Chapter 2: Factors affecting design

2.1 Factors affecting design and production

Perhaps the most readily observable influence on product design is cost. All consumers reach a point
where they weigh the cost of the article against the features that it provides and what they can afford.
If an article is too expensive, consumers will tend to avoid buying it. Conversely, if the manufacturer
has cut corners during production and an article is clearly of inferior quality, consumers will also avoid
it. Accurate preproduction costing allows market research personnel to forecast a product's level of
acceptance in the target market. Cost blow-outs in the production stage can have a devastating effect
on the success of any product. It is either forced into a higher price bracket, where it faces competition
from similar articles designed at a higher planned cost (usually of better quality), or it takes longer to
recoup investment capital at the original selling price. Cost should always be balanced against product
quality and the market for which it is intended.

Appropriateness of the design . . . . . . .

. · bTt fa completed design may be quite subJect1ve without strictly applied crit:ria.
Evaluating the s~1t~in1~1 Yd~sign solution meet the needs and specifications set out in its original brief?
Ho_w ~ell doest e . at the heart of any design evaluation process and ensures that the selected
T~1s i_s really the quest1ohn t 1·k the one below could be useful in conducting an evaluation of the core
criteria are relevant. A c ar I e
criteria for an MP3 player.

CRITERIA POOR SATISFACTORY EXCELLENT

Sound quality

Features

Co; fort (ear pieces)

Easy to use

Th valuation . process can be very detailed ' looking at all aspects of the market, environment and
e e .
th Original brief or ·t I may exam·ine a specific aspect of the product for upgrade. In the worst-case
e
scenario .
where t'h e des·gn
1 proves unpopular, evaluation surveys. can indicate the
. areas
. most
•ty· urgently
.m need of ' atten t·10n. There is also a positive role for evaluation. Rather than simply 1dent1 1ng areas
for .1mprovement , evaluation also identifies the aspects of a design that worked. well and connected
• t he users, thus provi'ding a basis for further successful development. Until the product meets the
with

19
Preliminary cou rse: Designing and producing

marketplace, much of the projected behaviour of consumers is informed conjecture a

nd
will influence future development can only be determined after version one is used forces th
nd
provide feedback. The progressive development of car designs over a number of ye a _th e Consuat
example_ of this process where the basic concept is refined to cater for changing tre~~ is a Visible fliers
four to six years or longer. s over a Pe .
nod Of

Needs
Receiving the brief is often considered to be the first
step in any design process . Yet, when attempting to
solve a problem we have personally encountered it is
easy to see that identifying the need is really the first
step.
Certain needs, such as food and shelter, are
things that a person must have in order to survive .
However, much of the focus in designing these days
is on meeting perceived needs or wants . These are
things that a person feels they must have , such as
the latest clothing or game.
Needs are often identified by a designer or
manufacturer as a result of some daily activity, or
through interaction with others who have encountered
problems . Some successful design ideas have been
entirely market-led . In these instances, someone has
identified a marketing opportunity and gone on to
develop an appropriate product or solution that fills
the gap.
Generally speaking, though , needs arise from
a desire to improve our quality of life in some way,
adding to or improving our leisure time or making
domestic tasks easier. .----'--------~---------J
Solution
The pursuit of leisure and sporting activities
also gives rise to a variety of extremely specialised needs. In many circumstances, these require one-
off solutions, such as customised clothing or sporting equipment that has a limited lifespan. Once the
primary need itself has been identified, consideration should be given to any associated needs so that
they may be included in the solution. In the case of a dishwasher, along with its primary function, there
is also an obvious need for hygiene during and after the washing process. Energy and water usage
considerations are also gaining priority as environmental issues become more widely recognised .

Function
Functionality is the ability of a design to meet its product's
operational criteria. When designing and manufacturing
passenger restraints for cars, for example, the colour, texturent
and shape of a restraint are of little importance if the re 5!rai
does not adequately protect the passengers. Comme_rciall
product design often has a strong emphasis on functiona sY
efficiency that places aesthetics behind.
the qua i·r
I ie
5 of ea ,

20
 Chapter 2: Factors affecting design

reliable operation. However · th . .

h k ' in e maJonty of consumer products, aesthetic qualities and image drive
t e ma~ et, often at the expense of function.
Designs specifically intend d t O rf
. b'l'ty d e pe orm one or two related tasks have higher levels of functional
re I,a 11 an Iongevity Hand d .
'd . · an power tools are a pnme example of functional design with little
cons, erat1on for embellishment.

