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Reservoir Characterization
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Reservoir Characterization
Fundamentals and Applications
Fred Aminzadeh
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10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
Contents
Foreword xix
Preface xxiii
Part 1: Introduction 1
1 Reservoir Characterization: Fundamental
and Applications - An Overview 3
Fred Aminzadeh
1.1 Introduction to Reservoir Characterization? 3
1.2 Data Requirements for Reservoir Characterization 5
1.3 SURE Challenge 7
1.4 Reservoir Characterization in the Exploration,
Development and Production Phases 10
1.4.1 Exploration Stage/Development Stage 10
1.4.2 Primary Production Stage 11
1.4.3 Secondary/Tertiary Production Stage 11
1.5 Dynamic Reservoir Characterization (DRC) 12
1.5.1 4D Seismic for DRC 13
1.5.2 Microseismic Data for DRC 14
1.6 More on Reservoir Characterization and Reservoir
Modeling for Reservoir Simulation 15
1.6.1 Rock Physics 16
1.6.2 Reservoir Modeling 17
1.7 Conclusion 20
References 20
v
vi Contents
Part 2: General Reservoir Characterization

and Anomaly Detection 23
2 A Comparison Between Estimated Shear Wave Velocity
and Elastic Modulus by Empirical Equations and that
of Laboratory Measurements at Reservoir Pressure Condition 25
Haleh Azizia, Hamid Reza Siahkoohi, Brian Evans,
Nasser Keshavarz Farajkhah and Ezatollah KazemZadeh
2.1 Introduction 26
2.2 Methodology 28
2.1.2 Estimating the Shear Wave Velocity 28
2.2.2 Estimating Geomechanical Parameters 31
2.3 Laboratory Set Up and Measurements 32
2.3.1 Laboratory Data Collection 34
2.4 Results and Discussion 35
2.5 Conclusions 41
2.6 Acknowledgment 43
References 43
3 Anomaly Detection within Homogenous Geologic Area 47
Simon Katz, Fred Aminzadeh, George Chilingar
and Leonid Khilyuk
3.1 Introduction 48
3.2 Anomaly Detection Methodology 49
3.3 Basic Anomaly Detection Classifiers 50
3.4 Prior and Posterior Characteristics of Anomaly
Detection Performance 52
3.5 ROC Curve Analysis 55
3.6 Optimization of Aggregated AD Classifier Using Part
of the Anomaly Identified by Universal Classifiers 58
3.7 Bootstrap Based Tests of Anomaly Type Hypothesis 61
3.8 Conclusion 64
References 65
4 Characterization of Carbonate Source-Derived
Hydrocarbons Using Advanced Geochemical Technologies 69
Hossein Alimi
4.1 Introduction 70
4.2 Samples and Analyses Performed 71
4.3 Results and Discussions 72
Contents vii
4.4 Summary and Conclusions 79

References 80
5 Strategies in High-Data-Rate MWD Mud Pulse Telemetry 81
Yinao Su, Limin Sheng, Lin Li, Hailong Bian, Rong Shi,
Xiaoying Zhuang and Wilson Chin
5.1 Summary 82
5.1.1 High Data Rates and Energy Sustainability 82
5.1.2 Introduction 83
5.1.3 MWD Telemetry Basics 85
5.1.4 New Telemetry Approach 87
5.2 New Technology Elements 88
5.2.1 Downhole Source and Signal Optimization 89
5.2.2 Surface Signal Processing and Noise Removal 92
5.2.3 Pressure, Torque and Erosion Computer Modeling 93
5.2.4 Wind Tunnel Analysis: Studying New Approaches 96
5.2.5 Example Test Results 108
5.3 Directional Wave Filtering 111
5.3.1 Background Remarks 111
5.3.2 Theory 112
5.3.3 Calculations 116
5.4 Conclusions 132
Acknowledgments 133
References 133
6 Detection of Geologic Anomalies with Monte Carlo
Clustering Assemblies 135
Simon Katz, Fred Aminzadeh, George Chilingar,
Leonid Khilyuk and Matin Lockpour
6.1 Introduction 135
6.2 Analysis of Inhomogeneity of the Training and Test
Sets and Instability of Clustering 136
6.3 Formation of Multiple Randomized Test Sets
and Construction of the Clustering Assemblies 138
6.4 Irregularity Index of Individual Clusters
in the Cluster Set 139
6.5 Anomaly Indexes of Individual Records
and Clustering Assemblies 141
6.6 Prior and Posterior True and False Discovery Rates
for Anomalous and Regular Records 142
viii Contents
6.7 Estimates of Prior False Discovery Rates

for Anomalous Cluster Sets, Clusters, and Individual
Records. Permeability Dataset 142
6.8 Posterior Analysis of Efficiency of Anomaly
Identification. High Permeability Anomaly 144
6.9 Identification of Records in the Gas Sand Dataset
as Anomalous, using Brine Sand Dataset as Data
with Regular Records 146
6.10 Notations 149
6.11 Conclusions 149
References 150
7 Dissimilarity Analysis of Petrophysical Parameters
as Gas-Sand Predictors 151
Simon Katz, George Chilingar, Fred Aminzadeh
and Leonid Khilyuk
7.2 Petrophysical Parameters for Gas-Sand Identification 152
7.3 Lithologic and Fluid Content Dissimilarities of Values
of Petrophysical Parameters 154
7.4 Parameter Ranking and Efficiency of Identification
of Gas-Sands 155
7.5 ROC Curve Analysis with Cross Validation 159
7.6 Ranking Parameters According to AUC Values 161
7.7 Classification with Multidimensional Parameters
as Gas Predictors 163
7.8 Conclusions 164
Definitions and Notations 166
References 166
8 Use of Type Curve for Analyzing Non-Newtonian Fluid
Flow Tests Distorted by Wellbore Storage Effects 169
Fahd Siddiqui and Mohamed Y. Soliman
8.2 Objective 173
8.3 Problem Analysis 173
8.3.1 Model Assumptions 174
8.3.2 Solution Without the Wellbore Storage Distortion 175
8.3.3 Wellbore Storage and Skin Effects 175
8.3.4 Solution by Mathematical Inspection 175
8.3.5 Solution Verification 176
Contents ix
8.4 Use of Finite Element 176

8.5 Analysis Methodology 177
8.5.1 Finding the n Value 177
8.5.2 Dimensionless Wellbore Storage 178
8.5.3 Use of Type Curves 178
8.5.4 Match Point 179
8.5.5 Uncertainty in Analysis 180
8.6 Test Data Examples 180
8.6.3 Analysis Recommendations 185
8.6.5 Analysis Recommendations 186
8.6.6 Match point 186
8.7 Conclusion 188
Nomenclature 188
References 189
Appendix A: Non-Linear Boundary Condition
and Laplace Transform 189
Appendix B: Type Curve Charts for Various Power
Law Indices 191
Part 3: Reservoir Permeability Detection 195

9 Permeability Prediction Using Machine Learning,
Exponential, Multiplicative, and Hybrid Models 197
Simon Katz, Fred Aminzadeh, George Chilingar
and M. Lackpour
9.2 Additive, Multiplicative, Exponential, and Hybrid
Permeability Models 198
9.3 Combination of Basis Function Expansion
and Exhaustive Search for Optimum Subset of Predictors 200
9.4 Outliers in the Forecasts Produced with Four
Permeability Models 201
9.5 Additive, Multiplicative, and Exponential
Committee Machines 203
9.6 Permeability Forecast with First Level
Committee Machines. Sandstone Dataset 206
9.7 Permeability Prediction with First Level
Committee Machines. Carbonate Reservoirs 210
x Contents
9.8 Analysis of Accuracy of Outlier Replacement

by The First and Second Level Committee Machines.
Sandstone Dataset 212
9.9 Conclusion 214
Notations and Definitions 215
References 216
10 Geological and Geophysical Criteria for Identifying Zones
of High Gas Permeability of Coals (Using the Example
of Kuzbass CBM Deposits) 217
A.G. Pogosyan
10.2 Physical Properties and External Load Conditions
on a Coal Reservoir 219
10.3 Basis for Evaluating Physical and Mechanical Coalbed
Properties in the Borehole Environment 225
Acknowledgement 228
References 229
11 Rock Permeability Forecasts Using Machine Learning
and Monte Carlo Committee Machines 231
Simon Katz, Fred Aminzadeh, Wennan Long,
George Chilingar and Matin Lackpour
11.2 Monte Carlo Cross Validation and Monte
Carlo Committee Machines 233
11.3 Performance of Extended MC Cross Validation
and Construction MC Committee Machines 236
11.4 Parameters of Distribution of the Number
of Individual Forecasts in Monte Carlo Cross Validation 237
11.5 Linear Regression Permeability Forecast
with Empirical Permeability Models 238
11.6 Accuracy of the Forecasts with Machine
Learning Methods 242
11.7 Analysis of Instability of the Forecast 244
11.8 Enhancement of Stability of the MC
Committee Machines Forecast Via Increase
of the Number of Individual Forecasts 246
Nomenclature 247
Contents xi
Appendix 1- Description of Permeability Models from

Different Fields 248
Appendix 2- A Brief Overview of Modular Networks or
Committee Machines 249
References 251
Part 4: Reserves Evaluation/Decision Making 253

