Pe 374 Gathering and Transportation of Oil and Gas 2021 New

SCHOOL OF PETROLEUM STUDIES
Petroleum and Natural Gas Engineering

Department
GATHERING AND TRANSPORTATION OF OIL AND GAS (PE 374)
Compiled By:
Dr Richard Amorin
PhD (UMaT), MSc (AUST), Bsc (KNUST), MSPEM
2021
Gathering and Transportation of Oil and Gas (PE 374) 2021
OBJECTIVES OF COURSE
This course is aimed;
• Describe the general overview of surface production operations, process for the
gathering system, and crude oil emulsion treatment;
• Discuss the sequential flow (transportation) of hydrocarbon through surface production
facilities and gathering system;
• Discuss the design and operation of oil and gas separators and Treating of emulsions.
COURSE OUTLINE (SYLLABUS)
1. Gathering Unit:
✓ Basic principles, types, equipment. Pipes and fittings. Manifolds. Flow rate
measurements and pressure control systems.
2. Pipeline Transportation of Oil and Gas:
✓ Principles, Flow Calculations, Sizing and Specifying Pipe, Selection of
Route, Protection against Corrosion.
3. Pipeline and Equipment Maintenance:
4. Economics of Long-Distance Pipeline:
5. Storage of Oil and Gas:
✓ Types of Storage Tanks, Underground Storage of Natural Gas.
6. Sampling and Testing of Oil and Gas:
✓ In Transportation and Storage of Oil and Gas.
7. Rules and Regulations:
8. Pumps and Compressors:
9. Instrumentation and Control:
10. Safety and Supervision.
Compiled by Dr Richard Amorin Page i Pet. & Nat. Gas Eng. Dept. - UMaT
COURSE PLAN
1. Week 1:
Gathering Unit
2. Week 2-3:
Pipeline Transportation of Oil and Gas
3. Week 4:
Pipeline and Equipment Maintenance
4. Week 5:
Economics of Long-Distance Pipeline
5. Week 6-7:
Storage of Oil and Gas
6. Week 8:
Sampling and Testing of Oil and Gas
7. Week 9-10:
Rules and Regulations
8. Week 11-12:
Pumps and Compressors
9. Week 13:
Instrumentation and Control
9. Week 14:
Safety and Supervision
COURSE ASSESSMENT
ASSESSMENT OF STUDENTS
The student's assessment will be in two forms: Continuous Assessment [40%] and End of
Semester Examination [60%]. The Continuous Assessment shall include Quizzes, Class
Attendance, and Class Participations. The results of the CA shall be made known to
students at least one week before the start of the Semester Examinations.
ASSESSMENT OF LECTURER
At the end of the course each student will be required to evaluate the course and the
lecturer's performance by answering a questionnaire specifically prepared to obtain the
views and opinions of the student about the course and lecturer. This exercise is schedule
to take place from …………………………………………………….. Please be sincere
and objective.
Compiled by Dr Richard Amorin Page ii Pet. & Nat. Gas Eng. Dept. - UMaT
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Contents Pages
COURSE OBJECTIVES i
COUURSE OUTLINE i
COURSE PLAN ii
COURSE ASSESSMENT iii
TABLE OF CONTENTS iv
CHAPTER 1 GATHERING OPERATIONS 1
1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 Definition of Terms 1
1.3 Principles of Gathering System 2
1.4 Types of Gathering System 3
1.5 Trunk-Line Gathering System 3
1.5.1 Xmas Tree 3
1.5.2 Flow Lines 4
1.5.3 Headers 5
1.5.4 Manifold 6
1.6 Gathering and Distribution Lines 7
1.6.1 Ghana National Gas Company Limited 8
CHAPTER 2 PIPELINE TRANSPORTATION OF OIL AND GAS 9
2.1 Introduction 9
2.2 Sizing and Specifying Pipelines 12
2.2.1 Definition of friction Factor 12
2.2.2 Reynolds Number 13
2.2.3 Relative Roughness 13
2.2.4 Equations for Friction Factor 14
2.3 Flow Calculations 15
2.3.1 Theoretical Pipeline Equations 15
2.3.2 Practical Pipeline Equations 18
2.4 Series, Parallel, and Looped Pipeline 20
2.4.1 Pipelines in Series 20
2.4.2 Pipelines in Parallel 21
2.4.3 Looped Pipelines 21
2.5 Procedures Involved In Planning and Construction of New Pipelines 24
2.6 Protection against Corrosion 27
2.6.1 Types of Corrosion 27
2.6.2 Cathodic Protection 28
2.6.3 Fusion Bonded Epoxy Powder Coating (FBE) 29
Compiled by Dr Richard Amorin Page iii Pet. & Nat. Gas Eng. Dept. - UMaT
CHAPTER 3 PIPELINE AND EQUIPMENT MAINTENANCE 30
3.1 General Operation of Pipelines 30

3.2 Automatic Control Systems 30
3.3 Integrity Monitoring and Leak Detection 32
3.3.1 Integrity Monitoring 32
3.3.2 Leak Detection 32
3.4 Integrity Management Program 35
3.5 Pipeline Maintenance 35
3.5.1 Types of Maintenance 36
CHAPTER 4 GAS ECONOMICS OF LONG-DISTANCE PIPELINE 39
4.1 Introduction 39
4.2 Economics 39
4.2.1 Key Cost Determinants 39
4.2.2 Offshore Pipelines 40
CHAPTER 5 STORAGE OF OIL AND GAS 43
5.1 Storage of Oil 43

5.1.1 Tank Construction 43
5.1.2 Types of Storage Tanks 44
5.1.3 Flat-Sided Tanks (Non-API) 45
5.1.4 Tank Corrosion Protection 46
5.1.5 Maintenance and Operation of Tank Batteries 47
5.2 Storage of Gas 51
5.2.1 Underground Storage 51
5.2.2 Types of Underground Storage 53
5.2.3 Depleted gas reservoir 56
5.2.4 Aquifer reservoir 57
5.2.5 Salt formation 58
5.2.6 Other Storage Types 59
5.2.7 Economics of Storage 59
CHAPTER 6 SAMPLING AND TESTING OF OIL AND GAS
6.1 Sampling and Testing 61

6.1.1 Specific Gravity 62
6.1.5 API Gravity 62
6.1.2 Temperature 62
6.2 Standards 62
6.2.1 Automatic Tank Batteries 65
6.2.2 Lease Automatic Custody Transfer (LACT) Units 65
Compiled by Dr Richard Amorin Page iv Pet. & Nat. Gas Eng. Dept. - UMaT
CHAPTER 7 RULES AND REGULATIONS IN TRANSPORTATION AND

STORAGE OF OIL AND GAS 66
7.1 Introduction 66
7.2 Regulation of Interstate Pipelines 66
7.2.1 ERC-Regulated Natural Gas Pipelines 66
7.2.2 ERC-Regulated Oil Pipelines 67
7.2.3 Safety Regulations of Oil, Gas, and
Hazardous Materials Pipelines 67
7.2.4 Environmental Permits for Interstate Pipelines 67
7.3 Regulation of Intrastate Pipelines 67
7.3.1 Environmental Permits for Intrastate Pipelines 68
7.4 Local Permits 68
7.5 Identifying Permits and Determining Requirements along a
Proposed Linear Facility 69
CHAPTER 8 PUMPS AND COMPRESSORS 71
8.1 Introduction 71
8.2 Pumps 71
8.2.1 Kinetic Pumps 71
8.2.2 Positive Displacement 73
8.2.3 Basic Pump Selection Criteria 76
8.3 Compressors 77
8.3.1 Introduction 77
8.3.2 Types of Compressors 78
8.3.3 Comparison between Compressors 80
8.3.4 Compressor Selection 81
CHAPTER 9 INSTRUMENTATION AND CONTROL 83
9.1 Introduction 83
9.2 Process Control 83
9.2.1 The Importance of Process Control 84
9.2.2 Control Theory Basics 85
9.2.3 Process Variable 86
9.2.4 Manual and Automatic Control 90
CHAPTER 10 SAFETY AND SUPERVISION 92
10.1 Safe Work Practices 92

10.1.1 Training 92
10.1.2 Assurance of Quality and Mechanical Integrity
of Critical Equipment 92
10.1.3 Pre-Startup Review 92
10.1.4 Emergency Response Control 92
Compiled by Dr Richard Amorin Page v Pet. & Nat. Gas Eng. Dept. - UMaT
10.1.5 Investigation of Incidents 93

10.1.6 Audit of Safety and Environmental Management Program
(SEMP) Elements 93
10.2 Safety Case and Individual Risk Rate 93
10.3 Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition System 94
10.4 Safety and Equipment Procedures during Test 95
10.4.1 Safety Management Systems 95
10.4.2 Safety and Environmental Information 95
10.5 Risk-Based Management 96
10.6 Transport Safety 97
REFERENCES 98
APPENDIX A: INTEGRAL FUNCTION CALCULATED FOR
VARIOUS GAS-SPECIFIC GRAVITY VALUES 100
Note: Please bring along all necessary learning materials to lectures always.
Study to shew thyself approved unto God, a workman that needeth not to be ashamed,
(2 Timothy 2:15a-b)
Compiled by Dr Richard Amorin Page vi Pet. & Nat. Gas Eng. Dept. - UMaT
Gathering and Transportation of Oil and Gas – Gathering Operations 2021
CHAPTER 1
GATHERING OPERATIONS
1.1 Introduction
Oil or gas wells produce a mixture of hydrocarbon gas, condensate, or oil; water with dissolved
minerals, usually including a large amount of salt; other gases, including nitrogen, carbon dioxide
(CO2), and possibly hydrogen sulfide (H2S); and solids, including sand from the reservoir, dirt, scale,
and corrosion products from the tubing. For the hydrocarbons (gas or liquid) to be sold, they must be
separated from the water and solids, measured, sold, and transported by pipeline, truck, rail, or ocean
tanker to the user. Gas is usually restricted to pipeline transportation but can also be shipped in pressure
vessels on ships, trucks, or railroad cars as compressed natural gas or converted to a liquid and sent as
a Liquefied Natural Gas (LNG). The goal of a producer is to produce oil that meets the purchaser’s
specifications that define the maximum allowable water, salt, or other impurities. Similarly, the gas
must be processed to meet purchaser’s water vapor and hydrocarbon dewpoint specifications to limit
condensation during transportation. The produced water must meet regulatory requirements for disposal
in the ocean if the wells are offshore, reservoir requirements for injection into an underground reservoir
to avoid plugging the reservoir, and technical requirements for other uses, such as feed to steam boilers
in thermal-flood operations, or in special cases, for irrigation.
The equipment between the wells and the pipeline, or other transportation system, is called an oilfield
facility. An oilfield facility is different from a refinery or chemical plant in a number of ways. The
process is simpler in a facility, consisting of phase separation, temperature changes, and pressure
changes, but no chemical reactions to make new molecules. In a refinery, the feed stream flow rate and
composition are defined before the equipment is designed.
For a facility, the composition is usually estimated based on drillstem tests of exploration wells or from
existing wells in similar fields. The design flow rates are estimated from well logs and reservoir
simulations. Even if the estimates are good, the composition, flow rates (gas, oil, and water), pressures,
and temperatures change over the life of the field as wells mature and new wells are drilled. Facilities
have a design rate that is a best-guess maximum flow based on the number of wells, production profiles,
and total oil or gas that can be produced from the reservoir. The actual production rates for a facility
increase as the wells are completed up to the design rate. This rate will be maintained as long as possible
by drilling additional wells; then, oil and gas rates will decline, water rates will increase, and flowing
pressure will decrease as the reservoir is depleted. The equipment must be designed to operate over a
range of flow rates with uncertain compositions and temperatures.
1.2 Definition of Terms
Crude oil is a liquid hydrocarbon produced from a reservoir. Condensate is liquid hydrocarbon that
condenses from the gas as pressure and temperatures decrease when the gas is produced from the
reservoir up the tubing and out the wellhead choke. Condensate is usually lighter in color and lower in
molecular weight and viscosity than crude oil; however, a light crude oil could have properties similar
to a condensate. Hydrocarbons are composed of many different “components” or molecules of carbon
and hydrogen atoms. Starting with the lightest molecular weight, they are methane (CH 4), ethane
(C2H6), propane (C3H8), butane (C4H10), pentane (C5H12), hexane (C6H14), and so on. As the ratio of
carbon to hydrogen atoms increases, the molecules become “heavier” and have a greater tendency to
exist as a liquid rather than a gas.
Compiled by Dr Richard Amorin Pet. & Nat. Gas Eng. Dept. - UMaT
Page 1
An oilfield facility is a collection of equipment that is used to separate the fluids that come out of an oil
or gas well into separate streams that can then be sold and sent to a gas plant or refinery for further
processing. A process simulation is a calculation, usually done with a computer program that predicts
how the components that make up the well fluids react to changes in pressure and temperature as they
are processed through the facility. This is not a chemical reaction, but rather a simple phase change as
liquids flash to vapor or vapors condense into liquid. As the pressure is reduced or the temperature is
increased, the lighter molecules, such as methane and ethane, tend to boil off into the vapor phase,
taking some of the midrange components with them. The remainder of the midrange and most of the
heavier molecules stabilise as liquid.
Basic Sediment and Water (BS&W) is the percent by volume of water and solid impurities in the oil.
Oil pipeline specifications range from 0.1 to 3%, with a typical Gulf of Mexico pipeline requirement of
1% by volume. The bubblepoint, or true vapor pressure, is the point at which gas first appears within a
liquid sample as the temperature is raised or the pressure lowered. The bubblepoint of a hydrocarbon
liquid is a function of pressure, temperature, and the composition of the liquid. Reid vapor pressure is
the pressure at which a hydrocarbon liquid will begin to flash to vapor under specific conditions. It can
be measured in the field according to a specific American Society for Testing and Materials standard
and results in a pressure lower than the true vapor pressure.
The hydrocarbon dewpoint is the point at which hydrocarbon liquid first condenses from a gas sample
when the temperature is lowered or the pressure is increased, and it depends on the composition of the
gas. The water dewpoint is often specified for gas pipelines for hydrate and corrosion control.
Depending on the history of the hydrocarbon fluid (i.e., the processing that has occurred upstream of
the point in question), the hydrocarbon and water dewpoints may not be the same. Hydrates are
crystalline, ice-like solids that form in the presence of hydrocarbon gas and liquid water. Hydrates can
form at temperatures significantly higher than the freezing point of water and can plug equipment and
pipelines.
1.3 Principle of Gathering System
Oil and gas processing is a fundamental part of all petroleum producing operations, whether they be in
oilfields or gasfields. Before the fluids can be separated, and / treated, the individual well streams from
the various wellhead or Christmas tree must be combined and directed to the main processing
(production) facilities. This involves the use of some form of pipeline network and process facilities
system. This system is called gathering system. Oil or gas gathering line connects to a flow line, which
is attached to the wellhead. Together they transport and control the flow of the natural gas or oil from
its origin point at the wellsite to a main storage facility, a processing plant, or a shipping point. Thus,
natural gas and crude oil gathering systems are a fundamental aspect of the midstream sector. The
gathering system is therefore broadly defined as the pipeline network and process facilities that transport
and control the flow of oil or gas from the wells to a main storage facility, processing plant or shipping
point. A gathering system includes pumps, flowlines, headers, separators, emulsion treaters, tanks,
regulators (controllers), compressors, dehydrators, valves and associated equipment.
The two main pipelines that make up gathering system lines are flowlines and headers. A flowline is a
relatively small pipe made of steel, plastic, or fibre glass that conducts the produced fluids from the
wing on a Christmas tree on a well to a header or directly to the separation, treatment and storage
equipment. Headers on the other hand are larger pipes that collect the fluids from several smaller
flowlines.
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1.4 Types of Gathering System
There are two types of gathering systems, radial and trunk line. A radial gathering system has the
flowlines conveying on a separation and storage facilities or central processing unit (Fig. 1.1a). A trunk-
line gathering system has flowlines emptying into several headers that flow into a larger trunk line that
takes the produced fluids to the central processing unit (Fig. 1.1b).
Fig. 1.1 Flowline Pattern (a) Radial (b) Trunk
The major difference between the two systems is that the radial type brings all the flowlines to a central
processing, while the trunk-line type uses several remote headers to collect fluid. Also, the latter is
common and mainly used in large fields. The remaining section of this section will therefore focus on
a typical trunk-line gathering system which is the most common.
1.5 Trunk-Line Gathering System
1.5.1 Xmas Tree
Reservoir fluids are produced to the surface via individual wells. You could think of the well tubing as
a vertical pipeline topped with isolation valves, i.e. the Xmas tree. Gathering of oil and gas actually
starts from the Xmas tree. The location of the Xmas tree will vary according to the type of production
installation. If the production facility is on land, the Xmas trees will be located over a large area,
possibly many square miles. On a conventional offshore production platform, the trees would be placed
fairly close together on the cellar deck or wellhead area. A facility with subsea completions would have
its Xmas trees on the sea bed, either close together on a template or remote from the production
platform. In this section we will concentrate on a typical offshore platform system. Here the Xmas trees
are all located at the surface in an area of the platform known as the wellhead area.
Fig. 1.2 is a simplified drawing of a typical Xmas tree indicating the terms used to describe the various
valves. From each Xmas tree, the well fluids have to be gathered together and transported to the process
system. Each tree, therefore, is connected to a series of pipelines which will direct the flow of fluids to
the process. This series of lines is the gathering system lines. There are two types of lines which make
up the complete gathering system. These are flow lines and headers. Let's look at each in turn.
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Fig. 1.2 Typical Xmas Tree
1.5.2 Flow Lines
Flow lines are relatively small diameter pipes which connect each producing well to one or more of the
headers. Fig. 1.3 is a simple line diagram showing the layout of a Xmas tree and its flow line. From Fig.
1.3, each well flow line is connected to its Xmas tree at the outlet of the Choke Valve (CV). If one
follows the flow path of the fluids along the flow line, it will be noticed that immediately downstream
of the choke valve is a Non-Return Valve (NRV). The NRV is installed to remove any possibility of oil
from one well back-flowing down another well. Two pressure switches are fitted to the flow line of
each well. The Pressure Switch Low (PSL) will warn the operator if the flow line pressure is too low.
The Pressure Switch High (PSH) will warn the operator if the flow line pressure is too high. In both
instances the pressure switches are tied in to the Platform Emergency Shutdown (ESD) system. This is
a safety system which enables a safe and effective shutdown of plant and equipment in a controlled
manner if a hazardous situation should arise. If either of the pressure switches is activated, then the ESD
system will shut down the well by automatically activating the upper master gate valve and/flow wing
valves on the Xmas tree. These two valves are called the surface safety valves.
Fig. 1.3 Layout of Xmas Tree and its Flowline
The actual pressures at which the pressure switches will operate, i.e. the set points, will change during
the life of the well. As the oilfield is depleted the pressure in the flow line will fall. As the normal
operating pressure falls the set points will be lowered accordingly. To see why the pressure switches
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are fitted to the flow line, we must think about what can occur whilst the well is flowing. What can
possibly cause a low-pressure situation in the flow lines? Low pressure situations can be caused by:
• The well beginning to flow less oil due to problems with the well itself. These problems may
be anything from a buildup of wax in the tubing to a slug of water entering the bottom of the
well.
• A valve closing on the Xmas tree. This could be due to operator error, or maybe a problem with
the hydraulic system which should hold open the surface safety valve(s) on the Xmas tree.
• A large leak in the flow line itself. This could be due to a flange failure or a rupture of the
piping.
• A low-pressure problem further downstream.
The four low pressure situations described above are all triggered by unplanned events. Now think about
what would happen if a well is shut in intentionally for operational reasons - for example, if work needs
to be done on the well. When the well is closed, the pressure in the flow line will fall, and the PSL will
activate the ESD system. The well, therefore, has been manually shut down for operational reasons and
the surface safety valve has been automatically closed.
So, when we want to reopen this well, we have a chicken and egg situation. We cannot open up the
well's surface safety valve because of the low pressure in the flow line, but to restore the pressure we
need to open up the well. Obviously, in this situation, we need to override the ESD system in order to
open up the well. For this reason, all PSLs are fitted with a by-pass switch. The by-pass switch allows
the operator to open the surface safety valve when he brings the well on line. Remember: once the well
is back on stream the PSL by-pass must be deactivated.
Now let’s look at some events which could cause high pressure in the flow line. High pressure
situations can be caused by:
• The well beginning to flow more oil due to problems with the well itself. These problems may
be caused by a slug of gas building up in the tubing, or the choke valve being eroded away as
the oil flows across it.
• A valve being closed on the outlet of the flow line. This could be due to operator error when
attempting to change over the well from one flow path to another or when putting the well on
test.
• A high-pressure problem further downstream in the process.
1.5.3 Headers
Fig. 1.4, shows how the flow path is continued from the flow lines to the separation system. In this
process, the separation system comprises two parallel separator trains and a test separator. A separator
train is a sequence of separator vessels. It is noticed from Fig. 1.4 that the flow line is connected to three
short pipes. Each pipe is fitted with a block (isolation) valve. By opening one of the valves, and keeping
the other two closed, fluid can be diverted from each well to a different section of the separation system.
Block valves are also required to perform regular maintenance on the choke. Three headers are also
shown. The headers are relatively large diameter pipes which connect the well flow lines to the various
parts of the separation process.
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Fig. 1.4 Wells, Flow Lines and Headers
The headers are routed to:

• Separation Train A;
• Separation Train B; and,
• Test Separator.
Each well on the platform can be connected to each header.
1.5.4 Manifold
The assembly of pipework where different flow lines enter headers via an isolation valves is called a
manifold. When the production of two or more wells is commingled in a central facility it is necessary
to install a manifold to allow the production of the wells into the common production line or the well
test line.
The illustration in Fig. 1.4 shows:

• Well Al flowing to Separation Train A
• Well A2 flowing to Separation Train 'B' and
• Well A3 flowing to the Test Separator.
The manifolds aids to routed fluids to any part of the separation process. The manifold area of a typical
offshore platform is a maze of pipes and valves. In Fig 1.4 three wells were connected to three headers.
For these purposes nine valves were needed. On a large platform, there could be forty wells and five
headers. Such a manifold area would require two hundred valves, all of which have to be located in a
relatively small space. In an equivalent onshore processing system, the general layout is similar to the
one just described. However, space is not usually such a problem and the manifold system can occupy a
much larger area. Fig. 1.5 shows a typical onshore manifold system on a field. The layout of a pipework
and the way that an ESD system works will vary from installation to installation. Each field is unique.
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Figure 1.6 A Typical Onshore Field Manifold System
1.6 Gathering and Distribution Lines
There are three major types of pipelines along a transportation route: the gathering system, the interstate
pipeline system, and the distribution system. Transmission pipes can measure anywhere from 6 to 48
inches in diameter, depending on their function. Certain component pipe sections can even consist of
small diameter pipe, as small as 0.5 inches in diameter. However, this small diameter pipe is usually
used only in gathering and distribution systems. For mainline transmission pipes, the principle pipeline
in a given system, are usually between 16 and 48 inches in diameter. Lateral pipelines, which deliver
natural gas to or from the mainline, are typically between 6 and 16 inches in diameter. Most major
interstate (inter-region) pipelines are between 24 and 36 inches in diameter. The actual pipeline itself,
commonly called 'line pipe', consists of a strong carbon steel material, engineered to meet standards set
by the American Petroleum Institute (API). In contrast, some distribution pipes are made of highly
advanced plastics, because of the need for flexibility, versatility and the ease of replacement.
Pipelines can be divided into different categories, including the following:

• Flowlines transporting oil and/or gas from satellite wells to manifolds;
• Flowlines transporting oil and/or gas from manifolds to production facility;
• Infield flowlines transporting oil and/or gas from between production facilities;
• Export pipelines transporting oil and/or gas from production facilities to refineries/users.
Fig. 1.6 Gas Gathering and Transportation through Pipelines