Aesthetics
Design is concerned largely with functional efficiency and a great deal
of effort goes into ensuring reliability and ease of operation, wh ich are
key components of any solution . However, in most consumer products,
it is the visual or aesthetic qualities and image of a particular design
that influence our preference. Aesthetics is concerned with 'beauty'
and there are no fixed rules on what defines beauty or makes
something attractive . Whether you find an item attractive or not can
depend on factors such as your age, cultural background or peer
group. These continually changing ideas about appearance are broadly
described as a sense of fashion . Factors such as shape, colour,
texture, proportion and pattern combine to create an overall image
or style. Different styles appeal to different tastes and are suited to
different environments.

Shape
Shape is the most obvious factor that differentiates designs. The form that a design finally takes is
often a matter of the designer's personal preference influenced by the functions that the product must
perform. Most designs can be dominated by a simple shape, preferably a geometrical one because
the eye finds such shapes easy to recognise and classify. If you use a variety of conflicting shapes, the
eye becomes confused and tries to untangle the visual elements, leading to a 'fuzzy' image. Keeping
the overall shape simple usually provides the best effect. A good example is the aerodynamic wedge-
shaped profile of many automobiles. There is little room for confusion about its purpose. Shape should
relate directly to the primary function of the design. Shape also interacts with proportion to make an
object appear to be heavy and solid, or light and delicate. Short, wide shapes enhance the concept of
solidity and thin, tall shapes tend to indicate delicacy.

Proportion
Proportion is the relationship of size and space
between the various parts of a design. By comparing
two articles with a similar basic shape yet different
styles, we can clarify the concept of proportion and
how it influences the image created . Both tables
shown below perform exactly the same function and
in many respects would provide similar levels of
strength. The image of fine structure associated with
the steel frame is emphasised by the glass table
top, wh ich tends to reduce the overall visual bulk by
being transparent. The larger, thicker top and legs
on the timber table give it a stronger appearance.

21
Preliminary cou rse.. Designing and producing

Pattern
i
Selection of a suitable pattern for decorating an object is closer .
to the image already created by its shape and proportion. Fine linked
patterns add a look of sophistication to delicately shaped article etaiied
would look out of place on simple solid designs, which are more: and
t .
o uncomplicated patterns that emp has1se
. th e1r
. bas1c
. qualities. U1ted

Texture
Texture can also contribute to the image of an object by being compatible with the design's associated
shape and function . The coarse texture of external brickwork would definitely not be suitable for the
case of a notebook computer.

Colour
Colour influences our image of an object by its associations and the way it highlights various features
of the design. The colour scheme should not confuse the senses. As a general rule, it is best to select
one background colour and a feature colour. Except in extraordinary circumstances, one colour should
dominate and be the backdrop that enhances and dramatises the effect of the other colours.

Style
As the designer, it is up to you to determine the interaction between shape and proportion, colour,
pattern and texture. The style of your designs is created by the overall effect and interaction of these
elements.

Short-term and long-term environmental consequences

Many of the environmental challenges
that we face today are a result of
the factory system of manufacturing
and its reliance on economies of
scale to produce goods cheaply.
Our future quality of life and that of
the generations to follow depends
largely on the decisions we make
today. The profitability of our activities
must be balanced against the cost to
society and the environment. When
holistically assessing the cost of an
article, a designer needs to gain a
full picture of its short-term coSts and
long-term impact. t ·1 · -
Short-term costs are usually observable, such as wages, ma eria s, equipment and human resources
used to develop the project from day one.

22 11~ 11
 Chapter 2: Factors affecting design

Long-term consequences are less observable, and are usually the effect of cumu lative short-term
consequences with compounding results. Long-term consequences to the community include the social
costs associated with poor health and may have an effect over several generations. Environmental impacts
include resource depletion, waste disposal and pollution created during production and transport.

