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Determinants of continuous intention to use e-government services: an

extension of technology continuance theory

Article in Journal of Systems and Information Technology · July 2023

DOI: 10.1108/JSIT-09-2020-0166

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Technology
Determinants of continuous continuance
intention to use e-government theory

services: an extension of
technology continuance theory
Noor Fareen Abdul Rahim Received 12 September 2020
Revised 1 February 2021
Graduate School of Business, Universiti Sains Malaysia, Pulau Pinang, Malaysia 22 July 2021
26 March 2023
Ghazanfar Ali Abbasi Accepted 20 April 2023

Department of Management and Marketing,

King Fahd University of Petroleum and Minerals, Dhahran, Saudi Arabia
Mohammad Iranmanesh
School of Business and Law, Edith Cowan University,
Joondalup, Australia, and
Nwakaji Christopher and Azlan Amran
Graduate School of Business, Universiti Sains Malaysia, Pulau Pinang, Malaysia

Abstract
Purpose – Despite the fact that the success of e-government services is contingent on their continuous
usage, the continuance intention to use e-government services has received extremely little scholarly
attention. This study aims to investigate the determinants of the residents’ continuous intention to use
e-government services.
Design/methodology/approach – The research model was developed based on the integration of
technology continuance theory along with trust, transparency and habit constructs. The authors adopted a
survey approach to collect the data. The data were collected using an online questionnaire from 260 residents
of Penang in Malaysia.
Findings – Results revealed that transparency has a positive effect on both perceived usefulness and trust.
Contrary to earlier studies on e-government, perceived ease of use was found to have no significant
relationship with residents’ perceived usefulness. Similarly, the results also demonstrated that habit was not
significantly related to users’ continuous intention to use e-government services. This study also applied
importance-performance analysis map analysis and discovered that perceived usefulness has the highest
impact on continuous intention to use e-government services, whereas satisfaction was found to have the least
effect.

Declaration of interests:
h The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal
relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.
3
ⵧ The authors declare the following financial interests/personal relationships which may be
considered as potential competing interests.
Funding details: This work was supported by USM’s Research Creativity and Management Office
Journal of Systems and
(RCMO) under Grant [number 6316429]. The authors have disclosed those interests fully to Information Technology
Taylor & Francis, and they have in place an approved plan for managing any potential conflicts © Emerald Publishing Limited
1328-7265
arising from this project. DOI 10.1108/JSIT-09-2020-0166
JSIT Originality/value – This study used an integrative framework and presented an in-depth knowledge of
the basic aspects that contribute to the post-adoption usage process and resident satisfaction, trust and
attitude towards e-government services.
Keywords Continuous intention, Satisfaction, Technology adoption, Digital technology,
Digitalisation, Usage intention
Paper type Research paper

1. Introduction
The increased popularity of information technology (IT) has transformed and influenced
residents’ daily lives (Alshibly and Chiong, 2015). It has also significantly changed the way
residents are provided services by their governments (Talukder et al., 2019; Veeramootoo
et al., 2018). Increasingly, as the public sector modernises, administrations, either national or
regional, are increasingly relying on digital technologies, especially the internet, to provide
benefits to their citizens, a phenomenon dubbed electronic government (e-government)
(Alcaide–Muñoz et al., 2017). E-government is regarded as the latest government
contributions aiming to enhance access to and delivery of government services and provide
the residents with high-quality service with the help of modern connectivity (Shuib et al.,
2019; Husin et al., 2017). According to Lin et al. (2011), e-government is the internet and IT
adaption to transform the effectiveness, accuracy, efficiency and accountability of both
informational and transactional exchanges between residents and their government from a
technological point of view. E-government-related initiatives aim to improve the relationship
between the public and the government (Talukder et al., 2020). Subsequently, e-government
is obtaining impetus worldwide, and many countries are implementing this model due to its
benefits (e.g. e-filling) and its appropriateness to several public service contexts (Shuib et al.,
2019; Veeramootoo et al., 2018).
The global spread of e-government has led researchers to dedicate a considerable amount
of scholarly attention to this area, particularly unearthing citizens’ adoption of e-
government services and their drivers (Mensah and Adams, 2019; Mensah, 2019; Alzahrani
et al., 2018). There is no doubt that successful e-government services are greatly dependent
on greater public engagement. The success of e-government services in any country is
contingent upon their continuous usage. Initial acceptance is a crucial first step in attaining
admiration and acceptance. The long-term viability and sustainable growth of the e-
government platform depend on its continuance usage by its users (Bölen, 2020).
Researchers have already established that attracting first-time users is not as cumbersome
as retaining existing ones (Oghuma et al., 2016).
It was empirically established that the cost of acquiring a new consumer is considerably
higher than keeping the existing ones (Reichheld and Schefter, 2000). As the number of
residents using e-government services rises, concerned authorities need to orchestrate steps
to guarantee continuance usage. Therefore, studies on prominent factors influencing
continuous intention to use e-government services, especially in a developing country like
Malaysia, are not only a creditable initiative but also much warranted in the academic world
(Shuib et al., 2019). Results generated by this study can be used to increase the continuous
usage of e-government services benefitting both residents and the government.
Theoretically, both initial adoption and the continuance usage are two separate notions
and are affected by a mix of different factors (Veeramootoo et al., 2018). The frequency of
users’ future behaviour is dependent on their initial adoption experience (Bölen, 2020). It has
been observed that most of the scholars studying e-government continuous usage have used
constructs from adoption theories. To this end, several theories such as the “theory of
planned behaviour”, “technology acceptance model” (TAM), “unified theory of acceptance Technology
and use of technology”, “IS success model”, “social cognitive theory”, “innovative diffusion” continuance
and “task-technology fit” have been widely applied to investigate the continuance usage
(Shuib et al., 2019; Nabavi et al., 2016). However, it has also been posited that many of these
theory
theories, although valuable to comprehend the initial adoption, may not necessarily be
suitable to examine the continuance usage (Nabavi et al., 2016). Bhattacharjee and Barfar
(2011)’s rigorous and exhaustive literature review concurred with this thought. They stated
that theories that were primarily developed to gauge users’ initial adoption are inaptly
applied to predict users’ continuance of behaviour. Therefore, instead of relying on
traditional models, researchers need to adopt more appropriate models and theories to
examine users’ continuance of behaviour (Nabavi et al., 2016).
This research validates an integrative model of continuous usage intention of
e-government services by applying the technology continuance theory (TCT) (Foroughi et al.,
2019; Iranmanesh et al., 2017). The TCT model was proposed as an improved model for
information system (IS) continuance behaviour that is appropriate to the complete life cycle of
adoption (Foroughi et al., 2019; Iranmanesh et al., 2017; Gilani et al., 2017). Besides the
application of TCT, this study also extends the model by including habit (Veeramootoo et al.,
2018; Venkatesh et al., 2012) and perceived transparency (Mensah, 2019; Song and Lee, 2016),
given their importance in explaining continuance usage. This study also broadens the body
of knowledge by introducing trust in e-government (Alzahrani et al., 2018) as a driver of
satisfaction and continuance usage intention of e-government services. Prior studies have
already established that many people do not trust online services by the government and
prefer the orthodox face-to-face method (Mensah and Adams, 2019; Alzahrani et al., 2018),
and that residents’ trust in their government has been declining (Mensah, 2019; Alzahrani
et al., 2018). Despite the importance of residents’ trust in the process of adopting
e-government, very few studies have addressed the role of trust in e-government from the
perspective of residents. Understanding the factors influencing e-government continuance
intention from the residents’ standpoint is an important step to fostering resident-centric
e-government services. Moreover, the integration of all the constructs used in this study,
including TCT predictors [perceived ease of use (PEOU), perceived usefulness (PU),
confirmation, satisfaction, attitude], habit, perceived transparency and trust in e-government,
enables researchers to predict and assess the quality of e-government services.