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The gathering system consists of low pressure, small diameter pipelines that transport raw natural gas
from the wellhead to the processing plant (Fig. 1.6). Should natural gas from a particular well have high
sulphur and carbon dioxide contents (sour gas), a specialised sour gas gathering pipe must be installed.
Sour gas is corrosive, thus its transportation from the wellhead to the sweetening plant must be done
carefully.
1.6.1 Ghana National Gas Company Limited
The Ghana National Gas Company Limited Offshore gas export pipeline consists of 12-inch
by a 58 km long subsea pipeline, transporting dense-phase gas from Jubilee FPSO to the Gas
Plant (GPP). This 12-inch x 58 km offshore subsea pipeline has two segments; 14 km deep
water segment and 44 km shallow water segment.
• 150 MMScf/Day capacity Gas Processing Plant (GPP) at Atuabo
• 20-inch x 111 km onshore pipeline from Atuabo to Takoradi
• 20-inch x 75 km onshore pipeline from Esiama to Prestea
• Takoradi Regulating & Metering Station, Takoradi
• Prestea Regulating and Metering Station, Prestea
• LPG truck-loading gantry located approximately 2.5 km from the GPP near Anokyi
• Office Complex
There are four major route sections for the coastal pipeline covering a distance of between 218
to 232 km. This is from Aboadze enclave, the Pra River Crossing, the Middle section and the
section West of Accra to Tema enclave (Fig. 1.7).
Fig. 1.7 Ghana’s Natural Gas Transmission Utility Future Development
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CHAPTER 2
PIPELINE TRANSPORTATION OF OIL AND GAS
2.1 Introduction
2.1.1 Transportation
The use of pipelines has a long history. For instance, more than 1,000 years ago, the Romans
used lead pipes in their aqueduct system to supply water to Rome. As early as 400 B.C., the
Chinese used bamboo pipes wrapped with waxed cloth to transport natural gas to their capital
Beijing for lighting. Clay pipes were used as early as 4000 B.C. for drainage purposes in Egypt
and certain other countries. An important improvement of pipeline technology occurred in the
18th century when cast-iron pipes were manufactured for use as water lines, sewers, and gas
pipelines. A subsequent major event was the introduction of steel pipe in the 19th century, which
greatly increased the strength of pipes of all sizes. In 1879, following the discovery of oil in
Pennsylvania, the first long-distance oil pipeline was built in this state.
Gas Transport
Natural gas is the fastest growing energy source and the consumption of it is projected to rise
by almost 70 percent by 2025 from 92 trillion cubic feet to 156 trillion cubic feet Gas. As a
result of the storage difficulties, there is immediate need to be transport the gas to its destination
after production from a reservoir. There are a number of options for transporting natural gas
energy from oil and gas fields to market. These include pipelines, Liquefied Natural Gas
(LNG), Compressed Natural Gas (CNG), Gas to Solids (GTS), i.e., Hydrates, Gas To Power
(GTP), i.e., electricity, and Gas To Liquids (GTL), with a wide range of possible products,
including clean fuels, plastic precursors, or methanol and Gas To Commodity (GTC), such as
aluminium, glass, cement, or iron.
Tankers, railroads and pipelines are proven, efficient and economical means of connecting
petroleum supply and demand. Supply-end pipelines and railroads carry crude oil from
production areas to a loading terminal at a port. Tankers then carry the crude oil directly to
demand-side pipelines that connect to refineries that convert the raw material into useful
products. Many petroleum products travel from refineries to markets by tank trucks or railroad
tank cars.
Pipeline
The term pipe is defined herein as a closed conduit, usually of circular cross section. It can be
made of any appropriate material such as steel or plastic. The term pipeline refers to a long
line of connected segments of pipe, with pumps, valves, control devices, and other
equipment/facilities needed for operating the system. It is intended for transporting a fluid
(liquid or gas), mixture of fluids, solids, fluid, solid mixture, or capsules (freight-laden vessels
or vehicles moved by fluids through a pipe). The term pipeline also implies a relatively large
pipe spanning a long distance. Unless otherwise specified, the pipelines generally have a
minimum diameter of 4 inches (102 mm) and a minimum length of 1 mile (1.6 km). The largest
and longest pipelines may have a diameter of over 10 ft (3.05 m) and a length of over 1000 mi
(1609 km).
Page 9
Pipelines are a very convenient method of transport but are not very flexible. If pipeline has to
be shut down, the production and receiving facilities and refinery often also have to be shut
down because for example gas cannot be readily stored, except perhaps by increasing the
pipeline pressure by some percentage. If political stability can be guaranteed, pipelines may be
able to provide a long-term solution for transportation.
Unlike other products that are packaged and transported by vehicles, commercial natural gas is
continuously transported through pipelines. The transmission of natural gas to the consumer
may be divided into three distinct pipeline units: the gathering system, the main trunk line, and
the distribution lines. This chapter focuses on design and operation of natural gas pipelines in
onshore and offshore fields.
Components of Pipelines
A pipeline is a complex transportation system. It includes components such as pipe, fittings

(valves, couplings, etc.), inlet and outlet structures, pumps (for liquid) or compressors (for gas),
and auxiliary equipment (flowmeters, pigs, transducers, cathodic protection systems, and
automatic control systems including computers and programmable logic controllers).
Importance of Pipelines
Pipelines are the least understood and least appreciated mode of transport. Pipelines are poorly
understood by the general public because they are most often underground and invisible out of
sight, out of mind. Despite the low degree of recognition by the public, pipelines are vitally
important to the economic wellbeing and security of most nations. All modern nations rely
almost exclusively on pipelines to transport the following commodities:
1. Water from treatment plants to individual homes and other buildings
2. Sewage from homes to treatment plants
3. Natural gas all the way from wells to the consumers who may be located more than a
thousand miles away be it a home, a factory, a school, or a power plant
4. Crude oil from oil fields to refineries
5. Refined petroleum products (gasoline, diesel, jet fuel, heating oil, etc.) from refineries to
various cities over hundreds of miles
In addition, hundreds of other liquid, gas, and solid commodities (freight) are transported via
pipeline over long and short distances.
Advantages of Pipelines
For the transport of large quantities of fluid (liquid or gas), a pipeline is undisputedly the most
favoured mode of transportation. Even for solids, there are many instances that favour the
pipeline over other modes of transportation. The advantages of pipelines are:
1. Economical in many circumstances. Factors that favour pipelines include large
throughput, rugged terrain and hostile environment (such as transportation through
swamps). Under ordinary conditions, pipelines can transport fluids (liquids or gases) at a
fraction of the cost of transportation by truck or train. Solid transport by pipeline is far more
Page 10
complex and costlier than fluid transport. Still, in many cases, pipelines are used to
transport solids because the cost is lower than for other modes of transportation, such as
trucks.
2. Low energy consumption. The energy intensiveness of large pipelines is much lower than
that of trucks, and is even lower than that of rail. The energy intensiveness is defined as the
energy consumed in transporting unit weight of cargo over unit distance, in units such as
Btu per ton mile.
3. Friendly to environment. This is due mainly to the fact that most pipelines are
underground. They do not pose most of the environmental problems associated with trucks
and trains, such as air pollution, noise, traffic jams on highways and at rail crossings, and
killing animals that strayed on highways and railroads. Oil pipelines may pollute land and
rivers when a leak or rupture develops. However, far more spills would occur if trucks and
trains transported the same oil.
4. Safe for humans. This is especially true for liquid pipelines and liquid solid pipelines. The
safety of natural gas pipelines is always of strong concern. Gas pipelines under high
pressure can explode; however, if trucks and trains transported the same natural gas, it
would be much more dangerous to the public. So, in general, it can be said that pipelines
are much safer than all other land-based modes of freight transport.
5. Unaffected by weather. Weather does not affect pipelines because most of them are buried
underground below the frostline.
6. High degree of automation. This makes pipelines the least labour-intensive of all
transportation modes. Note that labour-intensive societies generally have low living
standards. The high living standard in the U.S. would not be possible without automation.
7. High reliability. Because pipeline operation is continuous, automatic, and unaffected by
weather, pipelines are highly reliable. Furthermore, they are least affected by labour strikes,
holidays, delivery schedules, etc. The system operates continuously around the clock
without stop.
8. Less sensitive to inflation. Due to high capital cost and low operational cost, pipeline
tariffs are less sensitive to inflation than tariffs for trucks and trains. However, high capital
cost is great when the interest rate is high.
9. Convenience. Water and gas pipelines transport commodities directly to homes, a great
convenience to the public. Oil pipelines bring crude oil to refineries and bring refined
petroleum products, such as gasoline and diesel fuel, to the market without the products
leaving the pipelines. Even when one puts gasoline in a car at a filling station, the gasoline
moves through a short pipe (hose) fitted with a nozzle.
10. Less susceptible to theft. Because pipelines are mostly underground and enclosed, the
commodities transported by pipelines are less susceptible to theft than those transported by
truck and train.
11. Efficient land use. Underground pipelines allow surface land to be used for other purposes.
This results in more efficient land use.
12. High degree of security. Because pipelines are underground and fixed to the ground,
terrorists cannot hijack a pipeline, as they can trucks and aircraft, and use it as a lethal
weapon to destroy a major building or other important target. Also, it is far more difficult
for terrorists to attack an underground pipeline and inflict catastrophic damage to it than
Page 11
to an aboveground structure such as a bridge or a power plant. Moreover, underground

pipelines are inaccessible to people except at the inlet and outlet. Thus, they can be more
easily guarded against attack or sabotage. Even though any unguarded long pipeline right-
of-way may be vulnerable to sabotage, the damage that can be achieved is rather limited.
Pipeline companies have the ability to repair a damaged underground pipe and return it to
service within hours. Such sabotage activities can also be detected easily by spy satellites
and other means of remote sensing. For these reasons, pipelines must be low on the priority
lists of targets of terrorists. This is not to say that security should not be of concern to
pipeline companies. Two types of pipelines that require the greatest protection in terms of
security are pipelines that supply drinking water, and natural gas pipelines that pass
through densely populated areas.
2.2 Sizing and specifying Pipelines
The capacity of gas transmission of a pipeline is controlled mainly by its size. Complex
equations have been developed for sizing natural gas pipelines in various flow conditions. The
Weymouth equation, the Panhandle equation, and the Modified-Panhandle equation are used
for relating the volume transmitted through a gas pipeline to the various factors involved, thus
deciding the optimum pressure and pipe dimensions. From equations of this type, various
combinations of pipe diameter and wall thickness for a desired rate of gas throughout can be
calculated. An optimum balance is sought between pipe tonnage and pumping horsepower.
2.2.1 Definition of Friction Factor
Flow of natural gas in pipelines always results in some mechanical energy being converted into
heat. The so-called lost work, represents all energy losses resulting from irreversibilities of the
flowing stream. In the case of single-phase gas flow in a pipe, these irreversibilities consist
primarily of friction losses: internal losses due to viscosity effects and losses due to the
roughness of the inner wall of the pipeline. Under turbulent flow conditions that always exist
in natural gas transmission pipelines, nature does not allow the energy losses of actual systems
to be predicted theoretically; they must be determined by actual experiment and then correlated
as some function of the flow variables. The lost work is usually calculated using a friction
factor by dimensional analysis. It can be shown that the friction factor is a function of the
Reynolds number and of the relative roughness of pipe.
A differential equation governing frictional pressure drop in a pipe is;
2.1
It must be noted that fluid density and velocity are functions of local pressure. A similar
equation, using the Fanning friction factor, f’
2.2
f = Moody friction factor
f’ = Fanning friction factor
ρ = fluid density, lbm/ft3
u = flow velocity, ft/sec
Page 12
gc = gravitational conversion factor = 32.17 lbm ft/lbf sec2

D = pipe diameter, ft
p =pressure, lbf/ft
L = pipe length, ft
2.2.2 Reynolds Number
The Reynolds number (NRe) is defined as the ratio of fluid momentum force to viscous shear
force. The Reynolds number can be expressed as a dimensionless group defined as
2.3
D = pipe diameter, in
u = fluid velocity, ft/sec
ρ = fluid density, lbm/ft3
µ = fluid viscosity, lbm/ft-sec
The Reynolds number can be used as a parameter to distinguish between laminar and turbulent
fluid flow. The change from laminar to turbulent flow is usually assumed to occur at a Reynolds
number of 2,100 for flow in a circular pipe. For all practical purposes, the Reynolds number
for natural gas flow problems may be expressed as
2.4
0
q = gas flow rate at 60 F and 14.73 psia, Mcfd
γg = gas-specific gravity (air = 1)
µ = gas viscosity at in-situ temperature and pressure, cp
D = pipe diameter, in
2.2.3 Relative Roughness
The frictional losses of fluid energy and pressure depend on the roughness of the inside wall
of a pipe. Wall roughness is a function of pipe material, method of manufacture, and the
environment to which it has been exposed. From a microscopic sense, wall roughness is not
uniform, and thus the distance from the peaks to valleys on the wall surface will vary greatly.
The absolute roughness, ɛ, of a pipe wall is defined as the mean protruding height of relatively
uniformly distributed and sized, tightly packed sand grains that would give the same pressure
gradient behaviour as the actual pipe wall. Analysis has suggested that the effect of roughness
is not due to its absolute dimensions, but to its dimensions relative to the inside diameter of the
pipe. Relative roughness, eD, is defined as the ratio of the absolute roughness to the pipe internal
diameter:
2.5
Where ɛ and D have the same unit.
The absolute roughness is not a directly measurable property for a pipe, which makes the
selection of value of pipe wall roughness difficult. The way to evaluate the absolute roughness
Page 13
is to compare the pressure gradients obtained from the pipe of interest with a pipe that is sand-
roughened. If measured pressure gradients are available, the friction factor and Reynolds
number can be calculated and an effective eD obtained from the Moody diagram. This value of
eD should then be used for future predictions until updated. If no information is available on
roughness, a value of ɛ = 0.0006 inches is recommended for tubing and line pipes.
2.2.4 Equations for Friction Factor
Fluid flow ranges in nature between two extremes: laminar or streamline flow and turbulent
flow. Within this range are four distinct regions: laminar, critical, transition, and turbulent flow.
Fig. 2.1 is a Moody friction factor chart covering the full range of flow conditions. It is a log-
log graph of (log f) versus (log NRe). Due to the characteristics of the complex nature of the
curves, the equation for the friction factor in terms of the Reynolds number and relative
roughness varies for each of the four regions.
Fig 2.1 Moody Friction Factor
Laminar Single-Phase Flow
The friction factor for laminar flow can be determined analytically
2.6
Turbulent Single-Phase Flow
Studies of turbulent flow have shown that the velocity profile and pressure gradient are very
sensitive to the characteristics of the pipe wall, that is, the roughness of the wall. Although a
Page 14
number of empirical correlations for friction factors are available, only the most accurate ones
are presented.
For smooth wall pipes in the turbulent flow region,
2.7
Which is valid over a wide range of Reynolds numbers,
For rough wall pipes in the turbulent flow region, the effect of wall roughness on friction factor
depends on the relative roughness and Reynolds number
2.8
An explicit correlation for friction factor is (Jain)
1.9
Equation (1.9) is recommended for all calculations requiring friction factor determination of
turbulent flow.
2.3 Flow calculations
2.3.1 Theoretical Pipeline Equations
Designing a long-distance pipeline for transportation of natural gas requires knowledge of flow
formulas for calculating capacity and pressure requirements. There are several equations in the
petroleum industry for calculating the flow of gases in pipelines. In the early development of
the natural gas transmission industry, pressures were low and the equations used for design
purposes were simple and adequate. However, as pressure increased to meet higher capacity
demands, more complicated equations were developed to meet the new requirements. Probably
the most common pipeline flow equation is the Weymouth equation, which is generally
preferred for smaller-diameter lines (D < 15 in). The Panhandle equation and the Modified
Panhandle equation are usually better for larger-sized transmission lines.
Based on the first law of thermal dynamics, the total pressure gradient is made up of three
distinct components
2.10
Where
𝑔
(𝑔 )𝜌𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 is the component due to elevation or potential energy change;
𝑐
𝑓𝜌𝑢 2
is the component due to frictional losses
2𝑔𝑐 𝐷
𝑝𝑢𝑑𝑢
is the component due to acceleration or kinetic energy change.
𝑔𝑐 𝑑𝐿
If temperature is assumed to be constant at average value in a pipeline, 𝑇̅and gas deviation
factor, 𝑧̅, is evaluated at average temperature and average pressure, 𝑝̅, Consider steady-state
Page 15
flow of dry gas in a constant-diameter, horizontal pipeline and flow rate measured at arbitrary
base conditions. The mechanical energy equation is developed into;
2.11
Where
C is a constant with a numerical value that depends on the units used in the pipeline equation.
If L is in miles and q is in scfd, C = 77.54. This equation is solved by trial-and-error method
for friction factor.
Procedure:
1. Assume a value for flow rate q
2. Use q to determine the Reynolds Number (NRe)
3. Determine friction factor with the NRe
4. Recalculate q, if the value buffers within a 10,000 cfh, stop iteration else start with the
new value of q computed.
Weymouth Equation for Horizontal Flow
Equation (2.11) takes the following form when the unit of scfh for gas flow rate is used:
2.12
P1 = upstream pressure, psi
P2 = downstream pressure, psi
𝑇̅ = average temperature, oR
𝑧̅ = gas deviation factor at 𝑇̅ and 𝑝̅
p̅ = (p1+p2)/2
Tb, Pb = flow rate measured at arbitrary base conditions
This is form of the Weymouth equation commonly used in the natural gas industry. The use of
the Weymouth equation for an existing transmission line or for the design of a new transmission
line involves a few assumptions including no mechanical work, steady flow, isothermal flow,
constant compressibility factor, horizontal flow, and no kinetic energy change. These
assumptions can affect accuracy of calculation results. Gas flow can be considered isothermal at
an average effective temperature without causing significant error in long-pipeline calculations. The
compressibility of the fluid can be considered constant and an average effective gas deviation factor
may be used. When the two pressures P1 and P2 lie in a region where z is essentially linear with pressure,
then it is accurate enough to evaluate z at the average pressure 𝑝̅ =(p1+p2)/2. One can also use the
arithmetic average of the z with 𝑧̅ = (z1+z2)/2 where z1 and z2 are obtained at p1 and p2, respectively.
Weymouth Equation for Non-horizontal Flow
Gas transmission lines are often non-horizontal. Account should be taken of substantial
pipeline elevation changes. Considering gas flow from point 1 to point 2 in a non-horizontal
pipe, the first law of thermal dynamics is developed to give:
Page 16
2.13
Where Le is the effective length of the pipeline. For a uniform slope, Le is defined as
e = 2.718
Δz is equal to outlet elevation minus inlet elevation (note that Δz is positive when outlet is
higher than inlet). For a non-uniform slope (where elevation change cannot be simplified to a
single section of constant gradient), an approach in steps to any number of sections, n, will
yield
2.14
Where
Panhandle A Equation-Horizontal Flow
The Panhandle A pipeline flow equation assumes the following Reynolds number dependent
friction factor:
2.15
The resultant pipeline flow equation is thus
1.16
Where q is the gas flow rate in cfd measured at Tb and pb, and other terms are the same as in
the Weymouth equation.
Panhandle B Equation-Horizontal Flow (Modified Panhandle)
Panhandle B equation is the most widely used equation for long transmission and delivery
lines. It assumes that/varies as:
2.17
And it takes the following resultant form:
2.18
Clinedinst Equation-Horizontal Flow
Page 17
The Clinedinst equation rigorously considers the deviation of natural gas from ideal gas
through integration. It takes the following form:
2.19
𝑝𝑟 𝑝𝑟
∫0 𝑑𝑝𝑟 The values of the integral function have been calculated for various gas-specific
𝑧
gravity values in Appendix A. The following correlations were used for computing
pseudocritical properties with no impurity:
2.20
2.3.2 Practical Pipeline Equations
Pipeline Efficiency
All pipeline flow equations were developed for perfectly clean lines filled with gas. In actual
pipelines, water, condensates, and sometimes crude oil accumulate in low spots in the line.
There are often scales and even "junk" left in the line. The net result is that the flow rates
calculated for the 100 percent efficient cases are often modified by multiplying them by an
efficiency factor, E. The efficiency factor expresses the actual flow capacity as a fraction of the
theoretical flow rate. An efficiency factor ranging from 0.85 to 0.95 would represent a "clean"
line. Table 2.1 presents typical values of efficiency factors
Table 2.1 Typical Values of Efficiency Factors
Type of Line Liquid Content (gal/MMcf) Efficiency (E)

Dry-gas field 0.1 0.92
Casing-head gas 7.2 0.77
Gas and condensate 800 0.6
Page 18
Transmission Factor
1
In addition to the pipeline efficiency E, the transmission factor √𝑓 is used for further tuning
the theoretical pipeline flow equations. The transmission factor has long been the most difficult
to evaluate. Thus, the literature contains many different empirical transmission factors that
have been used to meet the needs of pipeline engineers. Table 2.2 presents some transmission
factors that are the most significant and have either best stood the test of usage or have strong
foundations in basic flow theories.
Table 2.2 Transmission Factors for Pipeline Flow Equations
Empirical Pipeline Equation
A general non-iterative pipeline flow equation is written as
2.21
Where the units are q in cfd measured at Tb and pb, 𝑇̅ in 0R, p in psia, L in miles, and D in
inches. The values of the constants are given in Table 2.3 for the different pipeline flow
equations.
Table 2.3 Constants for Empirical Pipeline Flow Equations
Page 19
2.4 Series, Parallel, and Looped Pipelines
It is often desirable to increase the throughput of an existing pipeline by gathering gas from
new gas wells. A common economical solution to these problems is to place one or more lines
in parallel, either partially or throughout the whole length, or to replace a portion of the line
with a larger one. This requires calculations involving flow in series, parallel, and series-
parallel (looped) lines. The philosophy involved in deriving the special relationships used in
the solution of complex transmission systems is to express the various lengths and diameters
of the pipe in the systems as equivalent lengths of common diameter or equivalent diameter of
a common length, there equivalent means that both lines will have the same capacity with the
same totally pressure drop. For simplicity, illustrative examples will be based on the Weymouth
equation.
2.4.1 Pipelines in Series
Consider a three-segment pipeline in a series of total length L depicted in Fig. 2.4 Applying
the Weymouth equation to each of the three segments gives:
Fig. 2.4 A Three-Segment Pipeline in a Series
2.22
Capacity of a single-diameter (D)1 pipeline is expressed as:
2.23
2.4.2 Pipelines in Parallel
Consider a three-segment pipeline in parallel as depicted in Fig. 1.5. Applying the Weymouth
equation to each of the three segments gives:
Page 20
Fig. 2.5 A Three-Segment Pipeline in a Parallel
2.24
2.4.3 Looped Pipelines
Considering a three-segment looped pipeline depicted in Fig. 2.6. The first two (parallel)
segments gives;
Fig. 2.6 A Three-Segment Pipeline Looped
2.25
Capacity of a single-diameter (D3) pipeline is expressed as:
2.26
Let Y be the fraction of looped pipeline and X be the increase in gas capacity
Page 21
2.27
where RD is ratio of the looping pipe diameter to the original pipe diameter. Equation (2.27)
can be rearranged to solve for X explicitly
2.28
The effects of looped line on the increase of gas flow rate for various pipe diameter ratios are
shown in Fig. 2.7.
Fig. 2.7 Effects of Looped Line and Pipe Diameter Ratio on the Increase of gas Flow
Rate
Example Problem 1.1
Consider a 4-in pipeline that is 10 miles long. Assuming that the compression and delivery
pressures will maintain unchanged, calculate gas capacity increases by using the following
measures of improvement:
(a) Replace three miles of the 4-in pipeline by a 6-in pipeline segment;
(b) Place a 6-in parallel pipeline to share gas transmission; and
(c) Loop three miles of the 4-in pipeline with a 6-in pipeline segment.
Solution
Page 22
(a) This problem can be solved with Equation 2.22
2.24
2.25
Page 23
2.5 Procedures Involved In Planning and Construction of New Pipelines
The procedure involved in the planning and construction of any new pipeline system depends
on several factors including the material (fluid or solid) to be transported by the pipeline
(whether it is natural gas, oil, water, sewage, slurry, or capsules), the length of the pipeline, and
the environment (whether the pipeline is in an urban or countryside setting, whether it is on
land or offshore, whether the climate is warm or cold), etc. However, there are more similarities
than dissimilarities in constructing different types of pipelines. Once a person understands how
a given type of pipeline is built, it is not difficult to figure out how another type should be built.
The following is an outline of the procedure used for long-distance steel pipelines that carry
natural gas or oil:
Step 1. Preliminary planning - Determine the origin and the destination of the pipe, the
product to be transported, the approximate length, diameter and type of the pipe to be used, the
velocity of flow, headloss, power consumption, capital cost, operating expenses, economics,
and many other practical considerations. All the design and calculations done during this stage
are preliminary and approximate. Once the preliminary investigation confirms that the pipeline
project is economically feasible and practical, then the next step is taken.
Step 2. Route selection - A pipeline route should be selected from, and marked on, both a
highway map and a topographical map. Aerial photography and surveys of the pipeline route
Page 24
are undertaken to obtain data needed for the design and preparation of route maps and property
plats, which are normally required for right-of-way acquisition.
Step 3. Acquisition of right-of-way - The acquisition of the right-of-way for a pipeline can
come either through a voluntary process negotiation with land owners for the purchase, lease,
or easement of their land needed for the passage of the pipeline, or through condemnation,
which is an involuntary legal process. For public-owned pipelines and for pipelines that are
privately owned that serve the public, the state and federal governments grant the right of
eminent domain, which is a legal term for the right to condemn land. Landowners who lose
their land through condemnation are normally compensated at a fair market value. For
interstate pipelines that must cross railroads many times, it is difficult to build such pipelines
without cooperation from railroads.
Step 4. Soil borings, testing of soil and other data collection - Once the acquisition of the
right-of-way has been completed, the pipeline developer can undertake necessary geotechnical
investigations and determine whether groundwater and/or hard rock will be encountered, and
collect other data along the route that are needed for the design of the pipeline.
Step 5. Pipeline design - Many factors must be considered in the design of long-distance gas
pipelines. These include the nature and volume of the gas to be transmitted, the length of the
line, the type of terrain to be crossed, and maximum elevation of the route. After a gas
compression station is located and sized, the gathering system is designed. This involves the
location of the wells, the ability of right of way, the amount of gas to be handled, the distance
to be transported, and the pressure difference between the field and the main transmission line.
A successful design of a transmission system requires a team of welltrained and experienced
engineering and legal staff. Complex engineering studies are needed to decide on diameter,
yield strength, and pumping horsepower required to give the optimum results for any particular
pipeline transmission system.
Step 6. Seek legal permits - Permits from different state and federal agencies may be needed,
such as the Environmental Protection Agency, Forestry Service (if the pipeline crosses federal
forest), Department of Transportation (for pipelines that carry hazardous fluids such as
petroleum or natural gas), etc.
Step 7. Start construction - The construction of pipeline involves the following sub-steps:
a. Right-of-way preparation - For large pipelines, this may involve clearing a path of a
minimum width of 50 ft (15 m), and removing trees and flattening the path somewhat so
that trucks and heavy equipment can be brought in.
b. Stringing - Bringing in the pipe and setting the pipe in a line along one side of the right of
way stringing.
c. Ditching and trenching - Use hydraulic backhoes or some other equipment to dig ditches
or trenches of rectangular or trapezoidal cross section. The depth of the ditch (trench)
should be such that the pipe will be below the frostline or at least 3 ft (1 m) beneath the
land surface, whichever is greater. Staying below the frostline prevents damage to the pipe
by freezing and thawing of the ground; it is especially important for pipelines that convey
water. Even in a nonfreezing climate, major pipelines should be at least about 3 ft (1 m)
Page 25
underground to reduce the chance of damage from human activities, such as ploughing and
land levelling. Two problems often encountered in ditching (trenching) are groundwater
and hard rock. They should be avoided during the route selection step of the process
whenever possible and practical.
d. Boring -When passing through obstacles such as a highway, railroad, or rivers, boring may
be used to get the pipe across the obstacle from underneath. Modern boring machines can
bore long holes to install pipes under rivers and other obstacles.
e. Tunnelling - Needed for crossing mountains or hills.
f. River crossing -Three methods for river crossing are ditching (i.e., cutting a ditch in
riverbed and then burying the pipeline there), bridging (i.e., building a new bridge or
utilizing an existing bridge to carry the pipeline across a river), and boring (i.e., boring a
hole underneath the riverbed and then pulling a pipe through). For wide rivers of shallow
water, ditching often proves to be the most economical. However, recent advances in
horizontal directional drilling (HDD) have greatly enhanced the technical and economic
feasibility of drilling and boring across rivers to lay pipes.
g. Welding, coating, and wrapping - After the ditch has been prepared, steel pipes of 40-ft
length (12m) are welded together to form a long line or string. The welded joints are
radiographically inspected, and the pipeline is coated and wrapped with special protective
and insulating materials before being laid in the ditch. For pipelines laid underwater, the
pipe must be covered with a thick layer of concrete to prevent the pipe from floating.
h. Pipe laying -The welded pipeline is lifted and laid into the ditch by a line of side-booms
parked along the right of way at approximately equal intervals. Steel pipes normally do not
require the use of bedding materials to support the pipes in the ditch. Iron and concrete
pipes require that the ditch bottom be covered by a layer of gravel or crushed rock to
facilitate drainage and reduce settling. Otherwise, such pipes may be damaged and may
leak.
i. Backfill and restoration of land - The pipe in the ditch is then backfilled by earth, the
earth is then compacted, and the land surface is restored. After the pipe is backfilled, it is
hydrostatically tested with water to meet applicable code and government requirements.
Restoration involves cleaning out construction waste materials and planting of grass.
For a long pipeline, the foregoing procedure is applied to a portion of the pipeline (say, a few
miles) at a time. After the portion is completed, the same procedure is applied to the next
portion. In so doing, disruption to the community at each place along the pipeline will be
limited to a few weeks. For extra-long pipelines, more than one crew can be used
simultaneously to shorten the construction period.
Page 26
2.6 Protection against Corrosion
2.6.1 Types of Corrosion
Corrosion is the second largest cause of pipeline damage. Corrosion is defined as being the
gradual damage of pipe due to chemical or electrochemical reactions of pipes with their
environment. The environment includes the fluid in the pipe, the soil, water, and atmosphere
around the pipe, and other metals attached to or in contact with the pipe. Unlike the erosion
damage to pipe, which is caused by the physical process of abrasion or wear such as
encountered by slurry pipelines or pneumatic conveying of solids in pipes, and unlike
cavitation, which is caused by vapour pockets in liquids generated by low pressure, corrosion
is caused by chemical or electrochemical reaction. The following is a brief discussion of the
various types of corrosion.
Chemical Corrosion
This is due to the contact of a pipe with a corrosive substance such as an acid, which attacks or
reacts with the surface of the pipe to cause damage. It can happen to both metallic and non-
metallic pipes, and it can damage either the pipe interior or exterior surfaces depending on
whether the corrosive chemical is inside or outside the pipe. A number of chemicals exist that
can damage (corrode) pipes. Metal pipes can be damaged by various acids, halogens, and salts;
concrete pipes can be corroded by various acids and salts; and plastic pipes can be damaged by
various acids, hydrocarbons, and chlorine. Generally, steel pipes require no lining for
transporting hydrocarbons such as petroleum, but they do require a lining for transporting water
unless oxygen is removed from the water. Corrosion-resistant metals include copper, brass,
nickel, stainless steel, titanium, and many alloys. Plastic pipes cannot be used for transporting
hydrocarbons, but they are inert to water even when containing oxygen.
Chemical corrosion happens only when a pipe transports or otherwise comes into contact with
a corrosive chemical. Chemical corrosion can be controlled by either avoiding contact with
corrosive chemicals, selecting a pipe material inert to the corrosive chemical that the pipe will
be in contact with, or by using a pipe lining or coating inert to the corrosive chemical. A special
type of chemical corrosion takes place when a metal pipe is in contact with water containing
dissolved oxygen. For steel or cast-iron pipe, the metal (iron) reacts chemically with the water
and oxygen to form various hydrated ferric oxides, which form rust. This type of corrosion can
be prevented by using deoxygenated water, which is a common practice for protecting boilers
of power plants.
Electrochemical Corrosion
This is the most common type of corrosion that occurs in metal pipes, and it is of
electrochemical origin. Such corrosion can be subdivided into two types: galvanic corrosion
and electrolytic corrosion.
Galvanic Corrosion
Galvanic corrosion is an electrochemical process in which one metal corrodes preferentially to