12 The Gulf of Mexico Petroleum System – Foundation
for Science-Based Decision Making 255
Corinne Disenhof, MacKenzie Mark-Moser and Kelly Rose
Introduction 256
Basin Development and Geologic Overview 257
Petroleum System 259
Reservoir Geology 259
Hydrocarbons 261
Salt and Structure 262
Conclusions 263
Acknowledgments and Disclaimer 264
References 265
13 Forecast and Uncertainty Analysis of Production
Decline Trends with Bootstrap and Monte Carlo Modeling 269
Simon Katz, George Chilingar and Leonid Khilyuk
13.2 Simulated Decline Curves 271
13.3 Nonlinear Least Squares for Decline Curve
Approximation 273
13.4 New Method of Grid Search for Approximation
and Forecast of Decline Curves 273
13.5 Iterative Minimization of Least Squares
with Multiple Approximating Models 275
13.6 Grid Search Followed by Iterative Minimization
with Levenberg-Marquardt Algorithm 276
13.7 Two Methods for Aggregated Forecast and Analysis
of Forecast Uncertainty 277
13.8 Uncertainty Quantile Ranges Obtained Using Monte
Carlo and Bootstrap Methods 279
13.9 Monte Carlo Forecast and Analysis
13.10 Block Bootstrap Forecast and Analysis
xii Contents
13.11 Comparative Analysis of Results of Monte Carlo

and Bootstrap Simulations 285
References 288
14 Oil and Gas Company Production, Reserves, and Valuation 289
Mark J. Kaiser
14.2 Reserves 292
14.2.1 Proved Reserves 292
14.2.2 Proved Reserves Categories 292
14.2.3 Reserves Reporting 293
14.2.4 Probable and Possible Reserves 293
14.2.5 Contractual Differences 294
14.3 Production 294
14.4 Factors that Impact Company Value 295
14.4.1 Ownership 295
14.4.1.1 International Oil Companies 295
14.4.1.2 National Oil Companies 296
14.4.1.3 Government Sponsored Entities 296
14.4.1.4 Independents and Juniors 297
14.4.2 Degree of Integration 297
14.4.3 Product Mix 298
14.4.4 Commodity Price 298
14.4.5 Production Cost 299
14.4.6 Finding Cost 299
14.4.7 Assets 300
14.4.8 Capital Structure 300
14.4.9 Geologic Diversification 301
14.4.10 Geographic Diversification 301
14.4.11 Unobservable Factors 302
14.5 Summary Statistics 303
14.5.1 Sample 303
14.5.2 Variables 303
14.5.3 Data Source 305
14.5.4 International Oil Companies 305
14.5.5 Independents 308
14.6 Market Capitalization 309
14.6.1 Functional Specification 309
14.6.2 Expectations 309
14.7 International Oil Companies 310
Contents xiii
14.8 U.S. Independents 312

14.8.1 Large vs. Small Cap, Oil vs. Gas 312
14.8.2 Consolidated Small-Caps 314
14.8.3 Multinational vs. Domestic 314
14.8.4 Conventional vs. Unconventional 315
14.8.5 Production and Reserves 316
14.8.6 Regression Models 316
14.9 Private Companies 318
14.10 National Oil Companies of OPEC 320
14.11 Government Sponsored Enterprises
and Other International Companies 320
References 324
Part 5: Unconventional Reservoirs 337

15 An Analytical Thermal-Model for Optimization
of Gas-Drilling in Unconventional Tight-Sand Reservoirs 339
Boyun Guo, Gao Li and Jinze Song
15.2 Mathematical Model 341
15.3 Model Comparison 346
15.4 Sensitivity Analysis 348
15.5 Model Applications 349
Nomenclature 352
Acknowledgements 353
References 353
Appendix A: Steady Heat Transfer Solution for Fluid
Temperature in Counter-Current Flow 355
Assumptions 355
Governing Equation 355
Boundary Conditions 360
Solution 360
16 Development of an Analytical Model for Predicting the Fluid
Temperature Profile in Drilling Gas Hydrates Reservoirs 363
Liqun Shan, Boyun Guo and Xiao Cai
16.2 Mathematical Model 365
16.3 Case Study 373
xiv Contents
16.4 Sensitivity Analysis 374

Nomenclature 378
References 379
17 Distinguishing Between Brine-Saturated and Gas-Saturated
Shaly Formations with a Monte-Carlo Simulation
of Seismic Velocities 383
Simon Katz, George Chilingar and Leonid Khilyuk
17.2 Random Models for Seismic Velocities 385
17.3 Variability of Seismic Velocities Predicted
by Random Models 387
17.4 The Separability of (Vp, Vs) Clusters for Gas- and
Brine-Saturated Formations 388
17.5 Reliability Analysis of Identifying Gas-Filled Formations 389
17.5.1 Classification with K-Nearest Neighbor 391
17.5.2 Classification with Recursive Partitioning 392
17.5.3 Classification with Linear Discriminant Analysis 394
17.5.4 Comparison of the Three Classification Techniques 395
References 397
18 Shale Mechanical Properties Influence Factors Overview
and Experimental Investigation on Water Content Effects 399
Hui Li, Bitao Lai and Shuhua Lin
18.2 Influence Factors 400
18.2.1 Effective Pressure 401
18.2.2 Porosity 402
18.2.3 Water Content 403
18.2.4 Salt Solutions 405
18.2.5 Total Organic Carbon (TOC) 406
18.2.6 Clay Content 407
18.2.7 Bedding Plane Orientation 408
18.2.8 Mineralogy 411
18.2.9 Anisotropy 413
18.2.10 Temperature 413
18.3 Experimental Investigation of Water Saturation
Effects on Shale’s Mechanical Properties 414
Contents xv
18.3.1 Experiment Description 414

18.3.2 Results and Discussion 414
18.3.3 Error Analysis of Experiments 417
References 420
Part 6: Enhance Oil Recovery 427

19 A Numerical Investigation of Enhanced Oil Recovery
Using Hydrophilic Nanofuids 429
Yin Feng, Liyuan Cao and Erxiu Shi
19.2 Simulation Framework 432
19.2.1 Background 432
19.2.2 Two Essential Computational Components 433
19.2.2.1 Flow Model 433
19.2.2.2 Nanoparticle Transport
and Retention Model 435
19.3 Coupling of Mathematical Models 437
19.4 Verification Cases 439
19.4.1 Effect of Time Steps on the Performance
of the in House Simulator 439
19.4.2 Comparison with Eclipse 440
19.4.3 Comparison with Software MNM1D 442
19.5 Results 443
19.5.1 Continuous Injection 445
19.5.1.1 Effect of Injection Time on Oil
Recovery and Nanoparticle Adsorption 445
19.5.1.2 Effect of Injection Rate on Oil
19.5.2 Slug Injection 449
19.5.2.1 Effect of Injection Time on Oil
19.5.2.2 Effect of Slug Size on Oil Recovery
and Nanoparticle Adsorption 451
19.5.3 Water Postflush 452
19.5.3.1 Effect of Injection Time Length 452
19.5.3.2 Effect of Flow Rate Ratio Between
Water and Nanofuids on Oil
and Nanoparticle Recovery 452
xvi Contents
19.5.4 3D Model Showcase 455

19.6 Discussions 457
19.7 Conclusions and Future Work 459
References 461
20 3D Seismic-Assisted CO2-EOR Flow Simulation
for the Tensleep Formation at Teapot Dome, USA 463
Payam Kavousi Ghahfarokhi, Thomas H. Wilson
and Alan Lee Brown
20.1 Presentation Sequence 464
20.3 Geological Background 468
20.4 Discrete Fracture Network (DFN) 469
20.5 Petrophysical Modeling 473
20.6 PVT Analysis 473
20.7 Streamline Analysis 479
20.8 CO2-EOR 479
Acknowledgement 483
References 484
Part 7: New Advances in Reservoir

Characterization-Machine Learning Applications 487
21 Application of Machine Learning in Reservoir
Characterization 489
Fred Aminzadeh
21.1 Brief Introduction to Reservoir Characterization 489
21.2 Artificial Intelligence and Machine (Deep)
Learning Review 491
21.2.1 Support Vector Machines 492
21.2.2 Clustering (Unsupervised Classification) 492
21.2.3 Ensemble Methods 497
21.2.4 Artificial Neural Networks (ANN)-
Based Methods 498
21.3 Artificial Intelligence and Machine (Deep) Learning
Applications to Reservoir Characterization 502
21.3.1 3D Structural Model Development 503
21.3.2 Sedimentary Modeling 506
21.3.3 3D Petrophysical Modeling 508
21.3.4 Dynamic Modeling and Simulations 512
Contents xvii
21.4 Machine (Deep) Learning and Enhanced Oil

