FEM_Module - I

R V Institute of Technology & Management®
MODULE - I
Introduction to Finite Element Method
Finite Element Method (FEM) is a numerical technique to find approximate solutions of

partial differential equations. It was originated from the need of solving complex
elasticity and structural analysis problems in Civil, Mechanical and Aerospace
engineering.
Fig. 1.1 Finite Element meshing of an aircraft structure
The Finite Element Method (FEM) is a numerical technique to find approximate solutions
of partial differential equations. It was originated from the need of solving complex
elasticity and structural analysis problems in Civil, Mechanical and Aerospace
engineering. In a structural simulation, FEM helps in producing stiffness and strength
visualizations. It also helps to minimize material weight and its cost of the structures.
FEM allows for detailed visualization and indicates the distribution of stresses and
strains inside the body of a structure. Many of FE software are powerful yet complex tool
meant for professional engineers with the training and education necessary to properly
VI-Semester, Finite Element Methods (18ME61) P a g e 1 | 27

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interpret the results. Several modern FEM packages include specific components such as
fluid, thermal, electromagnetic and structural working environments. FEM allows entire
designs to be constructed, refined and optimized before the design is manufactured. This
powerful design tool has significantly improved both the standard of engineering designs
and the methodology of the design process in many industrial applications. The use of
FEM has significantly decreased the time to take products from concept to the production
line. One must take the advantage of the advent of faster generation of personal computers
for the analysis and design of engineering product with precision level of accuracy.
Therefore, FEM can be broadly defined as,
Definition: The Finite Element Method (FEM) is a numerical analysis technique used
to obtain approximate solutions to the differential equations or partial differential
equations that describe a physical or non-physical problem.
Advantages of finite element method
1. The physical properties, which are intractable and complex for any closed bound
solution, can be analyzed by this method.
2. It can take care of any geometry (may be regular or irregular).
3. It can take care of any boundary conditions.
4. Material anisotropy and non-homogeneity can be catered without much difficulty.
5. It can take care of any type of loading conditions.
6. This method is superior to other approximate methods like Galerkine and Rayleigh-
Ritz methods.
7. In this method approximations are confined to small sub domains.
8. In this method, the admissible functions are valid over the simple domain and have
nothing to do with boundary, however simple or complex it may be.
9. Enable to computer programming.
Disadvantages of finite element method
1. Computational time involved in the solution of the problem is high.

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2. For fluid dynamics problems some other methods of analysis may prove efficient than
the FEM.
Limitations of finite element method
1. Proper engineering judgment is to be exercised to interpret results.

2. It requires large computer memory and computational time to obtained results.
3. There are certain categories of problems where other methods are more effective, e.g.,
fluid problems having boundaries at infinity are better treated by the boundary element
method.
4. For some problems, there may be a considerable amount of input data. Errors may
creep up in their preparation and the results thus obtained may also appear to be
acceptable which indicates deceptive state of affairs. It is always desirable to make a
visual check of the input data.
5. In the FEM, many problems lead to round-off errors. Computer works with a limited
number of digits and solving the problem with restricted number of digits may not yield
the desired degree of accuracy or it may give total erroneous results in some cases. For
many problems the increase in the number of digits for the purpose of calculation
improves the accuracy. Engineering applications of finite element method
1. Mechanical engineering: In mechanical engineering, FEM applications include

steady and transient thermal analysis in solids and fluids, stress analysis in solids,
automotive design and analysis and manufacturing process simulation.
2. Geotechnical engineering: FEM applications include stress analysis, slope stability

analysis, soil structure interactions, seepage of fluids in soils and rocks, analysis of dams,
tunnels, bore holes, propagation of stress waves and dynamic soil structure interaction.
3. Aerospace engineering: FEM is used for several purposes such as structural analysis
for natural frequencies, modes shapes, response analysis and aerodynamics.