2. Literature review
2.1 Technology continuance theory
The main objective of the research is to investigate the post-adoption behaviour of residents.
The TAM, cognitive model (COGM) and expectation-confirmation model (ECM) are the
most widely applied theories that can elaborate on determinants of continuance intention to
use ISs (Foroughi et al., 2019). The genesis of the TAM came from Davis et al. (1989) after
Fishbein and Ajzen (1977) proposed the theory of reasoned action. In the TAM, PEOU and
PU are regarded as two main external parameters that grab the intention to adopt an IS
(Iranmanesh et al., 2017). According to Joo et al. (2018), one of the limitations of the TAM is
that it fails to capture the post-adoption behaviour of users. Therefore, to enhance the
explanatory powers of TAM, researchers have recommended using it in combination with
other factors.
The ECM was applied chiefly to investigate users’ continuance intention to use a system,
with satisfaction being the most significant driver of users’ continuance intention.
According to Kumar et al. (2018), the ECM was integrated with IS research to develop a new
model for IS continuance usage. According to ECM, confirmation of expectations leads to
JSIT PU and satisfaction, which in turn enhances continuance intention. Contrary to the TAM,
the ECM relies on factors that influence retention and dependability, as it is clear that the
long-term success of any IS is contingent upon post-adoption usage (Wang et al., 2021).
Similarly, Oliver (1980), in their process of developing the COGM, also stated that an
individual’s behaviour could be the result of both attitude and satisfaction.
TCT was suggested as an enhanced and improved model that explains users’ IS
continuance use (Liao et al., 2009). TCT is the combination of three models, i.e. TAM, ECM
and COGM, constituting six main predictors, including PU, PEOU, satisfaction,
confirmation, attitude and continuance intention (Foroughi et al., 2019). The success of the
TCT model can be attributed to the fact that it balances the two main features of attitude
and satisfaction into one continuance model as it attempts to advance the well-developed
constructs of PU and PEOU as first-stage antecedents (Liao et al., 2009). Along with TCT’s
major determinants, namely, PEOU, PU, confirmation, satisfaction and attitude, this study
added to the body of knowledge by combining habit, perceived transparency and trust in e-
government to ascertain citizens’ intention to continue using e-government services. These
variables are included in the current investigation due to their significance in affecting
continued intention usage behaviour. Earlier studies have proven the critical role of TCT in
explaining the greater share of variance associated with IS continuation usage (Foroughi
et al., 2019; Iranmanesh et al., 2017). TCT is also used in this study because of its greater
explanatory ability in explaining post-IS adoption, as illustrated in Figure 1.

2.2 E-government in Malaysia

Since 2004, e-government has been categorised into several key areas, such as electronic
services delivery (E-services) and electronic procurement, to name a few (Shuib et al., 2019).
Thus, the purpose of the advancement of the e-government initiative in Malaysia is to
augment facilities like expediency, availability and the distribution of services to the
masses. At the same time, it also constantly expands to encompass the flow of information
so as to increase transparency and preserve the superiority of growth and execution of such
initiatives (Kamaruddin and Noor, 2017). Moreover, the prospect of e-government in

Perceived
Transparency
H16
H15 Trust in e-
government
H9 H13
Confirmation Citizens’ H12
Satisfaction
H8 H3 H11
Intention to
Perceived continue use e-
H4 Usefulness H5 government
H10 services
H6 H2

H1
Perceived Ease H14
Citizens’
of Use H7
Attitude
Habit
Figure 1.
Conceptual
framework
Source: Created by authors
Malaysia encompasses public servants, business community, residents and all Technology
administrative branches. There is no doubt that the government of Malaysia will continue to continuance
make endeavours toward betterment to accomplish long-term goals (Shuib et al., 2019).
Thus, it can be posited that e-government is a strong and vivacious part of the public service
theory
delivery system in Malaysia.
With regards to enhancing the understanding of e-government adoption among the
masses, several studies have been conducted (Shuib et al., 2019; Husin et al., 2017). However,
all of these studies have examined the factors which drive Malaysian citizens’ intention to
use e-government services. Thus, the uniqueness of this study is that it strives to discover
factors which are pivotal for the post-adoption process. The findings of such studies will not
only enhance the existing academic knowledge but also bring numerous benefits to society
and the government.

