DEGREE PROJECT IN MECHANICAL ENGINEERING,

SECOND CYCLE, 30 CREDITS

STOCKHOLM, SWEDEN 2017

Conceptual Design of an
Unloading System for Continuous
Tracks
How to increase the load capacity of tracks with
the use of hydraulic cylinders

JONAS TORSTENSSON

KTH ROYAL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

SCHOOL OF INDUSTRIAL ENGINEERING AND MANAGEMENT
Conceptual Design of an Unloading
System for Continuous Tracks

How to increase the load capacity of tracks with the use of

hydraulic cylinders

Jonas Torstensson

Master of Science Thesis MMK 2017:45 MKN 197

KTH Industrial Engineering and Management
Department of Machine Design
SE-100 44 Stockholm
 Master of Science Thesis MMK 2017:45 MKN 197

Conceptual Design of an Unloading System for

Continuous Tracks

Jonas Torstensson

KTH Industrial Engineering

and Management

Approved Examiner Supervisor

2017-05-31 Ulf Sellgren Ulf Sellgren

Commissioner Contact person

Svea Teknik Jacob Wollberg

Abstract

This report presents the result of a Master thesis course done at the Machine Design
department at KTH. The thesis was written at the company Svea Teknik in collaboration
with the tunnel boring machine manufacturer Atlas Copco.
The high longitudinal force needed when the Remote Vein Miner is boring is achieved by
the friction when clamping the machine between the tunnels ceiling and ground using
hydraulic cylinders mounted on the top and bottom of the machine. A new generation of
machines doesn’t allow for the bottom cylinders to be fitted on the machine. The pair
of continuous tracks used to propel the machine must bear these loads but the tracks
aren’t strong enough to alone support the weight of the boring machine. This creates
the need for an unloading system which unloads the inner wheels of the track so they
don’t fail.
Concepts were generated using a morphological matrix with the load sharing unit broken
down to sub functions with several solutions paired to each. The iterative process led
to nine concepts, where two proved more promising than the others when they were
subjected to a Pugh’s evaluation matrix.
The two concepts were developed further where a feasibility analysis indicated that only
one concept was feasible with the dimensions given in a CAD model together with the
load provided by Atlas Copco. The remaining concept is based on hydraulic cylinders
lifting the inner wheels of the track to unload them while the machine is boring. The
machine is then resting on a skid mounted inside the track. A CAD model was made
of the new concept and the new components strength was analyzed using FEM-models.
Keywords: Hydraulic unloading system, continuous track, load capacity tracks

iii
 Examensarbete MMK 2017:45 MKN 197

Konceptkonstruktion av ett avlastningssystem

för bandenheter

Jonas Torstensson

KTH Industrial Engineering

and Management

Godkänt Examinator Handledare

2017-05-31 Ulf Sellgren Ulf Sellgren
Uppdragsgivare Kontaktperson

Svea Teknik Jacob Wollberg

Sammanfattning

I denna uppsats presenteras resultatet av ett examensarbete för masterprogrammet

Maskinkonstruktion på KTH. Arbetet utfördes på förtaget Svea Teknik tillsammans med
tunnelborrmaskintillverkaren Atlas Copco.
De stora longitudinella krafterna som krävs när tunnelborrmaskiner borrar erhålls med
hjälp av hydraulcylindrar monterade både på ovan- och undersidan av maskinen som
klämmer fast maskinen mellan tunnelns golv och tak. En ny generation maskiner från
Atlas Copco tillåter inte hydraulcylindrar monterade framtill på undersidan av maskinen.
Istället tar de båda bandenheterna som är avsedd att driva maskinen framåt upp dessa
krafter. Bandenheterna är inte tillräckligt starka för dessa laster utan en avlastningslösning
för hjulen inne i bandenheten behövs.
Problemet delades upp i subfunktioner som sattes in i en morfologisk matris för att
generera koncept. Den iterativa processen ledde till nio koncept där två av dem visades
mest lovade efter en konceptutvärdering med hjälp av en Pugh’s matris.
De båda koncepten arbetades vidare till en mer detaljerad nivå där en rimlighetsanalys
visade att endast ett koncept var fysiskt möjligt att applicera med de givna begräsningarna
som gavs av utrymmet i den givna CAD-modellen tillsammans med de givna lasterna.
Det kvarstående konceptet baseras på hydrauliska kolvar som monteras på hjulen i
bandenheten. Dessa förflyttar hjulen uppåt tills de inte är i kontakt med bandenhetens
kedja längre. Kedjan vilar då på en stödstruktur som är stark nog för lasterna. En
CAD-modell gjordes på konceptet och de nya komponenternas hållfasthet analyserades
med hjälp av FEM-modeller. Nyckelord: Hydraulisk avlastare, bandenhet, lastkapacitet
band

v
 Acknowledgments

I would like to thank the employees of Svea Teknik and Atlas Copco for making this
thesis possible, with special thanks to Jacob Wollberg, Bengt Johansson and Jerk Back.
I would also like to thank Ulf Sellgren at KTH for being my supervisor. A huge thank
you to my dear friends Oscar Hällfors and Elin Skoog for the years at KTH together.
Your input writing this thesis while sharing an office with you has been invaluable.
Most of all, thank you mother for always being there and thank you for all the support
twin brother.
I know what I can be. Let me tell you how I feel - I’m alright, I’m alive

vii
Contents

Abstract iii
Sammanfattning v
Acknowledgments vii
Glossary xi
Acronyms xiii
Nomenclature xv

1 Introduction 1
1.1 Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2 Purpose . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.3 Problem Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.4 Scope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.5 Delimitations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.6 Product Design Specification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.7 Methodology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

2 Frame of Reference 7
2.1 The Remote Vein Miner . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
2.1.1 Tramming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
2.1.2 Boring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
2.2 Tracks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
2.2.1 External loads acting on the track . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
2.3 Belleville Springs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10

3 Concept Stage 13
3.1 Concept Generation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
3.2 Concept Evaluation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
3.3 Feasibility Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
3.3.1 Compression Springs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
3.3.2 Belleville Springs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
3.3.3 Hydraulics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
3.4 Patent Search . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20

ix
4 Detailed Concept 21
4.1 The Skid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
4.2 The Fork . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
4.3 The Frame . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
4.4 The Cylinders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
4.5 PDS evaluation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28

5 Discussion and Conclusion 31

5.1 Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
5.1.1 Skid Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
5.1.2 Fork Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
5.1.3 Frame Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
5.1.4 Cylinders Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
5.1.5 Method Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
5.2 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33

6 Future Work 35

References 37

Appendices 39
A The Elements of the Product Design Specification . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
B The Gantt chart . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
C The Criteria of Pugh’s Evaluation Matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
D The MATLAB script used for calculation of the Belleville spring . . . . . 49
E Pictures of the final design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53

x
Glossary

ANSYS A Finite Element Software used

to numerically calculate solid me-
chanics
Atlas Copco A Swedish company produc-
ing tunnel boring machines
DIN 17222 A industrial standard spec-
ifying material data of steel
used when manufacturing Belleville
springs
KTH Kungliga Tekniska Högskolan (Royal
Institute of Technology), university
in Stockholm, Sweden
MATLAB A computer software used for
writing scripts for solving mathe-
matical problems

xi
Acronyms

FEA Finite Element Analysis

FEM Finite Element Method, a
method used in solid
mechanics to numerically
analyze structures to see the
stresses of the structure
MTTF Mean Time to Failure, the
mean time a system takes to
fail
MTTR Mean Time to Repair, the
mean time it takes to repair
the system
PDS Product Design
Specification
RVM Remote Vein Miner, a machine
boring tunnels to mine
minerals
TBM Tunnel Boring Machine, a
machine boring tunnels in a
mine

xiii
Nomenclature

hBW Height of a Belleville spring

washer
Px Required axial load of each
track tBW Thickness of a Belleville spring
washer
Py Required longitudinal load capac-
ity of each track DiBW Inner diameter of a Belleville
spring washer
Pz Required horizontal load capacity
of each track DoBW Outer diameter of a Belleville
spring washer
g The gravitation acceleration con-
stant, set to g=9.81 m/s2 δ The deflection of a spring
rsprocket The effective radius of the hy- E Young’s modulus
draulic motor in the tracks
µ Poisson’s ratio
TM The tracks max hydraulic motor
torque, turn on spot + inclina- FBW The spring force from a Belleville
tion spring
µt Friction coefficient between the Ff lat The load of where a Belleville
ground and the track’s shoes spring washer is flattened
mf ront The weight of the front wagon of h0 Cup height of a Belleville
the Remote Vein Miner, a machine spring
boring tunnels to mine minerals
(RVM) Nsprings Number of springs stacked in a
Belleville spring stack
Pwz The forces acting on the joint con-
necting the front and back wagon κ The quota of the spring thick-
of the RVM ness and height of a Belleville
spring
mequiv The equivalent mass acting on the
tracks when the RVM is tram- σuts The maximum stress of a material
ming before it breaks