Ergonomics
Designing a product that people can use effectively in comfort and safety involves considerable
research and planning. The success of products such as cars, computers, shopping centres or
household goods depends heavily on their ability to cater for the human user. If a design is unsafe,
uncomfortable or creates a problem for the user, it has failed at the most basic level of performance.
Ergonomics involves scientific analysis of how humans relate to their physical environment, particularly
when they operate machinery and equipment or when they enter a ·man-made' environment. This
relationsh ip is vital to designers, and is sometimes referred to as the person-product interface.
Ergonomics also includes associated activities such as the development of work procedures and
evaluation of the things that people use.

Physiological
factors J Arm length
A Span

All human beings have

the same basic form, but
we each have our own
unique set of dimensions
and proportions.
Anthropometric data is
used to determine these
common limits and is
based on measurements
collected from a wide
variety of people. These
sizes will be suitable for
use with the majority
of our population.
If, however, you are L Foot---p..-j
designing for anyone with
special needs, such as
a wheelchair occupant Q Hand
or stroke sufferer, it breadth

would be wise to check 1-1' M Head width

carefully which standard R
measurements could be 0 Finger
Body length
used and which needed height
modification. Standard
shelf and table heights,
in particular, may need
adjustment in these
cases.

23
 . 1 g and producing
Preliminary course. Des1gn n

Anthropometric data
ALL SIZES IN MM
F
iSUUllfiiii&i~
1035 1580 -~
A Span M 1049 1560 1798
F 246 330 399
B Shoulder
M 239 330 455
F 137 145 147
C Head
M 142 147 155
F 196 285 363
D Seat
M 186 269 335
F 1039 1478 1605 I
E Stanoing
M 1039 1499 1755
F 937 1376 1506
Eye height
M 937 1397 1643
772 1240 1265
G Shoulder height
M 775 1204 1367
272 422 452
H Knee height
M 269 417 503
F 437 696 732
Top leg
M 437 693 833
F 417 653 666
Arm length
424 643 729
tM
I F 132 160 175
K Body width
M 132 163 229
F 165 216 244
Foot
M 168 218 267
Head width F 170 183
M
M 185 196
F 160 175
N Body width
M 132 163 229
F 770 848
0 Body height
M 760 909
p Ankle height F 56 76 76
M 56 79 89
Hand breadth F 55 71 74
Q
M 56 71 89
Finger length 74 89 102
R
M 74 89 114
56 74
s Knuckle-wrist F 71
76
M 56 71
T Thumb length 46 56 61
M 46 56 69

Other factors that require consideration when designing for the human form are:
· comfort
safety
· strength of the user
· grip of the product by the user

24 • ••
 Chapter 2: Factors affecting design

stability of the product

mobility of the user
weight and height of the user.
In addition to the purely phys· 1 g· 1 .
. . 10 o 1ca aspects of design, there are psychological and sociological
cons1derat1ons that are of importance. These include:
• colour
sound
lighting
personal space
design for the senses.
Each of these elements is part of the combined image that your design generates.

Use of the design

The term 'user-friendly' means that the product 'feels
right' when you pick it up or use it. This quality is
directly related to the ergonomic factors in the design,
the quality of the materials used and the surface
finishes.
User-friendliness is one of the most important
aspects of any design. It is a major factor in
determining the level of acceptance that a particular
design has with its target market and its ability to
attract consumers from other market segments. A
simple, easy-to-use product that functions reliably
will always attract consumers, provided it is not
overpriced. The operating concepts in a user-friendly product are evident from the visual cues in the
design. User-friendliness is largely intuitive; the product itself communicates with the user through its
shape, colours and mechanisms. Colour coding (e.g. red = hot, blue = cold) and simple instructions
may also be added to enhance communication and simplify use.
A truly successful product will address its primary and secondary function requirements in a manner
that is user-friendly at a reasonable price.

Sustainability
' Sustainability' is a broad term that can be applied
in many contexts. Environmental sustainability
may be described as the ability of a manufacturing
and product cycle to repeat itself without causing
environmental damage. Until recently, most
production and manufacturing processes were
designed with little reference to their environmental
impact. Although we are becoming more aware of
the impact that industrialised nations have on the
environment, economic rationalism unfortunately
still has the power when it comes to decision-
making processes at an international level. The
essential criteria for sustainable production
would be :

25
 Preliminary course: Designing and producing

The materials should be 100 per cent renewable.