3. Research model and hypothesis development

3.1 Theories integration rationale
Researchers in this study proposed a model on the foundations of key factors related to the
TAM, ECM, COGM, perceived transparency, trust in e-government and habit for
understanding the continuance intention to use e-government services in Malaysia.
Research has shown that human behaviour towards accepting a technology is multi-faceted
and warrants more than a single model, i.e. an integrated approach (Shen et al., 2010).
Integrated models not only offer an all-inclusive and wide-ranging view of the causal
mechanism underlying the relationships but also bring an exclusive understanding which
cannot be accomplished by models grounded on a single theory (Thusi and Maduku, 2020;
Oliveira et al., 2016; Rahi et al., 2019). Consequently, owing to the above discussions, it can be
fair to assume that the integration of COGM, TAM, ECM, perceived transparency, trust in e-
government and habit will provide a comprehensive viewpoint of post-adoption technology-
related issues in Malaysia, particularly for the City Council of Penang Island.

3.2 Research model

Figure 1 presents the conceptual framework of our current research, which was developed to
investigate the continuous intention to use e-government services from the City Council of
Penang Island.

3.3 Hypothesis development

According to Davis et al. (1989), attitude is referred to as the degree of a person’s positive or
negative feelings about performing a specific behaviour. Similarly, according to the TAM,
users’ behaviour towards technology can be determined by their attitude. Prior literature
has already empirically established that attitude has a significant effect on the intention to
continue technology usage (Foroughi et al., 2019; Iranmanesh et al., 2017). Similarly, if
residents form a positive attitude towards the e-government, they will have a stronger
inclination towards using it. Therefore, based on the above arguments, the following
hypothesis is proposed:

H1. Residents’ attitude positively affects their intention to continue the use of e-
government services.
PU can be illustrated as the perception of individuals regarding the improvement of
performance by using a specific technology (Foroughi et al., 2019). Extant literature on e-
government adoption has empirically proven that both PU and PEOU are the two most
JSIT important elements (Shuib et al., 2019; Mensah, 2019). Similarly, in the same context, several
researchers have also studied the positive effects of PU on residents’ habits and attitudes
and its effects on residents’ satisfaction (Lim et al., 2019; Shuib et al., 2019; Foroughi et al.,
2019). Therefore, residents need to comprehend the e-government system as a useful tool
which can provide benefits in their daily lives. The higher the PU of e-government by
residents, the more likely residents will take the same actions more often. Eventually, and as
a result of simple repetitive behaviours, residents may develop the habit of continued e-
government system usage. Thus, in the light of the above arguments, the following
hypotheses are formulated:

H2. PU among residents is positively related to their attitude towards e-government

services.
H3. PU among residents is positively related to their satisfaction with e-government
services.
H4. PU among residents is positively related to their habit of using e-government
services.
H5. PU among residents is positively related to their intention to continue the use of e-
government services.
PEOU is the assessment of an individual’s perception; believing that using a specific
technology will be free of effort (Iranmanesh et al., 2017; Davis et al., 1989), that is,
technology is perceived to be more useful if it is easy to use (Gilani et al., 2017). The positive
relationship between PEOU and PU has received a lot of intense attention from several
scholars (Abbasi et al., 2021a; Foroughi et al., 2019; Iranmanesh et al., 2022). Research has
also discovered the significance of PEOU on users’ positive attitude in m-banking (Foroughi
et al., 2019), adoption of radio-frequency identification (RFID) technology (Iranmanesh et al.,
2017) and the online shopping environment (Pengnate and Sarathy, 2017). However, there
have been studies which have established the nonsignificant influence of PEOU on both
users’ attitudes and their PU (Foroughi et al., 2019). According to Gilani et al. (2017), the
impact of PEOU is most vital and substantial in studies related to pre-adoption and
empirically concluded an insignificant impact on post-adoption studies. Both familiarity and
experience were termed as key reasons for such insignificant associations (Foroughi et al.,
2019). In light of inconsistent results, this study further explores and expects that if residents
perceive the use of e-government as easy, not only its residents will find it useful, but it will
also affect their attitudes. Therefore, the following hypotheses are formulated:

H6. PEOU among residents positively affects their PU towards e-government services.
H7. PEOU among residents positively affects their attitude towards e-government
services.
According to the ECM, user satisfaction is influenced by two elements, i.e. expectation of IS
and the confirmation of expectation after the actual usage. Expectation covers the
foundation, whereas confirmation is assessed by users, who can determine their satisfaction
or evaluative response (Gilani et al., 2017). Confirmation is positively related to satisfaction
with technology use because it implies the realisation of the expected benefits of such use,
whereas disconfirmation suggests a failure to achieve such expectations (Veeramootoo et al.,
2018; Iranmanesh et al., 2017). According to Tsai et al. (2014), confirmation experience can
also change users’ PU. For example, in this context, residents may poorly perceive the
benefits of adopting e-government services. But residents might still be willing to accept it Technology
so that they can enhance their user experience as a foundation for forming more concrete continuance
perceptions. Therefore, users’ PU can be enhanced by confirmation, and disconfirmation
surely is expected to lessen such perceptions, which are parallel to the results of previous
theory
studies (Foroughi et al., 2019). Such confirmation displays that residents obtain their
perceived benefits through their experiences of using the e-government services and
subsequently produce a positive influence on residents’ satisfaction. Thus, based on the
following arguments, the following hypotheses are articulated:

H8. Confirmation of the expectations of residents positively affects their PU towards the
e-government services.
H9. Confirmation of the expectations of residents positively affects their satisfaction
with the e-government services.
User satisfaction denotes a complete assessment of a technology that echoes an emotion-
driven response to the specific technology (Iranmanesh et al., 2017). According to
Bhattacherjee (2001), who narrated that satisfaction is the product of users’ previous
experiences, it influences users’ continued intention to use an IS. Especially in the field of
marketing, a repurchase decision is primarily related to satisfaction (Tran et al., 2019). The
positive relationship between users’ satisfaction and their continued intention has been
explored by several scholars in various fields, such as mobile banking (Foroughi et al., 2019),
electronic filing (Veeramootoo et al., 2018), electronic medical records (Gilani et al., 2017),
mobile shopping (Shang and Wu, 2017), mobile social networking services (Hsu and Lin,
2018) and e-government services (Alzahrani et al., 2018). Similarly, most of the research has
specified that satisfaction and attitude are two distinct constructs, whereas Gilani et al.
(2017) and Foroughi et al. (2019) have considered them identical. Several researchers have
demonstrated the positive and significant relationship between satisfaction and attitude
(Foroughi et al., 2019; Iranmanesh et al., 2018; Iranmanesh et al., 2017). Therefore, based on
the following discussion, the following hypotheses are formed:

