0.06
f(water)

0.05 f(Actual)70:30

f(Act)80:20
Friction Factor

0.04

0.03

0.02

0.01

0
7500 12500 17500 22500
Reynolds number

Figure 5. 12: Friction factor VS Reynolds number with wire coil inserts pitch ratio 2

39
5.3 THERMAL RESISTANCE VS PUMPING POWER

0.00016
TR VS pp (80:20)
0.00014
Thermal Resistance(m2K/W)

TR vs PP (70:30)
0.00012

0.0001

0.00008

0.00006

0.00004

0.00002

0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
Pumping power (W)

Figure 5. 13: Thermal Resistance VS Pumping power (Plain tube)

0.00016
0.00014 TR VS PP(80:20)
Thermal resistance(m2K/W)

0.00012 TR VS PP(70:30)
0.0001
0.00008
0.00006
0.00004
0.00002
0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2
Pumping power(W)

Figure 5. 14: Thermal resistance VS Pumping power (Wire coil with PR 4)

40
 The figures 5.13, 5.14 and 5.15 indicate that the thermal resistance decreases with
the increase in pumping power. With the increase in Reynolds number, the pumping
power tends to increase. But as the pumping power tend to increase, the thermal
resistance tend to decrease.

0.00016
Thermal resistance(m2K/W)

0.00014 TR VS PP(80:20)

0.00012 TR VS PP(70:30)

0.0001

8E-05

6E-05

4E-05

2E-05
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2
Pumping power(W)

Figure 5. 15: Thermal resistance VS pumping power (Wire coil with PR 2)

5.4 THERMAL PERFORMANCE ANALYSIS

The effect of Al2O3-Cu/water hybrid nanofluids is studied using the evaluation of

thermal performance factor. The value of the thermal performance factor must be greater
than unity for a net energy gain in the system. The value of thermal performance factor
show whether the nanofluid is feasible in terms of energy saving. If the thermal
performance factor is greater than one, it is feasible for energy gain greater than one.

41
 1.4

Thermal performance factor

1.2

0.8

0.6 TPR(80:20)
TPR(70:30)
0.4

0.2
7500 12500 17500 22500 27500
Reynolds number

Figure 5. 16: TPR VS Re (plain tube)

1.4
Thermal performance factor

1.2

0.8
TPR(80:20)
0.6 TPR(70:30)

0.4

0.2
7500 12500 17500 22500 27500
Reynolds number

Figure 5. 17: Thermal performance factor VS Reynolds number (wire coil PR 4)

42
 1.4

Thermal performance factor

1.2

0.8
TPR(80:20)
0.6 TPR(70:30)

0.4

0.2
7500 12500 17500 22500 27500
Reynolds number

Figure 5. 18: Thermal performance VS Reynolds number (Wire coil PR 2)

The Figures 5.16, 5.17 and 5.18 show the variation of the thermal performance
factor with Reynolds number for 0.1% Al2O3-Cu/ water hybrid nanofluids in laminar and
turbulent flows respectively. It can be understood from the above figures that the values
of thermal performance factor are greater than unity in the entire range of Reynolds
number considered in our study.

43
 CHAPTER 6

CONCLUSION & SUGGESTION FOR FUTURE WORK

6.1. CONCLUSIONS

The following conclusions are derived from the detailed analysis presented in the
Results and Discussions.

 Experimental study on thermal conductivity show that the thermal conductivity of

dilute Al2O3-Cu hybrid nanofluids significantly increases with the increase in
copper particle concentration. The thermal conductivity enhancements of Al2O3-
Cu/water hybrid nanofluids with 3.08%, 3.33%, 3.42%, 3.5%, 3.79% with ratios
80:20, 70:30, 30:70, 20:80 and 10:90.

 The equations under predict the effective thermal conductivity of nanofluid. This
is because these classical models do not include the effects of particle size,
distribution and the interfacial layer at the particle/liquid interface which are
considered as important mechanisms for enhancing thermal conductivity of
nanofluids.

 The amount of surfactant that had to be used to stabilize the nanofluid increases
with the increase in concentration of copper. This is mainly because of the
increase in density. The amount of surfactants that were used for 80:20, 70:30,
30:70, 20:80 and 10:90 are 0.7%, 1%, 2.5%, 3.6% and 5%.

 Viscosity measurements show that viscosity increases with the increase in volume
concentration of copper.

44
  Theoretical models under predict the viscosity of hybrid nanofluids. This is
probably because these models considered only particle volume fraction, where as
nanoparticles in fluids can easily form clusters and experience surface adsorption.
 Experimental study on heat transfer shows that the Nusselt number enhancement
of Al2O3-Cu hybrid particle (80:20) is 19.72% and (70:30) is 23.72%.

 Experimental study on heat transfer shows that the Nusselt number enhancement
of Al2O3-Cu hybrid particle with wire coil inserts of pitch ratio 4 with (80:20) is
29.2%, and (70:30) is 31.36%.

 Experimental study on heat transfer shows that the Nusselt number enhancement
of Al2O3-Cu hybrid particle with wire coil inserts of pitch ratio 2 with (80:20) is
35.91% and (70:30) is 37.99%.

6.2. SUGGESTIONS FOR FUTURE WORK

1. The preparation and experimentation of hybrid nanofluids based on other base

fluids such as ethylene glycol, oils etc.

2. The possibility of using other metal particles such as silver (Ag), Aluminium (Al)
for enhancing the heat transfer properties of Al2O3 nanofluids can be
experimented.

3. The use of carbon as reducing agent for the Al2O3-Cu hybrid nanoparticle
preparations can be tested.

4. The synthesis of nanofluid can be done using one step method which will further
decrease the size of the nanoparticle hence increasing the surface area and thus
heat transfer.

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 APPENDIX

OBSERVATION TABLES

46
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