another when both metals are in electrical contact and immersed in an electrolyte. Galvanic
corrosion is based on the same principle that galvanic cells (batteries) are based on.
Electrolytic Corrosion
Page 27
Electrolytic corrosion is based on the same principle of electrolysis (i.e., electric plating). If
two metals, A and B, are immersed in an electrolyte, and if an outside direct current (DC)
source, such as a battery, is connected between the two metals, a current will flow through the
electrolyte, causing metal to be lost from metal A (which is the anode) and be transported to
and plated on metal B (the cathode). This causes metal A to corrode. This type of corrosion
can occur in metal pipes for one of two reasons: (1) using a pipeline to ground any DC source
of electricity such as a battery, a rectifier, a DC generator or an electric welding unit, or (2)
stray currents are generated through the soil in the neighbourhood of an underground pipeline.
For example, experience shows that the stray currents generated from cathodic protection
systems serving neighbouring pipelines or neighbouring utilities and the stray currents
generated from cable cars (trolleys) powered by DC can all cause serious corrosion and rapid
deterioration of underground metal structures including pipelines.
For both types of electrochemical corrosions (i.e., for both galvanic and electrolytic
corrosions), it is always the anode that is corroded, and the cathode that is protected. This
represents the underlying principle of cathodic protection of metal pipes and other metal
structures to prevent or minimize corrosion.
2.6.2 Cathodic Protection
Cathodic protection is an electrical method for combating corrosion in metal structures,

including steel pipes, both on ground and in water. The method requires the use of an electrical
current to counter or cancel the current generated by corrosion going between a steel structure
and the surrounding ground or water. By making the protected metal structure (pipeline) a
cathode instead of anode, the structure is protected from corrosion.
There are two general methods to provide cathodic protection.
The first is the impressed current method, which requires the use of a direct current (DC)
source, most often a rectifier - similar to the commonly used battery charger. By connecting
the negative terminal of the rectifier to the metal structure (steel pipe) to be protected, and
connecting the positive terminal to the ground through an electrode, the pipe or structure
becomes a cathode. When the connection to the ground is through a copper sulphate electrode,
to stop corrosion the voltage of the rectifier should be adjusted to maintain a pipe-to-soil
potential of -0.85 volt. This must be done at various points along the pipe so that the pipe-to-
soil potential at all points becomes the same, - 0.85 V.
Another way to provide cathodic protection is the method of sacrificial anode. It involves
connecting a zinc or magnesium electrode to the pipe and its environment (ground or water).
This will create a galvanic cell, except that now the pipe instead of the copper becomes the
cathode. In protecting the pipe, the zinc or magnesium electrode becomes the anode, which
gets corroded. This shows why the zinc and magnesium electrodes are called sacrificial
electrodes. Note that coating and/or lining metal pipes, even if the coating/lining is imperfect
and leaks currents in certain places (the leakage is called holiday), coating or lining will greatly
reduce the surface area of the electrode (pipe) in contact with the electrolyte. The reduction in
this contact area causes a proportionally smaller corrosion current, thereby saving much energy
used in cathodic protection.
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2.6.3 Fusion Bonded Epoxy Powder Coatings (FBE)
FBE are extensively used for corrosion protection of steel pipes and fittings used in the oil and
gas industry. Fusion bonded epoxy coating, also known as fusion-bond epoxy powder coating
and commonly referred to as FBE coating, is an epoxy based powder coating that is widely
used to protect steel pipe used in pipeline construction, concrete reinforcing bars (rebar) and
on a wide variety of piping connections, valves etc. from corrosion. FBE coatings are thermoset
polymer coatings. They come under the category of protective coatings in paints and coating
nomenclature. The name fusion-bond epoxy is due to resin cross-linking and the application
method, which is different from a conventional paint. The resin and hardener components in
the dry powder FBE stock remain unreacted at normal storage conditions. At typical coating
application temperatures, usually in the range of 180 to 250 °C (356 to 482 °F), the contents of
the powder melt and transform to a liquid form. The liquid FBE film wets and flows onto the
steel surface on which it is applied, and soon becomes a solid coating by chemical cross-
linking, assisted by heat. This process is known as “fusion bonding”. The chemical cross-
linking reaction taking place in this case is irreversible. Once the curing takes place, the coating
cannot be returned to its original form by any means. Application of further heating will not
“melt” the coating and thus it is known as a “thermoset” coating.
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CHAPTER 3
PIPELINE AND EQUIPMENT MAINTENANCE
3.1 General Operation of Pipelines
Operating a pipeline requires an understanding of the purpose of the pipeline, how the pipeline
was designed and constructed, the codes and standards that govern the operation of the pipeline,
the operational history of the pipeline, and the pipeline’s current status. It also requires a good
knowledge of pipeline engineering and many other related fields, such as corrosion control,
automatic control, fluid mechanics, structural engineering, machine maintenance, etc.
Therefore, it takes engineers and technicians of different disciplines and training working
together as a team in order to keep a modern pipeline system running and maintained in good
condition. Unqualified operators and/or inadequate training often result in improper operation
of the pipeline and damage to the system, or frequent unscheduled shutdown. The use of
modern computers and automatic control systems has greatly decreased the number of
technical personnel needed to run a pipeline system.
How to operate a given pipeline system depends on the purpose of the pipeline. All the
operational strategies and details must be designed to achieve this purpose. Once the purpose
of a pipeline is defined, the strategy and operational details must be laid out in an
Operation/Maintenance (O&M) manual. The strategy is normally planned around a set of
operational parameters such as the discharge through the pipe, mean velocity, temperature
range of the fluid transported, maximum and minimum pressures at various locations along the
pipe, pump speed and head, valve closing speed, etc. These operational parameters are
determined not only by the original design but also by the changing demands of the population
it serves. Based on operational strategy and parameters, and the existing equipment as well as
other considerations, a detailed operational procedure can be and must be laid out and stated
clearly in an operation manual. The manual should not only describe the routine procedure,
but also what needs to be done in various emergency situations, such as when a leak in the
main is detected. The manual will be needed not only for the operational crew of the pipeline,
but also for design of the flow charts and computer programs used for automatic control of the
pipeline system under both routine and emergency conditions. Separately, the maintenance
needs of the pipeline must be carefully assessed, and the schedule and procedure for
maintenance must be clearly spelled out in a maintenance manual.
3.2 Automatic Control Systems
Most modern pipeline systems are automated and controlled by computers. The degree of
sophistication of the automation/computer system depends on the size and complexity of the
pipeline and its operation. Large, long, and complex pipeline systems require sophisticated
automatic control systems. They often include three parts:
(1) A SCADA (Supervisory Control And Data Acquisition) system that serves as the brain,
to collect, receive, and process data, including on-line data processing, as well as sending
command signals out to control various equipment, including those in remote locations.
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(2) The communication media that links the SCADA (Fig. 3.1) to the remote stations (e.g.,
booster pump stations), by use of satellites, microwave towers, fiber optic lines, or
dedicated telephone lines.
(3) The local control units, often referred to as the RTUs (Remote Terminal Units), which
send data on local stations to the SCADA and receive instruction from SCADA for remote
control of equipment.
The SCADA can be further divided into three parts:
(1) A user-friendly Console to interface with the operator (human),

(2) A Server, which contains the database needed for operating the pipeline, and
(3) The Master Terminal Unit (MTU) that communicates with the RTUs.
Fig. 3.1 An Overview of SCADA system for pipelines
Each RTU at a given station, such as a pump station, may be a personal computer. The RTU
receives data from each piece of the equipment located in the station, transmits the data to the
SCADA, and executes orders from the SCADA to control each piece of equipment, often
through what is called a Programmable Logic Controller (PLC). Programming the PLCs and
programming the computers to perform the complex tasks that are required of a pipeline system
is a job for specialists. It is usually done by outside consultants rather than in-house personnel.
Automatic control of a modern pipeline system relies on accurate online data collected by a
multitude of instruments including flowmeters and various transducers and sensors (such as
pressure sensors, temperature sensors, and vibration sensors). The cable that transmits the
signal must be shielded, grounded, and isolated from any possible source of electromagnetic
noise such as a transformer, an AC power line, a motor, a generator, or a pump. Insufficient
attention to such details often results in poor data acquisition by the computer, which in turn
affects the automatic control of the pipeline system.
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3.3 Integrity Monitoring and Leak Detection
3.3.1 Integrity Monitoring
Pipeline integrity monitoring includes a variety of measures taken to monitor the condition of
the pipeline including its immediate environment, in order to determine or head off damage to
the pipe and its associated equipment, maximize the efficiency and safety of the pipeline,
minimize potential accidents and service interruptions due to pipeline neglect, and safeguard
company and public interests.
The following is a partial list of measures that should be included in pipeline integrity
monitoring.
a. Leak detection by using a variety of measures.

b. Inspection pigs used to examine pipes for dents, corrosion (loss of metals), and possible
cracks.
c. Visual inspection of pipe exterior for any exposed pipe or exposed portion of a pipeline.
d. Underwater inspection of pipe exterior for submarine pipes by using divers or special
submarines carrying photographic equipment.
e. Remote sensing by satellites for early detection of encroachment by heavy vehicles
travelling on or across a pipeline right-of-way, or detection of other conditions that may
threaten the pipeline’s integrity, such as a flood, a landslide, or ground subsidence.
f. Line patrols flying over pipeline right-of-way to detect problems or potential problems.
g. Daily checking of pumps and other rotating machines used in running the pipeline.
h. Checking of pressure regulators and pressure-relief valves.
i. Checking of control valves and check valves.
j. Checking the calibration of flowmeters, pressure transducers, and other sensors.
3.3.2 Leak Detection
Most pipelines in use for over 30 years; or even 100 years, are either seriously corroded, or in
disrepair in other ways. Many of them would leak. To replace entire aging underground
infrastructure with new pipeline at once would be enormously costly, posing unacceptable
financial burden. The only solution is to renovate, repair, and rejuvenate most of the pipe over
many years on a rotational basis, in the same way other infrastructure such as highways are
repaired and maintained. Eventually, all pipelines must be abandoned and replaced with new
ones when they can no longer be repaired, or cost more to repair than to rebuild.
Pipeline leaks and ruptures have many causes. The most common cause is third-party damage,
which results from accidents, for example, caused by excavation conducted by a third party,
such as a contractor working on a land-development project, who is unaware that there is a
buried pipeline in the work area. The second largest cause is corrosion, which in time causes
leaks, and sometimes rupture. This is especially serious for high-pressure metal pipes,
especially steel pipes used for transporting oil, natural gas, and liquid fertilizers such as
ammonia, as compared to low-pressure plastic pipes. High-pressure concrete pipes also can
corrode over time because of the steel (bars and pretensioned wires and steel cylinders)
embedded in the concrete. Corrosion-caused leaks and rupture are most common in aging pipes
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that have corroded for many years, some even with cathodic protection, which is never 100%
effective. Other causes of pipeline leak or rupture include materials defect and outside forces,
such as caused by soil movement due to earthquakes, washouts due to flood, landslides, frost,
lightning, ice, snow, high winds, and operator error. The danger or seriousness of pipeline leaks
and rupture depends mainly on the type of fluid transported through the pipe.
The leakage or rupture of a crude-oil or petroleum-product pipeline is more serious than most
fluids because it poses a threat to both the environment and public health due to the pollution
of surface water, groundwater, and/or soil. Product pipelines such as those transporting
gasoline are more dangerous than crude-oil pipelines, due to the high volatility of the product
and the resultant danger of fire and explosion. For natural gas pipelines, the greatest threat is
property and life lost from explosion and fire resulting from pipeline leaks or rupture due to
the highly flammable nature of natural gas. Therefore, the utmost concern must be given to
natural gas pipeline safety, and any leak or rupture of a natural gas pipeline is a life-threatening
emergency. However, whatever the need is and whatever type of pipeline one is dealing with,
some common or similar methods exist to detect pipeline leaks.
Mass-Balance Method
The mass-balance method, also referred to as the materials balance method, is

straightforward. It uses the continuity equation of one-dimensional flow between an upstream
point and a downstream point to calculate the amount of flow due to leakage or rupture. For
instance, if in a natural gas pipeline the mass flow rate upstream is m1 and the mass flow rate
downstream is m2, and if there are no branches to divert the flow between the two points, then
the leakage flow rate is simply mL = m1 – m2.
Use of this method requires accurate measurements of the mass flow rates m1 and m2, for the
leakage flow is determined from the difference between the two quantities. Since even the
newly calibrated flowmeters can have more than 0.5% errors, it is difficult to detect leakage
flow from this method when the leakage rate m1 is much less than 1% of the flow in the pipe.
This limits the usefulness of this method to large leakage flow-1% or more of the flow rate in
pipe. Another problem is that since flowmeters are spaced at great distances apart along a
pipeline, sometimes more than 100 km apart, the method does not indicate where the leak is
located within such a long distance. Other techniques are also needed to confirm and locate the
leak. Within these limitations, the mass balance method is very useful and reliable, and it is
widely used in current practice.
Two things can improve the usefulness of this technique: (1) further improvement of the
accuracy and reliability of flowmeters and their calibration methods, and (2) use of more
flowmeters in a pipeline so that spacing between them can be reduced. The spacing between
such flowmeters for hazardous liquid pipelines and natural gas pipelines should be much closer
to each other in urban or residential neighborhoods, and in environmentally sensitive areas such
as river crossings, so that leakage can be quickly pinpointed.
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Pressure-Drop Method
Leakage in a pipeline can also be detected by sudden pressure drop along the pipe measured
by pressure transducers. Again, the usefulness of this method is limited by the accuracy of
pressure transducers and by the spacing between the transducers. It is more susceptible to local
disturbance such as caused by imperfect tapping, and it requires more frequent maintenance.
Computational Modelling of Pipeline Systems
Both the mass-balance method and the pressure-drop method can and should be incorporated
into a common SCADA program that runs the pipeline. This is usually done by setting up a
system of equations on the computer, based on fluid mechanics and input data pertaining to the
pipeline system, to predict the velocity V, discharge Q, pressure p, temperature T, and density
ρ (for gas flow) at many locations along the pipeline. The predicted values are compared with
the measured values to determine if some abnormality exists in the pipeline system. Whenever
a leak, rupture, or overheating condition exists, the measured values at certain locations will
differ noticeably from that of the computed normal values. From the difference, a leak or
rupture of the pipe can be detected, and its approximate location can be determined. Emergency
measures, such as shutting a valve and stopping a pump, can then be taken by the SCADA
automatically, or through manual override. This explains in a nutshell the principles involved
in such computational monitoring of pipeline integrity and safety.
Visual and Photographic Observations
This can be done not only for exposed pipes but also for underground and submarine pipelines.
For instance, one can patrol the right-of-way of a buried petroleum or natural gas pipeline;
withered vegetation in an area above the pipe may indicate leakage in that area. In contrast,
grass above a certain area of the water pipeline growing more vigorously than elsewhere along
the pipe may indicate a water leak from the pipe. Likewise, by sending a diver or special
submarine to patrol an underwater natural gas pipeline when bubbles are seen to rise from a
certain spot on the pipe, a leak can be pinpointed. Such visual observation or discovery by
divers or a submarine should be followed by taking photos of the scene for further analysis.
Ground-Penetrating Radar
A ground-penetrating radar is capable of detecting a spilled natural gas and petroleum that
exists in the soil above a leak point of a buried pipeline. By moving this radar along the right-
of-way in an all-terrain vehicle, the pipeline can be surveyed for leaks, and the location of any
leak can be pinpointed.
Pigs
Pigging is a good way to find leaks because the pig moves inside the pipe in close contact with
the pipeline. Smart pigs that carry special sensors (acoustic or electromagnetic sensors) can
detect leaks (Fig. 3.2). The current generation of smart pigs detect wall thinning or loss of metal
due to corrosion; however, they are insensitive to the existence of small leakage flow through
cracks.
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Fig. 3.2 Basic information provided by inspection tools
Dogs
The same law enforcement agencies to sniff out illegal drugs and explosives can be trained to
detect natural gas leaks, provided that a special odorant is mixed with the gas. Dogs have
proven to be very reliable, with a success rate of detecting leaks in excess of 90%. They can
detect the scent at concentrations as low as 10-18 molar (1 part per billion). They have proven
to be successful not only under ordinary conditions, but also in extremely cold weather when
the pipeline is 12 ft underground with an additional 3 ft of snow above. The dogs are more
reliable and cost less than many sophisticated high-tech methods
3.4 Integrity Management Program
In recent years, numerous laws and regulations on pipeline safety have been promulgated.
Some of the statutes require the following from pipeline operators: (1) periodic inspections of
pipelines at least once every 5 years in areas of high population or sensitive environments; (2)
enhanced training and establishment of a certification program for employees who perform
safety-sensitive pipeline functions; (3) expanded programs to inform government agencies and
to educate the public on pipeline safety, (4) increased fines for the spill of oil and other
hazardous liquids ($1,000 per barrel, with a maximum of $100,000 per violation and $1 million
for a series of violations), (5) expanded states’ roles in pipeline safety and many others to
improve upon the integrity management on the movement of petroleum products.
3.5 Pipeline Maintenance
Optimizing maintenance costs for pipeline operators is important since the aim is to prevent
failures, maintain high standards of pipeline integrity and maximize safety. Pipeline failures
can and do often occur as a result of defects in the pipe. A defect is defined as something that
affects the structural integrity of a pipeline, and can have a number of causes. Defect
assessment is only part of the picture for an overall pipeline integrity and management strategy
that aims at safety and cost effectiveness to extend the operating life a pipeline. An integrity
and management strategy involves pipeline inspection, risk assessment, defect assessment,
operation and maintenance and finally repairs. There are numerous codes that give guidance
on the assessment or classification of defects on oil and gas pipelines. Defects includes:
• Stress corrosion cracking
• Internal corrosion
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• External corrosion
• Gouge
• Dent
• Manufacturing defect
• Hydrogen-induced cracking; girth weld defect
• Seam weld defect.
Unfortunately, there are currently no inspection tools that will detect all of these types of
feature. It is therefore important to identify the most likely defects on the basis of information
about the pipeline, in particular:
• The age of the pipeline;
• Whether there has been a previous inspection or baseline inspection;
• Operational conditions (i.e. Sour or sweet conditions);
• Whether the pipeline is onshore or offshore;
• The type of pipe/manufacturing method (certain types of pipe are more prone to certain
defects; in particular, older seamless pipe can be susceptible to inclusions and
laminations).
It is also important to understand the main failure mechanisms caused by corrosion. The two
main mechanisms are:
a. Leakage. This results in a relatively small loss of product.
b. Rupture. Larger defects fail with a sudden release of pressure that can cause
propagating or ‘running’ fractures in isolated cases.
The benefits of understanding corrosion rates are that they allow the operator to:
i. Prioritize repairs;
i. Set re-inspection intervals;
ii. Predict future repair dates.
3.5.1 Types of Maintenance
There are two types of pipeline maintenance; (1) routine maintenance and (2) renovation.
Routine maintenance
Routine maintenance is needed to keep the pipe functioning smoothly, but it does not
necessarily cause a significant increase in the useful life of the pipeline. Routine maintenance
of pipelines includes not only maintaining the pipe itself but also all the equipment needed for
the pipeline to function properly. This includes the pumps, the motors, the valves, the
flowmeters, the transducers, and many other items. They all need to be serviced and adjusted
according to their individual maintenance schedules. Any equipment that malfunctioned must
be repaired and put back to service as soon as possible. Damaged or worn-out parts must be
replaced. The pipe itself must be maintained according to an established schedule. This
includes periodic checking of the cathodic protection system (for steel pipes), pressure testing
of all pipes for possible leaks for aging, corroded, or otherwise damaged pipes, and inline
maintenance (pigging) periodically to clear out debris (using cleaning pigs) and to detect
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possible damage (using inspection pigs). All these measures, plus many other measures not
mentioned here, are part of routine maintenance.
Renovation (rehabilitation),
Renovation (rehabilitation), on the other hand, includes more costly measures that are taken
when the pipe’s exterior is already badly corroded by the soil that surrounds the pipe, or when
the pipe interior is seriously damaged by internal corrosion or encrustation. In the case of a
seriously corroded steel pipe or cast-iron pipe for conveying water, or seriously damaged sewer
pipes made of concrete, the solution could be installing an in-situ lining, or a smaller new pipe
inside the old pipe. Many such new technologies for renovating pipes have been developed in
recent years. They are usually referred to as trenchless technologies, for they do not require
digging a long trench for laying a pipe, and hence are more environmentally friendly. Through
such a renovation, the pipe is given a second life, and should function well for another 30 years
or longer. So far, the trenchless technologies for renovating pipes have been used mainly for
water and sewer pipes. However, it is gradually finding its way into the renovation of corroded
steel pipes used for transporting natural gas and petroleum.
Trenchless Rehabilitation Methods: Most nations in the world have an aging pipeline
infrastructure that requires rehabilitation, repair, and selected replacement. In the U.S., when
any cross-country oil or natural gas pipeline is badly corroded and leaks, the most common
solution is to decommission the pipeline and build a replacement line, using the same pipeline
right-of-way. For pipelines in urban and other densely populated areas, it is difficult and costly
to build new lines. Pipeline renewal using trenchless technologies (i.e., technologies that
require minimum digging or open cut) is preferred to decommissioning and building
replacement new pipelines. Major types of trenchless technologies to rehabilitate aging
pipelines are now described.
a. Cured-In-Place Lining: This method involves using a flexible fabric tube that can be folded
(deflated) and inserted into a leaking old pipe to form a lining. By pulling the folded flexible
tube into the pipe with a winch, or inverting it under fluid pressure, the tube can advance
deeply into the buried pipe. Fluid pressure is used to cause the tube to inflate and attach
firmly to the pipe wall. The tube, containing a thermosetting resin and a catalyst, can then
be inflated by a heated fluid, such as hot water or steam. The heat causes the resin to set,
forming a strong lining to protect the old leaky pipe. As it is the case with most other
trenchless rehabilitation methods such as slip-lining, the pipe interior must be thoroughly
cleaned and dried before inserting the fabric liner into the pipe. Types of thermosetting
resin used in such linings include polyester, vinylester, and epoxy. Polyester is the most
commonly used, and it has higher resistance to acids than epoxy resins do. Epoxy resins
are adhesive to pipe and resistant to fluids having high pH values. Vinylester has superior
corrosion resistance at high temperature. With such a lining, the pipe diameter is slightly
reduced.
b. Slip-Lining: Slip-lining involves the insertion (sliding) of a flexible new pipe into an old
pipe to be rehabilitated. The new pipe must be significantly smaller in diameter than the
old pipe, or else difficulties will be encountered in sliding the new pipe into the old pipe,
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especially if bends exist in the pipe. Thus, slip-lining always involves a significant
reduction of pipe size and the corresponding reduction of the hydraulic conveyance-the rate
of flow that can be conveyed by the pipe for a given pressure gradient. Grouting in the
annular space between the two pipes is needed to securely fasten the two pipes together.
c. Pipe-Bursting: Old underground pipe can be replaced with new pipe of the same diameter
or somewhat larger diameter without having to dig a long trench and dig out the old pipe.
This is done by in situ bursting of the old pipe, and subsequent installation of the new pipe
using one of two types of machine. The first type involves inserting into the old pipe a
pneumatic mole that contains a pair of breaker (cracker) arms. These breaker arms are
hydraulically operated; they can burst the old pipe and push the fragments outward.
Following that, a new pipe of the same diameter as, or greater than the diameter of the old
pipe is pulled into the space created by the pipe bursting. The second method involves using
a microtunneling machine with the ability to burst pipes. As the microtunnel is formed, the
old pipe is removed, and the new pipe is installed.
d. Pipe-Shrinking: Pipe-shrinking involves taking a flexible plastic pipe such as HDPE or