Recovery (EOR) 513
21.4.1 ANNs for EOR Performance
and Economics 514
21.4.2 ANNs for EOR Screening 516
21.5 Conclusion 517
Acknowledgement 518
References 518
Index 525
Foreword
What is reservoir characterization? As you will see from this book, this is
a very advanced topic so let’s break it down a bit and start form the basics.
What is a reservoir? This is ‘a place where something is kept in store’. And
what is characterization? That is ‘to describe the character or quality’ all
according to the Webster dictionary. So, we are arrived at: ‘describe the
character of something that’s kept in store’. It seems relatively benign and
easy but ‘the devil is in the details’ is perhaps the best way to get the readers
intrigued and immersed in this topic. So, we are left wondering what are
these details where the devil resides? And here starts the story…..
In fact, a better wording would be ‘Subsurface Reservoir Characterization’
or SRC. There have been on the order of thousands of studies in reser-
voir characterization over the life time of this field. As such, this topic has
evolved and matured with many learnings. As illustrated in this book,
there are now well established and tested workflows SRC and I’d like to go
over some aspects of these understandings and workflows.
First, it is key to understand that SRC is a continuously changing,
multi-discipline and multi-scale topic. For continuously changing a good
example would be the recent impact of say machine learning methods. I
have learned that if our data quality is good enough and there are physical
relationships between reservoir data and properties, machine learning can
be an excellent way to quickly uncover relationships in a multi-variable
universe. However, once again, even here, the devil is in the details….
Multi-discipline is a word we easily use but have difficulty implementing.
In many projects the geologist is tasked with building a static reservoir
model and then passing it on to the reservoir engineer to build a dynamic
model and history match production. However, it has been challenging
to form a loop versus a linear workflow or for the dynamic model to be
updated with new static information or cover a range of possible models
that fit the data…… As for multi-scale, the discipline involves integration
of data from a wide range of data, say, nanometer (electron microscope),
to centimeter (cutting and core samples), to decimeter (well log), to meter
xix
xx Foreword
(seismic) scale. Spatially most of these data are acquired within a small
portion of one or several wells and geophysical data gives the capability to
extrapolate away from the wells with lower resolution. Due to uncertainties
in the data, rapid variations in the subsurface, and sparse sampling multi-
scale integration can be a challenging task. There is a good discussion of
“SURE Challenge” in the book where the author addresses the above men-
tioned challenges of integration incolving multitude of data set with differ-
ent Scale, Unvertainty, Resoultion and Environemnet. It is suggested that
different AI and Data Analytics techniques may be best equipped to handle
the SURE Challenge.
The second component can be categorized into input data quality
(informally ‘garbage in, garbage out’). Any workflow that is lets say cutting
edge cant work without high quality input data. Further, it may cause mis-
interpretation that a workflow is ‘not’ a good workflow or appropriate sim-
ply because the input data was the culprit. The input data in fact starts from
data acquisition, then to data processing and finally to data interpretation
and integration. One of the pitfalls along the way is to simply obtain the
data as an interpreter and not be aware of lets say the ‘history’. An exam-
ple would be to apply amplitude based seismic analysis to data that non-
amplitude preserving processing was applied to (Automatic Gain Control
or AGC would be a simple example). However, the same could be happen-
ing with say well-log or production data. The good news is that over time
in every SRC related discipline data quality has been improving with not
only better tools but also more frequent data acquisition during the life of a
reservoir. Further, over time we have learned to build much better process-
ing tools that provide high quality data for the integration component. The
net result of this has improved our ability to conduct integrated studies and
quantitative products. One example of this near to my heart is joint seis-
mic inversion of PP reflected waves with PS (or converted) reflected waves
from a reservoir. We have seen that with improved acquisition and process-
ing, the joint PP/PS inversion can substantially improve pre-stack seismic
inversion providing a stable S-impedance as well as a P-impedance that can
provide valuable information such as formation properties, porosity, Total
Organic Carbon (TOC,) fluid types, and time-lapse reservoir pressure and
saturation changes over the life of the reservoir. Such improvements are
going on in all the subsurface disciplines thanks to modern acquisition and
more diverse data with higher quality.
This book is an excellent resource for beginners in SRC to get an over-
view of the topic and for expert to study most recent advances in their
own and related disciplines. The book covers a wide range of topics from
conventional to unconventional reservoirs, from geology to geophysics to
Foreword xxi
petroleum engineering, from laboratory measurements to field applica-

tions, from deterministic to statistical methods, from primary depletion
to EOR with CO2 injection, from static to dynamic SRC, as well as use of
AI for reservoir charcaterization. In the end, SRC requires best practices to
be implemented to be value generating. This books certainly provides the
necessary best practices.
Dr. Ali Tura

Professor of Geophysics
Co-director of Reservoir Characterization Project (RCP)
Colorado School of Mine,
Denver, Colorado
Preface
An important step in exploration development, monitoring, and man-

agement a reservoir as well optimizing production and planning for post
primary production decisions is reservoir characterization. Upon the
completion of the preliminary task of reservoir characterization, and as we
continue to produce from the reservoir or use different methods to stimu-
late it, many of its properties change. This requires updating the reservoir
model, bringing up the concept of dynamic reservoir characterization. To
achieve this goal, we incorporate the newly acquired petrophysical, seis-
mic, micro seismic and production data. The updated model would be
a better representative of the status of the reservoir. Both static reservoir
properties, such as porosity, permeability, and facies type; and dynamic
reservoir properties, such as pressure, fluid saturation, and temperature,
needs to be updated as more field data become available.
Among the reason for focusing on reservoir characterization is the fact
based on the estimates by experts, more than 95% of the world’s oil pro-
duction in the 21st century will come from existing fields. This will require
significant improvements in the current recovery rates of less than 50%
in most reservoirs. Improved secondary and tertiary recovery through
enhanced recovery of oil and gas require by better understanding and
monitoring of the reservoir will be an important element of the much-
needed increase in the recovery factor. Increased production will be made
possible only through effective dynamic reservoir characterization.
We need to recognize the fact that reservoir characterization is a mul-
tidisciplinary field. It attempts to describe petroleum deposits and the
nature of the rocks that contain hydrocarbons using a variety of data types.
Reservoir characterization relies on expertise from petroleum engineers,
geologists, geochemists, petrophysicists, and of course geophysicists, The
integration of information from these fields, with the aid of advanced data
analysis techniques as well as artificial intelligence (AI) based methods will
make our reservoir models more accurate and the updating process much
faster.
xxiii
xxiv Preface
This book will provide a comprehensive body of technical material on

different aspects of reservoir characterization. It is divided into 7 parts:
Part 1 is an introductory chapter covering the general concepts, of reser-
voir characterization. It includes an overview of what is meant by reservoir
characterization as it is applied in different stages of its life, from explora-
tion to post primary production stages. It also highlights the challenges of
data integration of different data types, the previously mentioned dynamic
reservoir characterization, and reservoir stimulation for enhanced oil (or
gas) recovery.
Part 2 deals with general issues on reservoir characterization and anom-
aly detection. It is comprised of 7 chapters on different related topics such
as: (1) Comparison between estimated shear wave velocity and elastic
modulus at in situ pressure condition (2) Anomaly detection (3) geochem-
ical analysis on characterization of carbonate source-derived hydrocar-
bons, (4) MWD mud pulse telemetry, (5) Use of Monte Carlo clustering
to detect geologic anomalies, (6) Gas-sand predictors using dissimilarity
analysis, and (7) Fluid flow tests distorted by wellbore storage effects. Part
3 is dedicated to reservoir permeability detection, being one of the most
important reservoir properties. What are covered here are three different
techniques. Two of them involves use of two different machine learning
techniques to predict permeability, namely, exponential/multiplicative and
Monte Carlo/committee machines. The other chapter discusses geoscience
criteria identifying high gas permeability zones.
One of the reasons for reservoir characterization is to assess the recov-
erable reserves in the reservoir. Part 4 addresses reserves evaluation and
decision-making issues. The first chapter of this part discusses foundation
for science-based decision making, using data from the Gulf of Mexico.
The next chapter in Part 4 investigates decline trends in a reservoir using
Bootstrap and Monte Carlo modeling. This Part concludes with a typical
production, reserves, and valuation method used in an oil and gas company.
Given the tremendous success with the development and production
from shale reservoirs over the last 2 decades, Part 5 is dedicated to the
unconventional reservoirs. The chapters in Part 5 include: (1) Optimization
of Gas-Drilling in Unconventional Tight-Sand Reservoirs, (2) Predicting
the Fluid Temperature Profile in Drilling Gas Hydrates Reservoirs, (3)
Distinguishing between brine and gas-saturated shaly formations, and (4)
Influence of shale mechanical properties on water content effects.
Part 6 is about enhanced oil recovery. It covers EOR with hydro-
philic nanofluids, as well as CO2-EOR Flow Simulation for the Tensleep
Formation using 3D seismic data. Part 7 is the concluding section, high-
lighting new advances in reservoir characterization. It discusses the recent
Preface xxv
application of machine learning in reservoir characterization. It also dis-

cusses the future trends in reservoir characterization and the impact of
data explosion associated with the real time reservoir monitoring and res-
ervoir surveillance. It also describes how the “Big Data” concepts and data
analytics techniques will play a role in the next generation reservoir char-
acterization technology developments.
It should be understood reservoir characterization is an evolving tech-
nology. It is our hope that this volume will be a meaningful addition to the
current body of literature and will help pave the way for further advances
on the subject matter in the future.
Fred Aminzadeh
Santa Barbara, California
September 22, 2021
Part 1
INTRODUCTION
1
Reservoir Characterization: Fundamental
and Applications - An Overview
Fred Aminzadeh *
FACT Inc., Santa Barbara, CA, USA
Abstract
This article provides a brief overview of reservoir characterization at different
stages of a field from exploration to development to production and post pri-
mary production. It demonstrates the challenges associated with integration of
different data types. It also shows how “Dynamic Reservoir Characterization”
can assist in monitoring of the field for various well stimulation processes such
as enhanced oil recovery as well as reservoir stimulation. Different sections of
this entry attempt to highlight different aspects of reservoir characterization,
as an exploration tool, development tool, production tool and monitoring tool.
As reservoirs age, different measures are taken to extend their productive life.
This includes different types of reservoir stimulation and enhanced oil (or gas)
recovery.
Keywords: Reservoir characterization, data integration challenges, 3D/4D

seismic, micro-seismic data, reservoir monitoring, dynamic reservoir
characterization, rock physics and enhanced oil recovery (EOR)
1.1 Introduction to Reservoir Characterization?