The materials should be 100 per cent recyclable or biodegradable at an acceptable rate
Energy sources used in the product and manufacturing processes should be environmen.t ally
friendly.
Any by-products, waste and packaging should be biodegradable or recyclable.
Ecological sustainability is both an individual and international con_cern that requires consistent
attention and cooperation if we are to have any hope of resolving the issues.

Energy
Does the design make economical use of
energy resources? Energy use is an important
consideration in our world. At the present time
most of our energy needs are derived from fos~il
fuels such as gas, coal and oil. These are non-
renewable resources that are either used directly
or to power the generation of electricity. Reserves
of fossil fuels are diminishing rapidly and they are
not 'clean' sources of energy. Demand for energy
is already huge and on the increase, so alternative
means of generating electricity or genuinely
alternative fuels are necessary if our current social
structure is to continue . Even the small saving achieved by using power-saver light bulbs or energy-
efficient household products becomes significant when applied to millions of articles.

Recycle capability
Recycling of newspapers, aluminium cans , PET bottles and glass containers is a well-established
process in most Australian cities. Fortunately, we have discovered ways of reusing these materials.
Their ability to be recycled was probably not an important consideration in their initial design. Today,
however, the concept of material reuse is becoming important to the designer as significant cost
and marketing advantages for products based on recycled materials become apparent. Recent
developments include the recycling of plastic milk bottles to be woven into fleece-style material for
sportswear. Some European car manufacturers have even designed car body parts, such as bumper
bars, dashboard and door handles, specifically for recycling and have planned where the materials can
be used after each incarnation.

Safety
The end result of any design process should always be a product that is 'safe to
use'. Some items, such as children 's toys and games, have a greater emphasis on
the safety aspects of their design than do other products. This extreme emphasis
is necessary because children will often use a toy in a manner totally unrelated to
its purpose. It must, therefore, be safe to put in their mouths and must not fit into
power points, and so on. Australian standards have been developed to cater for
A.u~(r,iha.V\ almost every type of product. These range from the fire-retardation standards on
th
Standard clothing to impact resistance for bicycle helmets and car windscreens. Products at
th
AS l~'.31 have complied with and met the necessary safety standards are marked with e
Lie I-lo 1~18 Australian Safety Standards insignia (left).

26 • • •
 Chapter 2: Factors affecting design

Quality
Your design should compare favourably with existing products and outperform them in some way.
After all, what is the point of designing something that does not take a step forward in any direction?
If a new design does not have easily recognised advantages for the consumer, it will not break into
the market. Consumer magazines often carry out product surveys that comprehensively compare the
attributes of competing products.

Durability
Product durability is the length of time that a product can reliably perform its designed function.
Durability is closely related to quality. The choice of materials and manufacturing processes made by
the designer and manufacturer will give some products a longer working life than their counterparts.
Higher cost is usually a product of increased longevity. The extent to which a product's longevity
influences the consumer depends on its nature. Items destined for long-term use, such as household
goods and motor vehicles, will often attract consumers into a slightly higher price bracket because of
their dependability. On the other hand, disposable items, such as serviettes, nappies, razors and some
forms of clothing, may well be purchased on price alone.

Obsolescence
Designs become obsolete when they are replaced
by a new and more attractive product that performs
the same function or when an entire technology is
replaced by a more effective one. Designers often
have to choose between using existing materials or
technologies and ones that are emerging. In some
instances, products have a planned obsolescence
date. This is usually determined during the design
phase to coincide with release dates for new models.
Once again, it is the computer industry that epitomises
this trend. Processor speeds are seemingly upgraded
several times a year to keep pace with developments
in software.

Life cycle analysis

Every product or design has a life cycle. It enters the market as a new product, gathers consumers and
increases its sales until reaching a plateau or stable level of sales, where it stays for a period of time ,
then heads into decline and eventual withdrawal from the market. No matter what your product design,
it will follow these stages or equivalent ones. The length of time that a design stays on the plateau
depends on its ability to satisfy the needs of its customers and the ease with which it can be replaced.
Periodic updates and new features can help keep a flagging product relevant and on its plateau for a
greater period of time.

27