PVC, and compressing and deforming it into a U-shaped cross section, which results in a
much smaller cross-sectional area than that of the original round pipe. This deformed and
shrunk pipe is easily pulled into a pipe of a larger diameter. Then the lining pipe is inflated
into its original round shape and size by using heat and internal pressure. For HDPE pipes,
shrinking can be done without change of shape or deformation. By applying a radial inward
pressure on the pipe, the pipe shrinks. The shrunken pipe can easily be slip-lined into the
cleaned old pipe. After the liner is in place and the inward pressure is removed, the pipe
gradually relaxes and expands, restoring to its original size and shape. This forms a tight
fit between the liner and the old pipe. Applying internal pressure to the liner speeds up the
recovery process.
e. Patching and Sealing: For the repair of local damage to a pipe caused by accidents or
impacts during construction, the hole, cut, or puncture can be repaired by patching
(bandaging) the hole from outside the pipe. Special patches are available commercially for
such repairs. They differ for different types of pipes. Holes can also be repaired from inside
the pipe by chemical grouting, which involves injecting resins through the holes. First, a
forming bladder is placed inside the pipe at the location of the hole that needs to be sealed.
Then, the resin is injected between the inflated bladder and the pipe until the outside surface
of the pipe and the surrounding soils are saturated with the resin. After the resin is set, the
hole is sealed and the bladder can be removed.
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CHAPTER 4
ECONOMICS OF LONG-DISTANCE PIPELINE
4.1 Introduction
Pipeline transport is unique among other modes of transport in that the pipeline, which
facilitates freight movement, is both the way and the vehicle, and it is permanently connected
to terminals, which facilitate freight storage. This feature makes it the only mode of transport
that does not require any materials or goods handling. In view of the fact that pipeline transport
infrastructure is extremely capital intensive and its unmatched longevity, pipeline transport
enjoys the highest level of economies of scale of all modes of transport. Gas transport costs
easily exceed half of the gas market value and so far only 22% of gas crosses borders whereas
57% of oil does so. A number of general factors, be it technical, economic or political, always
apply in the choice of any large oil/gas export scheme. Large-diameter and long-distance
pipelines imply very high capital investment. They require both large, high-value markets and
substantial proven reserves to be economically viable. Capital charges typically make up at
least 90% of the cost of transmission pipelines.
4.2 Economics
In planning a pipeline system, one has to know that the scale of operation of a pipeline has
considerable effect on the unit costs. By doubling the diameter of the pipe, other factors
remaining constant, the capacity increases more than sixfold. On the other hand, the cost
approximately doubles, so that cost per unit delivered decreases to one-third of original unit
cost. It is this scale effect that justifies multiproduct lines.
4.2.1 Key Cost Determinants
Some major key determinants of pipeline construction costs include nature and volume of the
gas to be transmitted, the length of the line, the type of terrain to be crossed, and maximum
elevation of the route diameter, and operating pressures. Other factors include climate, labour
costs, the degree of competition among contracting companies, safety regulations, population
density and rights of way, may cause construction costs to vary significantly from one region
to another. Pipeline operating costs also vary mainly according to the number of compressor
stations, which require significant amounts of fuel, and local economic conditions, especially
labour costs. In designing a pipeline, the optimal mix of diameter and compression capacity
will depend on the expected load factor. Once a pipeline is built, the average cost per unit of
throughput will depend almost entirely on the average rate of capacity utilisation. A high level
of utilisation with a high load factor is usually critical to the economic viability of the pipeline.
Whether it is in fact economical to install a large-diameter pipeline at the outset or not depends
on the scale and the following factors:
1. Rate of growth in demand (it may be uneconomical to operate at low-capacity factors

during initial years). (Capacity factor is the ratio of actual average discharge to design
capacity).
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2. Operating factor (the ratio of average throughput at any time to maximum throughput
during the same time period), which will depend on the rate of draw-off and can be
improved by installing storage at the consumer's end.
3. Reduced power costs due to low-friction losses while the pipeline is not operating at full
capacity.
4. Certainty of future demands.
5. Varying costs with time (both capital and operating).
6. Rates of interest and capital availability.
7. Physical difficulties in the construction of a second pipeline if required.
Globally, the investment required to lay a long distance, large diameter line (46 to 60 inches),
enabling a throughput of about 15 to 30,109 m3/year, currently amounts to $1 billion to $1.5
billion/1000 km. The Alliance Gas pipeline between Canada and US for instance (36 inch of
diameter, 3,686 km long, operated at 120 bar) cost about US$3 billion. Investment for subsea
lines are much higher, depending on water depths.
4.2.2 Offshore Pipelines
Developments over the past decade in offshore pipeline technology have contributed to lower
unit costs and have made possible deep-water projects that were previously impossible. The
development of a pipe-laying technology capable of laying pipes at 650 metres depth
represented a breakthrough in the early 1980s and allowed to lay the Transmed pipeline
between Tunisia and Sicily. Offshore pipeline technology also played a big role in the
exploitation of North Sea gas resources in the 1970-80s and those more recently in the Gulf of
Mexico.
One of the methods most commonly used to install marine pipelines is the S-lay method. This
production process leads to a very fast laying rate even when handling large diameter pipes,
from 2 up to 6 km / day. For greater depths and larger diameter pipelines the main alternative
to S-lay is the J-lay method. It is based on applying the axial force in a near-vertical direction,
virtually eliminating any horizontal reaction on the vessel equipment. The most recent example
of the J-lay method is its recent application to the construction of the $3.2 billion Blue Stream
Project, designed to deliver Russian gas across the Black Sea to Turkey.
As installation and intervention works represent about half of the cost to lay a pipeline over a
difficult seabed, these developments have contributed to lower unit costs and have made
possible deep-water projects that were previously impossible.
A successful design of a transmission system requires a team of well-trained and experienced

engineering and legal staff. Complex engineering studies are needed to decide on diameter,
yield strength, and pumping horsepower required to give the optimum results for any particular
pipeline transmission system. Computer programs that enable high-pressure as transmission
networks to be dynamically simulated on a digital computer have been developed and are used
by gas pipeline operating companies and service companies. Several designs are usually made
so that the economical one can be selected. The maximum capacity of a pipeline is limited by
its initial parameters of construction. In general, the tendency is to use higher transmission
pressures and strong materials of construction. For economic operation, it is important to
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preserve full pipeline utilization. The power of cost per unit of additional throughput decreases
with increasing pipe diameter while throughput also increases in an existing line (Fig. 4.1).
Fig. 3.1 Effect of Volume Throughput on Gas Transmission Cost
For example, the comparative 2008 tariffs to deliver jet fuel from Durban to O.R. Tambo
International Airport in Gauteng were:
Pipeline: 12,55c/ℓ;
Rail: 24,35c/ℓ;
Road: 58,30c/ℓ.
Page 41
Table 4.1 Estimated Cost of Some Major Constructed Pipeline across the World
Capacity Length Estimated Cost
9 3
Route/Pipeline (km) (billion US$)
(10 m /year)
Africa to Europe
Libya to Italy (GreenStream) 8 570
Algeria to Sardinia (Italy) 8 1470
Algeria to Spain (Medgas) 8 747
Nigeria-Niger-Algeria-Europe (Trans-Saharan) 18 4000
Former Soviet Union to Europe
North TransGas Up to 30
Yamal-Europe II 2 x 33 4107
Turkmenistan - Turkey - Europe 28 3000 - 4500 3.5 - 5
FSU to Asia
Irkutsk Basin (Kovykta) - China - S. Korea About 35 4000 to 5000 15 - 20
Sakhalin - China (Shenyang) 10 2420 4
Sakhalin Island – Japan (either via Niigata or through
8
the Pacific coast to Tokyo)
Western Siberia – Xinjiang - Shanhai 30 1870 4
Turkmenistan – China (Xinjiang/Shanghai) 25 2150 5
Turkmenistan – Pakistan (via Afghanistan) 15 1500 1.9
Kazakhstan – China ( Shanghai) 25 3370 5
Middle-East to Europe
Iraq - Turkey 15 - 20 1383
Middle-East to Asia
Iran to India via Pakistan 18 20 3300 5
Qatar – Pakistan (GUSA) 16.5 1600 3.5
Africa (intra-regional)
Mozambique – South Africa (Pande Project) 1.5 905 0.7 - 1.0
West Africa Gas Line (Nigeria-Ghana-Togo-Benin) 3400 4
Middle-East (intra-regional)
21
Qatar – Abu-Dhabi - Dubai (Dolphin project) st 1600
(1 phase)
South-East Asia (national and intra-regional)
West-East China Pipeline (Xianjiang to Shanghai) 12.4 2400

Indonesia’s South Sumatra - Singapore 3.7 500
Gulf of Thailand - peninsular Malaysia - Singapore -
2000 - 2500
Sumatra -Java
Page 42
CHAPTER 5
STORAGE OF OIL AND GAS
5.1 Storage of Oil
The fluids from a well are piped to a tank battery, which usually consists of a gas-oil separator
that separates these two fluids. Since more than one well may be feeding into the battery, gas
meters and test gas-oil separators may also be provided for measuring production from each
well. Also, an oil meter may be used for well testing so that the tank measurement of a well
being tested can be combined with the oil from the other wells. In any event, it is needed by
the operator of the lease to maintain efficient operation of the wells and the reservoir.
This chapter discusses the types of storage commonly used and also provides general guidelines
to aid selection of the proper type of storage for a particular application. References to various
codes standards and recommended practices are critical in selecting storage equipment.
Manufacturers should be consulted for specific design information on a particular type of
storage. Most liquids are stored in tanks whiles most gases are stored in underground reservoirs.
5.1.1 Tank Construction
Most tanks are made of either bolted together or welded steel plates, although in areas where
corrosive crude oil is produced, wooden gun barrel and stock tanks may be used. Fiberglass
tanks are also coming into use. Stock tanks will have a bottom drain outlet for removal of the
Basic Sediment and Water (BS&W), and there may also be an access or clean plate. This is a
provision made near the bottom of the tank for a workman to enter and periodically clean out
paraffin and sediment that have accumulated and will not drain off. Proper safety precautions
must, of course, be observed during such operations. The gun-barrel tank will usually be fitted
with a salt-water siphon line, and filling and equalizing lines will run from it to the stock tanks.
The oil enters the stock tanks at the top. An inlet valve is installed so that once the tank is filled
and ready to deliver, no more oil will enter. A gas vent line is also provided across the top of
the stock tanks. The delivery connection is usually placed one foot above the bottom of the
tank; this leaves space for the collection of the BS&W. There are provisions made for sealing
the outlet valve between deliveries. On the top of the tank is an opening called the thief hatch,
through which measurements can be made and samples extracted. An earthen dike may be built
around the battery as a safety precaution in the event of fire or tank rupture.
The size and number of tanks in the lease battery will depend upon the daily production and
the frequency of deliveries, which may be directly into a pipeline or by means of tank cars or
trucks. The usual capacity of the battery is equal to 3 to 7 times the daily production of the
wells feeding the battery. Normally, two or more stock tanks are provided so that while oil is
being delivered from one tank, another may be filling. The capacity of welded tanks may run
from 90 to 3,000 barrels; bolted tanks hold from 100 to 10,000, wooden from 200 to 1,000
barrels.
Page 43
Strapping
Before a tank is put into service for the first time, it must be strapped, meaning its dimensions
must be measured and the volume of oil it can hold calculated. These data are used to construct
a tank table or chart showing the amount of oil in barrels at given intervals, usually 1/4 inch
apart, from the bottom to the top of the tank. This process is usually carried out by a third or
neutral party.
Operations
As the fluids pass through the separator, the gas is measured as it flows through an orifice
meter and the oil is directed to one of the tanks. When one stock tank is filled, the flow is then
directed to another. The pumper or gauger makes periodic measurement of the contents of the
tank, but the final gauging before running or delivery is made by the pipeline gauger or
transport driver picking up the oil. The pumper watches the process and verifies the
measurements and tests. This is important, for it is at this point that the custody or ownership
of the oil passes from the first owner, the lease holder, to the transportation company.
5.1.2 Types of Storage Tanks
During the early day of oil production, the method of storing was almost exclusively white-
pine wooden tanks which were followed by cypress tanks and then redwood tanks. However,
because of the constant and steep rise in the cost of redwood lumber and the diminution of
skilled erectors required, the installation of new wooden tanks is nearly non-existent. The
bolted-steel tank was developed next and virtually replaced the wooden tank.
Bolted-Steel Tanks
Bolted tanks are designed and furnished as

segmental element assembled on location to
provide complete vertical, cylindrical,
aboveground, closed- and open-top steel storage
tanks (Fig. 5.1). Standard API bolted tanks are
available in nominal capacities of 100 to 10,000
bbl, and are designed for approximately
atmospheric internal pressures. Bolted tanks offer
the advantage of being easily transported to desired
locations and erected by hand. To meet changing
requirements for capacity of storage, bolted tanks
can be easily dismantled and re-erected at new
locations. If a tank develops a hole from corrosion
or becomes damaged, a single sheet or more may
be replaced. A complete tank bottom may be
replaced in the field without dismantling the tank.
Also, a section may be removed from the tank, a Fig. 5.1 Typical Bolted Tank
new connection installed in the sheet and the
section replaced without danger. This is not true of any other type of steel construction. No
Page 44
special equipment (cranes. etc.) is required for the erection of bolted tanks. These tanks are
erected by non-specialised crews using hand tools and usually an impact wrench. Bolted tanks
are available with painted, galvanised and special coatings including factory-baked coatings.
Painting on both sides of the sheets during fabrication gives the inside of the tank some
corrosion protection. Galvanising the sheets and all tank parts by the “hot-dip” process or
applying a factory-baked coating affords high corrosion protection. The component parts of a
typical bolted tank are shown in Fig. 5.1. Generally, bolted tanks are fabricated from 12- or 10-
gauge steel and, if not galvanised or furnished with a protective coating for corrosion
protection, they do not have the expected life of the welded-steel tanks which are usually
constructed of heavier steel.
Welded-Steel Tanks
Shop-fabricated welded, cylindrical-shape tanks are available in a large variety of sizes as

shop-fabricated items. The API-12F specifications for vertical shop-welded tanks (and Table
5.1) list standard sizes for nominal capacities of 90 to 500 bbl. Shop-welded tanks fabricated
to API specifications provide the oil production industry with tanks of adequate safety and
reasonable economy in the storage of crude petroleum and other liquids commonly handled
and stored by the production segment of the industry. Shop-welded tanks are usually fabricated
from 3/16-in. or heavier steel and therefore, will permit internal pressures up to 1/16 lbs. The
heavier steel also affords a corrosion allowance. Shop fabrication permits testing in the shop
for leaks and also provides immediate storage.
Table 5.1 Partial API Specifications for

Shop-Welded Tanks-Tank
Dimensions
Fig. 5.2 Welded Steel Tank
5.1.3 Flat-Sided Tanks (Non-API)
When space is limited, such as offshore, requirements favour flat-sided tank construction
because several cells of flat-sided tanks can be fabricated easily and arranged in less space than
other types of tanks. Flat-sided or rectangular tanks normally are used as atmospheric type
storage.
Field-Welded Tanks
Field-welded tanks provide large storage capacities in a single unit. API Spec. 12D lists
standard sizes ranging from 500- through 10000-bbl nominal capacity. Although the sizes set
forth in this specification are closely paralleled by bolted tanks, these field-welded tanks are of
Page 45
heavier gauge steel with a minimum thickness of ¼ in. for the tank bottom and 3/16 in. for the
shell and deck. Larger field-welded tanks providing storage capacities of 150,000 bbl or more
have become quite prevalent for use in the storage of oil and petroleum products. Field welded
tanks, particularly those larger than 10,000 bbl. frequently are designed and erected in
accordance with API Standard 6.50.
Cone-Bottom Tanks
The cone bottom in either the bolted or the welded tank offers a means of draining and
removing water or water-cut oil from only the bottom of the tank, leaving the marketable oil
above. The drain line from a sump-equipped cone bottom must be equipped with a vortex
breaker to drain off most of the water without coning oil into the drain. With a flat-bottom tank,
some of the marketable oil must be removed if all the water is removed from the tank. Corrosion
on the tank bottom is kept to a minimum by keeping all water removed. A cone bottom can be
kept clean without having to open the tank if 1 or 2 bbl are drained off once or twice weekly
and pumped back through the treating system. The cone-bottom tank can be cleaned without
entering. A water hose, handled just outside the cleanout opening can be used to flush the solids
to the centre of the cone and drain connection.
Pipe Storage
Pipe storage consists of any number of sections of line pipe laid parallel to each other and
interconnected to operate as a single unit. The size and length depend on the capacity required
and economics. The exterior of buried-pipe storage should be coated and wrapped for corrosion
protection. It also is recommended that any coated, wrapped, and buried carbon steel pipe be
protected catholically against the possibility of eventual holidays (imperfections) in the
coating. Aboveground pipe storage should be protected against the elements with paint or other
approved coating material. In some cases, pipe storage may require insulation. The individual
storage pipes are manifolded together for filling and emptying at pipeline transfer rates. The
pipe storage must be protected from overpressure just like any other storage vessel.
5.1.4 Tank Corrosion Protection
Coating Specifications
The primary use of internal coatings is to protect the inside surface of the tank against corrosion
while also protecting the stored contents from contamination. A coating specification should
be a clearly defined list of particulars or instructions. Just as a drawing must give exact
dimensions so must a coating specification state the exact system to be used. In the preparation
of such a specification, consideration must be given to such factors as;
1. Types of coatings available.

2. Types of surfaces to the coated.
3. Compatibility of coatings. And
4. Number of coats required on the various types of surfaces for maximum protection.
To secure high-quality coatings consideration must be given to the following factors such as;
Compatibility, Film Thickness and Surface Preparation.
Page 46
Coatings Types
Many types of internal coatings are available for numerous protection requirements. Because
of the unlimited types and applications, only a few are described below.
Coal Tar. Among the oldest and most reliable coatings, coal tar has extremely low
permeability. Protects the surface by the mechanical exclusion of moisture and air, is extremely
water resistant, and resists weak mineral acids, alkalis, salts, brine solutions, and other
aggressive chemicals well.
Epoxy Resin. Epoxy resin gives excellent adhesion, toughness, abrasion resistance, flexibility,
high gloss and durability, and good chemical and moisture resistance. Typical applications
include linings for sour-crude tanks, floating roof tanks, solvent storage tanks, drilling mud
tanks and pipelines.
Rubber Lining. Rubber lining is used as internal lining for storage tanks that are subjected to
severe service, such as elevated temperatures, or for protection from extremely corrosive
contents such as concentrated chlorides, and various acids, such as chromic, sulphuric,
hydrochloric, and phosphoric.
Galvanized. Galvanizing (zinc coating) is highly resistant to most types of corrosion. Bolted
steel tanks are ideally suited for galvanizing since all component parts are galvanized by the
hot-dip process after fabrication but before erection. Galvanized bolted tanks are recommended
where sulphur oil is produced and associated with hydrogen sulphide gas. Galvanizing is also
very effective against corrosion in seacoast areas where atmospheric conditions present
difficulties in maintaining tank life.
External Coating. The basic needs for external coatings are protection against weathering
exposure and appearance. Many types of external coatings are available, ranging from basic
one-coat primers to primers with one or more top coats. Environmental conditions usually
dictate the extent of coating applied. Offshore and coastal installations require more extensive
coatings compared with inland locations
Cathodic Protection can be applied to control corrosion that is electrochemical in nature,

whereby direct current is forced to flow onto the entire surface area of the steel structure making
it cathodic and thus in a noncorroding state.
5.1.5 Maintenance and Operation of Tank Batteries
Steel tanks should be kept clean and free from spilled oil or other material. They should be kept
painted and all water or accumulated dirt should be removed from around the bottom edge of
the tanks. Thief hatches and vent-line valves should be kept closed and inspected periodically
for proper operation and gasket condition. Should any leaks occur, they may be repaired
temporarily with lead sealing plugs or toggle bolts. These leaks should be repaired permanently
as soon as possible. When a closing gauge is taken, and before the tank is filled again, the
pipeline valve should be sealed closed, the drain valve checked to ensure that it is closed and
the seal removed, and then the seal from the equalizer-line valve removed. Before the tank is
accepted by the crude purchaser, the water should be drained from the tank if necessary and
Page 47
the valve sealed closed. All other valves should be sealed closed except the vapour-recovery-
line valve if such a system is in use. The pipeline valve is then unsealed and opened for delivery
to the purchaser.
Tank Grades
Selection. Selection of the proper location on the lease for storage tanks is of prime importance.
The location should provide good drainage and be on well-packed soil-not a fill-if possible.
The tank foundation or grade should be slightly elevated, level, and somewhat larger in
diameter than the tank itself. For steel tanks, either bolted or welded, the best grade is one made
of small gravel, crushed rock, etc., held in place by steel bands. This type of grade allows no
water to stand underneath the tank and provides air circulation. If the tank is to be set directly
on the ground, felt tar paper should be applied to the grade first and the tank set on this. If
concrete is used for the grade, it should be slightly larger in diameter than the tank and have
shallow grooves on the surface to provide air circulation. Many codes. standards, and
specifications regulate the location, design, and installation of storage tanks dependent on their
end use.
Firewalls or Dikes. Dikes are provided to contain the volume of a certain portion of the tanks
enclosed depending on the tank contents. They are used to protect surrounding property from
tank spills or fires. In general, the net volume of the enclosed diked area should be the volume
of the largest tank enclosed (single-failure concept). The dike walls may be earth, steel,
concrete, or solid masonry designed to be watertight with a full hydrostatic head behind them.
Local codes and specifications may govern construction. If more than one tank is within the
diked area, curbs or preferably drainage channels should be provided to subdivide the area to
protect the adjacent tanks from possible spills.
Vapour Losses. Vapours emitted from the vents and/or relief valves of a storage tank are
generated in two ways: (1) they are forced out of the tank during filling operations and (2) they
are generated by vaporization of the liquid stored in the tank. The total vapour produced in
these two instances is the volume that would be available for recovery.
Filling Losses. Vapours that are forced out of the tank are generally called “filling losses.” A
storage tank generally is not pumped completely dry when emptied. The vapour above the
remaining liquid in the tank will expand to fill the void space at the vapour pressure of the
liquid stored in the tank at storage temperature. As the tank is filled, the vapours are compressed
into a smaller void space until the set pressure on the vent/relief system is reached. There are
also some filling losses that are associated with the expansion of the liquid entering the tank.
Vaporisation Losses
This type of loss is characterized as the vapours generated by heat gain through the shell,
bottom and roof. The total heat input is the sum of the radiant, conductive, and convective
energy forces. This type of loss is especially prevalent where light hydrocarbon liquids arc
stored in full-pressure or refrigerated storage. This is less prevalent but still quite common in
crude oil and finished product storage tanks. These vapours may be recovered by the use of a
vapour-recovery system.
Page 48
Vapour Control and Gravity Conservation with Storage Tanks
Crude oils and condensates are composed of many different paraffin hydrocarbons. Propane is
the lightest hydrocarbon found in any measureable amount and the hydrocarbon with the
greatest tendency to evaporate or vaporize from the liquid stored. When propane and other
hydrocarbons pass into the vapour phase by vaporization, the volume of the liquid stored is
decreased. and because these lighter hydrocarbons arc not now present in their initial amounts,
the API gravity of the crude is decreased. There is a definite relationship between API gravity
lost and volume lost depending on the character of the crude (Fig. 5.3)
Fig. 5.3 Gravity Loss in Degrees API vs. Percent Loss by Volume
Factors Contributing to Vapour and Gravity Losses
Several factors affect and contribute to vapour and gravity losses in storage tanks:
i. Vapour Pressure. The true vapour pressure (TVP) of a liquid is the actual pressure it exerts
on the vapour space in a container at a given temperature. Water, for example, has a TVP
of 1 psi at 100°F and a TVP of 14.7 psi at 212ᵒF, yet it must be kept in a closed container
to prevent evaporation. The same is true for crude oil if the TVP is below 14.7 psi. Crudes
with a TVP of 10 psi and lower are usually relatively stable in closed-atmospheric storage.
ii. Temperature. Temperature of crude is directly related to its vapour pressure. For example,
a crude with a TVP of 8 psi at 50°F will have a TVP of 17 psi at 90°F. The vaporization
loss is then approximately doubled at the 90°F temperature.
iii. Surface Area. Directly related to the rate of evaporation is the surface area of the crude.
The lager the surface area, the higher the evaporation rate.
iv. Agitation. Agitation of the stored product is related directly to the vapour pressure. If two
crudes under the same conditions receive equal agitation, the one with the higher vapour
pressure will show the greatest evaporation loss.
v. Tank Pressures. The higher the pressure maintained on the storage tank, the less will be the
tendency for the crude to evaporate. Pressure storage, considered to be in excess of 1 psig,
is required for all stored products with a TVP in excess of 14.7 psi to prevent excessive
Page 49
evaporation losses. High-gravity crudes and distillates or condensates usually require a