H10. Residents’ satisfaction positively affects their attitude toward e-government

services.
H11. Residents’ satisfaction positively affects their intention to continue the use of e-
government services.
Trust is considered a fundamental part of the relationship between governments and their
residents. Trust exhibits the way residents interrelate and advance their relationships
(Shuib et al., 2019; Mensah, 2019; Alzahrani et al., 2018). Concerning the adoption and
continued usage of e-government services, trust is regarded as crucial and the key to success
(Mensah, 2019). Anderson (2010) narrated that trust in the government is the reflection of
residents’ confidence, which is determined by the government’s ability to administer affairs
of state in a manner that profits the entire society (Mensah, 2019). According to
Grimmelikhuijsen and Knies (2017), trust consists of three dimensions, i.e. benevolence,
competence and honesty. This implies that when residents perceive that government
agencies have the goodwill (political) and capacity (institutional) to serve the betterment of
the people, it will enhance residents’ level of trust in the government, subsequently
positively impacting residents’ willingness to use e-government services. Extant literature
has also empirically established that trust in government has a positive effect on residents’
satisfaction (Teo et al., 2008). Similar results were achieved by Alzahrani et al. (2018) during
JSIT their investigation of residents’ trust in e-government adoption. Specifically, in the context
of e-government, a considerable number of studies agree that trust in e-government has a
significant effect on residents’ satisfaction (Alzahrani et al., 2018; Teo et al., 2008) and their
intention (Mensah, 2019; Alzahrani et al., 2018; Mensah, 2019). Thus, based on the above
discussions, the following hypotheses are formed:

H12. Residents’ trust in e-government services positively affects their intention to

continue the use of e-government services.
H13. Residents’ trust in e-government positively affects residents’ satisfaction with e-
government services.
In regard to continued usage intention, habit is one of the most widely used constructs,
especially in IS (Bölen, 2020; Veeramootoo et al., 2018). Habit is regarded as a degree to
which people routinely perform behaviours because of prior experience (Amoroso and Lim,
2017). Similarly, Veeramootoo et al. (2018) defined habit as learned behaviours that grow
into unconscious recurrent behaviour. In IS literature, several authors have investigated the
positive relationship between habit and continued intention (Bölen, 2020; Amoroso and Lim,
2017). Veeramootoo et al. (2018), in their quest to determine the success of e-government
services, empirically concluded that residents’ continuance usage intention of e-filing is
influenced by user satisfaction and habit. Similar views were provided by Venkatesh et al.
(2012) in a study which demonstrated that habit is one of the pertinent factors when
predicting users’ continued intention. Similarly, Alsharo et al. (2020) extended the TAM by
integrating habit as an exogenous variable that influences health information systems’ (HIS)
PEOU and PU to investigate experienced healthcare professionals’ attitudes in continuing to
use a HIS. Therefore, this study implies that residents’ intention to continue the use of e-
government services will be influenced by their learned behaviours, i.e. habits. Based on
these arguments, this study formulates the following hypothesis:

H14. Residents’ habit of using e-government services positively influences their

intention to continue the use of e-government services.
Transparency is defined as the accessibility of information which permits external
stakeholders to monitor the internal workings of an organisation (Porumbescu, 2017).
Government transparency is observed by many as one of the solutions to improve
governance (Grimmelikhuijsen et al., 2013). With the help of transparency, governments can
avert issues like corruption, enhance their legitimacy and performance and promote good
governance. According to Birkinshaw (2006), transparency was viewed as a basic human
right, i.e. the right to know. In today’s day and age, the proliferation and development of IS
have seemingly eased the way for governments to publicly unveil extra information for the
betterment of people (Cucciniello and Nasi, 2014). Transparency is now projected as the key
to one of the most imperceptible difficulties of governance: residents’ increasing mistrust of
government (Mensah, 2019). Several authors have argued that increased resident knowledge
of e-government processes and performance will increase understanding and trust in
government and transparency (Mensah, 2019; Porumbescu, 2017; Song and Lee, 2016). This
alleged positive effect of transparency on trust in government has been debated extensively
in the literature (Mensah, 2019; Kang and Hustvedt, 2014). Moreover, researchers (Mensah,
2019) have also proven that not only does the transparency of e-government have a positive
effect on residents’ trust, but it also has a positive effect on PU and intention and actual
usage. Therefore, this study implies that if the process of e-government is transparent, it will
increase their PU, will enhance their trust in the government and will further increase their
continued intention to use e-government services. Therefore, based on the preceding Technology
discussion, the following hypotheses are articulated: continuance
H15. Perceived transparency of e-government services positively affects residents’ PU theory
towards e-government services.
H16. Perceived transparency of e-government services positively affects residents’
trust in e-government services.

4. Methodology
4.1 Measurement of constructs
To test the hypotheses, a cross-sectional survey was applied. The survey items were adapted
from extant published studies to ensure content validity. Scales of PU, confirmation, attitude
and PEOU were taken from Foroughi et al. (2019). The items of satisfaction, continuance
intention and trust in e-government were adapted from Alzahrani et al. (2018). Items of habit
and transparency were adopted from Veeramooto et al. (2018) and Song and Lee (2016),
respectively. The items of marker variable were adopted from Simmering et al. (2015). The
items were measured using a five-point Likert scale anchored by “strongly disagree” and
“strongly agree”. The measurement items for all the studied constructs can be found in Table 2.
The questionnaire instrument used for this study was pretested and piloted to ensure that the
instruments were free of any ambiguity and challenges that may cause expected respondents
to have difficulty in answering the questions. With regard to the pre-test, the instrument was
validated by two academic experts in the IS domain. Furthermore, upon the request of the
experts, the questionnaire was further pilot tested on a small sample of 30 respondents.
Findings of the pilot test revealed that all the studied constructs had achieved satisfactory
reliability, i.e. more than 0.70. Additionally, a statistical test using G*Power determined that
this study required a minimum of 119 respondents.