As discussed in Aminzadeh and Dasgupta [2], Reservoir Characterization is to
assess reservoir condition and its properties using the available data from
core/log data to seismic and production data. This is done to assist in delin-
eating or describing a reservoir. Reservoir characterization and modeling
have become increasingly important for optimizing field development.
*Email: fred.aminzadeh@fact-corp.com
Fred Aminzadeh (ed.) Reservoir Characterization: Fundamentals and Applications, (3–22) © 2022
Scrivener Publishing LLC
3
4 Reservoir Characterization
Reservoir valuation and producing from a field demands a realistic descrip-

tion of the reservoir, requiring an integrated reservoir characterization and
modeling. An integrated approach for reservoir modeling bridges the tradi-
tional disciplinary divides and tears down interdisciplinary barriers, lead-
ing to better handling of uncertainties and improvement of the reservoir
model for field development. Integrated reservoir management requires
better characterization of the reservoir and it is imperative to a successful
operation throughout the life of the reservoir. Dynamic reservoir character-
ization is to understand the changes in reservoir properties to monitor its
performance as we produce from reservoir and/or stimulate the reservoir
to enhance production. This is accomplished by the analysis of data from
combination of different sources, to extract additional information about
the in-situ conditions of the reservoir, including the formation tempera-
ture, pressure, and the properties of the oil, gas, and brine. Other reservoir
properties that can affect measured data are density, hydrocarbon viscos-
ity, stresses, and fractures. We start with the reservoir description process
that generates models of reservoir architecture, lithologies and facies. The
geometry of the flow units is established, physical rock properties such as
porosities and permeabilities of flow layers. Three properties are related to
the pore space: porosity--the fraction of the entire volume part occupied by
pores, cracks and fractures, internal surface: the magnitude of the surface of
pores as related to the rock mass pore volume and controls interface-effects
at the boundary grain - pore fluid, permeability: the ability to flow fluid
through rock pores. Porosity and specific internal surface are scalar proper-
ties, permeability is a tensor.
Figure 1.1 shows integration of reservoir structure or architecture and
reservoir detailed properties from calibration with well data for the reser-
voir model. Reservoir description is an iterative process and need.
Different aspects of Figure 1.1, from the input data to the process (well
data, seismic data, production data, etc.) will be discussed in Section 1.2
on the data requirements. The difficulties associated with the integration
of different data sources will be addressed in Section 1.3, under “SURE
Challenge”. In Section 1.4 we discuss different aspects of reservoir char-
acterizations fin different stages of reservoir life. The exploration and
development stage deal with preliminary determination of the reservoir
structural model, stratigraphic and facies models. This is followed by the
production phase with a focus on porosity, permeability and fluid satura-
tion, involving reservoir/flow simulation and history matching. The recov-
ery stages involve injection of water/CO2 or steam to increase production.
We discuss Dynamic Reservoir Characterization (DRC) in Section 1.5.
We note that 4D seismic and microseismic data play an important role
Reservoir Characterization: Fundamental and Applications 5
Structural Stratigraphic
model model
Reservoir grid Upscaling
Well and
seismic
data
Facies proportions Geological model: Flow

∆
model Facies, porosity, simulation
permeability
Geomodel updating
Integration
Production
of 4D seismic Integration Forecasts
data y of production
tor
his data asts
no ching o rec
t f
ma CCS ctio
n
h
wit Inje
Figure 1.1 Different components of reservoir characterization, from Fornel and Estublier
[5].
in geo-model updating monitoring production and the EOR/reservoir

stimulation process. Sections 1.6 goes into more details on rock physics
and reservoir modeling and how reservoir characterization can be used as
an input to reservoir simulation and help with enhanced oil recovery and
other well stimulation processes.
1.2 Data Requirements for Reservoir

Characterization
Well data provides vertically high-resolution model at the well location,
however, the distribution of well in a field are sparse. Combining well
information with geophysical and geological data allows the necessary
constraints for extrapolating high resolution well data beyond where they
are measured thus increasing the coverage. For every phase of the reser-
voir life cycle from discovery to development to operating to maturity and
well stimulation (enhanced oil recovery) phase, geophysical tools are used
to create reservoir model with the associated properties and update the
model based new data collected.
Integration of geophysical data with geologic data, and engineering

measurements improves our understanding of the reservoir, reduces
uncertainties and mitigates the risk. The detailed spatial coverage offered
are calibrated with analysis of well logs, pressure tests, cores, fracture
system, geologic depositional knowledge and other information from
appraisal wells. 3D seismic is the primary geophysical technique used
to create the original reservoir models. 4D seismic (time lapse data) and
other new measurements (micro-seismic, new log/pressure data and pro-
duction data help create updated (dynamic) reservoir model. In addition,
gravity, controlled source EM, borehole measurements such as vertical
seismic profiling-VSP, borehole gravimeter-BRGM, cross well seismic,
cross well EM are also used to build the original and updated reservoir
models.
The required information for the petroleum engineers and geologists
includes subsurface lithology, net pay, porosity, permeability, reservoir
fluid-fill, fluid contacts, reservoir pressure and stress regime. Geophysical
tools infer reservoir properties from the measured physical observations
by blending these with measurements made at the wells like well logs, well
tests and core analyses. During the field appraisal and development stages,
understanding of the reservoir matrix properties and fluid distribution
within the reservoir are of great importance.
------sand bodies---river channels---oil/gas traps------
crack-----fissure------fracture------fault-----------------------------------------
pore--lamina--bed/set--facies--compartment--paraseq.--deltas--basin--
1mm 1m 10m 100m 1km 10km
ultrasonic--sonic logging------------
cross-hole--vsp------------
high-resolution seismic-----
reflection seismic----------------
earthquake seismology
gravity/magnetic
remote sensing data
Figure 1.2 Wide range of physical scale for different data types associated with different
geological and reservoir features.
1.3 SURE Challenge

The ultimate goal is not only to identify and delineate hydrocarbon charged
in reservoirs, but also to quantitatively determine the volume and distri-
bution of oil and gas it contains and quantify the associated uncertainty.
No single measurement has the required response to achieve this. It is
therefore essential to integrate the various types of data to a common earth
model. This information includes seismic data, various types of well data,
and geologic concepts. The challenge is to integrate measurements that are
of different Scale, Uncertainty, Resolution, and Environment or the SURE
Challenge as was introduced by Aminzadeh [1] and further elaborated
at Aminzadeh and Dasgupta [2] and Aminzadeh [3]. The entire process
of exploration for reservoirs to its abandonment involves acquisition and
analysis of different types of data. These data types are associated with an
enormous range of scale as shown in Figure 1.2. This spans ultra-sonic
measurements of pores of the order of 1 millimeter to remote sensing mea-
surements of basins of over 10 Kilometers wide. Examples of many other
data measurements for many other objects that lie in between all the fea-
tures are shown in this figure.
Admittedly not all the data types are integrated at the same time.
Nevertheless, Scale and the wide range of differences for different data
types is one of the challenges in reservoir characterizations. To make the
matter more complicated is the fact that different data types are associated
Uncertainty/Coverage Pyramid SURE Challenge
Scale,
Cores Uncertainty
n
Resolution
tio
Sc
lu
ale
Environment
so
/C
Re
ov
y/
Well Logs
er
Information Knowledge &

l
in
ag
r ta
Experience Pyramid
e
Ce
Seismic Data
Experience
AI-DA Offers solutions to

SURE Challenge Knowledge
Data & Information
Figure 1.3 SURE Challenge: Having to deal with the wide ranges of Scale, Uncertainty,
Resolution and Environment of different data types when integrating them, (from
Aminzadeh [3]).
with different levels of uncertainties. For example, the direct measure-

ments of rock properties from the core data may involve little uncertainty.
The petrophysical information from well log data may be associated with
somewhat more uncertainty. The seismic data used to ascertain reservoir
properties, for their indirect nature of measurements involve much more
uncertainty. Thus, Uncertainty level and its variations with respect to dif-
ferent data types is poses another challenge in data integration.
In addition, having different data types with vastly different underlying
Resolution, also poses a challenge for data fusion. The resolving power of
different data types is drastically different. As shown in Figure 1.3, some
data types have very high resolving power. For example, while well log
data can resolve a reservoir unit of under an inch, seismic data, generally
speaking, may not be able to resolve a reservoir under 30 feet. Finally, the
effectiveness and usefulness of different data types are impacted by the geo-
logical conditions and reservoir “Environment”. This can be associated with
different reservoir types (carbonate, clastic, unconventional, heavy oil,) or
different reservoir conditions (High Pressure/High Temperature, or reser-
voir depth (shallow water, Deep, or Ultra Deep Water.)
Millimeters
Cores
Well
Logs SR2020’s World
Increasing Vertical Resolution
Bore Hole
Seismic
Surface
Seismic
10’s of
Meters
At the Well Increasing Areal Coverage Across the Asset
Figure 1.4 Areal coverage of well data is complemented by the larger areal sampling
of the geophysical methods. VSP vertical seismic profile and Crosswell seismic fill a
resolution “gap” between sonic log measurements and vertical seismic profiles. Courtesy
of SR2020 (now Optasens).
We refer to these four key challenges: Scale, Uncertainty, Resolution