xv
Lstack The height of a Belleville spring pskid,b Pressure transferred from the skid
stack to the chain
δtot Total horizontal displacement of
the track’s inner wheel
ηmin Ratio of the pre-tension length as
a quota of the cup height in a
Belleville spring
ηmax Ratio of the maximum deflection
length as a quota of the cup height
in a Belleville spring
hpre The cup height of a pre-tensioned
Belleville spring
δBW,max The maximum allowed deflection
of a Belleville spring
psystem Hydraulic system pressure
dpiston Diameter of a hydraulic pis-
ton
pop,max The maximum operation pressure
of a hydraulic cylinder
αg The tilt angle of the ground
Lb The width of the mounting surface
of the track’s inner wheels
Lh The height of the mounting surface
of the track’s inner wheels
Fsm The maximum force the spring
in Concept 2 needs to with-
stand
PzF Z Total load capacity of the tracks
using the hydraulic cylinder FZ 250
-80 50 01 201 32
PyF Z Total allowable side load of the sys-
tem using hydraulic cylinders FZ
250 -80 50 01 201 32
Askid,b Area of the surface where skid is
in contact with the chain

xvi
Chapter 1

Introduction

This thesis describes the process of creating a conceptual design of an unloading system
for continuous tracks used in the Tunnel Boring Machine, a machine boring tunnels in
a mine (TBM) developed by Atlas Copco. This chapter formulates the problem and
specifies the criteria needed to be met for an acceptable design. The methodologies used
in the this master thesis work are also presented in this chapter.

1.1 Background

RVM manufactured by Atlas Copco uses the vehicle propulsion system “continuous
tracks” (or tracks) shown in figure 1.1. The machine operates by clamping itself between
the ground and ceiling of the tunnel using hydraulic stingers and jacks. The cutter head
is then pushed forward, boring through the tunnel wall. The stingers and jacks are then
unclamped and the machine trams forward in the newly bored part of the tunnel. Close
enough to the wall, the machine clamps itself again to repeat the cycle.
The combined force of the machine’s own weight and stingers is too high for the tracks to
bear. Atlas Copco’s existing tunnel boring machines have support legs (jacks) which lift
the machine to relieve the tracks from the high load. However, with the current design
of their new RVM, there’s no room to fit jacks in front of the tracks. Atlas Copco wants
to find a solution where the load capacity of the tracks, when the tracks are stationary,
is increased without increasing the outer dimensions of the vehicle.
Several concepts of how the tracks can increase their load capacity should be generated
and evaluated. One should be picked to design a detailed concept with a complete
CAD model and general dimensioning which proves that the concept is feasible to be
implemented in the machine.

1
Chapter 1. Introduction

Stingers

Jack
Track

Figure 1.1. Side view of the RVM

1.2 Purpose

Due to the RVM’s limited space in front of the tracks, it’s not possible to fit jacks to
unload the tracks. This is the solution used on Atlas Copco’s previous tunnel boring
machines. To bear the combined gravitational and stinger forces, the load capacity of
the tracks must be increased.

1.3 Problem Description

The tracks used in the RVM shown in figure 1.2 consist of a chain wrapped around a
frame with a total of six wheels mounted on the frame. The rear wheel supplies torque
to the chain which propels the machine. The front wheel tensions the chain and the four
smaller wheels in the middle absorb the vertical forces from the ground. According to
the industrial contact at Atlas Copco, the weakest link is the four inner wheels which
indicates that increasing the load capacity of the inner wheels or creating an unload
mechanism of the wheels would increase the overall loading capacity of the tracks.
The highest load the track is exposed to is during the boring operation when the tracks
aren’t moving. Hence, a solution where the inner wheels are unloaded and limits the
tracks propulsion is allowed. General calculations should be performed to prove the
concept’s feasibility and crucial parts should be designed in detail to expose new weak
spots.

2
 1.4. Scope

Chain pre-tension spring

Rear wheel

Inner wheels
Front wheel
Figure 1.2. The tracks used in the RVM

1.4 Scope

To create a conceptual design of an unloading system which increases the loading capacity
of the tracks in Atlas Copco’s remote vein miner without increasing the outer dimensions
of the machine. The project will be performed from January to May 2016.

1.5 Delimitations

One of the several concepts generated should be chosen for a more in depth study. Since
the concept could be applied on a range of tunnel boring machines, the design will be
kept at a not too detailed level and only rough calculations with specific forces will be
performed. The thesis won’t go further than the concept stage since the available time
for the project would not allow for an acceptable design if time would be spent on other
areas. More ground for the delimitations are available in the Product Design Specification
(PDS) in appendix A.
The conceptual design does not include
• Analyzing the market for commercial purposes
• Packing for transport, storage or commercial purposes
• Weight optimizing
• Testing or plan for testing the final design

3
Chapter 1. Introduction

• Disposal of machine when reaching end of life

• The interface between the tracks and the machine
• End of Life - specifications
Some of the tunnel boring machines available from Atlas Copco are protected by confi-
dentiality. The machine RVM will be used as the frame-of-reference machine in careful
consultation with Atlas Copco to make sure no confidential information is used in the
thesis which obstructs the report from being published.

1.6 Product Design Specification

The partial PDS presented in appendix A was composed using parts of the Total Design
method [1]. Due to the delimitations specified in chapter 1.5 and after consultation with
the industrial supervisor some of the elements in the PDS were disregarded. Figure 1.3
shows the elements of a complete PDS with the disregarded elements crossed over.

Figure 1.3. The elements of a complete PDS with the disregarded elements of the conceptual
design crossed over

4
 1.7. Methodology

1.7 Methodology

This thesis was done according to the Stage Gate method [2] which breaks down the
process into smaller goals. Popular design methods such as design for manufacturing [3]
and design for assembly [4] have been proven effective when larger quantities are produced
but due to the production level of the RVM and this project’s delimitation, these methods
were not applied.
The Stage-Gate-System [2] is used to assure the success of an innovative project where
gates are set as quality checkpoints. At each checkpoint, a decision of go or no go is
made based on the project’s quality compared to the requirement specification. If a
no go is decided, the project should move back to a previous stage to meet the quality
requirements. A Stage Gate flow chart of the project is presented in figure 1.4 where
arrows illustrating the iterative part of the planning report and the customer approval.
However, this iterative step applies to every gate, where you have to go back to previous
stages if the requirements of the gate haven’t been fulfilled.

Define and Planning

Planning and Problem Supervisor Yes (planning) Defining Frame
describe Report and
Defined Correct? Customer Yes (Problem) of Reference
problem Seminar

Planning no
Problem defined no

Feasibility Concept Concept Background

Analysis Evaluation Generation Search

Adjust Design
Customer Customer Create detailed
to Customer s Yes
Consultation Approval CAD model
Wishes
No

Final Corrections Final

Finish Report and Make Numeric
and Report Hand Presentation
Presentation Analysis(FEA)
in and Opposition

Figure 1.4. General methodology and work flow throughout the thesis.

The first stage to Define and describe problem was done to be eligible a supervisor from
KTH. A planing report containing the Stage Gate-chart, the Gantt-chart and the problem
description was done and accepted both by the academic and industrial supervisors.

5
Chapter 1. Introduction

With the problem description as a base, the frame of reference could be defined by listing
all knowledge needed to be gathered to solve the task. The background search was
done using the knowledge database provided by the library of KTH and by searching
for relevant literature at the library. The database and product data sheets provided
by Atlas Copco were also used. Course literature from the courses of solid mechanics,
component design, advanced manufacturing were also used when searching for usable
information.
The methods used for the concept generation and evaluation are presented in chapter 3.1
respectively chapter 3.2. The feasibility analysis was done using the skills the literature
gathered during the background search. The concepts were then presented to the customer
(Customer Consultation) to be able to make changes according to their wishes. A detailed
CAD-model was designed after the concept was approved by customer. The designing of
the CAD-model was an iterative step together with the Finite Element Analysis (FEA)
until acceptable stress levels were obtained.
The thesis was then handed to the academic supervisor who sent it to an opponent for
review. A public oral presentation was done at KTH and the opponent presented the
suggestions of how the thesis and work could be improved. Corrections of the thesis were
then done before handing it in to the examiner for final grading.
Each stage functions as a key point which breaks down the project into smaller sections
to make it more manageable. A Gantt chart was created with the Stage Gate chart as a
base. The Gantt chart shown in appendix B has specific dates for each checkpoint with
the work process divided into weeks. The purpose of the Gantt chart is to create an easy
method of regularly following the time plan, making sure deadlines are kept.