3
4. Nuclear engineering: FEM applications include steady and dynamic analysis of

reactor containment structures, thermo-viscoelastic analysis of reactor components,
steady and transient temperature-distribution analysis of reactors and related structures.
5. Electrical and electronics engineering: FEM applications include electrical network

analysis, electromagnetics, insulation design analysis in high-voltage equipments,
dynamic analysis of motors and heat analysis in electrical and electronic equipments.
6. Metallurgical, chemical engineering: In metallurgical engineering, FEM is used for

the metallurgical process simulation, moulding and casting. In chemical engineering,
FEM can be used in the simulation of chemical processes, transport processes and
chemical reaction simulations.
7. Meteorology and bio-engineering: In the recent times, FEM is used in climate

predictions, monsoon prediction and wind predictions. FEM is also used in bio-
engineering for the simulation of various human organs, blood circulation prediction and
even total synthesis of human body.
Basic terminologies used in FEM
1. Discretization (Meshing): The process of dividing the model of the problem

continuum into a finite number of regular subdivisions
2. Elements: Each subdivision is called an “Element”
3. Nodes: The grid (connection) points at which the elements meet each other are called
“nodes”
4. Degrees of Freedom (DOF): The total number of variables (displacements) that are
associated with each node
5. Boundary Conditions: Known values of the variable at the continuum boundary
6. Displacement Function: It is an assumed polynomial expression which closely

represents the anticipated variation of the unknown variable over the element domain.
Problem Dimensions:

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One Dimensional Problems: If only one independent coordinate axis is sufficient to

represent the displacement, material and geometry of the problem, then such problems
are known as One Dimensional Problems. Line Elements are used to model 1D problems.
Two Dimensional Problems: If two independent coordinate axes are required to

are known as Two Dimensional Problems. Area Elements are used to model 2D problems.
Three Dimensional Problems: If three independent coordinate axes are required to

are known as
Three Dimensional Problems. Volume Elements are used to model 3D problems
Convergence criteria
The Finite Element Analysis is an iterative procedure. We don‟t get a solution for a
problem being analyzed by FEM just in one go. We have to perform a number of trials
or iterations and record the solution for each iteration. In each iteration we modify the
elements being used for discretization. We then plot a chart known as “Convergence
Chart” which is a plot of solution on „y‟ axis and element parameter on the „x‟ axis. In
this chart we see that the FEM solution curve approaches the actual solution line as we
continue with iterations. That is, the error (difference between the actual solution and
FEM solution) continuously decreases. This is known as Convergence.
The FEM solution curve will finally go asymptotic (parallel) to the actual solution line.
Convergence is defined as the monotonic approach of FEM solution to the exact solution.
Monotonic means, with out change in sign or direction.
Methods of attaining Convergence:
There are two methods by which Convergence may be attained.
1. h-method &
2. p-method
h-method of Convergence:

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Fig. 1.2 Convergence by h-method
In h-method, for each iteration, the number of elements is increased or in other words, the
element size is reduced, i.e., the element mesh fineness increases with iterations. But the
order of the displacement polynomial selected for the polynomial is maintained the same
for all iterations.
p-method of Convergence:
In p-method, number of elements and element size are kept constant at suitable values.
The number of nodes per element is increased with iterations. Considering more number
of nodes per element will cause the number of terms in the displacement polynomial as
well as order of the displacement polynomial to increase with iterations. (p stands for
polynomial).

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Fig. 1.3 Convergence by p-method
Convergence Requirements or Convergence Criteria to be met by Displacement
Functions: For FEM to give a solution close to the exact solution, the displacement
functions assumed for the elements must satisfy certain requirements (conditions) called
“Convergence Requirements”. The displacement functions should satisfy the following
three conditions:
First Requirement: The assumed displacement function should be continuous with in

the elements and the displacements must be compatible between adjacent elements.