higher storage pressure than the normal 1 to 4 oz.
vi. Filling Losses. When 475 bbl are run from a 500-bbl tank, crude-oil vapours occupy the
displaced oil. When the tank is filled again, these vapours are forced from the tank into the
atmosphere. These expelled vapours may be equivalent to one or more barrels, depending
on the type of crude.
vii. Breathing Losses. Temperature changes between day and night cause vapours to be
expelled from the tank and air to be breathed in. These reactions are similar to, but smaller
in volume than, the filling and running losses.
viii. Storage Size. A greater vapour space and longer storage time will increase evaporation
losses. As an example, consider two tanks with 100 bbl of stored crude each, one a 250-bbl
tank and the other a high 500-bbl tank. The 250-bbl tank has 948 cu ft of vapour space
while the high 500-bbl tank has 2,457 cu ft or two and one-half times as much. This added
vapour space increases the evaporation losses from the larger tank.
ix. Colour of outside paint or coating.
Several, if not all, of these factors usually contribute to the total loss from any one tank or
battery.
Preventing Evaporation and Gravity Losses
i. Products should be introduced into storage as cool as possible and kept that way. Some
types of heat-exchange equipment should be employed between an emulsion treater, or
other heating equipment, and the tanks to cool the oil before it enters storage. If fluid
heat exchangers are used, a preventive maintenance program should be employed to
guard against buildup of scale, paraffin, salt, etc., which are common to many produced
fluids. Most modern tank batteries are equipped with Lease Automatic Custody-
Transfer (LACT) units.
ii. Tanks should be selected with smaller diameters Greater heights and smaller capacities,
all other considerations being equal. These factors will allow the stored product to have
relatively smaller surface areas and vapour spaces as well as a shorter length of storage
time before being sold.
iii. Downcomer pipes prevent undue agitation in the tank. They are usually made by
installing a line inside the tank from the inlet connection in the tank deck to 1 ft above
the tank bottom. The downcomer must have a vacuum breaker hole at the top to allow
gas to escape and thereby prevent agitation, splashing, and accumulation of static
electricity.
iv. All tank openings should be maintained closed and pressure on the tank should be as
high as practical.
v. Tanks in a battery all should be connected together into a common vent line to keep
breathing and filling losses to a minimum.
vi. Bypass thief hatches are manufactured that will do much to prevent evaporation losses
when a tank is gauged through the thief hatch. These special hatches have the tank-
battery vent lines connected to them and will close off or isolate all other tanks except
the one being gauged. This allows all other tanks in the battery to maintain their
Page 50
pressure while the tank being gauged is depressured. The producer may install one of
several types of groundlevel gauging and sampling devices available that will permit
gauging and sampling without opening the tank. The tank remaining closed goes far
toward eliminating evaporation losses.
Vapour-Recovery System
Vapour-recovery systems are of two basic types. One type connects a vacuum line to the tank
and transports the tank vapours to a processing or gasoline plant. The other type consists of a
small compressor located by the tank battery which compresses the tank vapours to a pressure
suitable for lease use or sales.
Vacuum-Line System. The vacuum-line system usually is found only in large oil fields, where
many tank batteries can be connected together into a relatively short gathering system. This
system must employ well-maintained and properly functioning pressure/vacuum relieving
devices and dependable control valves to prevent the tanks from collapsing or air from entering
the gathering system.
Compression System. The compressor system is usually electrically driven and all components
are skid mounted. Some of these systems use a vane-type compressor and inject a refined oil
by way of a lubrication system to seal the vanes against the compressor walls. In these systems
an actual liquid recovery is accomplished by the sealing oil absorbing the condensed
hydrocarbons from the compressed vapours and transporting them to storage with the returning
sealing oil. Applications for this type of system are twofold: (1) compression of the rich
stocktank vapours for sale to a gasoline plant and (2) the recovery of liquids from the rich
stock-tank vapours. Liquid hydrocarbons also can be recovered from the compressed Vapour-
Recovery Unit (VRU) vapour by either one or both of the following means.
1. A vapour cooling system (air-cooled or water-cooled) heat exchanger can be installed

complete with a separator downstream of the hot compressed VRU vapour stream. Multiple
vapour cooling systems may be used in between the stages of a multiple-staged
compression system.
2. A mechanical refrigeration unit may be installed downstream of the VRU for a higher-yield
liquid hydrocarbon recovery.
5.2 Storage of Gas
5.2.1 Underground Storage
Underground gas storage may be defined as the storage in reservoirs of porous rock at various
depths beneath the surface of the earth of large quantities of natural gas not native to these
reservoirs. Underground storage is most advantageous when large volumes are to be stored.
Underground storage is especially advantageous for high-vapour-pressure products. Any
underground storage facility is reconditioned before injection, to create a sort of storage vessel
underground. Natural gas is injected into the formation, building up pressure as more natural
gas is added. In this sense, the underground formation becomes a sort of pressurized natural
gas container. As with newly drilled wells, the higher the pressure in the storage facility, the
Page 51
more readily gas may be extracted. Once the pressure drops to below that of the wellhead, there
is no pressure differential left to push the natural gas out of the storage facility. This means
that, in any underground storage facility, there is a certain amount of gas that may never be
extracted. This is known as physically unrecoverable gas; it is permanently embedded in the
formation. The gas is stored in the pore spaces within the rock that originally contained gas,
oil, or water. Reservoirs that produced gas or oil before their use for storage have exhibited
their ability to hold gas under pressure. Gas is being stored in water-bearing formations,
"aquifer storage," in a few cases where there are no depleted petroleum reservoirs near the
market area. There are basically two uses for natural gas in storage facilities: meeting base load
requirements, and meeting peak load requirements. Natural gas storage is required for two
reasons: meeting seasonal demand requirements, and as insurance against unforeseen supply
disruptions.
Base Load vs. Peak Load Storage
Base load storage capacity is used to meet seasonal demand increases. Base load facilities are
capable of holding enough natural gas to satisfy long term seasonal demand requirements. Peak
load storage facilities, on the other hand, are designed to have high-deliverability for short
periods of time, meaning natural gas can be withdrawn from storage quickly should the need
arise. Peak load facilities are intended to meet sudden, short-term demand increases. These
facilities cannot hold as much natural gas as base load facilities; however, they can deliver
smaller amounts of gas more quickly, and can also be replenished in a shorter amount of time
than base load facilities.
Definitions
• Total gas storage capacity: It is the maximum volume of natural gas that can be stored
at the storage facility. It is determined by several physical factors such as the reservoir
volume, and also on the operating procedures and engineering methods used.
• Total gas in storage: It is the total volume of gas in storage at the facility at a particular
time.
• Base gas (also referred to as cushion gas): It is the volume of gas that is intended as
permanent inventory in a storage reservoir to maintain adequate pressure and
deliverability rates throughout the withdrawal season.
• Working gas capacity: It is the total gas storage capacity minus the base gas.
• Working gas: It is the total gas in storage minus the base gas. Working gas is the volume
of gas available to the market place at a particular time
• Total gas storage capacity is the maximum volume of gas that can be stored in an
underground storage facility in accordance with its design, which comprises the
physical characteristics of the reservoir, installed equipment, and operating procedures
particular to the site.
Page 52
• Total gas in storage is the volume of storage in the underground facility at a particular
time.
• Deliverability is most often expressed as a measure of the amount of gas that can be
delivered (withdrawn) from a storage facility on a daily basis. Also referred to as the
deliverability rate, withdrawal rate, or withdrawal capacity, deliverability is usually
expressed in terms of millions of cubic feet per day (MMcf/day). Occasionally,
deliverability is expressed in terms of equivalent heat content of the gas withdrawn
from the facility, most often in dekatherms per day (a therm is 100,000 Btu, which is
roughly equivalent to 100 cubic feet of natural gas; a dekatherm is the equivalent of
about one thousand cubic feet (Mcf)). The deliverability of a given storage facility is
variable, and depends on factors such as the amount of gas in the reservoir at any
particular time, the pressure within the reservoir, compression capability available to
the reservoir, the configuration and capabilities of surface facilities associated with the
reservoir, and other factors. In general, a facility's deliverability rate varies directly with
the total amount of gas in the reservoir: it is at its highest when the reservoir is most
full and declines as working gas is withdrawn.
• Injection capacity (or rate) is the complement of the deliverability or withdrawal rate.
It is the amount of gas that can be injected into a storage facility on a daily basis. As
with deliverability, injection capacity is usually expressed in MMcf/day, although
dekatherms/day is also used. The injection capacity of a storage facility is also variable,
and is dependent on factors comparable to those that determine deliverability. By
contrast, the injection rate varies inversely with the total amount of gas in storage: it is
at its lowest when the reservoir is most full and increases as working gas is withdrawn.
5.2.2 Types of Underground Storage
The most important type of gas storage is in underground reservoirs. There are three principal
types:
i. Depleted Gas Reservoirs;

ii. Aquifer Reservoirs;
iii. Salt Cavern Reservoirs.
Each of these types possesses distinct physical and economic characteristics which govern the
suitability of a particular type of storage type for a given application.
Storage Field Development
The use of partially depleted oil and gas fields will be treated first, followed by the development
of storage in water sands. If depleted or partially depleted gas fields are available within a
reasonable distance of marketing centres, they will almost invariably make the best and most
economical storage fields. Depleted oil fields are also usually satisfactory, although they do
create some problems. A common problem is: how far from a marketing centre can one go to
look for suitable underground storage fields? There is no specific answer to this question. It is
a matter of economics. One can go to the point at which it becomes cheaper to use other types
Page 53
of storage or to expand the pipeline facilities from areas of large gas reserves. Each geographic
location would present a different answer to this question.
Geological and Engineering Data - Determination of Structure
Before any decision can be made on acquiring a field for storage, it is necessary to make a
thorough study of all geological and engineering data available about the field. A study must
be made of all wells drilled within the field limits that have penetrated the storage formation.
It may be necessary to go back in and permanently plug certain old wells or set new casing on
some wells. In the search for an underground storage reservoir it is first necessary to find an
underground structure (eg. Anticlines). Occasionally a structure can be found by surface
geology or core drilling. More often it will be necessary to use geophysical methods. Once a
formation has been selected, additional test wells must be drilled to the formation to delineate
the structure. Storage rights must be acquired. Probably the most important requirement of a
storage field in an aquifer is that it have an impermeable continuous cap rock. Coring and
laboratory testing of the cores for permeability will give an indication of the tightness of the
cap rock. How low this permeability must be or how thick the cap rock must be or what
combination of the two makes an effective seal to gas movement has not been determined. The
permeability must be low enough millidarcy or below) to prevent displacement of water from
the pores. Any solution cavities or fractures in cores from limestone cap rock should be noted.
Reconditioning of Wells
One of the major projects in the initial stage of storage-field development can be the
reconditioning of all remaining gas wells. It may be necessary to re-case many of the remaining
wells because of the use of insufficient cement in the setting of the original casing. The original
casing may have been of substandard grade. It may be badly corroded, especially near the
surface, and need replacement. Generally, it will not be possible to pull the old production
casing, especially if it is cemented in the hole. To re-case the well it will then be necessary to
run and set the next smaller size of casing that will fit into the hole. It will usually be advisable
to pressure-test each of the remaining wells by setting a bottom-hole plug in the top of the
storage formation or bottom joint of casing and test with natural gas or air somewhat above the
maximum contemplated storage pressure.
Drilling New Wells-Delimitation
It is wise to define carefully the field limits in any storage project so as not to acquire storage
rights on acreage that will eventually prove to be well outside the field limits. If the original
field was not well delimited when it was being developed, it may be necessary to drill several
delimitation wells before major storage operations commence. These wells will be drilled
primarily for structural information. The number will depend upon the thickness and
permeability of the formation, the maximum safe daily production rate per well, the maximum
wellhead pressure drawdown during withdrawal, etc.
Wells drilled for deliverability purposes will be drilled at locations that will give the highest
well capacity, normally at the top of the structure. The concentration of high-capacity wells at
the top of the structure may set up significant pressure gradients within the reservoir during
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sustained periods of withdrawal or input. It will probably not be possible to equalize completely
the pressure within the reservoir, but the drilling of drainage wells around the periphery of the
field will be a step in this direction. The advantage of nearly uniform pressures across the
reservoir is that, for any given content of gas in the field and withdrawal rate, the flowing
pressure will be higher. This advantage becomes a real one when it becomes necessary to add
horsepower because of the low flowing pressure from the storage field.
Dehydration Plant
Many storage fields require dehydration of the gas withdrawn from storage. Even though dry
gas is injected into the field, it picks up water in the reservoir and approaches saturation upon
withdrawal. This requires dehydration to prevent freezing at high pressures in transmission
mains. Occasionally, wellhead dehydrators are installed, although usually it is more
economical to dehydrate the gas at one central location at the outlet of the gathering system. In
such cases, gas hydrates may accumulate in the field gathering system during the winter. The
observation that the water separator yields large volumes of liquid in the springtime, when one
would expect the hydrates to melt, substantiates the belief that field lines partially dehydrate
the gas by retaining hydrate. For this reason, gathering lines should have greater volumetric
capacity than needed for flow when clean.
There are two main types of dehydration processes: (1) the liquid (glycol) and (2) the solid-
absorbent types. If this is critical at any installation, the solid type should be strongly
considered. The initial installation cost of a solid-type plant may be as high as 50 per cent,
above that of the glycol type.
Metering
Orifice meters are constructed and installed at storage fields. Storage-field gas metering can be
accomplished for the whole field at one centralized location, usually at the convergence of the
gathering system, or at the individual wells, or at various points in the field for groups of wells.
There are advantages to metering at one central location. The labour necessary to calibrate,
maintain, change charts, change plates, and adjust the meters is held to a minimum. The number
of charts from which gas flow is computed is held to a minimum. Severe weather and bad road
conditions will not prevent careful servicing of the meters. The tendency to neglect certain
meters because they are located way back in the field somewhere is not present.
Control of the rate of flow from a field and the possibility of turning the field on or off from
one central point are necessary for quick response to load changes. Under this centralized
system all storage wells would always be open to the gathering system. Such a central system
of field measurement does not allow a day-by-day accurate check on how individual wells or
groups of wells are performing. A daily record of manometer differentials at each well does
afford a qualitative check on the performance of individual wells at the instant the manometer
reading is taken. This requires a daily trip to each storage well.
Compression
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Compression will be needed to serve almost every storage project. At high-pressure storage
fields where the range of storage pressures is above the pipeline pressure, compression will be
needed during the summertime to inject gas into storage. If at any point in the storage cycle the
field pressure is lower than the pipeline pressure required to deliver the gas to market,
compression will be needed upon with pressures are low in the spring and high in the fall of
the year, compression will be needed for injection as soon as field pressures build up to a certain
point in early summer and will be needed for withdrawal as soon as field pressures are pulled
down to a certain level in early winter. Compression needs will fluctuate much more rapidly in
wintertime, as weather conditions change the market demands from storage. For most storage
fields, it will be necessary to design the compressor station for peak-day wintertime loads.
Summer loads into storage are steadier and usually at lower average and maximum rates than
wintertime loads from storage. The summer loads, then, require less horsepower for
compression. These statements, of course, do not apply to high-pressure storage projects, where
very little or no compression is needed upon withdrawal.
5.2.3 Depleted gas reservoir
These are the most prominent and common form of underground storage. They are the reservoir
formations of natural gas fields that have produced all their economically recoverable gas. The
depleted reservoir formation is readily capable of holding injected natural gas. Using such a
facility is economically attractive because it allows the re-use, with suitable modification, of
the extraction and distribution infrastructure remaining from the productive life of the gas field
which reduces the start-up costs. Depleted reservoirs are also attractive because their geological
and physical characteristics have already been studied by geologists and petroleum engineers
and are usually well known. Consequently, depleted reservoirs are generally the cheapest and
easiest to develop, operate, and maintain of the three types of underground storage.
In order to maintain working pressures in depleted reservoirs, about 50 percent of the natural
gas in the formation must be kept as cushion gas. However, since depleted reservoirs were
previously filled with natural gas and hydrocarbons, they do not require the injection of gas
that will become physically unrecoverable as this is already present in the formation. This
provides a further economic boost for this type of facility, particularly when the cost of gas is
high. Typically, these facilities are operated on a single annual cycle; gas is injected during the
off-peak months and withdrawn during the months of peak demand.
A number of factors determine whether or not a depleted gas field will make an economically
viable storage facility. Geographically, depleted reservoirs should be relatively close to gas
markets and to transportation infrastructure (pipelines and distribution systems) which will
connect them to that market. Since the fields were at one time productive and connected to
infrastructure distance from market is the dominant geographical factor. Geologically, it is
preferred that depleted reservoir formations have high porosity and permeability. The porosity
of the formation is one of the factors that determines the amount of natural gas the reservoir is
able to hold. Permeability is a measure of the rate at which natural gas flows through the
formation and ultimately determines the rate of injection and withdrawal of gas from storage.
Storage Capacity
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The production of oil and gas is evidence that space is available for gas storage. The shrinkage
that takes place when reservoir oil is produced should be noted also, for pressure-depletion
fields, the shrinkage of oil still in the reservoir when natural gas was produced in excess of that
dissolved in the produced crude oil. When material-balance calculations have been made on a
reservoir, the gas phase is obtained directly. The capacity of a depleted oil reservoir for gas
may be found from the following equation.
∆NPBO
V = 0.199
Tz
Let ΔN = oil produced, bbl
Bo = formation volume factor
V = volume of gas to replace oil produced, Mcf
P = reservoir pressure, psia
T = reservoir temperature, OR
z = compressibility factor for gas
5.2.4 Aquifer reservoir
Aquifers are underground, porous and permeable rock formations that act as natural water
reservoirs. In some cases, they can be used for natural gas storage. Usually these facilities are
operated on a single annual cycle as with depleted reservoirs. The geological and physical
characteristics of aquifer formation are not known ahead of time and a significant investment
has to go into investigating these and evaluating the aquifer’s suitability for natural gas storage.
If the aquifer is suitable, all of the associated infrastructure must be developed from scratch,
increasing the development costs compared to depleted reservoirs. This includes installation of
wells, extraction equipment, pipelines, dehydration facilities, and possibly compression
equipment. Since the aquifer initially contains water there is little or no naturally occurring gas
in the formation and of the gas injected some will be physically unrecoverable. As a result,
aquifer storage typically requires significantly more cushion gas than depleted reservoirs; up
to 80% of the total gas volume. Most aquifer storage facilities are developed when the price of
natural gas is low, meaning cushion gas is inexpensive to sacrifice. With rising gas prices
aquifer storage becomes more expensive to develop.
A consequence of the above factors is that developing an aquifer storage facility is usually time
consuming and expensive. Aquifers are generally the least desirable and most expensive type
of natural gas storage facility.
5.2.5 Salt Formation
Underground salt formations are well suited to natural gas storage. Salt caverns allow very
little of the injected natural gas to escape from storage unless specifically extracted. The walls
of a salt cavern are strong and impervious to gas over the lifespan of the storage facility.
Once a suitable salt feature is discovered and found to be suitable for the development of a gas
storage facility a cavern is created within the salt feature. This is done by the process of cavern
leaching (Fig. 5.4). Fresh water is pumped down a borehole into the salt. Some of the salt is
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dissolved leaving a void and the water, now saline, is pumped back to the surface. The process
continues until the cavern is the desired size. Once created, a salt cavern offers an underground
natural gas storage vessel with very high deliverability. Cushion gas requirements are low,
typically about 33 percent of total gas capacity.
Salt caverns are usually much smaller than depleted gas reservoir and aquifer storage facilities.
Salt caverns cannot hold the large volumes of gas necessary to meet base load storage
requirements. Deliverability from salt caverns is, however, much higher than for either aquifers
or depleted reservoirs. This allows the gas stored in a salt cavern to be withdrawn and
replenished more readily and quickly. This quick cycle-time is useful in emergency situations
or during short periods of unexpected demand surges.
Fig 5.4a Brine Displacement Operation Fig 5.4b Pump-out Operation
Table 5.2 shows the comparison of the major storage facilities operations.
Table 5.2 Gas Storage Facility Operations

Cushion Working Gas Injection Period Withdrawal Period
Type/ Reservoir
Gas (%) Capacity (%) (Days) (Days)
Depleted 50 86 200 - 250 100 - 150
Aquifer 50 - 80 10 200 - 250 100 - 150
Salt Formation 20-30 4 20 - 40 10 - 20
4.2.6 Other Storage Types
There are also other types of storage such as:
a. LNG; facilities provide delivery capacity during peak periods when market demand
exceeds pipeline deliverability. LNG storage tanks possess a number of advantages
over underground storage. As a liquid at approximately −163 °C (−260 °F), it occupies
about 600 times less space than gas stored underground, and it provides high
deliverability at very short notice because LNG storage facilities are generally located
close to market and can be trucked to some customers avoiding pipeline tolls. There is
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no requirement for cushion gas and it allows access to a global supply. LNG facilities
are, however, more expensive to build and maintain than developing new underground
storage facilities.
b. Pipeline Capacity; Gas can be temporarily stored in the pipeline system itself, through
a process called line packing. This is done by packing more gas into the pipeline via
an increase in the pressure. During periods of high demand, greater quantities of gas
can be withdrawn from the pipeline in the market area, than is injected at the production
area. The process of line packing is usually performed during off peak times to meet
the next-day’s peaking demands. This method, however, only provides a temporary
short-term substitute for traditional underground storage.
c. Gasholders; Gas can be stored above ground in a
gasholder (or gasometer), largely for balancing,
not long-term storage, and this has been done since
Victorian times. These store gas at district
pressure, meaning that they can provide extra gas
very quickly at peak times. Gasholders are perhaps
most used in the United Kingdom and Germany
(Fig. 5.5). Fig 5.5 A Gasholder
There are two kinds of gasholder; column guided, which are guided up by a large frame that is
always visible, regardless of the position of the holder, and spiral guided, which have no frame
and are guided up by concentric runners in the previous lift.
5.2.7 Economics of Storage
Several items enter into the total investment necessary to put an underground storage field into
operation. These items include cost of acquisition, development, cushion gas, dehydration,
compression, and transmission. Acquisition cost will involve purchase of all physical
equipment in the field including remaining gas or oil wells, gathering lines, process equipment,
compressor station, etc. It will be necessary to purchase the remaining recoverable gas or oil in
the formation and the right to use the formation for storage. Remaining minerals can usually
be acquired at the same rate as the rate paid during production. Development cost includes cost
of drilling storage wells, observation wells, and structure-control wells and cost of wellhead
structures and gathering system. Complete drilling costs-including drilling, well casing,
cement, logging, coring, and testing varies. Another significant cost in some fields might be
the money necessary to re-drill and activate or permanently plug and abandon all old gas or oil
wells abandoned during the producing history of the field.
In the average underground storage field, the total reservoir capacity is divided approximately
into 50 per cent cushion gas and 50 per cent working gas. Compression, transmission,
dehydration, and other gas-treating costs are entirely dependent upon individual situations.
Transmission line costs vary widely. A rule of thumb that would prove satisfactory for
approximate costs would be 50 to 60 cents per inch of diameter per foot of length of
transmission line. Gas-treating costs would depend upon what treatment is necessary.
Separators and gas cleaners would be included in the compressor- station costs.
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CHAPTER 6
SAMPLING AND TESTING OF OIL AND GAS
6.1 Sampling and Testing
The purchaser of the oil certainly is going to test it before delivery is made; therefore, the
producer should be doing his own testing to determine if the oil is going to be acceptable. Thus,
sampling and testing are carried out in accordance with standards set up and adopted by the
API and the ASTM. Samples (seldom, if ever, is just one used) may be drawn using a thief,
bottles, or sidewall taps or cocks.
Sampling and Testing are usually done through the opening in the top of a tank called the thief
hatch, although samples may also be obtained for that purpose. Several tools have been devised
to make the tests and measurements necessary before sale or transfer of the oil. The primary
tool lowered through the hatch is the thief (Fig. 6.1), and the process is known as thiefing the
tank. The tool is lowered first to the top third, then to the middle third, and finally to the bottom
third. Then an average of the three measurements is calculated to find the API gravity of the
oil or other physical properties.
A sample is removed from the tank by means of

a thief or sidewall cock (spigot or faucet in the
wall of the tank) and placed in a centrifuge
where it is shaken out-that is, the different
elements of the sample separate and the results
are read directly on a scale.
Other gauger's tools include a hydrometer and

graduate for measuring the API gravity of the
oil, a thermometer for measuring the
temperature of the oil, tank-gauging line for
measuring the height of the oil in the tanks, and
a centrifuge for measuring BS&W content. The
price paid by the purchaser for a tank of oil will Fig. 6.1 Tubular Tank Thief
depend on the amount (measured in barrels), the
weight of the crude as expressed in degrees API gravity, and the amount of BS&W in the oil.
In the early days, lighter crudes which ran toward the natural gasolines and aromatics were the
most desirable and therefore commanded a higher price. This was because the majority of the
oil purchased was for conversion to motor fuel. With the advent of the petrochemical industry,
however, the heavier crudes have grown in demand since they are necessary for the
manufacture of such items as plastics and synthetic rubber. The price per barrel the producer
receives is still dependent on the specific gravity of the crude despite this change in the market.
6.1.1 Specific Gravity