6
Chapter 2

Frame of Reference

This chapter introduces the frame of reference needed to design and properly specify the
concepts in chapter 3. The forces acting on the RVM as well as the loads on the tracks
are defined together with theory of Belleville springs.

2.1 The Remote Vein Miner

This chapter describes the external forces acting on the RVM. The loads acting on the
tracks are divided into two load cases. One while the machine is tramming and the other
while the cutter head is operating.

2.1.1 Tramming

The RVM shown in figure 1.1 consists of two wagons which are connected by an axial
joint. The front wagon pulls the rear wagon while the machine is tramming.
The free body diagram in figure 2.1 shows the load acting on the tracks while the RVM
is tramming. The rear wagon is cut off and replaced by forces acting on the joint. Atlas
Copco provides data on what loads act on the tracks as a sum of the weight of the front
wagon mf ront and the forces acting on the joint Pwz giving the equation 2.2.
The following equations for the forces in figure 2.1 can be derived:

Fg = mf ront g (2.1)

Fg + Pw,z mequivalent g
Pz = = (2.2)
2 2
TM
Px = (2.3)
rsprocket

7
Chapter 2. Frame of Reference

Fg Fg

rsprocket
Pw,z Pw,z

Pw,x
Py Py
TM
Pz Px Pz Pz

Figure 2.1. Side view (left) and front view (right) free body diagram of the RVM while tramming

Where g is the gravity acceleration and rsprocket is the effective radius the sprocket of the
hydraulic motor which acts on the track’s chain.
Machine specifications are listed in table 2.1.
Table 2.1. Machine data

Weight mf ront of the front wagon of the RVM 160 000 kg

The equivalent weight on the tracks mequiv 200 000 kg
Max hydraulic motor torque TM 222 764 N m
Track sprocket radius rsprocket 615.5 mm
Friction coefficient between ground and tracks µt 0.7
Maximum tilt angle of the ground αg 5°

The load Py is given by the maximum tilt angle of the ground αg . The tilt angle is shown
in figure 2.2 and was provided by Atlas Copco. By assuming the load is distributed
evenly over the two tracks of the RVM, equation 2.4 can be used to calculate the side
load Py while tramming.

Fg

Pw,z

Py αg
Pz Py
Pz
Figure 2.2. Front view of the RVM showing the ground tilt angle αg where the machine is
tramming

Py = sin αg Pz (2.4)

8
 2.2. Tracks

The data in table 2.1 together with equations 2.2, 2.3 and 2.3 were used to calculate the
specific loads. The result is presented in table 2.2.

2.1.2 Boring

The machine is clamped between the ground and the ceiling of the tunnel when it’s boring,
as shown in figure 2.3. The rear wagon is disconnected from the front when the machine
is boring due to heavy vibrations propagating through the joint. The horizontal load Pz
10x Pstinger,z 10x Pstinger,y
10x Pstinger,x

FL,z Fg
FL,x
FL,x

rsprocket
Py Py
2x Pjack,x P TM Pjack,y
jack,z Px Pz Pjack,yPz

Figure 2.3. Side view (left) and front view (right) free body diagram of the RVM while boring

and side load Py acting on the tracks were given by Atlas Copco and the longitudinal load
Px is calculated using equation 2.5 and the data in table 2.1. The result is presented in
table 2.2. The tracks are equipped with brakes which are used while boring to compensate
for the high longitudinal forces.
Px = Pz µ (2.5)

Table 2.2. The specific external forces acting on the track

Tramming Boring
Px 0.086 MN 1.75 MN
Py 0.196 MN 0.5 MN
Pz 0.918 MN 2.5 MN

2.2 Tracks

The tracks used in the RVM are provided by Titan Intertractor GmbH with the product
id WWC161013. One track is mounted on each side of the machine (see figure 1.1) with
a hydraulic motor mounted on the track’s rear wheel (see figure 1.2).

9
Chapter 2. Frame of Reference

2.2.1 External loads acting on the track

The forces shown in figure 2.1 (tramming) and figure 2.3 (boring) are assumed to be
evenly distributed over the chain as shown in figure 2.4.

Px Py

Pz

Figure 2.4. The external forces acting on the tracks

The forces for both the tramming and boring load case for each component are all listed
in table 2.2

2.3 Belleville Springs

Belleville springs can be used when dealing with high loads, limited space and short
movement [5]. In contrary to a traditional helical spring, the conical shaped disc of the
Belleville spring has a nonlinear force-deflection relationship [5]. A near constant region
of force for a 65-135% deflection from flat can be achieved by having a ratio κ=1.414 of
the spring cup height h0 and spring thickness tBW [5], where h0 is the spring cup height
and tBW the thickness of washer (equation 2.6). The dimensions are shown in figure 2.5.
The spring stiffness nears linear with declining κ and can be considered as linear as κ
nears zero.
The force FBW of the spring is given as a function of the deflection δ, Young’s modulus E
and Poisson’s ratio µ. The function is presented in equation 2.7, 2.8 and 2.9. The
load Ff lat of where the spring is flattened out (i.e. δ = h0 ≈ hBW − tBW ) is given by
equation 2.10 where hBW is the total spring height also shown in figure 2.5.

h0
κ= (2.6)
tBW
4Eδ h δ) 3
i
FBW = (h0 − δ)(h0 − )t + t (2.7)
K1 Do2 (1 − µ2 ) 2

10
 2.3. Belleville Springs

SECTION A-A
Di

hbw
h0
Do
t bw

A A

Figure 2.5. The dimensions of a Belleville spring

6 h (Rd − 1)2 i
K1 = (2.8)
π ln Rd Rd2
Do
Rd = (2.9)
Di
4Eh0 t3
Ff lat = (2.10)
K1 Do2 (1 − µ2 )
The maximum stresses of a Belleville spring are concentrated at the inner and outer
edges of the cone. These can be calculated using the equations 2.11 to 2.17 [5].

4Eδ h δ
i
σc = − K h
2 0 − + K3 t (2.11)
K1 Do2 (1 − µ2 ) 2

4Eδ h δ
i
σti = − K2 h0 − + K3 t (2.12)
K1 Do2 (12
−µ ) 2
4Eδ h δ
i
σto = K4 h0 − + K5 t (2.13)
K1 Do2 (1 − µ2 ) 2
6 h Rd − 1 i
K2 = −1 (2.14)
π ln Rd ln Rd
6 h Rd − 1 i
K3 = (2.15)
π ln Rd 2

11
Chapter 2. Frame of Reference

Rd ln Rd − (Rd − 1) Rd
  
K4 = (2.16)
ln Rd (Rd − 1)2
Rd
K5 = (2.17)
2(Rd − 1)
To increase the length of the deflection δ, the springs can be stacked as shown in figure 2.6.
The flattening force Ff lat is kept but the new spring stiffness gives linear relationship
with the number of springs stacked, δstacked = δNsprings , where Nsprings is the number of
stacked springs [5].

Figure 2.6. A method of stacking four Belleville springs to increase the deflection four times
while keeping the flattening out force

The height of a pre-tensioned spring can be described as the relaxed spring height hBW
minus the fraction ηmin of the relaxed spring height it has been pre-tensioned:

hpre = hBW (1 − ηmin ) (2.18)

The fraction ηmax of the relaxed spring height hBW defines the maximum allowed
deflection δBW,max as:
δBW,max = hBW ηmax (2.19)

The number of springs required to achieve a total deflection δtot can be calculated using
the pre-tension ηmin and the maximum deflection ηmax :

Nsprings = δtot hBW (ηmax − ηmin ) (2.20)

An estimation of the total spring stack height Lstack is presented in equation 2.21 where
tBW is substituted using equation 2.6 and hpre using equation 2.18.

1
 
Lstack = Nsprings (hpre + t) = Nsprings hBW 1 − ηmin + (2.21)
κ

12
Chapter 3

Concept Stage

This chapter presents how the concepts were generated and the evaluation process of
the concepts. The two most promising concepts were then worked in more detail to see
if they were feasible in relation to the PDS. A patent search comparing the remaining
concept with existing solutions was done before proceeding with creating a more detailed
model.