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Fig. 1.4 Explains the displacement function

Example: Consider a horizontal bar fixed at one end and subjected to an axial point load
“P” at the other end. It is required to find the displacement distribution along the length
of the bar.
Let it‟s FEM model be made up of 3 elements. Then there will be a total of 4 nodes. Let
Q1, Q2, Q3 & Q4 be the global nodal displacements. Since left end is fixed, Q1= 0. Let
us assume that the displacement variation is linear. According to convergence
requirements, the displacement function must be continuous within each element and
compatible between adjacent elements.
Meaning of Continuity:
In the above figure we can understand the difference between continuous and dis-
continuous displacement. Dis-continuous displacement occurs if a crack or defect in the
bar is present. Such discrepancies should be properly specified as boundary conditions.
Second Requirement: The assumed displacement functions should be capable of

representing rigid body displacement of the element. The rigid body displacement is the

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most elementary displacement that an element may undergo. i.e., during rigid body
displacement the element should not be strained.
Usually, the first term of the assumed displacement polynomial will be a constant which
represents the rigid body displacement.
For example, for a 2D element, the assumed displacement polynomial may be
U( x, y) = 𝑎0 + 𝑎1𝑥 + 𝑎2𝑦 + 𝑎3 𝑥𝑦 + 𝑎4𝑥2 + 𝑎5𝑦2+ ….
Third Requirement: The assumed displacement function should represent
constant strain rate .
Discretization process
The need of finite element analysis arises when the structural system in terms of its either
geometry, material properties, boundary conditions or loadings is complex in nature. For
such case, the whole structure needs to be subdivided into smaller elements. The whole
structure is then analyzed by the assemblage of all elements representing the complete
structure including its all properties. The subdivision process is an important task in finite
element analysis and requires some skill and knowledge. In this procedure, first the
number, shape, size and configuration of elements have to be decided in such a manner
that the real structure is simulated as closely as possible. The discretization is to be in
such that the results converge to the true solution. However, too fine mesh will lead to
extra computational effort. Fig. below shows a finite element mesh of a continuum using
triangular and quadrilateral elements. The assemblage of triangular elements in this case
shows better representation of the continuum.
The discretization process also shows that the more accurate representation is possible if
the body is further subdivided into some finer mesh.

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Fig. 1.5 Discretization of Continuum
The conditions to be taken in the discretization process are
1. Type of elements
2. Size of elements
3. Number of elements
4. Location of nodes
5. Node numbering scheme
Type of elements
One Dimensional Elements (Line Elements): When the geometry, material and
displacement can be expressed in terms of only independent space coordinate, a 1D
element may be chosen.
The coordinate is measured along the axis of the element.
A 1D element can be represented by a straight line whose end points are nodes (nodal
points). The nodal points numbered 1 & 2 are called external nodes because they represent

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connecting points with adjacent elements. Some applications may require additional
nodes, such as node
3. It is called an internal node because it doesn‟t form a connecting point with adjacent
elements. Additional nodes are usually used to improve the FEM result.
Two Dimensional Elements (Area Elements): When the geometry, material and
displacement can be expressed by minimum two independent space coordinate, a 2D
element may be chosen. Problems that can be modeled with 2D elements are plane stress,
plane strain and axisymmetric problems.
Fig. 1.6 A 2D element can be represented by a triangular or quadrilateral configuration.
In the triangular element, the corner nodes (1, 2 & 3) are called primary external
nodes. Additional nodes on the sides (like nodes 4, 5 & 6) are called secondary external
nodes. An internal node (like node 7) may be used in a triangular element.
Similarly, a quadrilateral configuration may have a minimum of 4 primary external

nodes. As well they may contain the additional secondary external nodes and the
internal nodes. A special case of the quadrilateral configuration is the rectangular
configuration

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Fig. 1.7 Shows external and internal nodes of different body shapes
Three Dimensional Elements (Volume Elements): When the geometry, material and
displacement can be expressed by minimum of three independent space coordinate, a 3D
element may be chosen.
A tetrahedron element is the basic 3D element that can be used in FEM. It has 4 primary
external nodes. 3D elements with 8 primary external nodes may be the hexahedron
element or the rectangular prism element. The rectangular prism element is a special case
of hexahedron element.
Fig. 1.8 Shows rectangular and tetrahedron element
Axisymmetric Elements: Problems involving 3D axisymmetric solids or solids of

revolution, subjected to axisymmetric loading, can be reduced to simple 2D problems.
Because of the total symmetry about „z‟ axis, all deformations and stresses are
independent of the rotational angle