and Environment as: the SURE Challenges. Top left side of Figure 1.3
illustrates three key data types: core, well log and seismic data. We will
refer to it as a data pyramid. The base of the pyramid is the seismic with
very large coverage but with limited resolution and lesser level of cer-
tainty. The top of the pyramid is the core data with very little coverage
(only at a particular well location involving a fraction of the well) but with
high level of certainty and resolution. Effective integration of all the data
types, in spite of the SURE challenge is what reservoir characterization is
all about. As we will show in the last chapter artificial intelligence and data
analytics can play a key role in offering solutions to the SURE challenge.
The bottom right-hand side in Figure 1.3 shows an upside-down pyra-
mid comprised of a different aspect of integration. That is, vast amount of
data needs to be combined with some technical knowledge and experience
to perform effective data mining and ultimately reservoir characterization.
As an aside, it must be pointed out that borehole geophysical data (e.g.
Vertical Seismic Profile and Cross-Well data) fills the gap between core
SEM
0.0001 The integration gap
light
microscopy
0.001
core
0.01
FMI
Vertical resolution, m
0.1
horizontal well log
well
1 log
cross- VSP
surface well
10 seismic
controlled-source
electomagnetics
100
grav-mag
1000
10 000 1000 100 10 1 0.1 0.01 0.001 0.0001
Low resolution Spatial resolution, m High resolution
Figure 1.5 Vertical and spatial resolution of various geophysical, well logs and laboratory
measurements. From www.agilegeoscience.com (left), and Optaense (right).
data and well log data on one side of the scale and 3D seismic data on the
other side.
In general. The resolution of different data types for reservoir charac-
terization and description varies considerably. Figure 1.5 illustrate such a
large variability for core to log to borehole geophysics and seismic, grav-
ity magnetics data and control source electromagnetics, among others.
This further demonstrates the importance finding a solution to the “SURE
Challenge” for reservoir characterization and other E&P problems. Also,
see Ma et al. [8] addressing integration of seismic and geologic data for
modeling petrophysical properties.
1.4 Reservoir Characterization in the Exploration,

Development and Production Phases
Reservoir characterization has different focus in different phase of the
life of a field. In what follows we briefly highlight the main objective of
Reservoir Characterization in Exploration, Development, Production
(primary recovery) and Production Enhancement (secondary and tertiary
recovery) phase. For the very reason, the notion of reservoir characteriza-
tion often times means different thing to geologists, geophysicists and res-
ervoir engineers. This is primarily due to the fact that their primary focus
is different phases of life of the field.
1.4.1 Exploration Stage/Development Stage

The pre-development (exploration) phase requires delineation of the res-
ervoir limits and assessment of its economic feasibility. Development stage
requires somewhat more accurate assessment of the reservoir extent, better
appraisal of the economic viability of the reservoir and placement of new
wells for further delineation of the reservoir. More detailed depth imaging
using advanced geophysical methods, borehole geophysics applications as
well as fault seal analysis, and better understanding of reservoir compart-
mentalization are some of the objectives of reservoir characterization at this
stage. At this stage it is necessary to determine the reservoir drive mech-
anism and the size and strength of the aquifer. At the development phase,
reservoir continuity rather than reservoir delineation becomes the focus.
The focus in this phase is to identify the structural extension or truncation
beyond well control in order to minimize the drilling of dry holes. While
the pre-development and development phase require considerable atten-
tion to reservoir characterization. Geophysicists construct an initial model
by correlating lithology, porosity, net pay thickness and other properties at

the well location using seismic attributes from surface 3D seismic, VSP and
synthetic seismograms. The initial model is then updated by computing
seismic attributes between the wells in order to predict reservoir properties
in 3D. Seismic attributes like acoustic impedance, variations in amplitudes,
frequencies, interval velocities and instantaneous phase are applied in the
computation.
1.4.2 Primary Production Stage

As the primary production of the reservoir begins, the goal is to position
wells at optimal locations that would maximize hydrocarbon recovery.
During secondary recovery and then enhanced recovery process, the engi-
neer’s objective is to maximize the volume of hydrocarbon contacted by
injected fluids. This is to achieve maximum volumetric sweep efficiency for
fluid production. To minimize cost and risk, engineers attempt to predict
reservoir performance—for both planning and evaluation of hydrocarbon
recovery projects. Reservoir description in terms of reservoir architecture,
flow paths, and fluid-flow parameters are the key to reservoir engineering.
Accurate prediction of reservoir production performance is predicated pri-
marily on how well the reservoir heterogeneities are understood and have
been modeled and applied for fluid-flow simulation. This stage requires
integration of reservoir characterization models with reservoir simulation,
history matching for production optimization. Reservoir management pro-
cess conducts reservoir related studies and applies the results from fluid
flow modeling in defining, updating and optimizing a development plan
for producing the reservoir and forecast the production profile. This phase
also involves optimization and management of reservoir performance eval-
uation, surveillance of fluid flow and changes in the reservoir that result in
changes in the original distribution of physical properties. The optimization
criteria can change during the life cycle of a producing reservoir. Managing
the reservoir depletion is a dynamic process and the reservoir engineers
constantly react and adapt to the changes as they evolve. Dynamic charac-
terization is a representation of the fluid flow in a static reservoir model and
needs to be validated with reservoir performance data.
1.4.3 Secondary/Tertiary Production Stage

When the reservoir ages, intervention to increase production through
reservoir stimulation and enhanced oil (or gas) recovery becomes neces-
sary. Here, the main objective shifts to plan the production and injection,
develop an optimum secondary/tertiary recovery mechanism and plan for

infill drilling well locations to maximize recovery rate and deliver oil and
gas at the planned rate and to extend the economic producing life of the
reservoir as much as possible. The finite resources that are available are
applied to plan and optimize the economic recovery of oil and gas from the
reservoir. Petroleum engineers are responsible for planning and executing
the development and of petroleum reserves. They seek to maximize petro-
leum recovery from the reservoirs. Effective use of reservoir characteriza-
tion and reservoir model updating play an important role in this process.
This is accomplished by incorporating physical property measurements of
the reservoir rock and fluid properties that describes the reservoir architec-
ture and its initial fluid distribution to make an optimum production and
reservoir stimulation plan. 4D seismic and/or micro-seismic monitoring
plays a role in assessing the effectiveness of well different well stimulation
approaches (for example EOR, artificial lift or hydraulic fracturing), giving
rise to the importance of “dynamic reservoir characterization” at this stage.
Engineers need to monitor the reservoir state of pressure, temperature
and fluid distribution during the producing life of a reservoir. This infor-
mation could 1) identify situations within the reservoir which may poten-
tially impact oil and gas recovery, and 2) locate problems that can cause
undesirable leakage or entry into wellbore. If these situations are not cor-
rected in a timely manner, irreversible damage might occur to the reservoir
affecting the ultimate oil and gas recovery. Inter-well monitoring of pro-
duction and injection processes using geophysical techniques also allow
improvement of field development plans and optimize reservoir manage-
ment. Field scale monitoring of reservoir drainage patterns would improve
the recovery factor.
1.5 Dynamic Reservoir Characterization (DRC)

Both in the primary and post-primary production phases, we need to have
an updated characterization of the reservoir. We will refer to this as DRC.
DRC can play a key role in production optimization and monitoring of
effectiveness of the EOR operation or hydraulic fracturing. It can help
surveillance of fluid flow which is an essential part of reservoir manage-
ment process. Likewise, changes in the reservoir pressure distribution is
also helpful to make important reservoir management decisions. Among
many data sets that are used to monitor fluid, pressure and other reservoir
properties is 4D seismic and Microearthquake data. For some examples,
see Kosco [7], Maity [9] and Maleki [10].
1.5.1 4D Seismic for DRC

Changes in the reservoir fluids or pressure distribution can be imaged by
4D. This is based on the impact of fluid saturation and reservoir pressure on
the changes in compressional and shear wave velocities of seismic waves. A
simplistic idea is to directly subtract two 3D seismic volumes of acquired
in say successive years. This is often referred to as 4D seismic, with the
fourth dimension being the time lapse between the two 3D seismic sur-
veys. An example of time lapse seismic is in Figure 1.6. As the reservoir
is produced, the distribution of the fluid properties changes with time but
the reservoir rock frame properties remain constant during the produc-
ing life of the reservoir. Therefore, by repeating the seismic measurements
top reservoir
OWC
OWC
(a)
top reservoir
(b)
Figure 1.6 Time-lapse seismic response changes caused by different positions of oil-
water contact (OWC) in Gullfaks field Tarbert reservoir. (a) Oil-water contact level
before production and (b) after production for 10 years. Zones with changes in seismic
impedance are circled. http://accessscience.com.
i.e., acquiring time lapse seismic data and computing the differences in the
seismic attributes between the measurements the changes in the distribu-
tion of reservoir fluid properties between wells could often be detected.
The changes in time lapse seismic data are due to the acoustic imped-
ance variation (in this case, mostly the compressional velocity change),
caused by the reservoir production or other changes (such as water or CO2
injection in the EOR process). Acoustic impedance is the product of veloc-
ity (V) and density (ρ), for time lapse seismic amplitudes are influenced
by the incompressibility (Krock) of the reservoir rock and the production-
generated changes in the incompressibility of the pore fluids (∆Kfluids).
The reservoir rocks must therefore be sufficiently compressible so that
there is a prominent and measurable contribution from the pore fluids.
Soft compressible rocks like unconsolidated sands (younger in geologic
times) are ideal for time lapse seismic while rigid or incompressible reser-
voir rocks such as carbonates do not lend themselves for effective applica-
tion of this technology.
The acquisition and processing parameters for different vintage 3D seis-
mic should either be the same or necessary calibration should be applied
to make them consistent. That is the seismic response should be identical
when no changes in the geologic formation due to injection of production
has taken place. Some of these difficulties may be mitigated by using per-
manent sensors in wells and recording time lapse data.
1.5.2 Microseismic Data for DRC