3.1 Concept Generation

To generate concepts of the task given in chapter 1.4, a morphological matrix [6] was
used. The task of the concept was broken down into sub functions and several solutions
for each subfunction were generated by brainstorming and analyzing available commercial
products. Simple sketches were done for each solution and inserted in the matrix to foster
creativity. The matrix is presented in figure 3.1. Concepts were generated by pairing one
random solution from each sub function. If the concept looked feasible, it was sketched
in a low level of detail to be used in a concept evaluation. Intuitive concepts, where a
solution had emerged during the background search and designing of the morphological
matrix were also added to the list of generated concepts just at the methodology states [7].
The following concepts were generated and are presented in figure 3.2:
• Concept 1: Pillars situated between the inner wheels which moves down with
hydraulic cylinders to unload the wheels
• Concept 2: The inner wheels are mounted on springs which are compressed enough
for a skid to hit the ground unloading the inner wheels
• Concept 3: A skid mounted on an electric motor which rotates the ACME screw,
making the skid move down to unload the inner wheels

13
Chapter 3. Concept Stage

Morphological Matrix
Solu�ons
Subfunc�ons 1 2 3 4 5

Mo�on Piston Scissor li� Elas�c ACME Screw Gear rack

Energy Hydraulic Spring Electric motor Pneuma�c

Unloading structure Skid Pillars Reinforced wheels

Moving part Pillars/skid Wheels

Figure 3.1. The morphological matrix used to generate concepts

• Concept 4: A scissor lift moves a skid with a pneumatic cylinder unloading the
inner wheels
• Concept 5: Springs mounted on the inner wheels which are compressed until the
wheels hit unloading cylinders situated above the inner wheels
• Concept 6: Investigating the possibility to reinforce the wheels/bearings to increase
load capacity
• Concept 7: Hydraulic cylinders moving a skid to unload the inner wheels
• Concept 8: Moving a skid by using a gear rack and an electric motor
• Concept 9: Mounting hydraulic cylinders on the inner wheels to move them up
until the skid unloads the wheels

3.2 Concept Evaluation

The concepts generated in chapter 3.1 were evaluated using Pugh’s Evaluation Matrix [7]
to systematically and in an unbiased way decide what concept to proceed with. The
evaluation criteria were created by studying the PDS and all criteria are specified in
appendix C. Each concept generated in chapter 3.1 was inserted in the matrix shown
in figure 3.3. A datum concept (Concept 1) was set and the rest of the concepts were
benchmarked on each criterion. A value of "+" was given if the concept was deemed
as better performing and a "-" if it performed worse. An "S" was given if the concept
performed as good as the datum.
The method of controlled convergence [7] was used when the weaknesses of the most
promising concepts were studied to see if alterations of the concept could be made to

14
 3.2. Concept Evaluation

Concept 1 Concept 2

Concept 3 Concept 4

Concept 5 Concept 6

Concept 7 Concept 8

Concept 9

Figure 3.2. Sketches of the generated concepts to evaluate

Pugh's Evalua�on Matrix

+ for be�er than datum
- for worse than datum
S for same than datum

Key Criteria Concept 1 Concept 2 Concept 3 Concept 4 Concept 5 Concept 6 Concept 7 Concept 8 Concept 9
Sta�c load D + - - + - S - +
Ground pressure + + + - - + + +
Cycle Time s + + + + S S S
Environmental Effects A + - - + S S - S
Sustainability + - S + + S - S
Maintenance T - S S - - S S S
Cost - - S - - S - S
Complexity U s - - - - S - S
Size s + - S + - - -
M

Sum Posi�ves 0 4 3 2 4 3 1 1 2
Sum Nega�ves 0 2 5 4 4 5 1 6 1
Sum Sames 0 3 1 3 1 1 7 2 6

Figure 3.3. Pugh’s evaluation matrix used to evaluate the generated concepts

make these weaknesses into strengths. The altered concepts were added to the evaluation
matrix as new ones in a new column to the far right.
Concept 2 and Concept 9, shown in figure 3.2 were deemed the most promising and a
more detailed conceptual design was done to be able to perform a feasibility analysis.

15
Chapter 3. Concept Stage

The decision was a compromise between the concepts having scored the most positives
and the least negatives together with the fact that the two concepts had fundamentally
different sub solutions.

3.3 Feasibility Analysis

A feasibility analysis was performed on the two concepts chosen to proceed with. The
inner wheels are set to require 30 mm of horizontal displacement δtot to be unloaded.
The space where the hydraulic cylinders and springs of Concept 2 and Concept 9 can be
fitted is limited by the surface defined by the dimensions Lh and Lb shown in figure 3.4.
These dimensions are listed in table 3.1

Lb
Lh

Figure 3.4. The limited space of Lb and Lh of the inner wheels available for fitting hydraulic
cylinders or springs

Table 3.1. Dimensions of the mounting surface of the track’s inner wheel

Lh 220 mm
Lb 65 mm

3.3.1 Compression Springs

Concept 2 is designed to use springs to unload the inner wheels when their max allowed
load is reached. Three compression springs with a maximum outer diameter of 65 mm can
be fitted on each side of the inner wheel on the surface defined by Lb and Lh . The max
spring force Fsm for each spring can be approximated with equation 3.1, only considering

16
 3.3. Feasibility Analysis

the vertical force Pz .

Pz
Fsm = (3.1)
24
The strongest spring provided by [8] with an outside diameter smaller than 65 mm is

Table 3.2. The maximum spring force when using three compression springs on each side of the
inner wheel

Required spring force Fsm 40.9 kN

Standard compression spring [8] 3.9 kN
Die spring [8]([9]) 27.8 kN (12.7 kN)

listed in table 3.2. The die spring made from rectangular wire offers a tougher spring
with higher load capacity in relation to its outside diameter but it is still not strong
enough for the required load capacity (see table 3.2) which indicates that compression
springs are too weak for the limited space in the tracks.

3.3.2 Belleville Springs

A Belleville spring can be designed to be fitted in Concept 2 by using the theory in

chapter 2.3. Equation 2.10 can be rewritten as equation 3.2 by using the material data of
DIN 17222 spring steel specified in table 3.3 to get the spring thickness tBW as a function
of the flattening spring force Ff lat and outer diameter DoBW .
!
1 Do2 Ff lat
t= (3.2)
1072 κ
Assuming an even distribution of the horizontal load Pz with four wheels on each track
and four springs on each wheel, the load on each spring Ff lat can be calculated. The
maximum outer diameter of the spring is defined as the width of the surface in figure 3.4
(DoBW = Lb ). The dimensions and load used in the analysis are presented in table 3.3.

Table 3.3. Requirements of the Belleville spring designed in first feasibility analysis, material
properties according to DIN 17222

E 207 GPa
µ 0.3
DoBW /DiBW 2
DoBW 65 mm
Ff lat 81.8 kN
FBW (δ=0.75hBW ) 61.4 kN
σuts 1810 MPa (SS-EN 1.4021) [10]

17
Chapter 3. Concept Stage

The theory in chapter 2.3 needs to be applied for dynamic loads where the deflection is
limited due to fatigue. The Belleville spring manufacturer Lesjöfors supplies springs for
dynamic loads with a recommendation of a maximum deflection between 20-75% of the
cup height h0 [8]. The spring is estimated to have a linear spring rate since κ<1 [5] and
together with the limited deflection, the new force Ff lat needs to be adjusted according
to equation 3.3.
Pz
0.75Ff lat = (3.3)
16
The maximum spring stresses given by equations 2.11- 2.17 can be calculated as a function
of κ. Figure 3.5 shows a plot for the maximum stresses using the deflection δ = 0.75h0
and the dimensions in table 3.3. The MATLAB script is available in appendix D.

4500
σc

4000 σti
σto
3500 σuts
Stress σ [MPa]

3000

2500

2000

1500

1000

500
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35 0.4
Quota κ = h0 /t BW

Figure 3.5. Graph showing the maximum stresses of a Belleville spring as a function of the
quota κ

Comparing the stresses in figure 3.5 and the ultimate strength in table 3.3 gives a
maximum value κ=0.105. The spring thickness tBW is calculated for this κ using
equation 3.2 and then used in equation 2.21 together with δtot =30 mm to calculate the
minimum required stack height Lstack for the total load Pz . The result is presented in
table 3.4.

18
 3.3. Feasibility Analysis

Table 3.4. Dimensions of the Belleville spring from the static analysis

tBW 7.01 mm
h0 0.74 mm
δBW,max 0.56 mm
Nsprings 54 pcs
Lstack 413 mm

The spring stack height Lstack in table 3.4 is too tall to fit inside the tracks indicating
using Belleville springs being an unfeasible solution in this application.