4.2 Sampling and respondent’s profile

This research used a structured questionnaire to collect data for each variable. Data were
collected from Penang by using an online questionnaire. The data were collected in two of
the biggest shopping malls in Penang, Malaysia. We approached the potential respondents
in halls located at the exits of the shopping malls and asked them to participate in research.
Data were collected between December 2019 and January 2020, during weekday mornings
and afternoons, as well as during weekends. This ensured that there was a possibility that
people of different social-demographic profiles would be included in the sample. After an
effective response, the unusable responses were deleted, including an incomplete
questionnaire and e-mail accounts. A total of 276 responses were received online, out of
which only 260 were deemed fit for data analysis. Among them, (46.9%) were female,
whereas (53.1%) were male respondents (Table 1). As for age, the majority of respondents
(58.5%) were between the age of 26 and 35 years, followed by (25.85) who were between the
age of 36 and 45 years. Regarding educational level, 172 respondents (66.2%) had a master’s
degree. Furthermore, (40.8%) of respondents were earning between RM2,001 and RM3,000,
closely followed by 95 respondents (36.5%) who were earning between RM3,001 and
RM4,000.

4.3 Common method bias (CMB)

According to Fuller et al. (2016), in a survey of studies, the issue of common method bias (CMB)
may affect the reliability and validity of the studied constructs along with its effects on
JSIT Demographic factors Category Frequency %

Gender Male 138 53.1

Female 122 46.9
Age 18–25 18 6.9
26–35 152 58.5
36–45 67 25.8
46–55 23 8.8
Marital status Single 122 46.9
Married 138 53.1
Education level High school 22 8.5
Bachelor’s degree 38 14.6
Master’s degree 172 66.2
PhD 27 10.4
Diploma 1 4.0
Income RM1,000–RM2,000 17 6.5
RM2,001–RM3,000 106 40.8
RM3,001–RM4,000 95 36.5
Table 1. >4,001 42 16.2
Demographic profile
of respondents Source: Created by authors

hypothesised relations in the proposed model. To cater to such issues, Podsakoff et al. (2003)
suggested applying both procedural and statistical remedies to lessen the effects of the CMB
issue. This study not only applied procedural remedies but also applied several statistical
remedies to cater to the said issues, such as applying marker variable (Lindell and Whitney,
2001; Rönkkö and Ylitalo, 2011), inner variance inflation factors (VIF) (Abbasi et al., 2022a,
2021b) and Harman’s single factor test (Podsakoff et al., 2003). The application of the marker
variable yielded that incremental R square change is less than the threshold value by Lindell
and Whitney (2001), i.e. less than 30%. Moreover, findings also revealed that all the inner VIF
values ranged between 1 and 2.322 (Table 4) and are less than 3.3, as suggested by Kock (2015)
and Tariq et al. (2021). Similarly, following the Podsakoff et al. (2003) recommendation to detect
CMB, the Harman single factor test also revealed 36.616% which is less than 50%. Therefore, it
is fair to conclude that this study did not face any CMB issues in the studied data set.

4.4 Data analysis

For data analysis, the authors used partial least squares with SmartPLS 3.3.2 software to test the
hypotheses (Ringle et al., 2015). This variance-based structural equation modeling (SEM) technique
was given preference over covariance-based SEM statistical approaches owing to the prediction-
oriented feature of the current study, which aims to investigate how well the exogenous constructs
can predict the endogenous constructs (Senali et al., 2022; Nikbin et al., 2015). This study followed
the two-step approach by testing the measurement model, followed by the structural model.

5. Results
5.1 Measurement model
This study measures the inner model [validity and reliability of the constructs, factor
loadings, composite reliability (CR), average variance extracted (AVE) and the Hetrotrait–
Monotrait ratio (HTMT)] as per Hair et al. (2019) instructions. The results of the outer model Technology
can be seen in Table 2. Conferring to the results, factor loadings, CR and AVE are above 0.7, continuance
0.7 and 0.5, respectively (Hair et al., 2019). The result of the measurement model validates
that all the constructs in the study have adequate reliability, and the studied items represent
theory
more than half of the variance for the construct. Therefore, the convergent validity of all the
constructs was established.
Besides convergent validity, the current study also examined the discriminant validity of
the outer model by applying HTMT criteria as suggested by Henseler et al. (2015). As all
HTMT values were lower than 0.85 (Table 3), no issues pertaining to discriminant validity
were found in this study. This further validates that the studied constructs are distinct from
other variables in the study.

5.2 Assessment of multi-collinearity

This study also investigated the issue of lateral collinearity. According to Kock and Lynn
(2012), although the study has met discriminant validity during the assessment of the outer
model in Section 4.1, lateral collinearity issues can sometimes mislead the researcher;
therefore, it was deemed proper to investigate. According to researchers, an outer VIF value
of 10 or higher indicates a potential collinearity issue (Mason and Perreault, 1991; Shieh,
2010). However, the results in Table 2 exhibit that there was no concern regarding multi-
collinearity as all the values of VIF were observed to be within the acceptable range, i.e.
below 10.

5.3 Structural model

After meeting the measurement model criteria, this study tested the hypotheses using the
structural model. To check the significance of the hypotheses, a nonparametric
bootstrapping process with 2,000 iterations was used (Hair et al., 2019). Current study
statistical results supported the conceptual model via explaining 40.4%, 50.5% and 2.9%,
42.5%, 22.9% and 39.2% of the variance in residents’ attitude, continuance intention, habit,
PU, satisfaction and trust in e-government, respectively. In addition to R2, the current study
also examined the effect size (f2) as per the guidelines of Cohen (1998). To investigate the
predictive relevance of the path models used in the study, the researchers applied Stone and
Geisser’s (Q2). According to the results, the Q2 for all the endogenous constructs is above the
zero (Fornell and Cha, 1994; Abbasi et al., 2021b), i.e. ATT (0.268), CINT (0.434), HABIT
(0.024), PU (0.329), SAT (0.195) and TIG (0.263). Furthermore, the results of the significant
path coefficient, R2, and the effect size can be seen in Table 4.