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„q‟. Thus, the problem needs to be looked as a 2D problem in „r‟ & „z‟ coordinates only,
which defines the revolving area.
Fig. 1.9 Element for Axis-symmetric problems
Size of Elements
Mesh size is one of the most common problems in FEA. There is a fine line here: bigger
elements give bad results, but smaller elements make computing so long that we don‟t
get the results at all. So it is appropriate to choose smaller elements at higher stress
concentration areas as shown in the Figure 1.6. It is required to choose the correct size of
mesh and estimate at which mesh size accuracy of the solution is acceptable.
Fig. 1.10 Size of elements in discretization process Number of Elements

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Selection of number of elements in FE model is related to the size of elements and number
of degrees of freedom. Increase in number of elements gives better result but there is a
certain limit beyond which there is no improvement but solution time is more. Therefor
it is important to choose the number of elements appropriately.
Fig. 1.11 Number of elements in FE model
Location of nodes: Node is a point where properties are defined and determined for an
element. Therefore, location of node is important. If the body has no discontinuity, then
there can be equal number of nodes in an element distributed uniformly. However, if there
is discontinuity such as geometry and load etc, the nodes can be assigned as shown in the
Figure

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Fig. 1.12 Location of nodes in FEA
Plane stress:
plane stress case is represented by a thin plate in x-y plane,plane subjected to in-plane
loads along x-and y-directions and no load along the normal to the olane as shown in
figure
Fig. 1.13 Plane stress
Definition : Plane stress is defined to be aa state of stress in which the normal stress and
shear stress directed perpendicular to the plane are assumed to be zero
For plane stress we have
𝜎𝑧 = 𝑟𝑦𝑧 = 𝑟𝑧𝑥 = 0
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A plate loaded in its mid-plane is said to be in a state of plane stress or a membrane state,if
the following assumptions hold:
1. All loads applied to the plate act in the mid-plane direction,and are symmetric with
respect to the mid-plane
2. All support conditions are symmetric bout the mid-plane
3. In-plane displacement, strain and stresses can be taken to be uniform through the
thickness
4.The normal and shear stress components in the z-direction are zero or negligible
The governing equations are
1. Equilibrium equations
2. Strain displacement relation
3. stress - strain relation

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Plane Strain:
Plane strain case is represented by a thin plate in x-y plane, which is constrained along
the normal to the plane in z-direction
Definition: plane strain is defined to be state of strain in which normal-strain and shear
strain normal to xy plane are assumed to be zero
Assumptions:
1.The length of the structure is very large in comparison with the other two dimensions
2.The loads are applied only normally to the longitudinal axis
3.the support conditions are the same along the z-axis
Fig. 1.14 Plane strain
The governing equations are
1.Equilibrium equations

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2. Strain displacement relation
3. stress-strain relation:
And
Temperature Effect
When the free expansion is prevented in a structure, the change in temperature causes
stress.
In general temperature, or temperature changes in a solid may induce the following

effects:
1) Temperature increase will change material properties: Such as decrease the Young‟s
modulus (E) and yield strength of materials (σy).

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2) Induce thermal stresses that will be added to mechanically induced stresses in solid
structures.
3) Induce creep of the material, and thereby make materials vulnerable for failure at high
temperature
The thermal stress is given by
𝛼Δ𝑇
The initial stress due to change in temperature c𝑜 = {𝛼 Δ 𝑇} for 2-D analysis.
0
Stress [σ] = [D] {ϵ} – {c𝑜}
Interpolation Models
Displacement Models: In FEM after we discretize the problem continuum into finite
number of elements, we assume a displacement function for an element which closely
represents the expected displacement variation over the element domain. These simple
functions which are assumed to approximate the displacements for each element are
called as “Displacement Models” or “Displacement Functions” or “Displacement Fields”
or “Displacement Patterns”.
Earlier many types of mathematical functions (like trigonometric functions, algebraic