The permanent sensors also can record micro seismic or microearthquake
(MEQ) data in passive mode without any seismic source. They detect the
seismic events that are induced by hydrocarbon production due to change
in the reservoir stress with pressure changes. Many examples of MEQ data
applications in DRC and/or monitoring hydraulic fracturing or other well
stimulation processes have been reported.
The results of seismic monitoring (4D or MEQ or combination of the
two) along with the well log and production data can be used to constrain
the flow simulation model in the reservoir history matching and fluid flow
prediction process, as well as characterizing the fracture regime. As an
example, see Maity and Aminzadeh [8]. Figure 1.7 shows how integration
of conventional seismic, well log data and MEQ data have been able to cre-
ate a 3-D fracture distribution, using a neural network approach through
integrating “Fracture Zone Identifier” or FZI attributes.
C B'
A D'
400
C'
B A'
800
Depth (m)
1200
1600
2000
100
50 D 80
60
100 40
20
150
Figure 1.7 Use of conventional seismic, well log data and MEQ data to create a 3-D
fracture distribution volume, using a neural network by integrating “Fracture Zone
Identifier” or FZI attributes, Maity and Aminzadeh [9].
1.6 More on Reservoir Characterization and

Reservoir Modeling for Reservoir Simulation
No discussion on reservoir characterization is complete without under-
standing rock properties and the corresponding rock physics. Furthermore,
reservoir modeling could be considered as the last step for reservoir char-
acterization during different stages of the life of the reservoir. Indeed,
ideally, any reservoir simulation and could use reservoir models based
on static and dynamic reservoir characterization to improve the process.
4D seismic data can help with the reservoir model updating process, thus
enabling creation of a dynamic reservoir model.
Figure 1.8 shows how a static reservoir model with the associated struc-
tural earth model and corresponding geologic and reservoir properties
such as facies, porosities, and vshale among other parameters can be a
starting point (top left). Through reservoir simulation a flow model can
be created at different time points, with the respective information about
pressure, saturation and temperature. Output of the reservoir simulation
model and the earth model could be used to generate (invert for) the reser-
voir rock physics properties such as density, compressional and shear wave
Earth Model Flow Simulation

T1
T2
TN
Φ, vshale, facies...
Pp, So, Sw, Sg, Ss, T

4D Seismic
T1
T2 Rock Physics
Vp, Vs, vs, Pp, Phi Vp, Vs, vs, Sw, Phi
3.5
TN
0.2
3
Vp, Vs (kft/sec)
2.0 2.1
Vp, Vs (kft/sec)
2.5 2 1.5
Avg. pressure
2
1.0 1.2
1
4000 5000 6000 7000 8000 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1

Pore pressure (psi) Water Saturation
Vp, Vs, ρ
Figure 1.8 The entire process of reservoir model updating through 4D seismic modeling
and reservoir simulation, (from Meadows, [11]).
velocities at different time periods. Such information can then be used to

generate the synthetic 4D seismic data. Comparison of the synthetic and
field 4D seismic data will then lead to an updated Earth model. The pro-
cess continuous until we establish a good match between real and simu-
lated seismic and reservoir flow models leading to an acceptable dynamic
reservoir characterization results from the accurately derived rock physics
properties as well as other reservoir properties such as porosity, permeabil-
ity, oil and gas saturation, and pressure among other properties.
In what follows we describe rock physics and reservoir modeling briefly.
1.6.1 Rock Physics

Rock physics investigates reservoir rocks properties that affect transmis-
sion of seismic waves through the rocks. These physical properties are
rigidity, compressibility, and porosity. This provides a connection between
elastic properties measured at the surface of the earth, within the borehole
environment or in the laboratory with the intrinsic properties of rocks,
such as mineralogy, porosity, pore shapes, pore fluids, pore pressures, per-
meability, viscosity, stresses and overall architecture such as laminations
and fractures.
Description of rock and fluid properties between the well control points
requires understanding of the linkage of bulk and seismic properties to
each other and their changes with geologic age, burial depth, and location.
This connection allows us to understand and model the petrophysical and
geometrical properties which give rise to the seismic signal. Rock physics
requires a knowledge and understanding of geophysics, petrophysics, geo-
mechanics and the causes of distribution of fluids in the subsurface reser-
voir between wells. From seismic fluid monitoring we can obtain valuable
information about reservoir fluid movements and geologic reservoir het-
erogeneities. The results can also resolve seal integrity issues and guide the
optimum placement of wells in complex reservoirs.
Rock physics uses sonic, density and dipole sonic logs to establish a rela-
tionship between the geophysical data and the petrophysical properties. In
‘80s and ‘90s many oil companies had their own rock physics laboratories.
Because of the longer-range objectives and the need to assemble large data-
bases, today such laboratories are found primarily within five or six univer-
sities and a few service companies. The focus of rock physics analysis started
with estimating porosity and permeability of sandstones and carbonates.
Today, much of the research is focused on unconventional reservoirs and
on estimating rock strength or “fracability” and the presence of total organic
carbon. For some detailed discussion on the value of rock physics analysis in
various aspects of reservoir characterization and reservoir property estima-
tion see Dvorkin and Nur [5] and Castagna et al. [4].
Integration of 3D seismic interpretation with well measurements provides
a powerful tool for characterization a reservoir for the 3D distribution of rock
properties and the geometric framework of the reservoir. While the cores,
wireline logs and outcrops provide the vertical resolution it is only geophys-
ical data like 3D seismic data that can provide detailed spatial information
between the wells for the geological model. Since 3D seismic is a measurement
made at the surface of the earth, the subsurface interpretation using seismic
data can be done only after proper calibration with available well information.
Seismic reflection data provide the gross acoustic properties within a volume
of rock and do not have the vertical resolution of wireline logs.
1.6.2 Reservoir Modeling