5.4 Importance performance map analysis (IPMA)

The current study further performed importance performance map analysis (IPMA) to list
the importance and performance of the latent constructs used in this research. Figure 2
shows the level of importance on the horizontal axis and the percentage of performance on
the vertical axis, with cumulative values of 0.220 and 55.72%, respectively. PU was the
highest performing construct with values of 67.80%, closely followed by confirmation, trust
in e-government, perceived transparency and PEOU with values of 61.53%, 56.49%, 56.20%
and 55.06, respectively, whereas satisfaction was the lowest of all with 46.68% value.
Following Leong et al.’s (2019), researchers also segregated four quadrants, with quadrant 1
on the upper-right corner, quadrant 2 on the lower-right corner, quadrant 3 on the lower left
side and quadrant 4 on the upper-left corner. From these quadrants, emphasis must be
provided to the constructs in quadrant 2, since these constructs are highly imperative but
give lower performance, followed by quadrants 1, 3 and 4. In the context of this study with
 JSIT

Table 2.

evaluation
Measurement model
Outer
Constructs Items Loadings VIF CR AVE Adopted

Confirmation My experience with using MBPP e-government services was better than what I expected 0.908 2.905 0.945 0.852 Foroughi et al. (2019)
The service level provided by MBPP e-government was more than what I expected 0.937 3.805
Overall, most of my expectations from using MBPP e-government were confirmed 0.924 3.067
Perceived usefulness Using MBPP e-government services enables me to access other local agencies more quickly 0.884 3.387 0.945 0.574 Foroughi et al. (2019)
Using MBPP e-government services makes it easier to access other services 0.923 4.335
Using MBPP e-government services would improve the quality of the task I performed 0.908 3.429
I find MBPP e-government services to be useful 0.886 2.834
Perceived ease of use Learning to operate MBPP e-government services is easy for me 0.843 3.493 0.865 0.574 Foroughi et al. (2019)
It is easy to use MBPP e-government services to accomplish the relevant task 0.884 4.181
Interaction with MBPP e-government services does not require a lot of mental effort 0.870 2.547
My interaction with MBPP e-government services is clear and Understandable 0.489 1.224
I find it easy to get MBPP e-government services to do what I what it to do 0.615 1.221
Residents’ satisfaction I feel that MBPP e-government services are adequate in meeting my needs for interaction with the government 0.936 4.013 0.959 0.886 Alzahrani et al.
agency (2018)
MBPP e-government services are effective in fulfilling my needs in respect to interaction with the government 0.961 5.851
agency
Overall, I am satisfied with MBPP e-government services 0.926 3.694
Residents’ attitude Using MBPP e-government services is a good idea 0.648 1.288 0.873 0.701 Foroughi et al. (2019)
Using MBPP e-government services is a beneficial 0.919 2.564
Using Mbpp e-government services is a wise idea 0.915 2.434
Trust in e-government I expect that MBPP e-government services will not take advantage of me 0.864 1.716 0.863 0.679 Alzahrani et al.
I believe that MBPP e-government services will not act in a way that harms me 0.797 1.447 (2018)
I trust MBPP e-government services 0.809 1.570
Habit The use of e-government has become automatic to me 0.906 3.417 0.965 0.872 Veeramootoo et al.
am accustomed to using e- government 0.950 5.629 (2018)
I must use e- government 0.946 5.483
Using e- government has become a necessity 0.933 4.796
Perceived transparency Perceived transparency of MBPP e-government services makes the government and the information more 0.962 3.562 0.961 0.924 Song and Lee (2016)
accessible
Perceived transparency of MBPP e-government services helps residents be more informed about what the 0.960 3.562
government is doing
Continuous intention to use I intend to continue using MBPP e-government services rather than discontinuing to use them 0.937 3.928 0.960 0.852 AlZahrani et al.
MBPP I intend to continue using e-government services rather than use alternative means (e.g. offline interaction with the 0.942 3.952 (2018)
government agency).
I will not discontinue my use of e-government services 0.950 4.728

Note: MBPP = Majlis Bandaraya Pulau Pinang; CR = composite reliability; AVE = average variance extracted; VIF = variance inflated factor
Source: Created by authors
Constructs ATT CINT CNF HABIT PEOU PT PU SAT TIG
Technology
continuance
ATT theory
CINT 0.663
CNF 0.573 0.640
HABIT 0.598 0.481 0.443
PEOU 0.656 0.605 0.651 0.748
PT 0.486 0.508 0.673 0.339 0.552
PU 0.344 0.513 0.624 0.181 0.432 0.650
SAT 0.642 0.501 0.448 0.769 0.676 0.240 0.135
TIG 0.653 0.642 0.720 0.506 0.732 0.746 0.542 0.458
Table 3.
Notes: ATT = attitude; CINT = continuous Intention; CNF = confirmation; HABIT = habit; PEOU =
perceived ease of use; PT = perceived transparency; PU = perceived usefulness; SAT = satisfaction; TIG = Heterotrait–
trust in government monotrait (HTMT)
Source: Created by authors test

Hypothesis Relationship b t-value P-value F2 Inner VIF Decision

H1 ATT > CINT 0.296 4.050 0.000*** 0.035 1.789 Yes

H2 PU > ATT 0.196 3.302 0.000*** 0.061 1.164 Yes
H3 PU > SAT 0.207 3.115 0.001*** 0.077 1.540 Yes
H4 PU > HABIT 0.171 2.330 0.010*** 0.151 1.000 Yes
H5 PU > CINT 0.269 4.985 0.000*** 0.012 1.306 Yes
H6 PEOU > PU
0.011 0.157 0.438 0.493 1.494 No
H7 PEOU > ATT 0.240 3.403 0.000*** 0.064 1.784 Yes
H8 CNF > > PU 0.338 4.268 0.000*** 0.023 1.892 Yes
H9 CNF > SAT 0.383 4.786 0.000*** 0.018 1.915 Yes
H10 SAT > ATT 0.382 6.506 0.000*** 0.002 1.580 Yes
H11 SAT > CINT 0.157 1.962 0.025** 0.199 2.322 Yes
H12 TIG > CINT 0.178 2.779 0.003** 0.101 1.662 Yes
H13 TIG > SAT 0.250 3.362 0.000*** 0.072 1.622 Yes
H14 HABIT > CINT 0.064 0.740 0.230 0.392 2.269 No
H15 PT > PU 0.395 5.646 0.000*** 0.012 1.670 Yes
H16 PT > TIG 0.628 13.704 0.000*** 0.000 1.000 Yes
Table 4.
Notes: **p-value < 0.05; ***p-value < 0.001; F2 = effect size; b = beta value Path coefficient and
Source: Created by authors hypothesis testing

IPMA analysis with cumulative values on both vertical and horizontal axis, all the
constructs fall in the category of needing immediate attention starting from the attitude of
residents and their satisfaction with the continuous usage of e-government services, please
see Figure 2.