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By the nature of the field in which it is located, one lease may produce a very "light" crude
while the oil from another lease in another field may be thick, viscous, and odiferous. In other
words, not all crude oil is alike. The first step in scientifically measuring the difference between
different samples of crude oil is to determine the specific gravity of the sample at hand. Specific
gravity is the ratio between the weight of a unit volume of a substance compared with the
weight of an equal volume of some other substance taken as a standard. For liquids, the standard
is usually water, which is assigned a value of 1. For gases, the standard is usually air, also
assigned a value of 1. (This is assuming a temperature of 60°F) Since the temperature at the
tank battery is not always going to be 60°, temperature conversion tables will have to be used
to determine the correct specific gravity (America Society for Testing Materials (ASTM).
6.1.5 API Gravity
The American Petroleum Institute has adopted a standard method of expressing the gravity, or
unit weight, of petroleum products. API gravity may be determined by placing a sample of the
oil in a hydrometer and reading the value directly off the scale or by a fairly simple
computation. The first step in computing the API gravity of a sample is to determine its specific
gravity. The API formula is:
API gravity = 141.5/γ – 131.5 at 60 oF.
Thus, if a certain sample had a specific gravity of 0.82, its API gravity would be:
141.5/0.82 = 172.6 - 131.5 = 41.1° API
6.1.2 Temperature
The temperature of the oil in the tank will usually be close to that of the outside air unless it
has just been pumped, in which case it will be warmer due to the warmer temperature of the
earth. It may also show an elevated temperature if it has just been run through a heat treater to
remove BS&W. The usual method is to lower a thermometer on a line through the thief hatch
and match the reading, if it is other than 60°F, to a conversion table.
6.2 Standards
Any purchaser of the oil certainly is going to

test it before delivery is made; therefore, the
producer should be doing his own testing to
determine if the oil is going to be acceptable.
Thus, sampling and testing are carried out in
accordance with standards set up and adopted
by the API and the ASTM. Samples (seldom,
if ever, is just one used) may be drawn using a
thief, bottles, or sidewall taps or cocks (Fig.
6.2). Thus, samples are taken from several Fig. 6.2 A side Cock (tap) and Locations
different levels of a tank. The thief itself is a
round tube, usually 15 inches long, that is suspended from a chain connected to its top. At the
bottom is a spring-operated sliding valve that can be actuated to seal the bottom end. It is
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lowered into the tank with the valve open so the oil passes freely through the tube until the
desired depth is reached. At that point, the spring is released and the valve closes, capturing a
sample of oil. The thief is then brought out.
A one-quart metal bottle may also be used. The bottle is

weighted so that it will sink and has a cork stopper. A line is
attached to the stopper so that it may be removed at the desired
depth and the bottle filled at that point (Fig. 6.3). There are
several different types of samples that may be taken and an
agreement should be reached by all concerned as to which
type will be used.
An average sample consists of proportionate parts from all

sections of the tank.
An all-levels sample is obtained by submerging a stoppered

beaker or bottle to a point as near as possible to the drawoff
Fig. 6.3 A beaker Sampler
level, then opening the sampler and raising it at such a rate that
it is about three-quarters full (maximum 85 percent) as it
emerges from the liquid. An all-levels sample is not necessarily an average sample because the
tank volume may able to raise the sampler at the variable rate required for proportional filling.
The rate of filling is proportional to the square root of the depth of the immersion.
A running sample is one obtained by lowering an unstoppered beaker or bottle from the top of
the oil to the level of the bottom of the outlet connection or swing line and returning it to the
top of the oil at a uniform rate of speed so that the beaker or bottle is about three-quarters full
when withdrawn from the oil.
An upper sample is a spot sample taken at the midpoint of the upper third of the tank contents
(Fig. 5.4).
A middle sample is a spot sample obtained from the middle of the tank contents.
A lower sample is a spot sample obtained at the level of a fixed tank outlet or the swing-line
outlet.
A clearance sample is a spot sample taken 4 inches (100 millimeters) below the level of the
tank outlet.
A bottom sample is obtained from the material on the bottom surface of the tank, container, or
line at its lowest point.
A drain sample is obtained from the draw-off or discharge valve.
A water and sediment sample is obtained with a thief to determine the amount of material at
the bottom of the tank that cannot be sold.
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Fig. 6.4 Locations of Samples in a Tank
A composite sample is made of equal portions of two or more spot samples obtained from a
tank. The term also applies to a series of line samples obtained from a free-flowing pipeline.
A composite spot sample is a blend of spot samples mixed in equal proportions for testing.
Tests may also be made on the spot samples before blending and the results averaged. Spot
samples from crude-all tanks are obtained in several ways. A three-way spot sample is taken
on tanks larger than 1,000-barrel (160 cubic meters) capacity that contain in excess of 15 feet
(5 meters) of oil, although it may also be used on tanks of smaller capacity. Samples should be
taken at the upper, middle, and lower or outlet connections, in that order. A two-way spot
sample IS taken on tanks larger than 1,000-barrel capacity that contain in excess of 10 feet (3
meters) and up to 15 feet of oil, although it may also be used on smaller tanks. Samples should
be taken at the upper and lower connections, in that order. A middle spot sample is taken on
tanks larger than 1,000-barrel capacity containing 10 feet or less of crude oil. One pot sample
should be taken as near the centre of the vertical column of oil as possible.
A tap sampling may be done through sample taps. The tank should be equipped with at least
three sampling taps placed equidistant throughout the tank height and extending at last 3 feet
(just less than 1 meter) inside the tank shell. A standard 1/4-inch pipe with a suitable valve is
satisfactory.
Samples of crude petroleum may also be taken through sample cocks properly placed in the
shell of the tank. The upper sample cock should be located 18 inches (457 millimetres) below
the top of the tank shell; the lower sample cock should be located level with the bottom of the
outlet connection or at the top of an upturned elbow or other similar fitting if installed on the
outlet connection. The middle sample cock should be located halfway between the upper and
lower sample cocks. An additional cock for the clearance sample should be located 4 inches
(approximately 100 mm) below the bottom of the outlet connection to determine whether the
level of saleable oil is at least below this point.
The sample cocks should be located a minimum 6-foot (1.8 meters) distance circumferentially
from the pipeline outlet and drain connections and 8 feet (2.4 meters) from the filling-line
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connection. The sample cocks should be of 3/4-inch (19 millimetres) size, and the lines should
be of 3/4-inch nominal diameter for crude oil of 18° API specific gravity or less. For lighter
oil, cocks of 1/2-inch nominal diameter should be used. The lines should extend a minimum of
4 inches (102 millimetres) inside the tank shell-except on floating roof tanks, where flush
installations are necessary. All sample cocks should be equipped with sealable valves and
plugged inspection tees.
6.2.1 Automatic Tank Batteries
Today, most leases use a standardized tank battery as to type, size, layout, and fittings. This
simplifies both installation and operation. Now the operation of tank batteries is being made
more automatic. Pumpers are being freed from some of the more routine chores since tanks are
being fitted with overflow lines to prevent overfilling anyone tank, automatic valves that divert
the flow to an empty tank as one is filled, and electric, mechanical, or air-operated switches
and valves that will shut down the well when all tanks are full.
6.2.2 Lease Automatic Custody Transfer (LACT) Units
There are now fully automatic Lease Automatic Custody Transfer (LACT) units in the field.
They provide unattended transfer of oil or gas from the well to the pipeline since the unit takes
samples, records temperatures, determines the quality and net volume, re-circulates oil that
needs treating, keeps the records necessary for production and accounting, and even shuts itself
down and sounds an alarm in the event of trouble. Another advantage of LACT units includes
a decrease in the amount of tankage required with a resulting savings in loss from evaporation.
Since custody is transferred more rapidly, the lease has less capital tied up in stored oil.
Page 64
CHAPTER 7
RULES AND REGULATIONS IN TRANSPORTATION AND STORAGE OF OIL
AND GAS
7.1 Introduction
New construction, transportation rates, operation, and environmental impacts of pipelines are
highly regulated. Statutory authorities govern all aspects of pipeline systems and their related
facilities. When first constructed, there are numerous permits and approvals that must be
obtained from state, federal, and local agencies. Companies constructing and operating such
pipelines generally have personnel and/or consultants who specialize in these permitting
processes and support the project manager on such new pipeline projects. While the ultimate
responsibility for obtaining such permits often rests with the project manager, the company
specialists and/or consultants perform the actual permitting tasks. The major permits that may
be required for pipelines carrying various commodities are discussed in this section. The
permits are broken into federal, state, and local jurisdictions. It should be noted that those
permits, generally acquired from local agencies, are most often the direct responsibility of the
project manager, through his or her right-of-way group. Only a thorough field examination can
identify all of the local permits required for a proposed pipeline.
7.2 Regulation of Interstate Pipelines
Pipeline regulations are generally divided into two categories, rates and safety. The Energy
Regulatory Commission (ERC) regulates transportation rates for natural gas and oil pipelines,
whereas the Department of Transportation’s Pipeline and Hazardous Materials Safety
Administration (DOT/PHMSA), through the Office of Pipeline Safety, regulates the safety of
natural gas, oil, and hazardous materials pipelines. ERC’s authority over oil pipelines is almost
specifically limited to rates but exerts greater authority over natural gas pipelines.
7.2.1 ERC-Regulated Natural Gas Pipelines
ERC regulates interstate natural gas sales. Therefore, to build a pipeline, companies are
required to first receive approval from the FPC. ERC has the authority to grant certificates for
the construction and operation of natural gas pipelines. Prior to the certificate, however, a
proposed project must undergo an extensive pre-filing and filing process that includes the
approval of the route, review of new lines, environmental assessments, and coordination with
various other federal and state agencies.
7.2.2 ERC-Regulated Oil Pipelines
ERC-regulated oil pipelines have a much simpler process in obtaining a construction and
operation permit. ERC regulates oil transportation rates but does not regulate the oversight of
oil pipeline construction, abandonment of service, or safety. ERC is mandated that provide a
simplified and generally applicable ratemaking methodology for oil pipelines as well as to
streamline oil pipeline proceedings. The safety of interstate oil pipelines remains with the
Department of Transportation.
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7.2.3 Safety Regulations of Oil, Gas, and Hazardous Materials Pipelines
The Department of Transportation is the major regulator of the construction and operation of
both oil and natural gas pipelines. The Pipeline and Hazardous Materials Safety Administration
(PHMSA) is responsible for establishing and enforcing proper design, construction, and
maintenance of both oil and natural gas pipelines.
7.2.4 Environmental Permits for Interstate Pipelines
It is important that the project manager of a proposed project consult with his or her company
environmental specialist or external environmental consultant experienced in linear facilities
to identify and process the necessary environmental permits, clearances, or approvals. These
specialists/consultants can provide accurate estimates as to the costs and time required to
process required permits. Permits required for most interstate pipelines typically include but
are not limited to compliance with the provisions of the following federal and state policies:
• The lead federal agency exercising jurisdiction over the project to consider the
environmental impacts of the proposed project. The agency may prepare or issue an
Environmental Impact Statement (EIS), an environmental assessment (EA), or a finding of
no significant impact depending upon the projects’impact on the environment.
• The pipeline company obtain a certification from any state in which any discharge into
navigable waters of the country is made.
• National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System (NPDES) permit may be required for
discharge of test water during construction.
• An applicant must certify that the action is in compliance with the enforceable policies of
the state’s federally approved coastal zone management program.
• Federal agencies to ensure that the proposed project does not harm threatened or
endangered species or critical habitats of such species.
• While pipelines in operation do not generally cause air pollution, construction of the
pipeline and operation of compressor or pump stations generally affect air quality.
• Federal agencies to consider the effects of a construction project upon historic artefacts and
structures.
7.3 Regulation of Intrastate Pipelines
Pipelines located totally within a state are regulated by the state. With some exceptions, states
have adopted similar ratemaking procedures and safety standards as those of the federal
government. Energy producing states have generally been more active in regulating pipelines
than states that produce little or no energy. The agencies governing pipeline transportation vary
from state to state and should be investigated to determine the appropriate jurisdictional
authority. Making this determination is most commonly the responsibility of the Regulatory
Department within a pipeline company.
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However, agencies typically charged with oversight duties of pipelines are commonly know as
the Public Utilities Commission (PUC).
7.3.1 Environmental Permits for Intrastate Pipelines
States vary in their implementation of environmental regulations for pipeline construction and
operation. Some states have less stringent regulations than the federal government while other
states have more stringent regulations. Likewise, the agencies administering the environmental
regulations vary from state to state. In addition, many states bordering oceans or rivers have
separate agencies controlling areas along the water. In many instances, these state agencies
share jurisdictional authority with federal agencies. Often, one of these agencies takes the lead
during the permit process and will condition their issuance of a permit upon when the other
agency has issued one. As with the federal permitting process, a qualified environmental
permitting expert is necessary to navigate and shepherd this process to acquire all required state
permits in a reasonable time period.
7.4 Local Permits
Local permits are generally applied for and acquired during the initial phase of a construction
programme. The project manager through his or her right-of-way group is usually responsible
for obtaining these permits. Local permits include but are not limited to the following:
• Federal highways: Local offices of the state departments of transportation (state DOTs)
generally issue crossing permits for federal highways, with some exceptions. Once a road
crossing application is reviewed and all conditions are met, a crossing permit similar to the
one typically granted by the state is then issued.
• State highways: As with federal highways, local offices of state DOTs generally issue
permits for state highway crossings. Once a road crossing application is reviewed and all
conditions are met, a road crossing permit is then issued by the state DOT.
• County roads: Requirements typically range from boring to open cutting of the roads
depending upon the county and type of road. County road departments or county engineers
normally issue these types of permits. Once all requirements are met and any administrative
procedure is complete, the appropriate authority within the county will then issue a permit.
• City streets: City road crossing permits are similar to county permits in that requirements
can range from boring to open cutting depending upon the type of road and city. Once all
requirements are met and any administrative procedure is complete, a street encroachment
or crossing permit is generally issued.
• Utility districts: Numerous utilities including electricity, canal, irrigation, levee, drainage,
and other facilities may exist along a pipeline route. Each of these entities will generally
require a crossing agreement or permit and must be contacted early in the project to
determine crossing requirements.
• Railroads: Railroads typically require a permit or license agreement before crossing their
tracks and right-of-way with a pipeline. Many pipeline companies with the right of
condemnation now seek an easement agreement for the crossing in lieu of a permit or
license.
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• A permit or license agreement is simply an agreement that gives permission to a company

to use property for a particular purpose and does not convey a recordable right in the
property. Consequently, it typically contains language that allows the party granting the
permit or license to cancel it for any reason, while an easement is a recordable right that
typically gives the pipeline company a perpetual right.
• Use permits: Many city and counties, especially in the more urban areas, have planning
departments that control most types of construction. New construction projects must
undergo a filing and hearing process before a planning commission or zoning board.
However, most planning commissions and zoning boards have provisions for special uses
that preclude the need for a public hearing.
• Other easement crossings: A pipeline of any distance will cross fibre opticables, other
pipelines, major power lines, and other linear facilities. These entities are often referred to
as “foreign utilities” and may require a crossing agreement. These easements should be
researched as a part of the title work phase of the project to determine the extent of their
rights.
• Other considerations: Numerous governmental and quasi-governmental agencies have
districts in states and counties that may or may not issue permits for pipeline construction.
7.5 Identifying Permits and Determining Requirements along a Proposed Linear Facility
Omitting a required permit along a pipeline route will generally result in substantial
construction delays. It is the responsibility of the project manager, through the right-of-way
group to investigate, determine requirements, and apply for and obtain all local permits. The
types of agencies issuing permits vary from one country to country. For example, many farming
areas have irrigation districts, others areas have flood control or levee districts, and yet other
parts may have drainage districts. Below is a simple process for identifying permits and
determining their requirements along a pipeline route.
• Roadways: Identify all road crossings and determine their jurisdictional control. Of
importance to the engineering and construction groups is the required depth and casing
requirements. Roads are typically crossed via the use of a conventional bore; however,
if the road is to be open cut, the burial depth along with compaction requirements will
also need to be considered. Additionally, the bond requirements for a bored versus open
cut crossing may be different and will need to be identified and reported.
• Railroads: Identify the owners of all railroads crossed and determine the crossing
requirements. As previously stated, most railroad companies issue licenses that often
contain stringent construction and operational restrictions. The method most commonly
utilized to cross railroads is a conventional bore. Requirements for crossing railroads
can typically be found in an application for crossing or sample permit drawing. Copies
of these documents should be obtained from the railroad and provided to the pipeline
company engineering, construction, and survey groups to determine impact to the
project and drawing requirements for permit application. Once all requirements are met,
the permit application is completed and submitted to the railroad for review.
• Canals: Identify the owners of all of the canals along the proposed right-of-way. Canal
companies are sensitive to digging under their canals because of breaks and
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consequently often have strict crossing regulations. In some instances, canal companies
may demand overhead crossings as opposed to boring. Obtaining requirements and
sample drawings are important to the engineering and drafting groups to assure that the
pipeline is properly designed and that crossing drawings contain the information
required to expeditiously obtain the required permit.
• Ditches: Nearly every ditch along a pipeline route is controlled by a district or agency.
Especially in areas of heavy precipitation and/or irrigation, numerous ditches may be
crossed. Drainage districts and agencies often oppose an open cut crossing to minimize
any detrimental impacts to the structural integrity of the drainage ditch. This may result
in either a conventional bore or HDD being utilized to cross the ditch. Once again,
crossing requirements and sample drawings are helpful to the engineering and drafting
groups to prepare supporting documents for the permit application.
• Overhead power lines: Electric power companies are extremely sensitive to work within
their easements and working near their power lines. These companies often have
restrictions relating to tractor booms and heavy equipment working with their right-of-
ways. It is important to determine the type of agreement necessary for the crossing and
obtain any crossing requirements and restrictions that could impact the construction and
operation of the pipeline.
• Underground pipelines: Generally speaking, any pipeline crossing another pipeline will
be required to locate the proposed pipeline under the existing pipeline a prescribed
distance. This may vary from company to company. Crossing requirements are
important and must be communicated to the engineering group so that design
information can be included on the construction drawings.
• Underground cables: Telecommunication companies and other underground cable
entities normally have crossing requirements. Any new facility is generally required to
lay under the existing facility. All crossing requirements must be identified and
communicated to the engineering, construction, and survey groups so that engineering
design and requirements for construction and/or permit drawings can be captured.
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CHAPTER 8
PUMPS AND COMPRESSORS
8.1 Introduction
Pumps and compressors are largely used to move large volumes of fluid from one unit to
another. Pumps for liquid pipelines and Compressors for gas pipelines, and are located along
the line to move the product through the pipeline. The location of these stations is defined by
the topography of the terrain, the type of product being transported, or operational conditions
of the network. Pumps are used in production facilities to move liquid from a low pressure or
low elevation location to one of a higher pressure or elevation. Wherever possible it is usually
advantageous to locate equipment and select operating pressures in such a manner as to
minimize the need for pumping or to minimise the volume for pumping. For example, if
produced water is to flow from a CPI to a flotation unit, it is beneficial to locate the flotation
unit at a lower elevation and remove the necessity for pumping.
This chapter discusses the classification of pump and compressor types, and basic principles
and concepts for selections.
8.2 Pumps
Classification of Pumps
Pumps are classified as either "Kinetic" or "Positive Displacement" pumps.
i. In a kinetic pump, energy is added continuously to increase the fluid's velocity within the
pump in the discharge pipe. Passageways in the pump then reduce the velocity until it
matches that in the discharge pipe. From Bernoulli's law, as the velocity head of the fluid
is reduced, the pressure head must increase. Therefore, in a kinetic pump the kinetic or
velocity energy of the fluid is first increased and then converted to potential or pressure
energy. Almost all kinetic pumps used in production facilities are centrifugal pumps in
which the kinetic energy is imparted to the fluid by a rotating impeller generating
centrifugal force.
ii. In a positive displacement pump the volume containing the liquid is decreased until the
resulting liquid pressure is equal to the pressure in the discharge system. That is, the liquid
is compressed mechanically, causing a direct rise in potential energy. Most positive
displacement pumps are reciprocating pumps where the displacement is accomplished by
linear motion of a piston in a cylinder. Rotary pumps are another common type of positive
displacement pump, where the displacement is caused by circular motion.
8.2.1 Kinetic Pumps
Centrifugal Pumps
Centrifugal pumps are classified as either radial flow or axial flow. Fig. 8.1 shows a radial
flow pump. Flow enters the centre of the rotating wheel (impeller) and is propelled radially to
the outside by centrifugal force. Within the impeller the velocity of the liquid is increased, and
this is converted to pressure by the case. For a typical axial flow pump (Fig. 8.2), flow is parallel
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to the axis of its shaft. A velocity is imparted by the impeller vanes, which are shaped like
airfoils.
Fig. 8.1 Radial Fig. 8.2 Axial Flow Pump
Most pumps are neither radial flow nor completely axial flow but have a flow path somewhere
in between the two extremes. Radial flow pumps develop a higher head per stage and operate
at slower speeds than axial flow pumps. Therefore, axial flow designs are used in very high
flow rate, very low head applications.
In most piping systems both the head and the flow rate vary because the system has its own
required pump head for a given flow rate.
The advantages of centrifugal pumps are:
1. They are relatively inexpensive.