functions, etc.) were assumed for the displacement functions. But presently mathematical
polynomials of a specific order are used to represent the displacement functions.
Depending upon the geometry of the element and the order of the polynomial used in the
interpolation model, finite elements can be classified as
• Simplex model
• Complex model
• Multiplex model
Simplex model: The element for which the order of the assumed polynomial interpolation
model consist of constants and linear terms only are called Simples elements.
Thus the following polynomial interpolation models can be used to represent the simplex
elements
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One dimensional case:
U(x) = 𝑎0 + 𝑎1𝑥
Two dimensional
case:
U(x,y) = 𝑎0 + 𝑎1𝑥 + 𝑎2𝑦
Three dimensional case:
U(x,y,z) = 𝑎0 + 𝑎1𝑥 + 𝑎2𝑦 + 𝑎3𝑧
Complex elements: The elements for which the assumed polynomial interpolation
model consists of quadratic ,cubic, and higher order terms in addition to the constant
and linear terms are called complex elements
Quadratic model
One dimensional case:
U(x,) = 𝑎0 + 𝑎1𝑥 +𝑎2𝑥2
Two dimensional case:
U(x,y) = 𝑎0 + 𝑎1𝑥 + 𝑎2𝑦 +𝑎3𝑥2 + 𝑎4𝑦2 + 𝑎5𝑥𝑦
Three dimensional case:
U (x y z) = 𝑎0 + 𝑎1𝑥 + 𝑎2𝑦 + 𝑎3𝑧 + 𝑎4𝑥2 + 𝑎5𝑦2 + 𝑎6𝑧2 + 𝑎7𝑥𝑦 + 𝑎8𝑦𝑧 + 𝑎9𝑧𝑥
Multiplex elements: The multiplex elements are those, for which assumed polynomial
interpolation function consists of higher order terms.in multiplex elements, boundaries
are parallel to the coordinate axis to achieve inter element continuity.
Reasons for using polynomials for displacement functions:

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1. It is easy to handle the mathematics of polynomials in formulating the element

equations and in performing digital computations. Differentiation and integration of such
a polynomial is easy.
2. The solution can attain a particular level of approximation by selecting a particular

order of the polynomial. So a polynomial of infinite order represents an exact solution.
Hence, by truncating the polynomials at different orders, we can vary the solution
approximation.
For example, suppose we want to represent the displacement „u‟ as a function
Greater the number of terms used in the polynomial, closer will be the solution to the
exact solution.
Fig. 1.15 Polynomials for displacement functions

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So, it can be concluded that a displacement polynomial with larger number of terms will
approximate the solution close to the exact solution. To represent the 1D problems (where
the displacement is along the element axis), the displacement polynomial should have
only one variable in it. If the 1D element axis is oriented along the horizontal direction
(parallel to „x‟ axis),
If the 1D element axis is oriented along the vertical direction (parallel to „y‟ axis),
To represent 2D problems, where the displacement has components „u‟ & „v‟ along „x‟
and
„y‟ directions respectively, the displacement polynomial should have two variables
Boundary conditions
Boundary conditions are constraints necessary for the solution of a boundary value
problem. A boundary value problem is a differential equation (or system of differential

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equations) to be solved in a domain on whose boundary a set of conditions is known. It

is opposed to the “initial value problem”, in which only the conditions on one extreme of
the interval are known. Boundary value problems are extremely important as they model
a vast amount of phenomena and applications, from solid mechanics to heat transfer, from
fluid mechanics to acoustic diffusion.
Figure 1.16 Boundary condition
The main types of loading available in FEA include force, pressure and temperature.
These can be applied to points, surfaces, edges, nodes and elements or remotely offset
from a feature. The way that the model is constrained can significantly affect the results
and requires special consideration. Over or under constrained models can give stress that
is so inaccurate that it is worthless to the engineer. In an ideal world we could have
massive assemblies of components all connected to each other with contact elements but
this is beyond the budget and resource of most people. We can however, use the
computing hardware we have available to its full potential and this means understanding
how to apply realistic boundary conditions.
Basically, there are two types of boundary conditions: Homogeneous boundary condition
and Non - homogeneous boundary conditions.
Homogeneous boundary conditions: These are most commonly used boundary

conditions that occurs at the location that is completely prevented from the movement or