Quantification of rock properties and the fluids in three dimensions is the
process of reservoir modeling. The goal of reservoir modeling and fluid
simulation is increased hydrocarbon fluid production with an increased
rate of return. The 3D quantification is performed in a geo-cellular model
that consists or reservoir geometry, lithology, porosity, permeability and
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fast, but they came to a bramble bush. The tiger caught his tail and
was not able to move, and out of the drum jumped Lambikin.
Then off he frolicked home again as frisky and happy as ever a
lamb could be.
BROTHER WOLF
AND THE ROCK.
Once upon a time Brother Wolf dressed himself up very finely, just
like an Indian. He put feathers on his head, and moccasins on his
feet, and beads around his neck. Then he bought a very gay blanket,
just like a chief’s blanket. He wrapped it all around him, and then he
started on a journey.
As he traveled, he came to a big Rock. Brother Wolf thought that
he had never seen such a nice Rock, such a smooth, round, shining
Rock. But Brother Wolf thought that the Rock looked cold. So he
took off his blanket and wrapped it around the Rock to keep the old
Rock warm.
Then Brother Wolf started traveling again, but he had not gone
very far when he heard a loud noise—that was the thunder; and he
saw a bright light—that was the lightning; and he felt something wet
on his nose—that was the rain. So Brother Wolf ran back in great
haste to the Rock.
“Oh, Rock,” cried Brother Wolf, “it is storming, and I shall be wet.
Give me back my blanket to keep off the rain.”
But, no, Rock would not. Old Rock said he would just keep Brother
Wolf’s blanket a little longer.
Then Brother Wolf hid under a tree, and, by and by, along came
Brother Fox.
“Oh, Brother Fox,” said Brother Wolf, “go to Rock and bring back
my blanket.”
So Brother Fox went to old Rock and told him that Brother Wolf
wanted back his blanket to keep the rain off his nose. But, no, old
Rock would not give up the blanket.
Then Brother Fox went back and told Brother Wolf, and Brother
Wolf cried because he knew his feathers would be spoiled. They sat
under a tree, and the rain poured and poured, the lightning flashed,
and the thunder roared. Brother Wolf asked Brother Fox to please go
again to old Rock and ask for the blanket, but Brother Fox said, “No.”
After a while they heard a great noise, and a loud roaring. The
stones in the road began to come skipping by. Brother Wolf peeped
out from under the tree. There was old Rock rolling down the road.
The rain had started him, and he was coming so hard that he tore
great furrows of earth, and uprooted the trees. He came so fast that
he could not stop himself.
Brother Fox scampered into a hole to hide, but he left the tip end
of his tail sticking out. Old Rock just grazed it as he went by, and that
is why the tip of Brother Fox’s tail is pointed.
On and on went old Rock until he came to a river. Splash, in he
went, and that was the last that anybody saw of Rock, for he went
straight to the bottom.
When the rain was over, Brother Wolf and Brother Fox went down
to the river bank to look for old Rock, but they could not find him
anywhere. On the top of the water floated Brother Wolf’s gay
blanket, so they waited until it came ashore, and they dried it in the
sun.
Then Brother Wolf said “Good-by” to Brother Fox, and put on his
blanket again, and traveled.
LITTLE BEAR.
Once upon a time, there was an Indian boy and he had a little
sister. Now the little sister was not like an Indian child, for she was a
bear.
Early one morning the boy started out to seek his fortune, but Little
Bear wished to go too.
“No, no, Little Bear, you cannot go. You must stay at home and
watch the fire,” said her brother. Then he tied Little Bear to the door
posts that she might not run away.
He had not gone very far on his journey when he heard TRAMP,
TRAMP, TRAMP, in the path behind him. There was Little Bear
following with the door posts on her back.
“Oh, Little Bear, I told you to stay at home and watch the fire,” said
the boy.
He led Little Bear back, and this time he tied her to a pine tree.
He had not gone very far when he heard once more, TRAMP,
TRAMP, TRAMP, in the path behind him. There was Little Bear
following with the pine tree on her back.
“Oh, Little Bear, you must stay at home and watch the fire,” said
the boy.
He led Little Bear back, and this time he tied her to a rock.
He started on his journey again, but he had not gone a stone’s
throw, when he heard THUMP, THUMP, THUMP, in the path behind
him. There was Little Bear following him with the rock on her back.
“What shall I do with you, Little Bear?” said the boy. But just then
they came to a wide brook with no bridge to span it.
“How shall I cross?” said the little boy.
Little Bear pushed the rock into the water. She laid the pine tree
across the rock for a bridge. They both walked across the brook in
safety.
“Well, you may come with me, Little Bear,” said the boy.
They journeyed for many days until they came, at last, to some
very dark woods. In the woods they met Brother Wolf carrying a
candle to light him on his way.
“The sun is lost from the sky,” said Brother Wolf; “the old squaw
pulled it down.”
“Oho, I can find the sun,” said Little Bear, “but you must first give
me two lumps of maple sugar.”
Brother Wolf gave Little Bear two lumps of maple sugar and she
hurried along until she came to the old squaw’s wigwam. The old
squaw was stirring a kettle of rice over her fire. Little Bear crept up
behind her. Little Bear dropped the two lumps of maple sugar into
the kettle. As the old squaw stirred, she tasted her rice.
“It is too sweet,” she said; “I must go to the field for more.”
While she was gone, Little Bear found the sun, which the old
squaw had hid in her wigwam. Little Bear tossed it back to the sky
again.
When the old squaw came back from the rice fields and missed
her sun, she was very angry. She looked for it many, many days, but
the clouds hid it from her. Then, one night, she pulled the moon
down, and hid that away in her wigwam.
So there was no light in the evening. Brother Wolf lighted his
candle again, and he hurried after the boy and Little Bear, who had
started on their journey again.
“The moon is gone from the sky,” said Brother Wolf, “the old
squaw has pulled it down.”
“Oho, I can find the moon,” said Little Bear; “give me two pinches
of salt, Brother Wolf.”
Brother Wolf gave Little Bear two pinches of salt, and Little Bear
crept up to the old squaw again, and threw the salt in her kettle of
rice.
“The rice is too salty,” said the old squaw, tasting as she stirred; “I
must go to the field for more.”
While she was gone, Little Bear snatched the moon from the
wigwam, where the old squaw had hid it, and tossed it up to the sky
again.
Brother Wolf snuffed his candle, for he did not need it any more,
but the old squaw was very angry. The old squaw ran after Little
Bear. She caught her, and she put her in a bag, and tied the bag to a
tree. Then she went for her spoon with which to beat Little Bear.
But while she was gone, Little Bear bit a hole in the bag with her
teeth. She slipped out. Then she filled the bag with the old squaw’s
pots and pans. When the old squaw came back, and began beating
the bag, she broke all her dishes.
Then the boy and Little Bear picked up enough sun gold and moon
silver which had fallen by the road to make them rich for always. And
Little Bear traveled with her brother wherever he went after that. Was
she not a clever Little Bear?
HOW THE PIGS CAN
SEE THE WIND.
Once upon a time, Mrs. Pig lived in a fine house of her own with
her five little pigs. Four of the little pigs were black, but the smallest
pig was white and he was as the apple of his mother’s eye.
Around the hill from Mrs. Pig’s house lived Brother Wolf, and
Brother Wolf had a mighty good mouth for pig meat. Every night Mr.
Wolf came through the garden gate, and he walked round and round
Mrs. Pig’s house, sniffing and snuffing, and calling in a soft voice:
“Mrs. Pig, Mrs. Pig, let me come in,

The corn is ripe, and the frosts begin.”
But Mrs. Pig always locked her door fast, and Brother Wolf had to
go home without any pig meat.
One night Brother Wolf thought of a trick. He put a very high hat
on his head. He put shoes on his feet. He tied a necktie around his
neck, and he looked just like Mr. Man.
Then he put a bag of corn over his shoulder, and he walked,
TRAMP, TRAMP, up the brick walk that led to Mrs. Pig’s house, and
he rapped loudly on Mrs. Pig’s door.

The corn is ripe, and the frosts begin,”
he said.
“Who knocks?” asked Mrs. Pig, peeping through the window, the
little white pig under her arm.
“Mr. Man, come to put a mark on your little pigs,” said Brother
Wolf.
Then Mrs. Pig opened the door, and she turned out the four little
black pigs. But the little white pig was as the apple of her eye, and
she hid him in the cupboard.
So Brother Wolf emptied all the corn out of his bag, and he put in
the four little pigs, and he carried them home with him.
By and by, Brother Wolf was hungry for more pig meat, so he
dressed himself in his clothes again. He put his bag of corn over his
shoulder, and he rapped loudly at Mrs. Pig’s door, calling:

“Who knocks?” asked Mrs. Pig.

“Mr. Man, come to put a mark on your little white pig,” said Brother
Wolf.
But Mrs. Pig barred the door, and locked the window, and hid the
little white pig in the dresser, for he was as the apple of her eye.
Then Brother Wolf was very angry, and he took off his hat and his
shoes and his necktie. He hurried up and down the roads until he
met Mr. Wind, who wore a red cloak, and was sweeping the fields.
Brother Wolf told Mr. Wind how he had a mighty good mouth for
pig meat. Mr. Wind said he would help Brother Wolf, for he always
liked a romp.
So Mr. Wind and Brother Wolf went to Mrs. Pig’s house and they
rapped loudly on the door, and Brother Wolf called out:

But never a word did Mrs. Pig say.
“Who knocks?” asked Mrs. Pig.
“Blow, Mr. Wind,” said Brother Wolf.