2. They have few moving parts and therefore tend to have greater on-stream availability and
lower maintenance costs than positive displacement pumps.
3. They have relatively small space and weight requirements in relation to throughput.
4. There are no close clearances in the fluid stream and therefore they can handle liquids
containing dirt, abrasives, large solids, etc.
5. Because there is very little pressure drop and no small clearances between the suction
flange and the impeller, they can operate at low suction pressures
6. Due to the shape of the head-capacity curve, centrifugal pumps automatically adjust to
changes in head. Thus, capacity can be controlled over a wide range at constant speed.
Although several impellers can be installed in series to create large heads, centrifugal pumps
are only practical for achieving high pressure when there are large flow rates. In addition
centrifugal pumps have low maximum efficiencies when compared to reciprocating pumps.
Since the efficiency also declines as the flow rate varies from the design point, in actual
operation, the pump will operate at still lower efficiencies. Efficiencies between 55% and 75%
are common.
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8.2.2 Positive Displacement
a. Reciprocating Pumps
In reciprocating pumps, energy is added to the fluid intermittently by moving one or more
boundaries linearly with a piston, plunger, or diaphragm in one or more fluid-containing
volumes (Fig. 8.3). If liquid is pumped during linear movement in one direction only then the
pump is classified single acting (Fig. 8.3a). If the liquid is pumped during movement in both
directions it is classified as double acting (Fig. 8.3b). As the plunger, A, moves to the right in
the single acting pump the fluid is compressed until its pressure exceeds the discharge pressure
and the discharge check valve, B, opens. The continued movement of the plunger to the right
pushes liquid into the discharge pipe. As the plunger begins to move to the left, the pressure in
the cylinder becomes less than that in the discharge pipe and the discharge valve closes. Further
movement to the left causes the pressure in the cylinder to continue to decline until it is below
suction pressure.
Fig. 8.3a Single-Acting Plunger Pump Fig. 8.3b Double-Acting Piston Pump
At this point the suction check valve, C, opens. As the plunger continues to move to the left
the cylinder fills with liquid from the suction. As soon as the plunger begins to move to the
right it compresses the liquid to a high enough pressure to close the suction valve and the cycle
is repeated. Thus, liquid is discharged only when the plunger moves to the right. In a double-
acting pump the plunger is replaced by a piston, D. When the piston moves to the right, the
liquid in the cylinder to the right of the piston, E, is discharged and the cylinder to the left of
the piston, F, is filled. When the direction of the piston is reversed the liquid in F is discharged
and the cylinder at E is filled with suction fluid. Thus, liquid is pumped when the cylinder
moves in either direction.
Reciprocating pumps are also classified by the number of cylinders they have. If the liquid is
contained in one cylinder it is called a simplex pump, two cylinders a duplex, three cylinders a
triplex, five cylinders a quintuplex, seven cylinders a septuplex, and so forth.
The head-flow-rate curve is a nearly straight vertical line. That is, no matter how high a head
is required, the plunger will displace a given volume of liquid for each rotation. The flow rate
through the pump can only be varied by changing the pump speed. A throttling valve that
changes the system head-flow-rate curve will have no effect on the flow rate through the pump.
Since the pump will attempt to match whatever system pressure is required, it is necessary that
a relief valve be installed on the pump discharge. This assures that the pump will not
overpressure itself or the discharge pipe.
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The advantages of reciprocating pumps are:
1. The efficiency is high regardless of changes in required head. Efficiencies on the order of
85% to 95% are common.
2. The efficiency remains high regardless of pump speed, although it tends to decrease slightly
with increasing speed.
3. Reciprocating pumps run at much lower operating speeds than centrifugal pumps and thus
are better suited for handling viscous fluids.
4. For a given speed the flow rate is constant regardless of head. The pump is limited only by
the power of the prime mover and the strength of the pump parts.
Because of the nature of their construction, reciprocating pumps have the following
disadvantages when compared to centrifugal pumps:
1. They have higher maintenance cost and lower availability because of the pulsating flow
and large number of moving parts.
2. They are poorer at handling liquids containing solids that tend to erode valves and seats.
3. Because of the pulsating flow and pressure drop through the valves they require larger
suction pressures (net positive suction head) at the suction flange to avoid cavitation.
4. They are heavier in weight and require more space.
5. Pulsating flow requires special attention to suction and discharge piping design to avoid
both acoustical and mechanical vibrations.
In reciprocating pumps, the oscillating motion of the plungers creates disturbances (pulsations)
that travel at the speed of sound from the pump cylinder to the piping system. These pulsations
cause the pressure level of the system to fluctuate with respect to time. In order to lessen
potentially damaging pulsations in piping from this pressure fluctuation, pulsation dampeners
may be installed in the suction and/or discharge piping of the reciprocating pump. Pulsation
dampeners are recommended for all major multi-pump installations, unless computer analogue
studies indicate that they are not needed. There are basically four types of pulsation dampeners:
liquid-filled, gas-liquid interface, gas-cushioned, and tuned acoustical filter.
Diaphragm Pumps
These pumps are a special type of reciprocating pump that utilize the action of a diaphragm
moving back and forth within a fixed chamber. Sometimes the diaphragm is used to power a
reciprocating pump with air or natural gas. When gas pressure is applied against either
diaphragm it forces liquid out. When the gas is relieved the diaphragm flexes under the pressure
in the suction line and allows liquid to enter.
The advantages of a diaphragm pump are that it can handle large amounts of suspended solids,
is inexpensive to repair, can handle low flow rates inexpensively, and can run periodically
without any liquid. However, diaphragm pumps require frequent maintenance because they are
reciprocating pumps and because the diaphragm has a tendency to fatigue with time. They
generally cannot handle very high flow rates, or discharge pressures. A patent-pending high-
pressure diaphragm pump is currently being offered by a leading diaphragm pump
manufacturer.
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b. Rotary Pumps
These pumps operate by having a rotating member turn inside a housing in such a way as to
create trapped liquid through the pump (Fig. 8.4). Although these pumps may look like
centrifugal pumps, their action is that of a positive displacement pump in that the liquid is
continually compressed to a high pressure without first being given a high kinetic energy.
Rotary pumps have the same characteristics as reciprocating pumps, except that at low speed
leakage between the cavities increases. At very low speeds the reduction in efficiency can be
very significant. When compared to reciprocating
pumps, rotary pumps require less space, and deliver
relatively pulsation-free flow. Their main advantage
is that unlike reciprocating and centrifugal pumps,
their construction subjects the pumped fluid to a
minimum amount of shear or turbulence. Thus, they
tend to be used in process applications where one of
the other pump types could be expected to shear and
disperse one liquid into another making subsequent
treating more difficult.
Fig. 8.4 Operations of a Rotary Pump
Their disadvantages are that they have close clearances that require that the liquids being
pumped have a lubricating value, be non-corrosive, and contain few solids. Therefore, they
tend to be limited to relatively solids-free oil or emulsion streams. Canned rotary pumps have
motor/pump package contained within a closed vessel, or "can." And this type of pump is
essential for pumping toxic liquids, radioactive waste water, and other liquids that pose serious
risks if a shaft seal failure occurs. Although canned centrifugal pumps have existed for many
years, they were inefficient and in some cases not able to reasonably handle more viscous
fluids.
Multiphase Pumps
Multiphase fluids typically produced from an oil well consist of hydrocarbon liquid,
hydrocarbon gas, and an immiscible water phase. These fluids historically must be processed
by a multiphase production system near the wells. This arrangement is needed because transfer
of the multiphase fluids is achieved through the use of reservoir energy and, in most cases, this
energy is insufficient to transfer fluids over any considerable distance. The inherent problem
with processing multiphase fluids close to the wells is the high capital and operating cost
experienced (both onshore and offshore). A solution to this problem is to obtain a pump that
can handle unprocessed multiphase fluids and transport them over considerable distances; the
multiphase pump can do this task. This pump is able to boost the pressure of wellhead fluids
over considerable distances to a central processing facility, thereby eliminating several smaller
local processing facilities. In addition to providing for economic savings from consolidation of
surface and offshore facilities, the use of multiphase pumps makes the development of satellite
fields more economically attractive. Multiphase pumps also aid in increasing well production
rates by lowering required back-pressure on wells. Multiphase pumps are in services where the
gas volume fraction (GVF) is as high as 95%. To determine the GVF, divide the actual gas
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flow rate by the total mixed flow rate. For a GVF above 95%, the volumetric efficiency
decreases, and more fluids (gas) slip back to the pump inlet. Slower speed and higher pressure
boost also increase slip, and thus decrease volumetric efficiency
8.2.3 Basic Pump Selection Criteria
In order to make a selection of the pump required for a specific installation it is necessary to
first determine the desired flow rate or head. The Net Positive Suction Head NPSH (net
pressure above the vapour pressure of the liquid being pumped) available should be
determined, and if a centrifugal selection is possible, a system head-flow-rate curve should be
developed. Generally, positive displacement pumps are better suited for high head and low
flow-rate applications. Fig. 8.5 can be used as guides for the type of pump that will probably
be found to be most economical.
Fig. 8.5 Guide for Selecting the most Economical Pump
Naturally, the economics and thus the choice of pump type will vary from installation to
installation. Fig. 7.5 and (other charts) should be used merely to provide general guidance and
not to justify any one specific decision. In choosing a pump type it is necessary to consider the
physical constraints of the system. Space availability or weight limitations may dictate a
centrifugal or rotary pump; the need to pump solids may dictate a centrifugal or rotary pump;
the need to pump solids may dictate a centrifugal or diaphragm pump; and the need to run dry
may dictate a diaphragm pump. Where discharge pressures vary over a large range, but flow
must remain constant, a positive displacement pump is probably a good choice. In many high-
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head applications requiring a reciprocating pump the NPSH available may not be sufficient for
a straightforward pump choice.
In these cases low NPSH centrifugal pumps are sometimes used as "charge" pumps to feed the
suction of the reciprocating pump. The number of pumps required for a given installation
depends on a balance of capital cost and operating flexibility. For most small installations a
choice must be made whether the cost of a standby pump is justified by the potential foregone
income if the pump must be shut down for maintenance. On larger installations several other
alternatives should be investigated. These could include:
1. One pump rated at 100% throughput.

2. Two pumps rated at 100% throughput each (one pump is standby).
3. Two pumps rated at 50% throughput each (if one pump is down, throughput is decreased
to 50% of design).
4. Three pumps rated at 50% throughput each (two operate, one is standby).
5. Three pumps rated at 33% throughput each.
In making the selection it is important to consider the actual throughput requirements over the
life of the installation and not merely the peak design throughputs. Finally, the choice should
consider the availability of spare parts and service at the location and the preferences of
operating personnel.
8.3 Compressors
8.3.1 Introduction
Compression is used in all aspects of the natural gas industry, including gas lift, reinjection of
gas for pressure maintenance, gas gathering, gas processing operations (circulation of gas
through the process or system), transmission and distribution systems, and reducing the gas
volume for shipment by tankers or for storage. In recent years, there has been a trend toward
increasing pipeline-operating pressures. The benefits of operating at higher pressures include
the ability to transmit larger volumes of gas through a given size of pipeline, lower transmission
losses due to friction, and the capability to transmit gas over long distances without additional
boosting stations. In gas transmission, two basic types of compressors are used: reciprocating
and centrifugal compressors. Reciprocating compressors are usually driven by either electric
motors or gas engines, whereas centrifugal compressors use gas turbines or electric motors as
drivers. A compressor has two main functions: 1) to pump refrigerant through the cooling
system and 2) to compress gaseous refrigerant in the system so that it can be condensed to
liquid and absorb heat from the air or water that is being cooled or chilled.
The key variables for equipment selections are life cycle cost, capital cost, maintenance costs,
including overhaul and spare parts, fuel, or energy costs. The units level of utilization, as well
as demand fluctuations, plays an important role. While both gas engines and gas turbines can
use pipeline gas as a fuel, an electric motor has to rely on the availability of electric power.
Due to the number of variables involved, the task of choosing the optimum driver can be quite
involved, and a comparison between the different types of drivers should be done before a final
selection is made. An economic feasibility study is of fundamental importance to determine
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the best selection for the economic life of a project. Furthermore, it must be decided whether
the compression task should be divided into multiple compressor trains, operating in series or
in parallel.
This section presents a brief overview of the two major types of compressors and a procedure
for calculation of the required compression power, as well as additional and useful
considerations for the design of compressor stations. All performance calculations should be
based on inlet flange to discharge flange conditions. This means that for centrifugal
compressors, the conditions at the inlet flange into the compressor and the discharge flange of
the compressor are used. For reciprocating compressors, this means that pressure losses at the
cylinder valves, as well as pressure losses in pulsation dampeners, have to be included in the
calculation.
Additional losses for process equipment such as suction scrubbers or after coolers have to be
accounted for separately.
8.3.2 Types of Compressors
Compressors used in the gas industry today fall into three distinct types: jet compressors, rotary
compressors, and reciprocating compression.
a. jet Compressors
Motive and suction gas pressures do not vary appreciably with jet compressors. One example
is on dually completed gas wells where both high- and low-pressure gases are available and
where there is an intermediate pipeline pressure.
b. Rotary Compressors
Rotary compressors are divided into two classes: the rotary blower and the centrifugal
compressor.
Rotary blowers are primarily used in distribution systems where the pressure differential
between suction and discharge is not over 15 psi. They are also used for refrigeration and closed
regeneration of adsorption plants. The blower is built of a casing in which one or more
impellers rotate in opposite directions. The rotary blower has several advantages. Large
quantities of low-pressure gas can be handled at comparatively low horsepower, it has small
initial cost and low maintenance cost, it is simple to install and easy to operate and attend, it
requires minimum floor space for the quantity of gas removed, and it has almost pulsationless
flow. For its disadvantages, it can't withstand high pressures, it has noisy operation due to gear
noise and clattering impeller, it improperly seals the clearance between the impellers and the
casing, and it overheats if operated above safe pressures. Typically, rotary blowers have a
volume up to 17MM cfm, and have a maximum intake pressure of 10 psig and a differential
pressure of 10 psig.
Centrifugal compressors compress gas or air using centrifugal force. In this compressor, work
is done on the gas by an impeller. Gas is then discharged at a high velocity into a diffuser where
the velocity is reduced and its kinetic energy is converted to static pressure. All this is done
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without confinement and physical squeezing, unlike positive-displacement machines.

Essentially, the centrifugal compressor (Fig. 8.6) consists of a housing with flow passages, a
rotating shaft on which the impeller is mounted, bearings, and seals to prevent gas from
escaping along the shaft. Centrifugal compressions have few moving parts since only the
impeller and shaft rotate. Thus lubricating oil consumption and maintenance costs are low.
They also have continuous delivery without cyclic variations, and cooling water is normally
unnecessary because of lower compression ratio and lower friction loss (multistage units for
process compression may require some form of cooling). Compression rates are lower because
of the absence of positive displacement. Centrifugal compressors with relatively unrestricted
passages and continuous flow are inherently high-capacity, low-pressure ratio machines that
adapt easily to series arrangements within a station. In this way, each compressor is required
to develop only part of the station compression ratio. Typically, the volume is more than
100,000 cfm and discharge pressure is up to 100 psig.
Fig. 8.6 A Typical Centrifugal Compressor
c. Reciprocating Compressors
A reciprocating compressor is a positive displacement machine in which the compressing and

displacing element is a piston moving linearly within a cylinder. The reciprocating compressor
uses automatic spring-loaded valves that open when the proper differential pressure exists
across the valve. Fig. 8.7 describes the action of a reciprocating compressor using a theoretical
pressure–volume (PV) diagram. In position A, the suction valve is open and gas will flow into
the cylinder (from point 1 to point 2 on the PV diagram) until the end of the reverse stroke at
point 2, which is the start of compression. At position B, the piston has travelled the full stroke
within the cylinder and the cylinder is full of gas at suction pressure. Valves remain closed.
The piston begins to move to the left, closing the suction valve. In moving from position B to
position C, the piston moves toward the cylinder head, reducing the volume of gas with an
accompanying rise in pressure. The PV diagram shows compression from point 2 to point 3.
The piston continues to move to the end of the stroke (near the cylinder head) until the cylinder
pressure is equal to the discharge pressure and the discharge valve opens (just beyond point 3).
After the piston reaches point 4, the discharge valve will close, leaving the clearance space
filled with gas at discharge pressure (moving from position C to position D). As the piston
reverses its travel, the gas remaining within the cylinder expands (from point 4 to point 1) until
it equals suction pressure and the piston is again in position A.
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Fig. 8.7 Reciprocating Compressor Compression Cycle
The flow to and from reciprocating compressors is subject to significant pressure fluctuations
due to the reciprocating compression process. Therefore, pulsation dampeners have to be
installed upstream and downstream of the compressor to avoid damages to other equipment.
The pressure losses (several percent of the static flow pressure) of these dampeners have to be
accounted for in the station design. Reciprocating compressors are widely utilized in the gas
processing industries because they are flexible in throughput and discharge pressure range.
Reciprocating compressors are classified as either “high speed” or “slow speed.” Typically,
high-speed compressors operate at speeds of 900 to 1200 rpm and slow-speed units at speeds
of 200 to 600 rpm. High-speed units are normally “separable,” i.e., the compressor frame and
driver are separated by a coupling or gearbox. For an “integral” unit, power cylinders are
mounted on the same frame as the compressor cylinders, and power pistons are attached to the
same drive shaft as the compressor cylinders. Low-speed units are typically integral in design.
8.3.3 Comparison between Compressors
Differences between reciprocating and centrifugal compressors are summarized as follow
Advantages of a reciprocating compressor over a centrifugal machine include
1. Ideal for low volume flow and high-pressure ratios

2. High efficiency at high-pressure ratios
3. Relatively low capital cost in small units (less than 3000 hp)
4. Less sensitive to changes in composition and density
Advantages of a centrifugal compressor over a reciprocating machine include
1. Ideal for high volume flow and low head

2. Simple construction with only one moving part
3. High efficiency over normal operating range
4. Low maintenance cost and high availability
5. Greater volume capacity per unit of plot area
6. No vibrations and pulsations generated
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8.3.4 Compressor Selection
When selecting a compressor, the pressure-volume characteristics and the type of driver must
be considered. Small rotary compressors (vane or impeller type) are generally driven by electric
motors. Large-volume positive compressors operate at lower speeds and are usually driven by
steam or gas engines. They may be driven through reduction gearing by steam turbines or an
electric motor. Reciprocation compressors driven by steam turbines or electric motors are most
widely used in the natural gas industry as the conventional high-speed compression machine.
Selection of compressors requires considerations of volumetric gas deliverability, pressure,
compression ratio, and horsepower.
The design philosophy for choosing a compressor should include the following considerations.
1. Good efficiency over a wide range of operating conditions

2. Maximum flexibility of configuration
3. Low maintenance cost
4. Low life cycle cost
5. Acceptable capital cost
6. High availability
However, additional requirements and features will depend on each project and on specific
experiences of the pipeline operator. In fact, compressor selection consists of the purchaser
defining the operating parameters for which the machine will be designed. The “process design
parameters” that specify a selection are as follows.
1. Flow rate
2. Gas composition
3. Inlet pressure and temperature
4. Outlet pressure
5. Train arrangement
a. For centrifugal compressors: series, parallel, multiple bodies, multiple sections,
intercooling, etc.
b. For reciprocating compressors: number of cylinders, cooling, and flow control strategy
6. Number of units.
In many cases, the decision whether to use a reciprocating compressor or a centrifugal

compressor, as well as the type of driver, will already have been made based on operator
strategy, emissions requirements, general life cycle cost assumptions, and so on. However, a
hydraulic analysis should be made for each compressor selection to ensure the best choice. In
fact, compressor selection can be made for an operating point that will be the most likely or
most frequent operating point of the machine. Selections based on a single operating point have
to be evaluated carefully to provide sufficient speed margin (typically 3 to 10%) and surge
margin to cover other, potentially important situations. A compressor performance map (for
centrifugal compressors, this would be preferably a head vs. flow map) can be generated based
on the selection and is used to evaluate the compressor for other operating conditions by
determining the head and flow required for these other operating conditions. In many
applications, multiple operating points are available, e.g., based on hydraulic pipeline studies
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or reservoir studies. Some of these points may be frequent operating points, while some may
just occur during upset conditions. With this knowledge, the selection can be optimized for a
desired target, such as lowest fuel consumption.
Selections can also be made based on a “rated” point, which defines the most onerous operating
conditions (highest volumetric flow rate; lowest molecular weight; highest head or pressure
ratio; highest inlet temperature). In this situation, however, the result may be an oversized
machine that does not perform well at the usual operating conditions. Once a selection is made,
the manufacturer is able to provide parameters such as efficiency, speed, and power
requirements and, based on this and the knowledge of the ambient conditions (prevailing
temperatures, elevation), can size the drivers. At this point, the casing arrangement and the
number of units necessary or desirable (flexibility requirements, growth scenarios and sparing
considerations will play an important role in this decision) can be discussed.
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CHAPTER 9
INSTRUMENTATION AND CONTROL
9.1 Introduction
Instrumentation is the basis for process control in industry. However, it comes in many forms
from domestic water heaters and Heating, ventilating, and Air Conditioning (HVAC), where
the variable temperature is measured and used to control gas, oil, or electricity flow to the water
heater, or heating system, or electricity to the compressor for refrigeration, to complex
industrial process control applications such as used in the petroleum or chemical industry. In
industrial control a wide number of variables, from temperature, flow, and pressure to time and
distance, can be sensed simultaneously. All of these can be interdependent variables in a single
process requiring complex microprocessor systems for total control. Due to the rapid advances
in technology, instruments in use today may be obsolete tomorrow, as new and more efficient
measurement techniques are constantly being introduced. These changes are being driven by
the need for higher accuracy, quality, precision, and performance.
8.2 Process Control
Control in process industries refers to the regulation of all aspects of the process. Precise
control of level, temperature, pressure and flow is important in many process applications.
Process as used in the terms process control and process industry, refers to the methods of
changing or refining raw materials to create end products. The raw materials, which either pass
through or remain in a liquid, gaseous, or slurry (a mix of solids and liquids) state during the
process, are transferred, measured, mixed, heated or cooled, filtered, stored, or handled in some
other way to produce the end product. Process industries include the chemical industry, the oil
and gas industry, the food and beverage industry, the pharmaceutical industry, the water
treatment industry, and the power industry.
In order to produce a product with consistently high quality, tight process control is necessary.
A simple-to-understand example of process control would be the supply of water to a number
of cleaning stations, where the water temperature needs to be kept constant in spite of the
demand. A simple control block is shown in Fig. 9.1a, steam and cold water are fed into a heat
exchanger, where heat from the steam is used to bring the cold water to the required working
temperature. A thermometer is used to measure the temperature of the water (the measured
variable) from the process or exchanger. The temperature is observed by an operator who
adjusts the flow of steam (the manipulated variable) into the heat exchanger to keep the water
flowing from the heat exchanger at the constant set temperature. This operation is referred to
as process control, and in practice would be automated as shown in Fig. 9.1b.
Process control refers to the methods that are used to control process variables when
manufacturing a product. For example, factors such as the proportion of one ingredient to
another, the temperature of the materials, how well the ingredients are mixed, and the pressure
under which the materials are held can significantly impact the quality of an end product. Is
the automatic control of an output variable by sensing the amplitude of the output parameter
from the process and comparing it to the desired or set level and feeding an error signal back
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to control an input variable in this case steam. Fig. 9.1b. A temperature sensor attached to the
outlet pipe senses the temperature of the water flowing. As the demand for hot water increases
or decreases, a change in the water temperature is sensed and converted to an electrical signal,
amplified, and sent to a controller that evaluates the signal and sends a correction signal to an
actuator. The actuator adjusts the flow of steam to the heat exchanger to keep the temperature
of the water at its predetermined value.
Fig. 9.1 (a) A Simple Control Block: (b) A Simple Process Control Block
The diagram in Fig. 9.1b is an oversimplified feedback loop and is expanded in Fig. 9.2.
Fig. 9.2 Block Diagram of a Process Control Loop.
In any process there are a number of inputs, i.e., from chemicals to solid goods. These are
manipulated in the process and a new chemical or component emerges at the output. The
controlled inputs to the process and the measured output parameters from the process are called
variables. In a process-control facility, the controller is not necessarily limited to one variable,
but can measure and control many variables.
9.2.1 The Importance of Process Control
Refining, combining, handling, and otherwise manipulating fluids to profitably produce end
products can be a precise, demanding, and potentially hazardous process. Small changes in a
process can have a large impact on the end result. Variations in proportions, temperature, flow,
turbulence, and many other factors must be carefully and consistently controlled to produce the
desired end product with a minimum of raw materials and energy. Process control technology
is the tool that enables manufacturers to keep their operations running within specified limits
and to set more precise limits to maximize profitability, reduce variability, ensure quality and
safety.
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Reduce Variability
Process control can reduce variability in the end product, which ensures a consistently high-
quality product (Fig. 9.3). Manufacturers can also save money by reducing variability. For
example, in a gasoline blending process, as many as 12 or more different components may be
blended to make a specific grade of gasoline. If the refinery does not have precise control over
the flow of the separate components, the gasoline may get too much of the high-octane
components. As a result, customers would receive a higher grade and more expensive gasoline
than they paid for, and the refinery would lose money. The opposite situation would be
customers receiving a lower grade at a higher price. Reducing variability can also save money
by reducing the need for activities product padding to meet required product specifications.
Padding refers to the process of making a product of higher-quality than it needs to be to meet
specifications. When there is variability in the end product (i.e., when process control is poor),
manufacturers are forced to pad the product to ensure that specifications are met, which adds
to the cost. With accurate, dependable process control, the setpoint (desired or optimal point)
can be moved closer to the actual product specification and thus save the manufacturer money.
Fig. 9.3 PV Setpoints Vs. Variability
Increase Efficiency
Some processes need to be maintained at a specific point to maximize efficiency. For example,
a control point might be the temperature at which a chemical reaction takes place or the use of
glycol to absorb water. Accurate control of temperature ensures process efficiency.
Ensure Safety
A run-away process, such as an out-of-control refinery, nuclear or chemical reaction, may