3.3.3 Hydraulics

Concept 9 uses two hydraulic cylinders per inner wheel and unloads the wheels completely
while boring, meaning each cylinder needs to withstand one eight each of Px and Pz
while tramming and no load while boring. The piston diameter dpiston in the cylinders
can be calculated using the equation 3.4 where the hydraulic system pressure psystem was
decided together with the industrial supervisor. The same displacement δtot used for the
springs is used as the cylinder stroke length. The result is presented in table 3.5.
π Pz
psystem d2piston = (3.4)
4 8

Table 3.5. Hydraulic operating pressure and calculated piston diameter for Concept 9

psystem 150 bar

dpiston 102.1 mm

Hydraulic cylinders are in general very sensitive to side loads [11]. The cylinders need to
withstand the side load caused by Px . The hydraulic component manufacturer Roemheld
recommends a maximum side load of 3% of the cylinder’s force at maximum operating
pressure pop,max for cylinders up to 50 mm stroke length [12]. This condition gives
equation 3.5 when assuming Px is evenly distributed over the cylinders.
Px π
< 0.03pop,max d2piston (3.5)
8 4
The result from equation 3.5 when using data taken from [12] is presented in table 3.6.
The result in table 3.5 and 3.6 indicates that Concept 9 is feasible.

Table 3.6. Side load data and result for the hydraulic system

pop,max 500 bar

dpiston 33.7 mm

19
Chapter 3. Concept Stage

3.4 Patent Search

The patent database Derwent innovations index was searched for existing products
similar to Concept 9 to avoid future problems when producing the concept. Keywords
describing the system were used together with filters suitable for the application. The
hits were then read through to make sure the new concept wasn’t clashing with any
of them. Table 3.7 lists keywords, subject filter and number of hits that were scanned
through.

Table 3.7. Patent search result

Keywords Subject Hits

Track load capacity Transportation 172
Unload system + track load capacity Mining and mineral, Agriculture 18
Actuator loaded wheels Engineering 57

The patent search resulted in no clashes of Concept 9 with existing patents.

20
Chapter 4

Detailed Concept

This chapter presents a more detailed model of the chosen concept. An overview of the
complete CAD model is shown in figure 4.1. Two hydraulic cylinders are used on each
inner wheel which unloads the wheels while the RVM is boring. To make room for the
inner wheel closest to the front wheel, a new fork connecting the pre-tension spring with
the front wheel was designed. A FEA was performed to validate the strength of the fork
and skid. The Finite Element Method, a method used in solid mechanics to numerically
analyze structures to see the stresses of the structure (FEM) software ANSYS was used.
Structural steel with a Young’s modulus E=200 GPa and a Poisson’s ratio µ=0.3 were
used in the FEA. The plates protecting the components situated inside the tracks are
hidden in figure 4.1. Figures showing these plates are available in appendix E.

Skid Cylinders Fork

Figure 4.1. Detailed CAD model of the chosen concept using hydraulic cylinders and a skid to
distribute the load

21
Chapter 4. Detailed Concept

4.1 The Skid

The longitudinal forces are assumed to be distributed through the track’s chain and
motor since the track’s own brake is used while boring. Since the inner wheels are fully
unloaded, the pair of skids takes the force from Py and Pz . Figure 4.2 shows the green
highlighted surfaces where these loads were applied on the top surfaces for the FEA
model and the bottom surface Askid,b was set as fixed. The mesh was refined in the max
stress areas and the result converged with a maximum element size of 5 mm. The forces
Py and Pz used are specified in table 2.2. Figure 4.3 shows the final designs’ stresses.

Top surfaces

Askid,b

Figure 4.2. Boundary surfaces used in the FEM simulation of the skid

Figure 4.3. FEM simulation of the skid

22
 4.2. The Fork

General calculations of the forces transferred from the skid to the chain were made to
examine the stresses in the chain. The area of the skid Askid,b is listed together with the
transferred pressure pskid,b in table 4.1.

Table 4.1. Skid dimensions and transferred pressure from the skid to the chain

Askid,b 0.117 m2
pskid,b 13.2 MPa

4.2 The Fork

The new and more compact fork was subjected to a FEM simulation to validate its
strength. A worst-case scenario was setup with the machine tipping forward, meaning
all its own weight is applied to the track’s front wheel. Figure 4.4 shows the surfaces
used as boundary conditions for the FEM simulation. The surface connecting the fork to
the pre-tension spring (green surface to the left in figure 4.4) was set with the boundary
condition fixed and the force of Pz for tramming defined in table 2.2 was applied to the
front surfaces of the fork, to the right in figure 4.4.

Figure 4.4. Two views of the fork showing the surfaces used for boundary conditions in the
FEM simulation

The result of the FEA is shown in figure 4.5 with the old fork to the left with the same
boundary conditions used in FEA of the new fork. The areas with max equivalent stress
of 201 MPa is greatly reduced on the new fork indicating an improvement in strength of
the new fork compared to the old one. The local stress concentrations shown in the new
fork converged with a refined mesh size in this area.

23
Chapter 4. Detailed Concept

Figure 4.5. FEA of the old (left) and new (right) fork

4.3 The Frame

The horizontal load Pz and the side load Py are assumed to be evenly distributed along
the four small inner wheels and the longitudinal force (Px ) is distributed to the hydraulic
motor as shown in figure 4.6

Py

TM

Px

Pz

Figure 4.6. The internal load distribution of the frame

The blue surface in figure 4.7 shows the surfaces making up the interface between the
tracks and the machine. The interface was considered as out of scope and thereby no
changes or analyzes were done to this interface. When analyzing the frame, the surfaces
were regarded as frictionless supports, meaning the surfaces had zero displacement in its
normal direction and were allowed to strain along its own plane.
The CAD model was imported as an assembly where all the parts that were in contact
with each other were set as "bounded" in ANSYS, meaning the software considered them

24
 4.3. The Frame

as one solid when calculating the stresses.

Frictionless support

Figure 4.7. The surfaces making the interface between the machine and the tracks

Figure 4.9 shows the FEA done on the original frame that was provided by Atlas Copco
and one done on the frame that was designed for the new concept. Both models showed
high stress concentrations in three sharp corners where welds are supposed to be. Cross
frame 1 in figure 4.9 showed high stress concentrations both in the original frame and the
concept frame (upper circle in the detailed view) where it is joined with the rest of the
frame. The mesh size shown in figure 4.8 was reduced in these parts but no convergence
of the stress was obtained due to the sharp corner. An attempt on making the bottom
of Cross frame 1 stronger (where the stress concentration is situated) using the arch
geometry cross frame 2 was made but wasn’t feasible due to the hole in the middle of
the plate needed for the chain pre-tension spring (see figure 1.2).
The stress concentration areas are situated in welded joints which is highly problematic.
To solve this problem, the industrial supervisor recommends consulting a weld expert
before proceeding with manufacturing. The stress concentrations could be reduced with
smooth transitions in the corners.

Figure 4.8. Mesh used in the FEM model of the original (left) and concept (right) frame

25
Chapter 4. Detailed Concept

An extra cross frame part Cross frame 2b in figure 4.8 was added compared to the new
frame to make the frame stronger. By adding this cross frame, the stresses in both cross
frame 2a and cross frame 2b could be kept below 380 MPa. The parts were also made
thicker to reinforce the frame.

Frame provided by Atlas Copco

M
MPa

Cross frame 1

Cross frame 2
Concept 9 frame
MPa

Cross frame 2b

Cross frame 2a

Figure 4.9. Bottom view FEA of the original and concept frame using the boring loads in
table 2.2

26
 4.4. The Cylinders

4.4 The Cylinders

Several product catalogs of hydraulic component suppliers [13], [14], [15] were unsuccess-
fully scanned to find cylinders compact enough to fit inside the tracks with the diameter
specified in table 3.5. The strongest cylinder compact enough to fit was FZ 250 -80 50
01 201 32 [14] from Merkle AHP. The CAD model provided by the manufacturer website
was imported to the CAD model (shown in figure 4.1). The small gap between the inner
wheels and the chain shown in figure 4.10 allows the inner wheels to be fully unloaded
while the machine is boring. The cylinders move the inner wheels, lifting the machine
a distance δtot (minus the small gap) off the skid when changing operating mode from
boring to tramming. The exploded view in figure 4.11 shows the adapter plate which
was designed to allow the cylinder to be mounted on the frame.

A Boring
SECTION A-A

Gap
Contact

A
B Tramming
SECTION B-B
δ

Figure 4.10. Close up of how the cylinders lift the machine off from the skid when changing
from boring to tramming

The data for the cylinder is presented in table 4.2 and shows that a system of eight
cylinders achieve a total load capacity PzF Z greater than the tramming load Pz specified
in table 2.2. The total allowable side load for the cylinders PyF Z is not sufficient compared

27
Chapter 4. Detailed Concept

No Name Quan�ty
1 M10x70 Socket Head Cap Screw 8
2 FZ 250 -80 50 01 201 32 1
3 M16x70 Socket Head Cap Screw 4
4 Cylinder Adapter Plate WW 1
5 Cylinder Bracket S009053_JT 1

Figure 4.11. Exploded view of how the cylinders are mounted to the frame

to the Py for tramming also shown in table 2.2. The system operating pressure psystem
was set to the max pressure pop,max to achieve these loads.