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the prescribed basic variable values are zero. Eg. Elimination method of boundary
condition.
Non - homogeneous boundary conditions: These boundary conditions occurs where

finite non zero values of variables are specified such as the settlement of the support. Eg.
Penalty method of boundary condition.
Potential Energy Method
Potential energy method is one of the variational principles to determine approximate

solution for the problem using total potential energy concept.
POTENTIAL ENERGY ∏.
The total potential energy of an elastic body , is defined as the sum of total strain energy
(U) and the work potential (WP) .
∏ = U + WP
Potential energy method for a three - dimensional body:
Consider a 3-D elastic body of volume v, subjected to body force, surface force and point
loads. Let u, v and w be the displacement components in x, y and z directions respectively.
The total potential energy of an elastic body , is defined as the sum of total strain energy
(U) and the work potential (WP) .
∏ = U + WP
The strain energy is given by the area under stress-strain curve
U ϵ
For a small elemental volume dv within a body, U dv
Total strain energy is U

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Where 𝜎𝑇 = [ , 𝜎𝑦, 𝜎𝑧, 𝜎𝑥𝑦, 𝜎𝑦𝑧, 𝜎𝑧𝑥, ]
Work potential
1. Work potential due to body force

For small element, WPf = - [ ƒ𝑥 𝑢, ƒ𝑦 𝑣, ƒ𝑧 𝑤, ]
For entire body, WPf = -∫[ ƒ𝑥 𝑢, ƒ𝑦 𝑣, ƒ𝑧 𝑤, ]
WPf = -∫ 𝑈𝑇𝑓 𝑑𝑣
2. Work potential due to traction/surface force For small element, WPT = - [ 𝑢, 𝑇𝑦

𝑣, 𝑇𝑧 𝑤, ]
For entire body, WPT = -∫[ 𝑇𝑥 𝑢, 𝑇𝑦 𝑣, 𝑇𝑧 𝑤, ]
WPT = -∫ 𝑈𝑇𝑇 𝑑𝑣
3. Work potential due to point loads

WPp = - [ 𝑢, 𝑃𝑦 𝑣, 𝑃𝑧 𝑤, ]
= - 𝑈𝑇 𝑃
If there are “ i ” number of point loads, then
WPp = - ∑ 𝑈𝑇𝑃
Total Work Potential due to external forces

WP = - [ ∫ 𝑈𝑇𝑓 𝑑𝑣 + ∫ 𝑈𝑇𝑇 𝑑𝑣 +∑ 𝑈𝑇𝑃 ]
The total potential energy, ∏ = U + WP
Rayleigh – Ritz Method
Rayleigh-ritz method is a most widely used variational method to obtain the

approximate solution for the given problems.in this method, an approximate solution of
the following type is assumed for the field variable

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u(x) = ∑𝑛 i−1 𝑎iƒi(𝑥)
where, fi(x) are known linear independent functions are called trial function defined over a
entire domain and boundary and ai are unknown parameters to be determined
Let the potential energy functional
i=1,2,3,4, , , , , ,n
General steps in Rayleigh -Ritz method
1. Formulate the potential energy functional for the given problem.

2. Assume a trial displacement function for a given problem which should satisfy
the uboundary conditions.
3. Substitute the displacement function in to potential energy functional.
4. Minimize the potential energy functional so as to obtain the equilibrium
conditions. 5. Determine the unknown displacements and thus stresses and strains.
Galerkin’s Method
Galerkin method is the most widely used among the various weighted residual methods.
Galerkin method incorporates differential equations in their weak form, i.e., before starting
integration by parts it is in strong form and after by parts it will be in weak form, so that
they are satisfied over a domain in an integral. Thus, in case of Galerkin method, the
equations are satisfied over a domain in an integral or average sense, rather than at every
point. The solution of the equations must satisfy the boundary conditions. There are two
types of boundary conditions:
• Essential or kinematic boundary condition
• Non essential or natural boundary condition
Steps in Galerkin‟s method
1. Formulate the differential equation of equilibrium for the given problem.