result if manufacturers do not maintain precise control of all of the process variables. The
consequences of a run-away process can be catastrophic. Precise process control may also be
required to ensure safety. For example, maintaining proper boiler pressure by controlling the
inflow of air used in combustion and the outflow of exhaust gases is crucial in preventing boiler
implosions that can clearly threaten the safety of workers.
9.2.2 Control Theory Basics
This section presents some of the basic concepts of control and provides a foundation from
which to understand more complex control processes and algorithms. Common terms and
concepts relating to process control are defined.
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The Control Loop
Imagine someone feeling very cold in front of a small log fire. To increase the temperature one
throws more logs onto the fire. This is an example of a control loop. In the control loop, a
variable (temperature) fell below the setpoint (ones comfort level), and took action to bring the
process back into the desired condition. The control loop will now remain static until the
temperature again rises above or falls below ones comfort level.
The Three Tasks
Control loops in the process control industry work requires three tasks to control a process:
i. Measurement
ii. Comparison
iii. Adjustment
In Fig. 9.4, a Level Transmitter (LT) measures the level in the tank and transmits a signal
associated with the level reading to a controller (LIC). The controller compares the reading to
a predetermined value, in this case, the maximum tank level established by the plant operator,
and finds that the values are equal. The controller then sends a signal to the device that can
bring the tank level back to a lower level - a valve at the bottom of the tank. The valve opens
to let some liquid out of the tank. Many different instruments and devices may or may not be
used in control loops (e.g., transmitters, sensors, controllers, valves, pumps), but the three tasks
of measurement, comparison, and adjustment are always present.
Fig. 9.4 A Simple Control Loop
Process Control Terms
As in any field, process control has its own set of common terms that you should be familiar
with and that you will use when talking about control technology.
9.2.3 Process Variable
A process variable is a condition of the process fluid (a liquid or gas) that can change the
manufacturing process in some way. In the example of you sitting by a fire, the process variable
is temperature. In the example of the tank in Fig. 9.4, the process variable is level. Common
process variables include: Pressure, Flow, Level, Temperature, Density, Ph (acidity or
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alkalinity), Liquid interface (the relative amounts of different liquids that are combined in a
vessel), Mass, Conductivity.
Setpoint
The setpoint is a value for a process variable that is desired to be maintained. For example, if
a process temperature needs to kept within 5 °C of 100 °C, then the setpoint is 100 °C. A
temperature sensor can be used to help maintain the temperature at setpoint. The sensor is
inserted into the process, and a contoller compares the temperature reading from the sensor to
the setpoint. If the temperature reading is 110 °C, then the controller determines that the process
is above setpoint and signals the fuel valve of the burner to close slightly until the process cools
to 100 °C. Set points can also be maximum or minimum values. For example, level in tank
cannot exceed 20 feet.
Measured Variables, Process Variables, and Manipulated Variables
In the temperature control loop example, the measured variable is temperature, which must be
held close to 100 °C. In this example and in most instances, the measured variable is also the
process variable. The measured variable is the condition of the process fluid that must be kept
at the designated setpoint. Sometimes the measured variable is not the same as the process
variable. For example, a manufacturer may measure flow into and out of a storage tank to
determine tank level. In this scenario, flow is the measured variable, and the process fluid level
is the process variable. The factor that is changed to keep the measured variable at setpoint is
called the manipulated variable. In the example described, the manipulated variable would also
be flow (Fig. 8.4).
Controlled or measured variable is the monitored output variable from a process. The value of
the monitored output parameter is normally held within tight given limits.
Manipulated variable is the input variable or parameter to a process that is varied by a control
signal from the processor to an actuator. By changing the input variable the value of the
measured variable can be controlled (Fig. 9.5).
Fig. 9.5 Process Variables
Error
Error is the difference between the measured variable and the setpoint and can be either
positive or negative. In the temperature control loop example, the error is the difference
between the 110 °C measured variable and the 100 °C setpoint—that is, the error is +10 °C.
The objective of any control scheme is to minimize or eliminate error. Therefore, it is
imperative that error be well understood. Any error can be seen as having three major
components.
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An error signal is the difference between the set point and the amplitude of the measured
variable. The magnitude of the error is the deviation between the values of the setpoint and the
process variable. The magnitude of error at any point in time compared to the previous error
provides the basis for determining the change in error. The change in error is also an important
value. Duration or error refers to the length of time that an error condition has existed. The rate
of change is shown by the slope of the error plot in Fig. 9.6.
Fig. 9.6 An Error Signal
Offset is a sustained deviation of the process variable from the setpoint. In the temperature
control loop example, if the control system held the process fluid at 100.5 °C consistently, even
though the setpoint is 100 °C, then an offset of 0.5 °C exists.
Feedback loop
Feedback loop is the signal path from the output back to the input to correct for any variation
between the output level from the set level (Fig. 9.7). In other words, the output of a process is
being continually monitored, the error between the set point and the output parameter is
determined, and a correction signal is then sent back to one of the process inputs to correct for
changes in the measured output parameter.
Fig. 9.7 A Feedback Loop
Set point is the desired value of the output parameter or variable being monitored by a sensor.
Any deviation from this value will generate an error signal.
Instrument is the name of any of the various device types for indicating or measuring physical
quantities or conditions, performance, position, direction, and the like.
Sensors are devices that can detect physical variables, such as temperature, light intensity, or
motion, and have the ability to give a measurable output that varies in relation to the amplitude
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of the physical variable. The human body has sensors in the fingers that can detect surface
roughness, temperature, and force. A thermometer is a good example of a line-of-sight sensor,
in that it will give an accurate visual indication of temperature. In other sensors such as a
diaphragm pressure sensor, a strain transducer may be required to convert the deformation of
the diaphragm into an electrical or pneumatic signal before it can be measured.
Transducers are devices that can change one form of energy to another, e.g., a resistance
thermometer converts temperature into electrical resistance, or a thermocouple converts
temperature into voltage. Both of these devices give an output that is proportional to the
temperature. Many transducers are grouped under the heading of sensors.
Converters are devices that are used to change the format of a signal without changing the
energy form, i.e., a change from a voltage to a current signal.
Actuators are devices that are used to control an input variable in response to a signal from a
controller. Atypical actuator will be a flow-control valve that can control the rate of flow of a
fluid in proportion to the amplitude of an electrical signal from the controller. Other types of
actuators are magnetic relays that turn electrical power on and off. Examples are actuators that
control power to the fans and compressor in an air-conditioning system in response to signals
from the room temperature sensors.
Controllers are devices that monitor signals from transducers and take the necessary action to
keep the process within specified limits according to a predefined program by activating and
controlling the necessary actuators.
Programmable logic controllers (PLC) are used in process-control applications, and are
microprocessor-based systems. Small systems have the ability to monitor several variables and
control several actuators, with the capability of being expanded to monitor 60 or 70 variables
and control a corresponding number of actuators, as may be required in a petrochemical
refinery. PLCs, which have the ability to use analog or digital input information and output
analog or digital control signals, can communicate globally with other controllers, are easily
programmed on line or off line, and supply an unprecedented amount of data and information
to the operator. Ladder networks are normally used to program the controllers.
A correction signal is the signal used to control power to the actuator to set the level of the
input variable.
Transmitters are devices used to amplify and format signals so that they are suitable for
transmission over long distances with zero or minimal loss of information. The transmitted
signal can be in one of the several formats, i.e., pneumatic, digital, analog voltage, analog
current, or as a radio frequency (RF) modulated signal. Digital transmission is preferred in
newer systems because the controller is a digital system, and as analog signals can be accurately
digitized, digital signals can be transmitted without loss of information. The controller
compares the amplitude of the signal from the sensor to a predetermined set point, which in
Fig. 8.1b is the amplitude of the signal of the hot water sensor. The controller will then send a
signal that is proportional to the difference between the reference and the transmitted signal to
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the actuator telling the actuator to open or close the valve controlling the flow of steam to adjust
the temperature of the water to its set value.
Load Disturbance
A load disturbance is an undesired change in one of the factors that can affect the process
variable. In the temperature control loop example, adding cold process fluid to the vessel would
be a load disturbance because it would lower the temperature of the process fluid.
Control Algorithm
A control algorithm is a mathematical expression of a control function. Using the temperature

control loop example, V in the equation below is the fuel valve position, and e is the error. The
relationship in a control algorithm can be expressed as:
V = f(± e)
The fuel valve position (V) is a function (f) of the sign (positive or negative) of the error (Fig.
9.8).
Fig. 9.8 A control Algorithm
Control algorithms can be used to calculate the requirements of much more complex control
loops than the one described here. In more complex control loops, questions such as “How far
should the valve be opened or closed in response to a given change in setpoint?” and “How
long should the valve be held in the new position after the process variable moves back toward
setpoint?” need to be answered.
9.2.4 Manual and Automatic Control
Before process automation, people, rather than machines, performed many of the process
control tasks. For example, a human operator might have watched a level gauge and closed a
valve when the level reached the setpoint. Control operations that involve human action to
make an adjustment are called manual control systems. Conversely, control operations in
which no human intervention is required, such as an automatic valve actuator that responds to
a level controller, are called automatic control systems.
Closed and Open Control Loops
A closed control loop exists where a process variable is measured, compared to a setpoint, and
action is taken to correct any deviation from setpoint. An open control loop exists where the
process variable is not compared, and action is taken not in response to feedback on the
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condition of the process variable, but is instead taken without regard to process variable
conditions. For example, a water valve may be opened to add cooling water to a process to
prevent the process fluid from getting too hot, based on a pre-set time interval, regardless of
the actual temperature of the process fluid.
In practical process control the scenarios are much more complex with many scenarios and
variables, such as stability, reaction time, and accuracy to be considered. Fig. 9.9 is a block
diagram of the elements that make up the feedback path in a process-control loop.
Fig. 9.9 Process Control with a Flow Regulator
Task:
Identify the following elements: (a) the sensor, (b) the transducer, (c) the actuator, (d) the
transmitter, (e) the controller, (f) the manipulated variable, and (g) the measured variable.
Solution:
(a) The sensor is labelled pressure cell in the diagram.

(b) The transducer is labelled converter. There are two transducers—one for converting
pressure to current and the other for converting current to pressure to operate the actuator.
(c) The actuator in this case is the pneumatic valve.
(d) The transmitter is the line driver.
(e) The controller is labelled PLC.
(f) The manipulated variable is the differential pressure developed by the fluid flowing through
the orifice plate constriction.
(g) The controlled variable is the flow rate of the liquid.
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CHAPTER 10
SAFETY AND SUPERVISION
10.1 Safe Work Practices
A disproportional amount of accidents occur during construction and major maintenance

activities. Safe work practices are written with this in mind and, as a minimum, should cover
the following:
• Opening of equipment or piping,

• Lockout and tagout of electrical and mechanical energy sources,
• Hot work and other work involving ignition sources,
• Confined space entry, and
• Crane operations.
10.1.1 Training
Training for new employees and contractors, and periodic training of existing employees is
necessary to educate personnel to be able to per Training should address the operating
procedures, the safe work practices, and the emergency response and control measures.
10.1.2 Assurance of Quality and Mechanical Integrity of Critical Equipment
Procedures for assurance of quality in the design, fabrication, installation, maintenance, testing
and inspection for critical equipment are required. Safety requires that critical safety devices
must operate as intended and process system components must be maintained to be able to
contain design pressures. Example, Safety should be kept in mind in the selection of pumps.
For pumps that operate in places where an explosive environment may exist, as in the case of
pumps used for natural gas or petroleum products, the pumps and their drives and auxiliary
equipment must all be selected carefully to make sure that they do not generate sparks and are
explosion resistant. For pumps submersed in water, operating on wet ground, or subject to rain,
one must make sure that they are designed to operate in such wet environments. Otherwise, the
operator’s safety would be at stake.
10.1.3 Pre-Startup Review
A pre-startup safety and environmental review should be performed on all modified or newly
constructed facilities.
10.1.4 Emergency Response and Control
An Emergency Action Plan should be established, assigning emergency control centre and
appropriate personnel for emergency response. Drills should be carried out to assure all
personnel are familiar with these plans.
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10.1.5 Investigation of Incidents
An investigation is required if an incident involving serious safety or environmental

consequences or the potential for these consequences occurs. The purpose of such investigation
is to learn from mistakes made and provide corrective action. Investigations should be
performed by knowledgeable personnel and should produce recommendations for safer
working conditions.
10.1.6 Audit of Safety and Environmental Management Program (SEMP) Elements
Periodically, the SEMP elements should be audited to evaluate the effectiveness of the
program. Auditing should be conducted by qualified personnel through interviews and
inspections. If audits consistently find no deficiencies in the program, then management should
conclude that improvements that can be made in a safety management system.
10.2 Safety Case and Individual Risk Rate
The overall system for safety described above can be called the "API System," It is based on a
series of API Standards and Recommended Practices which can be summarized as a four-step
system with each succeeding step encompassing the preceding steps:
1. Design and maintain a system for process upset detection and shutdown- RP 14C.
2. Design and select hardware with known reliability and mechanical integrity to contain
pressure and mitigate failure consequences-all other API RP 14 series standards.
3. Follow system design concepts, documentation needs and hazards analysis requirements-
RP 14J.
4. Develop a management of safety system-RP 75.
This system has proven to provide adequate levels of safety in the Gulf of Mexico and other
similar areas where it is possible to abandon the location during a catastrophic event. In the
North Sea where harsh environmental conditions exist, a different approach to safety has
evolved which is based on developing a Safety Case and calculating an Individual Risk Rate
(IRR) to show that the risk to any individual working in the facility is As Low As Reasonably
Practicable (ALARP).
A Safety Case is a narrative that literally makes the case that an adequate level of safety has
been reached for an installation. It requires looking at all potential hazards which could lead to
a loss of the installation, a loss of life, or a major pollution event. A risk analysis is performed
on each hazard evaluating the probability of the event occurring and describing the magnitude
of the consequences. A discussion is then given of the measure undertaken to lower the
probability of occurrence or to mitigate the consequences and a "case" is made that the risk for
the installation meets the ALARP safety criteria.
In the North Sea this is often done with detailed quantified risk assessments and the calculation
of an overall IRR or risk of total loss of structure. Mitigation measures are incorporated until
it can be shown that risk levels meet a minimum criterion and the cost of further mitigation has
such high cost to benefit ratios that further mitigation is no longer "practicable impact both
project cycle time and cost. Indeed, as a check to assure that basic known safety concepts are
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not inadvertently overlooked in the pile of documentation which is necessary for a safety case,
the safety case approach should include within it all the elements of the "API System," Even if
a safety case is performed, it is still necessary to assure compliance with good practices and
that all elements of a proper safety management system are included. Thus a common sense
approach in the absence of government regulation would be to use the API System for roost
installations and, in those instances where there is a large concentration of personnel or where
abandoning the location may be impossible due to weather or remoteness, to use a qualitative
safety case to think through fire-fighting and escape options.
10.3 Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition System
Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition Systems (SCADA) are used to remotely monitor
and control many functions of pipeline operations. Remote Terminal Units are installed at each
location where data will be sent back to a control centre and where control functions are
received from the control centre. A control centre is a location where one or more pipelines can
be monitored or controlled. This typically is at the headquarters of the pipeline operating
company for larger pipeline operators.
The control centre and the remote locations communicate through a communication system
such as satellite, hard wire, radio, and the Internet. Depending upon the size of operation, the
control centre may be manned 24 hours a day, 365 days a week. The control centre can consist
of an elaborate computer-based system that monitors, displays, provides some automatic
controls, and gives the centre operator the functionality of remotely controlling many aspects
of the pipeline operation. Trends can be followed and reports generated.
The degree of automatic control is determined by the pipeline operating company. The control
centre operator will normally send the signals to remote locations to control valves, pumps,
compressors, etc. Human interpretation of the data being monitored and taking the appropriate
action are generally better than allowing a computerized system to take those actions.
When the operation changes beyond normal operation set points, the system will sound an
alarm indicating a potential problem. The control centre operator will then analyze and take
corrective actions. This is the case for leak detection. If the system detects a change in operating
pressures, or a deviation of the volume of product entering the pipeline compared to the product
exiting the line, an alarm is sounded to alert the operator of a potential problem. Depending
upon the situation, the operator may determine that the line should be shut down and take those
actions, which may include closing mainline block valves. The operator will also notify the
pipeline operations department so that personnel can be dispatched to analyze the situation in
the field. Small pipeline systems may not have a central control centre. In those cases, the
relevant field data may be transmitted to a field office where it can be monitored. If a system
deviation is detected, a local alarm will sound. During times when the office is not manned,
the system can automatically call a “call out” phone number to notify operations personnel
on call that a potential problem exists.
10.4 Safety and Equipment Procedures during Test

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Precautions and safety procedures are an important part of the pre-test plan, such as training
field personnel in the proper operation of facility valves and reviewing with them the proper
lockout and tagout policies and procedures.
10.4.1 Safety Management Systems
A hazards analysis by itself cannot assure that an adequate level for safety is provided for a
facility unless the hazard analysis is included as part of a comprehensive safety management
system. In the United States every facility handling highly hazardous chemicals, including
some onshore production facilities and most gas plants, must have a Process Safety
Management (PSM) Plan in place. Offshore operators have developed a voluntary safety
management system presented in API RP 75, "Recommended Practices for Development of a
Safety and Environmental Management Program for Outer Continental Shelf (OCS)
Operations and Facilities" (SEMP), which describes the elements which should be included in
a safety management plan. The requirements of both PSM and SEMP are, from a practical
standpoint, identical and thus, SEMP can easily be applied to onshore facilities as well as
offshore facilities.
10.4.2 Safety and Environmental Information
Safety and environmental information is needed to provide a basis for implementation of

further program components such as operating procedures and hazards analysis. Specific
guidelines as to what information is needed are contained in API RP 14J. Hazards Analysis
Management of Change
Management of Change is a program that helps to minimize accidents caused by changes of

equipment or process conditions due to construction, demolition, or modification. Procedures
should be set up to identify the various hazards associated with change. All changes, although
sometimes minor, can result in accident and/or injury if proper steps are not implemented to
make operators aware of the differences. Changes in facilities as well as changes in personnel
should be managed to maintain the safety of all personnel and the environment.
Operating Procedures
The management program should include written facility operating procedures. These
procedures should provide ample instruction for sound operation and be consistent with the
safety and environmental information. Procedures should be reviewed and updated periodically
to reflect current process operating practices. Procedures provide the means for education of
new employees about the process and provide education to all employees on new equipment
and practices.
10.5 Risk-Based Management
The kind of pipeline integrity management programme preferred by industry is risk based,
which means giving highest attention to those items that present the highest risks. Risk is not
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simply the probability of occurrence of a damaging event. It is rather such probability

multiplied by the severity or consequence of such events. If a risk is to be assessed
scientifically, the probability of occurrence of the damaging event must be determined or at
least estimated, and the severity or consequence of occurrence must be quantified as a cost item
in dollars. Then, the risk can be calculated from R=PC, where R is risk in dollars, P is
probability, which is a dimensionless number less than or equal to 1.0, and C is cost in dollars.
For instance, if the probability of explosion of a 5-mi segment of a natural gas pipeline passing
through a city is 1% during the next 50 years, and if it explodes the anticipated damage includes
20 lives lost (at $1 million per person) and $80 million of property damage (total damage would
be $100 million), the risk of such an explosion in the next 50 years will be R=0.01×$100
million=$1 million. Once this is known, to avert such a costly incident or tragedy in the next
50 years, the pipeline operator may want to consider two alternatives.
The first alternative is to improve the condition of the pipe so that the probability of occurrence
can be lowered to 0.001. Suppose that this will cost $5 million. Due to this improvement, the
risk is now reduced to R=0.001×$100 million=$100,000. So, by spending $5 million, the
pipeline company saved only $900,000, which may not appear to be a good investment from
the standpoint of risk management alone. However, by spending the $5 million for
infrastructure improvement, the economic life of the structure has been extended for 10 years.
If the revenue of each year is $5 million, this means a total additional income of $50 million
will be generated in the future due to extended pipeline life. This benefit far exceeds that
derived from safety improvement. This shows that when considering investment on pipeline
improvement, the benefit derived from extended pipeline life may far exceed that derived from
safety improvement or risk reduction. What appears to be a bad investment from the safety
standpoint can actually be an excellent investment for the company in the long run, based on
overall economic considerations. This calculation should make pipeline operators more willing
to invest in pipeline improvements.
Conventional Risk Assessment is static, fail to capture the risk variations over time and space,
uses generic failure data introducing high uncertainty, fails to update in evolving condition. A
more realistic way of addressing Risk is the introduction of time element (Dynamic Risk
Assessment). Dynamic Risk Assessment is the assessment of the presence and impact of
unwanted situation at time t (Fig. 10.1). Risk (t) = occurrence of unwanted situations and its
impact. It is mathematically defined as:
𝑅𝑖𝑠𝑘(𝑡)=𝐹(𝑡).𝐿𝑜𝑠𝑠 (𝑡)
This approach considers the risk associated with Conceptual Design, FEED, Detailed design,
Installation and Operation.
Safety is therefore the absence of unwanted situation in the system at time t. It is

mathematically defined as: 𝑆(𝑡) ⍺ 1/(𝑅𝑖𝑠𝑘 (𝑡)).
Page 95
Fig. 10.1 Dynamic Risk Profile
10.6 Transport Safety
Safety measures have seen significant advances, including safe tank venting, sophisticated
engine room control systems and satellite navigation. One of the most important changes is the
double hull design, a spill prevention measure that became mandatory in the early 1990s
following the Exxon Valdez oil spill. Operators need to constantly monitor pipelines for up-to-
date measurements and leak detection. They also have to stay in touch with maintenance
personnel spread over a wide-area. It is crucial that operators are equipped with solutions that
enable them to better monitor pipelines safely, efficiently and in real-time. A few of the safety
precautions associated with natural gas pipelines include; aerial patrols, leak detection, pipeline
markers, gas sampling, preventative maintenance, etc.
Page 96
REFERENCES
Abdel-Aal, H. K. (1998), Surface Petroleum Operations, Saudi Publishing & Distributing

House, Jeddah, 199 pp.
Anon. (1996), “Introduction to Oil and Gas Production”, 5th Ed., API, USA, pp.
Anon. (2002), “Petroleum Processing Technology Series”, OPITO Ltd., Aberdeen, pp.
Anon. (2006), Fundamentals of Control, www.PAControl.com. Accessed. December 20,
2012.
Anon. (2015), “World Natural Gas Industry Trends”, Business Reference Services,
https://www.loc.gov/rr/business/BERA/issue5/trends.html. Accessed: August 17, 2016.
Arnold, K. and Stewart, M., Surface Production Operations, Vol. 1, 3rd Ed. Elsevier Inc.,
New York, 584 pp.
Arnold, K. and Stewart, M., Surface Production Operations, Vol. 1, 3rd Ed. Elsevier Inc., New
York, 584 pp.
Arnold, Ken, (1942), Surface Production Operations, Design of Gas-Handling Systems and
Facilities, Gulf Publishing Company, USA, Vol. 2, 570 pp.
Berger, B. D., (1981), Modern Petroleum, PennWell Publishing Company, Oklahoma-USA.,

250 pp.
Butterworth-Heinemann, Arnold, K., Stewart, M., (1999), Design of Oil-Handling Systems

and Facilities-Surface Production Operations, Gulf Publications, Houston, 2nd edi.,
vol. 1, 721 pp.
Cornot-Gandolphe, S., Appert, O., Dickel, R., Chabrelie, M. and Rojey, A. (2003), “The
Challenges of Further Cost Reductions for New Supply Options (Pipeline, LNG,
GTL)”, proceedings at the 22nd World Gas Conference, Tokyo, Japan, June 1-5, 2003,
pp. 1-17.
Guo B., AIi, G., (2005), Natural Gas Engineering Handbook, Gulf Publications Houston,
472 pp.
Hyne, N. J. (2001): “Non-Technical Guide to Petroleum Geology, Exploration, Drilling, and

Production”, 2nd Ed., Penwell Publishing Company, pp.
Hyne, N. J. (2001): Non-Technical Guide to Petroleum Geology, Exploration, Drilling, and
Production, 2nd Ed., Penwell Publishing Company, 699 pp.
Ikoku, C. U. (1992): “Natural Gas Production Engineering”, Krieger Publishing Company,
Malabar, Florida, 1992. 271 pp.
Katz, D. L., (1959), Handbook of Natural Gas Engineering, Mcgraw-Hill Book Company,
Inc, London, England, 712 pp.
Page 97
Liu, Henry (2005), Pipeline Engineering, Lewis Publications, USA, 422 pp.
Menon E. S., (2011), Pipeline Planning and Construction Field Manual, Gulf Professional
Publications, USA, 577 pp.
Prado, M.G., (2009), “Production Engineering”, Unpublished Lecture Notes, University of

Tulsa, USA, 256 pp.
Saeid, M., Poe, W. A., Speight, J. G., (2006), Handbook of Natural Gas Transmission and
Processing, Gulf Professional Publications, USA, 2026 pp.
William C. Dunn, (2005), Fundamentals of Industrial Instrumentation and Process Control,

McGraw-Hill Companies, USA, 332 pp.
Page 98
APPENDIX A
INTEGRAL FUNCTION CALCULATED FOR VARIOUS GAS-SPECIFIC

GRAVITY VALUES
A-1
A-2
Page 99
A-3
A-4
Page 100
A-5
A-6
Page 101
Page 102
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SCHOOL OF PETROLEUM STUDIES

Petroleum and Natural Gas Engineering

GATHERING AND TRANSPORTATION OF OIL AND GAS (PE 374)

COURSE OUTLINE (SYLLABUS)

CHAPTER 1 GATHERING OPERATIONS 1

CHAPTER 2 PIPELINE TRANSPORTATION OF OIL AND GAS 9

CHAPTER 3 PIPELINE AND EQUIPMENT MAINTENANCE 30

3.1 General Operation of Pipelines 30

CHAPTER 4 GAS ECONOMICS OF LONG-DISTANCE PIPELINE 39

CHAPTER 5 STORAGE OF OIL AND GAS 43

5.1 Storage of Oil 43

CHAPTER 6 SAMPLING AND TESTING OF OIL AND GAS

6.1 Sampling and Testing 61

CHAPTER 7 RULES AND REGULATIONS IN TRANSPORTATION AND

CHAPTER 8 PUMPS AND COMPRESSORS 71

CHAPTER 9 INSTRUMENTATION AND CONTROL 83

CHAPTER 10 SAFETY AND SUPERVISION 92

10.1 Safe Work Practices 92

10.1.5 Investigation of Incidents 93

APPENDIX A: INTEGRAL FUNCTION CALCULATED FOR

VARIOUS GAS-SPECIFIC GRAVITY VALUES 100

1.2 Definition of Terms

1.3 Principle of Gathering System

1.4 Types of Gathering System

Fig. 1.1 Flowline Pattern (a) Radial (b) Trunk

1.5 Trunk-Line Gathering System

1.5.1 Xmas Tree

Fig. 1.2 Typical Xmas Tree

1.5.2 Flow Lines

Fig. 1.3 Layout of Xmas Tree and its Flowline

Fig. 1.4 Wells, Flow Lines and Headers

The headers are routed to:

Each well on the platform can be connected to each header.

The illustration in Fig. 1.4 shows:

Figure 1.6 A Typical Onshore Field Manifold System

1.6 Gathering and Distribution Lines

Pipelines can be divided into different categories, including the following:

Fig. 1.6 Gas Gathering and Transportation through Pipelines

1.6.1 Ghana National Gas Company Limited

Fig. 1.7 Ghana’s Natural Gas Transmission Utility Future Development

A pipeline is a complex transportation system. It includes components such as pipe, fittings

to an aboveground structure such as a bridge or a power plant. Moreover, underground

2.2 Sizing and specifying Pipelines

2.2.1 Definition of Friction Factor

A differential equation governing frictional pressure drop in a pipe is;

gc = gravitational conversion factor = 32.17 lbm ft/lbf sec2

2.2.2 Reynolds Number

2.2.3 Relative Roughness

2.2.4 Equations for Friction Factor

Fig 2.1 Moody Friction Factor

Laminar Single-Phase Flow

The friction factor for laminar flow can be determined analytically

For smooth wall pipes in the turbulent flow region,

2.3 Flow calculations

2.3.1 Theoretical Pipeline Equations

Weymouth Equation for Horizontal Flow

Weymouth Equation for Non-horizontal Flow

Panhandle A Equation-Horizontal Flow

Panhandle B Equation-Horizontal Flow (Modified Panhandle)

Clinedinst Equation-Horizontal Flow

2.3.2 Practical Pipeline Equations

Table 2.1 Typical Values of Efficiency Factors

Type of Line Liquid Content (gal/MMcf) Efficiency (E)

Table 2.2 Transmission Factors for Pipeline Flow Equations