Table 4.2. Data for Cylinder FZ 250 -80 50 01 201 32

pop,max 250 bar

psystem 250 bar
dpiston 80 mm
PzF Z 1.01 MN
PyF Z 0.03 MN

4.5 PDS evaluation

The final design was evaluated in regard to the PDS in appendix A and the result is
presented in table 4.3.

28
 4.5. PDS evaluation

Table 4.3. Evaluation of the final concept compared to the PDS

Static vertical load Pz Yes

Static side load Py Boring Yes, Tramming No
Cycle time Not confirmed
Ambient temperature working Yes, according to hydraulic component
data sheet
Ambient temperature storage Yes, according to hydraulic component
data sheet
Vibrations Yes, the loads compensate for dynamic
effects
Dirty and wet environment Yes, the components are insensitive to dirt
and moisture
Life in service Yes, the components are maintenance
friendly and dimensioned to last
Shipping and size Yes, the design respects the dimension
specification
Aesthetics and appearance No, the level of detail does not include
aesthetics
Material Yes, structural steel was used for the de-
sign
Standards Yes, standardized components were used
except for the newly designed fork and skid
Ergonomics Yes, standard tools are used for mainte-
nance and no springs were used
Quality and reliability Not evaluated
Shelf life Yes, the components used will last the 6
month shelf life
Timescale Yes, the deadline for May 2017 was met
Safety Yes, the unloading operation is au-
tonomous
Patents Yes, no patent clashes were found
Documentation Yes, the thesis together with the CAD-
model documents the design extensively
Sustainability Partially, hydraulic fluid is normally fos-
sil fluids. Main components are made out
of structural steel with no conflict minerals

29
Chapter 5

Discussion and Conclusion

This chapter includes a discussion regarding the design of the concept with its strengths
and weaknesses. The result of the main new components described in chapter 4 is
discussed and compared to the PDS in appendix A. The methods used in the project are
discussed and the conclusion sums up the result of this thesis.

5.1 Discussion

Even in a quite low level of detail of the CAD model (piping, wiring, welds joints were
not included) there were quite a lot of difficulties to find room for the cylinders in the
frame. Parts in the frame were moved which led to other parts needing adjustments. The
model was built as a bottom-up assembly [16]. In hindsight, a lot of advantages could
have been found with a top-down assembly [16] when changing a dimension of one part
meant dimensional changes on several other parts.
Even though the patent search performed in chapter 3.4 didn’t show any patent clashes,
there’s still a need for a more detailed search of existing patents. Experts in patents and
patent search should be consulted before manufacturing the concept.

5.1.1 Skid Discussion

The FEA done in chapter 4.1 indicates that the skid is strong enough for the high loads
the skid needs to sustain when the machine is boring. The stresses are in the same
order as the yield strength of conventional construction steel. This suggests that a more
in-depth study of how the dynamic forces affect the life length of the structure regarding
fatigue. The loads in chapter 2.1 given by Atlas Copco are supposed to compensate for
dynamic effects but a more in-depth study might still be needed.
The track’s chain was assumed to be strong enough for the loads in table 2.2. The

31
Chapter 5. Discussion and Conclusion

pressure in table 4.1 indicates a tolerable level but this needs to be confirmed by the
track manufacturer.

5.1.2 Fork Discussion

The new fork creates more space for the cylinders to be fitted in the frame and the FEA
done with the tipping over scenario indicates that the fork is strong enough for the task.
Manufacturing cost and complexity of the new fork is increased but compared to adding
more tracks it is still found to be a profitable choice.

5.1.3 Frame Discussion

The stress concentration where Cross frame 1 in figure 4.9 is joined with the rest of
the frame needs to be resolved. As earlier suggested, an expert in welding should be
consulted to decide acceptable stress levels and how to reduce them. Furthermore, the
stress level of 380 MPa limits the choice of material to a higher quality steel compared to
conventional construction steel with a yield strength of 235 MPa. Just as with the skid,
a more in-depth study of fatigue may be needed.

5.1.4 Cylinders Discussion

The cylinders were compact enough to fit inside the track with some modifications of the
frame. The level of detail in the given CAD model did not include electric components,
wires or pipes. The placements of such parts are now needed to be adjusted to the new
design of the frame.
The cylinders used in chapter 4.4 are too weak for the side load Py when tramming.
Either should linear guides be added connecting the inner wheels to the frame to take
these side loads or the cylinders should be changed to larger ones.

5.1.5 Method Discussion

The following reflections of the methods used in the thesis could be done
• The tedious work of creating the PDS (appendix A) was of great support when
questions about prioritizes arose while designing the concepts
• Both the Stage Gate flow chart and the Gantt chart proved to be of great help to
meet deadlines
• The Gantt chart had to be revised several times and details were added to keep
it true to the project. Working with an outdated Gantt chart would defeat the
purpose of using it for structure your work and keeping deadlines

32
 5.2. Conclusion

• The Morphological Matrix was the root for coming up with the final concept. The
early idea of having a skid mounted on the hydraulic cylinders to lift the machine
when it was boring proved to be less effective than the later generated and finally
chosen concept of the moving inner wheels.
• The Pugh’s Evaluation Matrix proved to be a good way of systematically evaluate
the concepts.
• The controlled convergence method was the ground for coming up with the final
concept. The method could be even more effective when working in groups allowing
for more creative thinking.

5.2 Conclusion

In conclusion, the concepts fulfill the PDS in appendix A with some deviations:
• The cylinders used aren’t strong enough for the side loads when the machine is
tramming.
• The frame is showing stress concentrations in welded corners. The stresses need to
be reduced or moved out of the joint.
• The desired hydraulic operating pressure psystem was exceeded with the chosen
cylinders.
• The concept’s level of detail did not include specifying a hydraulic pump or piping.
• Environmental effects:
– How moist and dirt affect the hydraulic cylinders hasn’t be investigated.
– How dirt between the skid and the chain affect its performance hasn’t investi-
gated.
– Ambient temperature hasn’t been studied. The hydraulic oil must be compat-
ible with these temperatures.
• The hydraulic cylinder’s life in service isn’t specified. However, service and replace-
ment of the cylinders is easy with the service slots in the frame.
• The quality and reliability haven’t been investigated. The specified availability
specified in the PDS still needs to be verified.
• Regarding sustainability, no conflict minerals have been found in the design. How-
ever, the use of hydraulics implies the use of fossil oil.

33
Chapter 6

Future Work

The concept could be developed further to make it a better and more detailed solution.
The following parts are recommended to develop further:
• Add linear guides to reduce the side load of the hydraulic cylinders
• Reducing the clearance δtot and creating more space for a larger diameter for the
spring could allow the use of Belleville springs using the theory in chapter 2.3.
Using springs instead of hydraulic components could create a less complex design
• Create a more detailed design of the concept including source and distribution for
hydraulic power (pump and piping)
• Solving the stress concentration in cross frame 1. Mimicking the bottom geometry
of cross frame 2 is possibly a solution

35
References

[1] S. Pugh, Total design - integrated methods for successful product engineering.
Wokingham: Addison-Wesley, 1990, pp. 44–66.
[2] R. G. Cooper, “Stage-gate systems: A new tool for managing new products”,
Business Horizons, pp. 44–45, 1990.
[3] S. El Wakil, Processes and design for manufacturing. Boston, PWS Publishing
Company, 1998, pp. 14–15.
[4] ——, Processes and design for manufacturing. Boston, PWS Publishing Company,
1998, pp. 430–459.
[5] P. R. Childs, Mechanical design engineering handbook. Burlington: Elsevier Science,
2013, pp. 664–671.
[6] G. Pahl, W. Beitz, J. Feldhusen, and K. Wallace, Engineering design : A systematic
approach. Springer London, 2007, pp. 169–186.
[7] S. Pugh, Total design - integrated methods for successful product engineering.
Wokingham: Addison-Wesley, 1990, pp. 67–89.
[8] Lesjöfors AB, Spring catalogue 13, http : / / www . lesjoforsab . com / teknisk -
information / standard _ stock _ springs _ catalogue _ 13_ - _english _ id1107 .
pdf accessed 2017-04-20, 2017.
[9] Danly IEM, Jis springs, http://www.daytonlamina.com/sites/default/files/
doc/DanlyIEM-JIS-Springs.pdf accessed 2017-04-20, 2017.
[10] K. Björk, Formler och tabeller för mekanisk konstruktion. Karl Björks Förlag HB,
1999, p. 53.
[11] E. Parr, Hydraulics and pneumatics: A technician’s and engineer’s guide. United
Kingdom, Butterworth Heinemann, 2013, p. 125.
[12] ROEMHELD, Block cylinders double acting, max. operating pressure 500 bar,
[http://www.roemheld.com/en/roemheld.aspx?cmd=PDF&Article=1549100&
csid=4912&sm=Kolbendurchm=100 accessed 2017-04-20], 2017.
[13] ——, Roemheld product catalogue, [http://www.roemheld.com/en/roemheld.
aspx?cmd=PDFS accessed 2017-04-20], 2017.
[14] AHP Merkle, Product catalogue, [https://ahp.partcommunity.com/3d- cad-
models/ahp-merkle/?info=ahp accessed 2017-04-20], 2017.