2. Assume a trial displacement function which should satisfy the boundary
conditions.

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3. Substitute the displacement function in to differential equation of equilibrium and

calculate the residual R(x).
4. Use the Galerkin‟s formula, Determine the constants of the function.
5. Determine the unknown displacements and thus stresses and strains
Displacement method of finite element formulation

Displacement function is the beginning point for the structural analysis by finite element
method. This function represents the variation of the displacement within the element. On
the basis of the problem to be solved, the displacement function needs to be approximated
in the form of either linear or higher-order function. A convenient way to express it is by
the use of polynomial expressions.

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R V Institute of Technology & Management®

Finite Element Method (FEM) is a numerical technique to find approximate solutions of

Fig. 1.1 Finite Element meshing of an aircraft structure

VI-Semester, Finite Element Methods (18ME61) P a g e 1 | 27

Advantages of finite element method

Disadvantages of finite element method

1. Computational time involved in the solution of the problem is high.

1. Proper engineering judgment is to be exercised to interpret results.

1. Mechanical engineering: In mechanical engineering, FEM applications include

2. Geotechnical engineering: FEM applications include stress analysis, slope stability

VI-Semester, Finite Element Methods (18ME61) P a g e 3 | 27

4. Nuclear engineering: FEM applications include steady and dynamic analysis of

5. Electrical and electronics engineering: FEM applications include electrical network

6. Metallurgical, chemical engineering: In metallurgical engineering, FEM is used for

7. Meteorology and bio-engineering: In the recent times, FEM is used in climate

Basic terminologies used in FEM

1. Discretization (Meshing): The process of dividing the model of the problem

2. Elements: Each subdivision is called an “Element”

5. Boundary Conditions: Known values of the variable at the continuum boundary

6. Displacement Function: It is an assumed polynomial expression which closely

VI-Semester, Finite Element Methods (18ME61) P a g e 4 | 27

One Dimensional Problems: If only one independent coordinate axis is sufficient to

Two Dimensional Problems: If two independent coordinate axes are required to

Three Dimensional Problems: If three independent coordinate axes are required to

Methods of attaining Convergence:

There are two methods by which Convergence may be attained.

VI-Semester, Finite Element Methods (18ME61) P a g e 5 | 27

Fig. 1.2 Convergence by h-method

VI-Semester, Finite Element Methods (18ME61) P a g e 6 | 27

Fig. 1.3 Convergence by p-method

Convergence Requirements or Convergence Criteria to be met by Displacement

First Requirement: The assumed displacement function should be continuous with in

VI-Semester, Finite Element Methods (18ME61) P a g e 7 | 27

Fig. 1.4 Explains the displacement function

Second Requirement: The assumed displacement functions should be capable of

VI-Semester, Finite Element Methods (18ME61) P a g e 8 | 27

For example, for a 2D element, the assumed displacement polynomial may be

U( x, y) = 𝑎0 + 𝑎1𝑥 + 𝑎2𝑦 + 𝑎3 𝑥𝑦 + 𝑎4𝑥2 + 𝑎5𝑦2+ ….

Third Requirement: The assumed displacement function should represent

constant strain rate .

VI-Semester, Finite Element Methods (18ME61) P a g e 9 | 27

Fig. 1.5 Discretization of Continuum

The conditions to be taken in the discretization process are

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Fig. 1.6 A 2D element can be represented by a triangular or quadrilateral configuration.

Similarly, a quadrilateral configuration may have a minimum of 4 primary external

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Fig. 1.8 Shows rectangular and tetrahedron element

Axisymmetric Elements: Problems involving 3D axisymmetric solids or solids of

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Fig. 1.9 Element for Axis-symmetric problems

Fig. 1.10 Size of elements in discretization process Number of Elements

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Fig. 1.11 Number of elements in FE model

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Fig. 1.12 Location of nodes in FEA

Fig. 1.13 Plane stress

For plane stress we have

2. All support conditions are symmetric bout the mid-plane

The governing equations are

2. Strain displacement relation

3. stress - strain relation

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2.The loads are applied only normally to the longitudinal axis