5.5 Model evaluation

The goodness-of-fit (GoF) delivers the complete prediction performance of the whole model.
To compute the GoF, the course comprises the geometric average of the mean of R2 and
average communality for all studied endogenous. If the GoF values fall within 0.36, 0.25 and
0.1, they represent high, medium and small (Chin, 2010). Besides GoF criteria, estimates of
standardized root means square residual (SRMR)values are another criterion to be used.
JSIT

Figure 2.
IPMA analysis

According to Garson (2016), when a model achieves a value lower than 0.08, it signifies that
the model is acceptable. The findings in Table 5 present the model evaluation in detail. As
per the results of this study, it is clear that the current study model has attained a large GoF
(0.508), and the current study’s SRMR value (0.077) is also less than the threshold value of
0.08. Thus, it can be concluded that the model has a large fit.
In the present study, the GoF value of the final model was computed as follows:
pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
GoF ¼ Average AVE * Average R2
pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
GoF ¼ 0:768 * 0:331

GoF ¼ 0:508

Constructs Average variance extracted R2

Confirmation 0.852 –
Perceived usefulness 0.574 0.425
Perceived ease of use 0.574 –
Satisfaction 0.886 0.229
Attitude 0.701 0.404
Trust 0.679 0.392
Habit 0.872 0.029
Perceived transparency 0.924 –
Continuous intention 0.852 0.505
Average 0.768 0.331
Table 5.
Model evaluation Source: Created by authors
6. Discussion Technology
6.1 Summary of results continuance
The foremost objective of this research was to inspect the crucial factors that may hamper or
facilitate the continuous usage of e-government services in Malaysia through the application
theory
of TCT theory. The result of this research reveals that four factors influence residents’
continuous intention to use e-government services in Penang, Malaysia:
(1) satisfaction;
(2) attitude;
(3) trust; and
(4) PU.

This means that if individuals are content, have a favourable attitude, develop trust in and
value the e-government services, they are much more likely to create a continuing intention
to use them in the long term. Additionally, three characteristics have a beneficial effect on
resident satisfaction: confirmation, PU and trust. Likewise, inhabitants will develop a sense
of contentment with services if they perceive them to be beneficial and reliable.
Confirmation, as has been demonstrated in prior research, is critical in determining user
pleasure. This entails achieving the anticipated benefits of using such services. Moreover,
three factors also positively influenced residents’ attitudes:
(1) Satisfaction;
(2) PEOU; and
(3) PU.

These findings imply that in order for citizens to establish a favourable attitude about e-
government services, they must first experience some level of satisfaction with those
services. Having stated that, using e-government services must facilitate users’ performance
or use of such services and be beneficial to them.
Moreover, the impact of perceived transparency was also found to have a significant
effect on residents’ trust in e-government and their perception of its usefulness. These
findings are critical because they confirm the assumption that the more transparent services
are, the more trust a user develops. Additionally, this study adds to the existing body of
knowledge by demonstrating that transparency has a positive and significant effect on PU.
This means that not only would transparency foster user trust, but it will also increase
users’ impression of how beneficial such services are. However, the effect of PEOU on PU
and the effect of habit on residents’ continuous intention to use e-government services were
found to have an insignificant effect and contradict earlier literature (Nisar, 2019;
Veeramootoo et al., 2018). Except for these contradicting and insignificant findings, all other
empirical results are in line with previous literature (Kaya et al., 2020; Nisar, 2019; Shuib
et al., 2019).
Explicitly, the extant literature expresses that e-government was introduced as an
antidote to the rising distrust among residents so as to develop and enhance their trust and
confidence in the workings of government services but has failed to achieve so (Mahmood
et al., 2019; Alzahrani et al., 2018). However, previous literature about the influence of e-
government and issues relating to trust has exhibited conflicting findings (Mahmood et al.,
2019) because all previous studies have focused on the technical aspects in determining the
intention to adopt e-government services and not all relevant factors, such as perceived
transparency and habit, had been included. Therefore, a holistic approach emphasising the
JSIT core functions of government was needed to eradicate such issues about post-adoption-
related issues (Li and Shang, 2020; Waller and Weerakkody, 2016).