37
References

[15] Parker Hannifin Corporation, Cylinder product catalogue, [https://www.parker.

com/literature/Industrial%20Cylinder/cylinder/cat/english/HY08-1114-
6_NA_2H-3H%20.pdf accessed 2017-04-20], 2017.
[16] D. D. Gajski, S. Abdi, and A. Gerstlaue, Embedded system design modeling, synthesis
and verification. London New York: Springer Dordrech Heidelberg, 2009, pp. 35–38.
[17] B. Bali, U. Naeher, D. Ruppen, and P. Schütte, “Conflict minerals 3tg: Mining
production, applications and recycling”, Current Opinion in Green and Sustainable
Chemistry, no. 1, pp. 8–12, 2016.

38
Appendix A

The Elements of the Product

Design Specification

This chapter extends the summary of the PDS in chapter 1.6 treating the complete list
of elements [1]. The elements were used to create the Pugh’s Matrix in chapter 3.1
• Performance
The static load capacity and cycle time is presented in table A.1

Table A.1. Static load when operating

Static vertical load Pz 2.5 MN

Static side load Py 0.5 MN
Cycle time (tramming - ready to bore - tramming) 10 seconds

• Environment
Ambient temperature working: 0 ◦C to 35 ◦C
Ambient temperature storage: −5 ◦C to 70 ◦C
Vibrations: The static load supplied by Atlas Copco Pz and Px are dimensioned
for dynamic loads
Dirty and wet environment.
• Life in Service
The machine should operate 24 hours a day, 5 days a week.
Total life in service: 1500 h
• Target Product Cost
The alternative to an unloading system is adding more tracks. Therefore, the cost
of the unloading system should not exceed that of adding more tracks.

39
Appendix A. The Elements of the Product Design Specification

• Competition
No competition is considered since Atlas Copco reports that no other solutions are
available on the market.
• Shipping
The RVM needs to be transported down the mine shaft in an elevator. As long
as the unload sharing unit fulfills the requirement of fitting within the tracks, this
should not be a problem.
• Packing
Packing is considered as out of scope.
• Quantity
When the concept is realized, the quantity will be very low. Approximately 1-3
machines.
• Size
The design should fit inside the tracks of the RVM.
• Weight
Regarding the he large weight of the machine (160 tonnes) and the size constraints,
the weight of the design is subordinate.
• Aesthetics and Appearance
Flat surfaces should be colored with the Atlas Copco yellow color.
The design should appear robust and give the impression of handling the rough
mine environment.
• Materials
Steel alloys are used for structural frames. These are in general preferred over
aluminum and other metals on these machines according to Atlas Copco
Hydraulic components may be used.
• Product life span
This section is subordinate since only one machine is planned to be manufactured.
• Standards and Specifications
European standard components should be used when possible but customized parts
may be designed to find a solution.
• Ergonomics
When using springs (pre-tensioned), the design should allow for a safe assembly.
Maintenance should be possible using standard tools.
• Customer
The customer of the design is Atlas Copco who wants to integrate the solution in
their machine (the RVM).
• Quality and Reliability

40
 The RVM availability is set at 80%. The availability is calculated using Mean Time
to Failure, the mean time a system takes to fail (MTTF) and Mean Time to Repair,
the mean time it takes to repair the system (MTTR):

MTTF
Availability = (A.1)
MTTF + MTTR

• Shelf life
The design should survive 6 months’ shelf life.
• Processes
Atlas Copco has a high level of in-house process competence, including welding,
milling, turning, grinding, casting, hydraulic tubing and electric wiring making this
specification subordinate.
• Time-Scales
The concept design should be completed no later than May 2017.
• Testing
How the product should be tested is considered as outside of the conceptual design
scope.
• Safety
No human contact when the unloading system operational.
It should be safe to move around the machine while the machine is tramming.
• Company Constraints
No company constraints are considered in this project since this is considered as a
small and low quantity part of the machine.
• Market Constraints
Since the customer is considered to be Atlas Copco and the RVM project is underway,
no more market constraints will be taken in to consideration.
• Patents, Literature and Product Data
Possible patent clashes should be investigated.
• Legal
Legal parts regarding miss-use and defects are outside of the scope of the conceptual
design stage.
• Installation
The unloading system should be applicable to the RVM tracks but alteration of
the track’s frame is allowed to achieve the target load.
• Documentation
The design is documented extensively in the master thesis.

41
Appendix A. The Elements of the Product Design Specification

• Disposal
The disposal of the unloading system is regarded as outside of the scope of the
conceptual design stage.
• Sustainability
Even though [1] does not handle the matter of sustainability, with today’s challenges
of global warming the author considers this to be something that must be regarded.
Fossil fluid and material should be kept to a minimum and conflict minerals [17]
should be avoided as far as possible.

42
Appendix B

The Gantt chart

The Gantt chart shown in B.1 was used as a base for scheduling when each part of the
project was supposed to be done. The progress bars were filled with blue as progress
was made. This was done at least every Friday when the chart was uploaded to the
workspace shared with the academic supervisor.

43
Appendix B. The Gantt chart

44
Figure B.1. Gantt chart for the project
45
Appendix C

The Criteria of Pugh’s Evaluation

Matrix

The following criteria were used in chapter 3.1 to evaluate the previously generated
concepts. The PDS described in chapter 1.6 was used as a base for creating the crite-
ria.
• Static load performance
Can the concept effectively take the horizontal load?
Can the concept effectively take the side load?
Is the mechanism suitable for taking high static load?
Since the frame in its current state needs to be reinforced the load distributer needs
to be compatible with frame reinforcements.
• Track chain pressure
An even load distribution acting on the track’s chain is required to reduce the stress
of the chain.
• Cycle time
The cycle time set to 10 seconds needs to be met
• Environmental effects
Both the storage and operating temperature spans need to be met.
The RVM uses water to cool the cutter head and reduce the dust created when
cutting. This creates a dirty and wet environment.
The load distributor needs to endure the dusty and dirty environment in the mine.
• Sustainability
Does the concept have any environmentally harmful material or conflict minerals
[17]?
• Maintenance

47
Appendix C. The Criteria of Pugh’s Evaluation Matrix

Does the maintenance take the RVM out of service for longer periods of time? Is
the availability met? (80%)
• Cost
Is the estimated development and production cost higher than the datum concept?
Does the concept require a lot of expensive custom made parts?
• Complexity
Does the concept use energy mediums (hydraulic, electric, mechanic) than the
datum? How complex is the concept regarding number of parts used in assembling?
Does the concept involve complex control units? Is manufacturing of the concept
feasible with respect to the manufacturing cost?
• Size
How large are the dimensions of the concept? One main requirement is that the
concept should fit inside the tracks.

48
Appendix D

The MATLAB script used for

calculation of the Belleville
spring

MATLAB script used for calculating Belleville springs, hydraulic pressure and cylinder
diameter. The chosen cylinders’ load capacity and side load capacity are also calcu-
lated.