Then Mr. Wind began to puff himself out bigger and bigger. He
huffed and he puffed and he blew a mighty gale. He blew round the
garden, and he pulled up the corn and threw it down on the ground.
He slammed the gate and he rattled the window. He shook the door,
and he cried, “WHE-EE, WHE-EE,” in the keyhole, did Mr. Wind.
Brother Wolf was so frightened that his hair stood up straight on
his back. Out of the garden he ran, and around the hill. He never
stopped, nor looked behind him, and no one ever saw him in Mrs.
Pig’s garden again.
“WHE-EE, WHE-EE, let me in,” called Mr. Wind.
Mrs. Pig opened her door a crack, and peeped out with the little
white pig under her arm, for he was the apple of her eye.
HUFF, PUFF, the door blew open wide. When Mrs. Pig saw Mr.
Wind in his red cloak running around the garden, she hurried off to
the woods with her little white pig, and she never came home for a
day and a night.
And that is how the pigs first came to see the wind. If you do not
believe it, just watch them run when Mr. Wind comes huffing and
puffing through the garden.
THE TALKING
GRASS.
Once upon a time when there were only Indians and animals in
our land, there was a green hill covered with long talking grass. The
four winds of heaven brought the grasses news of what was going
on in the world, and of the coming of hunters. Then the grasses
whispered this news to their friends, the little red Fox, the Hare, the
Deer, and the Wolf. If the animals were too far away to hear the soft
voices of the grasses, they gave the messages to the Butterflies.
The hill was the refuge of these animals, and the talking grasses
were their friends.
One day a great band of hunters came from their camp in the
valley, up the hill. They were armed with bows and arrows. They
planned to kill enough game to give them food for a long time. But
the grasses knew that the hunters were on their way. They warned
the animals, who hid at once. When the hunters reached the hill,
they saw nothing but green grass waving in the wind. Many bright
butterflies flew above it.
The hunters listened and heard the grasses talking to one another.
They saw, too, the trails of the animals as they had passed through
it. They guessed at once what had happened.
“The grasses have told the animals to flee and hide from us,” they
said. “We must kill them. To-night we will rest and sleep among
them, for we are tired with our long journey. But to-morrow we will
tear every blade of grass up by its roots.”
At these cruel words the grasses became still. They loved their life
on the hill, with their roots in the earth and their green blades
reaching up to the sunshine. Now they knew that they were going to
die in the morning. They could neither sing nor talk any more. But
the Butterflies knew the grasses’ peril. They flew away, one by one,
so that the hunters would suspect nothing, until they came to the
Fox’s den. They told him of the great danger of the talking grasses.
They begged him to do anything that he could to save them.
The Fox set off at once. He did not stop until he came to a dark
cave on the side of a mountain. Here the Fire Manito lived. Few
dared speak to him, for he was a very mighty Manito. He was able to
destroy man or beast at his will. But when he saw the eager,
trembling little Fox, waiting outside, the Fire Manito asked him his
errand. The Fox told him that the grasses were to be killed in the
morning, unless something was done to save them.
The Manito went to the back of his cave and brought out a heap of
black stones. There was no light in them. He told the Fox about
them.
“They came from the depths of the earth,” he said. “The Great
Spirit mixed a million sunbeams in each. Then he hid them in the
earth until they should be needed to give heat and light to man. Now
we will use the black stones to save the grasses.”
The Manito heated the stones in his wood fire and they glowed like
red rubies. He sent the Fox ahead to tell the grasses to be brave.
He, himself, followed with his arms full of the glowing stones which
did not burn him because he was the Fire Manito.
The hunters had arisen early and waited at the foot of the hill,
ready to rush up and tear up the grasses. But the Manito laid the
brightly burning stones in a circle about the hill. The hunters were not
able to get through. It was a ring of fire and it frightened them. They
had never seen burning coals before. They went back to their camp
and the grasses were safe, for the coals burned to ashes without
touching them.
The grasses soon found their voices again, and they have been
talking to their friends, the animals, ever since. In the summer they
tell the Field Mouse and the Hare where to hide safely. In the spring
they tell the Deer that they are fresh and green for his food. When it
is winter, a few of the grasses stand up, stiff and tall, above the snow
as the lone gray Wolf runs by. They guide him to food. In the fall the
whispering of the dry grasses helps the Fox to double his trail so that
no one may catch him.
Who of you have heard the voices of the grasses?
HOW THE FOX
PLAYED HERDSMAN.
Once upon a time there was a little old woman who had a farm of
her very own with sheep, and cows, and swine. But the little old
woman was so busy making butter and minding the dairy that she
had no time to look after the herds.
One fine morning she started out to hire a herdsman. Now she
had not gone very far when she met a bear.
“Whither away, Goody?” asked Bruin of the little old woman.
“Oh, I am off to engage a herdsman for my farm,” said Goody in
reply.
“Why not hire me, Goody?” asked Bruin.
“Can you call the flocks at evening?” asked the little old woman.
“You should just hear me,” said Bruin, and he called in a very loud
and gruff voice, “OW, OW.”
“No, no, I won’t have you,” said the little old woman as soon as
she heard his gruff voice, and off she went on her way.
She had not gone a day’s journey farther when she met a wolf.
“Whither away, Goody?” asked the wolf of the little old woman.
“Oh, I am off to engage a herdsman for my farm,” said Goody.
“Why not hire me, Goody?” asked the wolf.
“You should just hear me,” said the wolf, and he called in a shrill
voice, “UH, UH.”
“No, no,” said the little old woman as soon as she heard that, and
off she went on her way.
But before the end of another day’s journey, whom should the little
old woman meet but Brother Fox, sitting beside a blackberry bush,
and sunning himself.
“Whither away, Goody?” asked Brother Fox.
“Oh, I am off to engage a herdsman for my farm,” said Goody in
reply.
“Why not hire me, Goody?” said Brother Fox.
“Ah, you should hear me,” said Brother Fox. He opened his mouth
very wide, and sang in a sweet voice:
“Tum-ti-ti, tum-ti-ti-tra-la-la.”
“You will do very well,” said the little old woman, quite carried away
with the fox’s sweet singing. “You shall come home with me, and be
my herdsman.”
Things went very well for a little while at the farm. Early each
morning Brother Fox led the sheep and the cows and the swine to
pasture, and at night he led them home again, and locked the barn,
and bolted the pigpen.
But, somehow, after a week, the flocks and the herds seemed
smaller each night when the little old woman went out to make the
rounds of the farm.
“Where is the small black pig?” she asked of Brother Fox.
“Loitering in the meadow,” said Brother Fox, wiping his mouth with
his paw.
“Where is the old ram?” asked the little old woman.
“He stops behind at the brook,” said Brother Fox, turning his head
away that Goody might not see him laughing.
So Goody went back to the dairy, and she wondered and
wondered what made the flocks grow smaller.
At last she had churned enough butter to make a fine cake and
she went out to the poultry roost for eggs with which to enrich it.
Alas, such a hubbub, and cackling, and fussing did she find.
The cock stood on the pump, crying loudly, “Cock-a-doodle-do.”
The hens ran about cackling, and out of their midst walked Brother
Fox with a chicken over his back, and his hat full of eggs.
And as he went along he sang to all the poultry yard:
“Tum-ti-ti, Tum-ti-ti,
Tum, tum, ti,
Old Goody’s herdsman,
Sly Reynard, am I.”
“Well, it’s certainly a very poor herdsman you are,” cried the little
old woman. “Where is the small black pig? Where is the old ram?”
She ran after Brother Fox, who dropped his eggs and broke every
one, and tipped over the churn as he passed the dairy. The little old
woman picked up the dasher, and would have beaten Brother Fox,
but he was too quick for her, and reached the woods, with a drop of
cream on the tip end of his tail.
So the little old woman learned what had become of her herds,
and Brother Fox was never able to get that cream from off his tail,
The tip end has been white ever since he played at being a
herdsman.
MR. ELEPHANT
AND MR. FROG.
Once upon a time, when Mr. Elephant and Mr. Frog lived together
in the same wood with Mr. Fox and Mr. Tiger and Mr. Hare and Mr.
Lion, the animals were all very good friends.
Mr. Elephant was very, very big, and Mr. Frog was very, very little,
but every day they went walking together, Mr. Elephant going in
front, tramp, tramp, tramp; and Mr. Frog going on behind, hop, hop,
hop.
One night when they came home, Mr. Hare, who was a saucy little
fellow, ran to meet them, and he said:
“Oho, Mr. Frog says Mr. Elephant is his horse.”
Then Mr. Fox and Mr. Tiger and Mr. Lion all followed after Mr.
Hare, crying:
“Oho, oho, Mr. Elephant is Mr. Frog’s horse.”
Mr. Elephant turned around, and he said in a very gruff voice to
Mr. Frog:
“Did you tell them, grandson, that I was your horse?”
And Mr. Frog said in a high, squeaky voice:
“No, no, grandfather.”
But all the time Mr. Frog was thinking of a trick to play on Mr.
Elephant.
The next day, Mr. Elephant and Mr. Frog started off for a long walk.
Mr. Frog had heard of a place where the swamps were deep and

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Reservoir Characterization:

Fundamentals and Applications.

Sustainable Energy Engineering

Series Editor: Fred Aminzadeh

Fundamentals and Applications

Wiley Global Headquarters

Limit of Liability/Disclaimer of Warranty

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Cover image: Geo/Rock Wall, 31647625 © Pzaxe | Dreamstime.com

Printed in the USA

Part 2: General Reservoir Characterization

4.4 Summary and Conclusions 79

6.7 Estimates of Prior False Discovery Rates

8.4 Use of Finite Element 176

Part 3: Reservoir Permeability Detection 195

9.8 Analysis of Accuracy of Outlier Replacement

Appendix 1- Description of Permeability Models from

Part 4: Reserves Evaluation/Decision Making 253

13.11 Comparative Analysis of Results of Monte Carlo

14.8 U.S. Independents 312

Part 5: Unconventional Reservoirs 337

16.4 Sensitivity Analysis 374

18.3.1 Experiment Description 414

Part 6: Enhance Oil Recovery 427

19.5.4 3D Model Showcase 455

Part 7: New Advances in Reservoir

21.4 Machine (Deep) Learning and Enhanced Oil

petroleum engineering, from laboratory measurements to field applica-

Dr. Ali Tura

An important step in exploration development, monitoring, and man-

This book will provide a comprehensive body of technical material on

application of machine learning in reservoir characterization. It also dis-

FACT Inc., Santa Barbara, CA, USA

Keywords: Reservoir characterization, data integration challenges, 3D/4D

1.1 Introduction to Reservoir Characterization?

Reservoir valuation and producing from a field demands a realistic descrip-

Reservoir grid Upscaling

Facies proportions Geological model: Flow

in geo-model updating monitoring production and the EOR/reservoir

1.2 Data Requirements for Reservoir

Integration of geophysical data with geologic data, and engineering

------sand bodies---river channels---oil/gas traps------

1mm 1m 10m 100m 1km 10km

1.3 SURE Challenge

Uncertainty/Coverage Pyramid SURE Challenge

Information Knowledge &

AI-DA Offers solutions to

with different levels of uncertainties. For example, the direct measure-

At the Well Increasing Areal Coverage Across the Asset

We refer to these four key challenges: Scale, Uncertainty, Resolution

1.4 Reservoir Characterization in the Exploration,

1.4.1 Exploration Stage/Development Stage

by correlating lithology, porosity, net pay thickness and other properties at

1.4.2 Primary Production Stage

1.4.3 Secondary/Tertiary Production Stage

develop an optimum secondary/tertiary recovery mechanism and plan for

1.5 Dynamic Reservoir Characterization (DRC)

1.5.1 4D Seismic for DRC

1.5.2 Microseismic Data for DRC

1.6 More on Reservoir Characterization and

Earth Model Flow Simulation

Pp, So, Sw, Sg, Ss, T

4000 5000 6000 7000 8000 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1