6.2 Theoretical contributions and managerial implications

Theoretically, the current research enriches the literature on the influence of several
factors which can augment residents’ trust, attitude, satisfaction and continuous
intention to use e-government services, especially by introducing the effect of
transparency and habit in TCT theory. This study is the first to propose a conceptual
framework to investigate the residents’ relationship of continuous intention with several
factors, i.e. trust, habit, PU, attitude and satisfaction. All prior literature has been fixated
on determining the factors related to initial adoption, whereas very few studies have
examined the drivers of post-adoption e-government usage (Mahmood et al., 2019; Shuib
et al., 2019; Seng et al., 2010).
Also, unlike earlier studies, this study provides a holistic view of factors which can
influence residents’ e-government adoption, particularly the post-adoption process in
Malaysia. Therefore, fulfilling the potential gap, this study provides a holistic view of
e-government services post-adoption process by inculcating the element of trust,
transparency and habit. Resultantly, this study adds to the growing body of knowledge
on the important concepts of e-government, residents’ attitudes, resident behaviour
concerning their satisfaction, expectations, trust in e-government and perception of
transparency in government-related matters. The current research broadens currently
appropriate TCT theory to new links among the constructs proposed in the conceptual
model, which was examined and verified for a developing country like Malaysia. The
empirical results show that the application of the TCT model supports our proposed
relationships and provides us with good explanatory power for not only e-government
continuance intention but also for attitude, satisfaction, PU, trust and habit regarding it.
This finding implies that TCT provides a novel theoretical basis for explaining the
e-government post-adoption process.
Furthermore, based on the above, this study also enriches the literature on residents’
trust which is shaped and enhanced by the element of perceived transparency. This
approach strengthens residents’ trust by inculcating and exhibiting transparency in the
government procedure and also finding it useful to the residents; consequently, it can be a
remedy for factors which diminish residents’ trust and discourage them from continuing to
use e-government services. This information was learned by reviewing the extant literature,
developing a proposed model and applying it in the context of Malaysia. Therefore, the
findings of this study are particularly pertinent to developing countries.
Methodologically, this study goes a step ahead with the application of a superior
methodological approach, which is called IPMA analysis. No prior studies, especially
those pertaining to e-government related literature, have ever applied IPMA analysis
(Mensah, 2019, Veeramootoo et al., 2018; Mahmood et al., 2019). The application of IPMA
analysis allows the researchers, government and all relevant stakeholders to
remain cognisant of factors which can stimulate and influence residents’ perception of
e-government adoption.
Practically, identification and understanding of determinants which can influence
residents’ intention to continue the use of e-government services will help lawmakers and
government officials at both regional and national levels comprehend the factors that
further spur the continuous use of such services. Besides, such an understanding will enable
the government to successfully promote the e-government system among all residents. Also,
the significant impact of transparency on trust and residents’ intention to continue the use of
e-government services should provide enough evidence to officials that they must regulate Technology
transparency in everyday routine by providing easy access to both government and continuance
information. In the absence of trust in the e-government services, the approval of residents
and their commitment to e-government services would be hampered. As such, the
theory
government needs to establish and preserve relationships with its residents to ensure that
the system is able to meet their expectations and fulfil their needs.
Besides, to foster the environment of residents’ intention to continue the use of
e-government services, several other significant aspects must be measured, including the
instruments used in the device and carry new strategies and the role of information
communication technology (Waller and Weerakkody, 2016). For example, Zhao et al. (2015)
narrated that there is a sturdy mutual connection between the digital economy and digitally-
enabled government, which denotes not only a country’s economy but also its complete
society, providing a plethora of benefits such as improving culture and transforming local
institutions. Therefore, to achieve increased trust, improved governance, improved resident
satisfaction, reduced corruption, enhanced efficiency, effectiveness and transparency, ease
of access to government and related information, high-quality services and lower costs,
governments must adopt a well-adjusted approach to reshape public institutions.
Furthermore, both government and their agencies at both regional and national levels need
to be more transparent by being open and disseminating timely information to the
community. Such a display of openness and transparency does not only have the potential to
determine the PU of e-government services but also the continuous intention to use
e-government services which have been statistically validated in this study.
The results of this research will be useful to people living in Malaysia, particularly in
Penang, as well as to researchers, businesses, policymakers and government authorities.
The implications of this study reveal the considerable benefits mentioned above and should
be given due attention by government strategists and policymakers. Governments should
include the influence of proposed factors in their vision statements, and their action plans
should display the application of these initiatives. Application of such measures would
harvest long-lasting benefits such as a transparent government, a reliable and lasting
relationship between residents and government, and efficient and effective consumption of
the country’s human and fiscal resources.

6.3 Study limitations and future research directions

Though this current research effectively accomplished its objectives, its limitations must be
addressed before simplifying the results. Firstly, most of the respondents in this research
(219, 84.3%) were aged between 25 and 45 years old. Therefore, the results might be biased
and have deficiencies in elucidating the continuance behaviour of residents older than 45
and younger than 25 years old. Although the distribution of the respondents’ ages is
representative of the Penang population, future studies should test the model of this study
among older individuals to shed light on the determinants of their intention to continue to
use e-government services. Secondly, the model has its theoretical foundation in TCT. While
the study includes those constructs that are germane to continuance intention to use
e-government services, it neglects some significant variables that could possibly enlighten
such behaviour. Future studies could reflect on extending the current study by including
such concepts as resident’s political self-efficacy, compatibility, e-government self-efficacy,
political trust, cultural aspect, security and privacy concerns (Mensah and Adams, 2019) to
enhance on the explanatory power of the theoretical models. Another limitation of this study
is the omission of actual usage behaviour of e-government services, pertaining to the causal
associations’ inconsistencies between the intention and behaviour (Venkatesh, 2006). Lastly,
JSIT the study used the survey method for data collection. Findings of this study should,
therefore, be taken in light of the admonitions of such a research design (Veeramootoo et al.,
2018; Eckman and de Leeuw, 2017). Consequently, future studies should consider examining
the conceptual model using other kinds of design approaches, such as observations,
experiments and longitudinal, to improve the validity and reliability of the findings. Also,
the aim of the current study was to examine the continuous intention to use e-government
services provided by the City Council of Penang Island. The similarities and differences
between the e-government services provided by the Council, other governmental agencies in
Penang and other states are not highlighted. As a result, the study result cannot be
generalised to e-government services in Malaysia. Furthermore, the research was conducted
in only one of the thirteen states in Malaysia, namely, Penang. Consequently, the results of
this study cannot be generalised to Malaysian residents. In this regard, future researchers
need to gather data from different parts of Malaysia so as to make the findings more
generalisable. Finally, the researchers in this study used net effect modelling, also known as
a symmetrical method, to investigate the phenomena under investigation, which, as is often
the case in studies of human behaviour, fails to reveal its intricacies. Therefore, researchers
have recommended an asymmetrical strategy (Pappas and Woodside, 2021; Al-Emran et al.,
2023; Abbasi et al., 2022a, 2022b; Binsawad et al., 2022) to uncover the full complexity of
human behaviour.

6.4 Conclusion
This research was designed to determine the factors influencing the continuance usage
intention of e-government services in the context of Malaysia. In this pursuit, the TCT
was analysed. A major theoretical contribution of TCT is that it combines the two
central constructs of attitude and satisfaction into one continuance model while
retaining the well-established constructs of PEOU and PU as first-level antecedents. In
lieu of the sample studied, this research has established that trust in e-government,
satisfaction, PU and attitude have a significant impact on their continuous intention to
use e-government services. This study also demonstrated that perceived transparency
has a two-fold impact on trust and PU. Overall, unlike previous studies, this study has
tried to elucidate the holistic understanding of residents’ intention to continue the use of
e-government services by validating a model which is grounded in the integration of
several theories.

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Further reading
Carlson, J. and O’Cass, A. (2010), “Exploring the relationships between e-service quality, satisfaction,
attitudes and behaviours in content-driven e-service web sites”, Journal of Services Marketing,
Vol. 24 No. 2, pp. 112-127.
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perspectives of social influence and privacy concern”, Computers in Human Behavior, Vol. 37,
pp. 283-289.

Corresponding author
Ghazanfar Abbasi can be contacted at: ghazanfar.abbasi@hotmail.co.uk

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