%MATLAB script for Master Thesis Machine Design

% RVM tracks Jonas Torstensson 2017-02-10
% Calculating RVM forces on the track
clear all;close all;clc
m_equv=200e3 ; % Equivalent mass of RVM while tramming [kg]
T_max=222764; % Max torque of the hydraulic motor in the tracks [Nm]
mu_t=0.7 ; % Friction coefficient between the tracks and the ground
g=9.818 ; % Gravity constant [m/s^2]
P_yboring=0.5e6; %Forces in y-direction while boring
r_sprocket=615.5e-3; % Radius of track sprocket [m]
alfa_g=5; % Ground tilt angle [deg]
P_ztram=m_equv*g/2; % Load on each track in z-direction
P_xtram=T_max/r_sprocket;
disp(['P_xtram= ',num2str(P_xtram*10^-6),' [MN]'])
P_ytram=P_ztram*sind(alfa_g);
disp(['P_ytram= ',num2str(P_ytram*10^-6),' [MN]'])
disp(['P_ztram= ',num2str(P_ztram*10^-6),' [MN]'])
P_zboring=2.5e6 ; %Vertical load on track when boring [Nm]
P_xboring=mu_t*P_zboring;
disp(['P_xboring= ',num2str(P_xboring*10^-6),' [MN]'])

%% Approximating the hydraulic cylinders size

disp(' ');disp('Hydraulics');
n_wheels=4; % Number of wheels per track

49
Appendix D. The MATLAB script used for calculation of the Belleville spring

n_cylperwheel=2;
p_popmax=300e5; % max hydraulic pressure specified by the manufacturer of ...
the specific cylinder range (Roemheld)
P_zwheel=P_ztram/n_wheels; % Load on each wheel (4 per track)
P_zwheel_side=P_zwheel/n_cylperwheel; % Pressure on each side of the wheels
p_max=250e5 ;% Max system pressure
A=P_zwheel_side/p_max;
r_piston= sqrt(A/pi); % Cylinder radius for max system pressure in regard ...
to P_z
P_y_cyl=P_ytram/(n_wheels*n_cylperwheel);
r_piston_sl=sqrt(P_y_cyl/(0.03*8*pi*p_popmax)); % Min piston radius ...
considering the side load and condition of max 3% of max pressure load

disp(['Load on each cylinder while tramming P__y_cyl= ...

',num2str(P_y_cyl*10^-3),' kN', ' P_z_cyl= ...
',num2str(P_zwheel_side*1e-3),' kN'])
disp(['Min piston diameter d= ', num2str(r_piston*2e3), ' mm for tramming'])
disp(['Side load min piston diameter d= ', num2str(r_piston_sl*2e3), ' mm ...
for tramming'])
disp(['Using system pressure ',num2str(p_max*1e-5),' bar and ...
',num2str(n_wheels), ' wheels per track and ...
',num2str(n_cylperwheel),' cylinder per wheel'])

%% Ground pressuredisp
disp(' ');disp('Check ground pressure');
A_ideal=541255.05e-6; %Area of track below the small wheels
%A_skid=(127884.28+127883.41)*1e-6; % Area where the skid would act on ...
the track.
A_skid=2*116886.41e-6;%
P_tot_bor=sqrt(P_xboring^2 + P_yboring^2 + P_zboring^2);
p_ideal_bore=P_tot_bor/A_ideal;
disp(['Ideal ground pressure when boring p_ideal= ...
',num2str(p_ideal_bore*1e-6), ' MPa']);
p_track_boring=P_tot_bor/A_skid;
disp(['Track pressure when boring p_track_boring= ...
',num2str(p_track_boring*1e-6), ' MPa']);
%% Compression spring
F_sm=P_ztram/24;
disp(' ');disp('Compression springs')
disp(['Compression spring force F_sm = ',num2str(F_sm*1e-3),' kN'])
%% Belleville spring
disp(' ');disp('Belleville Spring dimensioning');
D_o=65e-3 ; % outer diameter of spring [m]
E=207e9; % Youngs modulus for spring steel [Pa]
mu=0.3 ; % Poissons ratio for spring steel
D_i=D_o/2;
%F_flat=2*62.5/(3*0.75) *1e3; % Force for the spring to flatten out
F_flat=P_ztram/(.75*16);
Sigma_uts=1810e6; % Ultimate strength of SS-EN 1.4021
delta_tot=30e-3; %Required displacement for the wheels (spring stack)
eta_min=0.2; % Pre tension quote from h_0
%htquote=0.01:0.1:1.414 ; % the quota h/t set to give a (near) constant ...
force for the defelction

50
kappa=[0.03:0.005: 0.4];
t=1/1072 * ( (D_o^2 * F_flat)./(kappa)).^0.25; % Assuming constant spring ...
force and a D_o/D_i=2
%disp(['thicknsess t= ',num2str(t*1e3),' mm'])
h=t.*kappa;
%disp(['height h= ',num2str(h*1e3),' mm'])
delta_min=.65*h;delta_max=1.35*h;
Delta_delta=delta_max-delta_min;
%disp(['Delta_delta= ',num2str(Delta_delta*1e3),' mm'])
tot_h=h+t;
N=4; % Number of springs
Stack_height=N*tot_h; % Stack height using N springs
%disp(['Stack_height= ',num2str(Stack_height*1e3),' mm'])
%disp(['Total deflection delta= ',num2str(N*Delta_delta*1e3),' mm'])
L_0faktor=.8*2*(1+1/1.414);
L_0t=.8*(1+1/1.414)*h;
% Calculating the stresses in the spring
%t=[1:0.1:2]*t;
R_d=D_o/D_i;
K_1=6/(pi*log(R_d)) *( (R_d-1)^2 /R_d^2);
K_2=6/(pi*log(R_d))*( (R_d-1)/log(R_d) -1);
K_3=6/(pi*log(R_d))*( (R_d-1)/2);
K_4=((R_d*log(R_d)-(R_d-1))/log(R_d))* R_d/ ((R_d-1)^2);
K_5=R_d/(2*(R_d-1));
delta_max=0.75*h;
sigma_c= 4*E.*delta_max/(K_1*D_o^2*(1-mu^2)) .*( ...
K_2.*(h-delta_max./2)+K_3.*t);
sigma_ti=4*E.*delta_max/(K_1*D_o^2*(1-mu^2)) ...
.*(-K_2.*(h-delta_max./2)+K_3.*t);
sigma_to=4*E.*delta_max/(K_1*D_o^2*(1-mu^2)) ...
.*(K_4.*(h-delta_max./2)+K_5.*t);
%disp(['Stress sigma_c= ',num2str(sigma_c*1e-6),' MPa'])
hold on
plotc=plot(kappa,sigma_c*1e-6,'LineWidth',1.7);
plotti=plot(kappa,sigma_ti*1e-6,'LineWidth',1.1);
plotto=plot(kappa,sigma_to*1e-6);
plotuts=plot([kappa(1) kappa(end)], [Sigma_uts*1e-6 Sigma_uts*1e-6],'--');
legend('\sigma_c','\sigma_t_i','\sigma_t_o','\sigma_u_t_s');
xlabel('Quota \kappa = h_B_W/t_B_W'); ylabel('Stress \sigma [MPa]');
grid on
no=find(kappa==0.105);
delta_no=h(no)*0.75; %Maximum deflection of one spring
req_N=delta_tot/(delta_no); % Requirered number of springs for the ...
deflection delta_tot with the chosen kappa(no)
%stack_Height=ceil(req_N)*tot_h(no)*(1-.2);
stack_Height=ceil(req_N)*h(no)*(1-eta_min+1/kappa(no));
disp(['Minimum kappa ', num2str(kappa(no))])
disp(['Thickness t= ', num2str(t(no)*1e3),' mm'])
disp(['Cup height h= ', num2str(h(no)*1e3),' mm'])
disp(['Spring height L_0= ', num2str(tot_h(no)*1e3),' mm'])
disp(['Max deflection of one spring delta= ', num2str(delta_no*1e3),' mm'])
disp(['Required number of springs= ', num2str(ceil(req_N)),' pcs']) % ...
req_N rounded up!

51
Appendix D. The MATLAB script used for calculation of the Belleville spring

disp(['Stack height L_stack= ', num2str(stack_Height*1e3),' mm'])

%% Cylinder FZ 250 -80 50 01 201 32

d_FZpist=80e-3 ; % Piston diameter for the chosen cylinder [m]
p_FZop=250e5; % (max) operating pressure of the cylinder [Pa]
n_FZ=8 ; % Total number of pistons mounted on the track
A_FZp=d_FZpist^2 *pi/4; % Piston area of the piston [m^2]
F_zFZtot=p_FZop*A_FZp * n_FZ; % Total load capacity of the cylinders
disp(['Total load capacity of the FZ Cylinders P_tot= ...
',num2str(F_zFZtot*1e-6), ' MN'])
F_yFZtot=F_zFZtot*0.03; % Total allowable side load for the FZ cylinder
disp(['Total load capacity of the FZ Cylinders P_tot= ...
',num2str(F_yFZtot*1e-6), ' MN'])

52
Appendix E

Pictures of the final design

This chapter shows pictures of how the track’s plates protecting the components inside
are mounted.

Figure E.1. Front view of the final design of the track

53
Appendix E. Pictures of the final design

Figure E.2. Tilted front view of the final design of the track

Figure E.3. Back view (interface to machine) of the final design of the track

54
TRITA MMK 2017:45 MKN 197

www.kth.se